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Appendix B:

HVAC Systems and Indoor Air Quality

T his appendix provides information ■ age of the design


about specific HVAC system designs and ■ climate
components in relation to indoor air ■ building codes in effect at the time of
quality. It also serves as introductory the design
material for building owners and managers ■ budget that was available for the project
who may be unfamiliar with the terminol- ■ planned use of the building
ogy and concepts associated with HVAC ■ owners’ and designers’ individual
(heating, ventilating, and air conditioning) preferences
system design. Further detailed informa- ■ subsequent modifications
tion can be found in ASHRAE manuals
HVAC systems range in complexity
and guides and in some of the guidance
from stand-alone units that serve
developed by other trade and professional
individual rooms to large, centrally
associations. (See Guidelines of Care
controlled systems serving multiple zones
Developed by Trade Associations in
in a building. In large modern office
Section 5.) Additional information can be
buildings with heat gains from lighting,
obtained using Appendix G or through
people, and equipment, interior spaces
discussion with your facility engineer.
often require year-round cooling. Rooms
at the perimeter of the same building (i.e.,
BACKGROUND
rooms with exterior walls, floors, or roof
Working with the electrical
All occupied buildings require a supply of surfaces) may need to be heated and/or
components of an HVAC
outdoor air. Depending on outdoor cooled as hourly or daily outdoor weather system involves the risk of
conditions, the air may need to be heated conditions change. In buildings over one electrocution and fire. A
or cooled before it is distributed into the story in height, perimeter areas at the lower knowledgeable member of
the building staff should
occupied space. As outdoor air is drawn levels also tend to experience the greatest oversee the inspection of the
into the building, indoor air is exhausted or uncontrolled air infiltration. HVAC controls.
allowed to escape (passive relief), thus
removing air contaminants.
The term “HVAC system” is used to
refer to the equipment that can provide
heating, cooling, filtered outdoor air, and
humidity control to maintain comfort
conditions in a building. Not all HVAC
systems are designed to accomplish all
of these functions. Some buildings rely
on only natural ventilation. Others lack
mechanical cooling equipment (AC), and
many function with little or no humidity
control. The features of the HVAC system
in a given building will depend on several
variables, including:

HVAC Systems and Indoor Air Quality 121


Some buildings use only natural complains that it is too cold or too hot and
ventilation or exhaust fans to remove odors the observed (measured) conditions are
and contaminants. In these buildings, outside of the ASHRAE comfort zone,
thermal discomfort and unacceptable then the HVAC system needs to be
indoor air quality are particularly likely evaluated. Sometimes the problem can be
when occupants keep the windows closed relieved by fine tuning or repairing the
because of extreme hot or cold tempera- HVAC system, but in some cases the
tures. Problems related to underventilation system cannot perform as expected, and a
are also likely when infiltration forces are long-term solution must be investigated.
weakest (i.e., during the “swing seasons”
and summer months). TYPES OF HVAC SYSTEMS
Modern public and commercial build-
Single Zone
ings generally use mechanical ventilation
systems to introduce outdoor air during the A single air handling unit can only serve
occupied mode. Thermal comfort is more than one building area if the areas
commonly maintained by mechanically served have similar heating, cooling, and
distributing conditioned (heated or cooled) ventilation requirements, or if the control
air throughout the building. In some system compensates for differences in
designs, air systems are supplemented by heating, cooling, and ventilation needs
piping systems that carry steam or water to among the spaces served. Areas regulated
the building perimeter zones. As this by a common control (e.g., a single
document is concerned with HVAC thermostat) are referred to as zones.
systems in relation to indoor air quality, Thermal comfort problems can result if the
the remainder of this discussion will focus design does not adequately account for
on systems that distribute conditioned air differences in heating and cooling loads
to maintain occupant comfort. between rooms that are in the same zone.
This can easily occur if:
Roles of the HVAC System Operator ■ The cooling load in some area(s) with-
and Facility Manager in a zone changes due to an increased
The system operator(s) and facility occupant population, increased lighting,
manager(s) (or IAQ manager) are among or the introduction of new heat-produc-
the most significant factors in determining ing equipment (e.g., computers, copiers).
whether IAQ problems will occur in a ■ Areas within a zone have different solar
properly designed, constructed, and exposures. This can produce radiant heat
commissioned HVAC system. HVAC gains and losses that, in turn, create
systems require preventive maintenance and unevenly distributed heating or cooling
prompt repairs if they are to operate needs (e.g., as the sun angle changes
correctly and provide comfortable condi- daily and seasonally).
tions. The operator(s) must have an
adequate understanding of the overall Multiple Zone
system design and its limitations. The Multiple zone systems can provide each
HVAC system capacity and distribution zone with air at a different temperature by
characteristics should be evaluated before heating or cooling the airstream in each
renovations to the building, changes in its zone. Alternative design strategies involve
occupancy, or changes in the use of an area. delivering air at a constant temperature
System operators must be able to while varying the volume of airflow, or
respond appropriately to occupant com- modulating room temperature with a
plaints. For example, if an occupant

122 Appendix B
supplementary system (e.g., perimeter hot
water piping).
TESTING AND BALANCING
Constant Volume Modern HVAC systems typically use sophisticated, automatic controls to
Constant volume systems, as their name supply the proper amounts of air for heating, cooling, and ventilation in
commercial buildings. Problems during installation, operation, mainte-
suggests, generally deliver a constant nance, and servicing the HVAC system could prevent it from operating as
airflow to each space. Changes in space designed. Each system should be tested to ensure its initial and contin-
temperatures are made by heating or ued performance. In addition to providing acceptable thermal conditions
and ventilation air, a properly adjusted and balanced system can also
cooling the air or switching the air han- reduce operating costs and increase equipment life.
dling unit on and off, not by modulating Testing and balancing involves the testing, adjusting, and balancing of
the volume of air supplied. These systems HVAC system components so that the entire system provides airflows that
often operate with a fixed minimum are in accordance with the design specifications. Typical components
and system parameters tested include:
percentage of outdoor air or with an “air
economizer” feature (described in the ■ all supply, return, exhaust, and outdoor airflow rates
■ control settings and operation
Outdoor Air Control discussion that
■ air temperatures
follows).
■ fan speeds and power consumption
Variable Air Volume ■ filter or collector resistance
Variable air volume systems maintain The typical test and balance agency or contractor coordinates with the
thermal comfort by varying the amount of control contractor to accomplish three goals: verify and ensure the most
effective system operation within the design specifications, identify and
heated or cooled air delivered to each correct any problems, and ensure the safety of the system.
space, rather than by changing the air A test and balance report should provide a complete record of the
temperature. (However, many VAV design, preliminary measurements, and final test data. The report should
systems also have provisions for resetting include any discrepancies between the test data and the design specifica-
tions, along with reasons for those discrepancies. To facilitate future
the temperature of the delivery air on a performance checks and adjustments, appropriate records should be kept
seasonal basis, depending on the severity on all damper positions, equipment capacities, control types and loca-
of the weather). Overcooling or tions, control settings and operating logic, airflow rates, static pressures,
fan speeds, and horsepowers.
overheating can occur within a given zone Testing and balancing of existing building systems should be per-
if the system is not adjusted to respond to formed whenever there is reason to believe the system is not functioning
the load. Underventilation frequently as designed or when current records do not accurately reflect the actual
operation of the system. The Associated Air Balance Council recom-
occurs if the system is not arranged to mends the following guidelines in determining whether testing and
introduce at least a minimum quantity (as balancing is required:
opposed to percentage) of outdoor air as ■ When space has been renovated or changed to provide for new occu-
the VAV system throttles back from full pancy.
airflow, or if the system supply air ■ When HVAC equipment has been replaced or modified.
temperature is set too low for the loads ■ When control settings have been readjusted by maintenance or other
present in the zone. personnel.
■ After the air conveyance system has been cleaned.
■ When accurate records are required to conduct an IAQ investigation.
BASIC COMPONENTS OF AN HVAC
■ When the building owner is unable to obtain design documents or
SYSTEM appropriate air exchange rates for compliance with IAQ standards or
guidelines.
The basic components of an HVAC system
Because of the diversity of system types and the interrelationship of
that delivers conditioned air to maintain system components, effective balancing requires a skilled technician with
thermal comfort and indoor air quality are: the proper experience and instruments. Due to the nature of the work,
which involves the detection and remediation of problems, it is recom-
■ outdoor air intake mended that an independent test and balance contractor be used and
■ mixed-air plenum and outdoor air control that this contractor report directly to the building owner, facility manager,
or IAQ manager.
■ air filter
■ heating and cooling coils
■ humidification and/or de-humidification
equipment

HVAC Systems and Indoor Air Quality 123


FIGURE B-1: Typical HVAC System Components

Courtesy Terry Brennan ■ supply fan The illustration above shows the
Camroden Associates ■ ducts general relationship between many of
Oriskny, N.Y.
■ terminal device these components; however, many
■ return air system variations are possible.
■ exhaust or relief fans and air outlet
■ self-contained heating or cooling unit Outdoor Air Intake
■ control
Building codes require the introduction of
■ boiler
outdoor air for ventilation in most build-
■ cooling tower
ings. Most non-residential air handlers are
■ water chiller
designed with an outdoor air intake on the
The following discussion of these return side of the ductwork. Outdoor air
components (each of which may occur introduced through the air handler can be
more than once in any total HVAC system) filtered and conditioned (heated or cooled)
emphasizes features that affect indoor air before distribution. Other designs may
quality. It may be helpful to refer to this introduce outdoor air through air-to-air
section when using the HVAC Checklists. heat exchangers and operable windows.

124 Appendix B
Indoor air quality problems can be
produced when contaminants enter a
building with the outdoor air. Rooftop or
wall-mounted air intakes are sometimes
located adjacent to or downwind of
building exhaust outlets or other contami-
nant sources. Problems can also result if
debris (e.g., bird droppings) accumulates at
the intake, obstructing airflow and poten-
tially introducing microbiological contami-
nants.
If more air is exhausted than is
introduced through the outdoor air intake,
then outdoor air will enter the building at
any leakage sites in the shell. Indoor air
quality problems can occur if the leakage
site is a door to a loading dock, parking
garage, or some other area associated with
pollutants.

Mixed-Air Plenum and Outdoor Air


Controls
Outdoor air is mixed with return air (air
that has already circulated through the
HVAC system) in the mixed-air plenum of
an air handling unit. Indoor air quality
problems frequently result if the outdoor
air damper is not operating properly (e.g.,
if the system is not designed or adjusted to
allow the introduction of sufficient outdoor
air for the current use of the building. The
amount of outdoor air introduced in the
occupied mode should be sufficient to
meet needs for ventilation and exhaust
make-up. It may be fixed at a constant
volume or may vary with the outdoor
temperature.
When dampers that regulate the flow of
outdoor air are arranged to modulate, they
are usually designed to bring in a mini- Above: The air intake in the background is
mum amount of outdoor air (in the located too close to the sanitary vents (the
occupied mode) under extreme outdoor straight pipes to the left and in the center
foreground) and the bathroom
temperature conditions and to open as exhaust vent (next to the sanitary vent on
outdoor temperatures approach the desired the right side). Below: The return air
indoor temperature. Systems that use dampers in this mixed-air plenum are open
outdoor air for cooling are called “air (top), but the outdoor air damper (left) is al-
most completely closed. Complaints in the
economizer cooling” systems. Air building indicate that
economizer systems have a mixed air under-ventilation is a problem.

HVAC Systems and Indoor Air Quality 125


temperature controller and thermostat outdoor air at the intake and the calculation
that are used to blend return air (typically of the percentage of outdoor air by a
at 74°F) with outdoor air to reach a mixed temperature or CO2 balance. Carbon
air temperature of 55° to 65°F. (Mixed air dioxide measured in an occupied space is
temperature settings above 65°F may lead also an indicator of ventilation adequacy.
to the introduction of insufficient quanti- Some investigators use tracer gases to
ties of outdoor air for office space use.) assess ventilation quantities and airflow
The mixed air is then further heated or patterns. There are specific methods for
cooled for delivery to the occupied spaces. each of these assessments. See Appendix A
Air economizer systems have a sensible for more information.
or enthalpy control that signals the outdoor Many HVAC designs protect the coils
air damper to go to the minimum position by closing the outdoor air damper if the
when it is too warm or humid outdoors. airstream temperature falls below the
Note that economizer cycles which do not setpoint of a freezestat. Inadequate
provide dehumidification may produce ventilation can occur if a freezestat trips
discomfort even when the indoor tempera- and is not reset, or if the freezestat is set to
ture is the same as the thermostat setting. trip at an excessively high temperature.
If outdoor air make-up and exhaust are Stratification of the cold outdoor air and
balanced, and the zones served by each air warmer return air in the mixing plenums is
handler are separated and well defined, it is a common situation, causing nuisance
possible to estimate the minimum flow of tripping of the freezestat. Unfortunately,
outdoor air to each space and compare it to the remedy often employed to prevent this
ventilation standards such as ASHRAE 62- problem is to close the outdoor air damper.
1989. Techniques used for this evaluation Obviously, solving the problem in this way
include the direct measurement of the can quickly lead to inadequate outdoor air
in occupied parts of the building.

Air Filters
Filters are primarily used to remove
particles from the air. The type and design
of filter determine the efficiency at
removing particles of a given size and the
amount of energy needed to pull or push
air through the filter. Filters are rated by
different standards and test methods such
as dust spot and arrestance which measure
different aspects of performance. See the
discussion of ASHRAE Standard 52-76 on
page 138 of this appendix.
Low efficiency filters (ASHRAE Dust
Proper air filtration can play an impor-tant
Spot rating of 10% to 20% or less) are
role in protecting the rest of the HVAC often used to keep lint and dust from
system and in maintaining good indoor air clogging the heating and cooling coils of a
quality in occupied spaces. Air filters
system. In order to maintain clean air in
should be selected and main-tained to
provide maximum filtration, while not occupied spaces, filters must also remove
overtaxing the supply fan capability or bacteria, pollens, insects, soot, dust, and
leading to “blow out” situa-tions with no air dirt with an efficiency suited to the use of
filtration. Shown above
are roll filter (top) and bag, panel, and the building. Medium efficiency filters
pleated filters (below). (ASHRAE Dust Spot rating of 30% to

126 Appendix B
60%) can provide much better filtration
than low efficiency filters. To maintain the
proper airflow and minimize the amount of
additional energy required to move air
through these higher efficiency filters,
pleated-type extended surface filters are
recommended. In buildings that are
designed to be exceptionally clean, the
designers may specify the equipment to
utilize both a medium efficiency pre-filter
and a high efficiency extended surface
filter (ASHRAE Dust Spot rating of 85%
to 95%). Some manufacturers recommend
high efficiency extended surface filters
(ASHRAE Dust Spot rating of 85%)
without pre-filters as the most cost
effective approach to minimizing energy
consumption and maximizing air quality in
modern HVAC VAV systems that serve
office environments.
Air filters, whatever their design or
efficiency rating, require regular mainte-
nance (cleaning for some and replacement Choice of an appropriate filter and Pleated medium efficiency
for most). As a filter loads up with proper maintenance are important to filters are often preferred over
low efficiency filters because
particles, it becomes more efficient at keeping the ductwork clean. If dirt they offer added protection
particle removal but increases the pressure accumulates in ductwork and if the relative to both the HVAC equipment
drop through the system, therefore humidity reaches the dewpoint (so that and to indoor air quality, yet
they do not clog as easily as
reducing airflow. Filter manufacturers can condensation occurs), then the nutrients high efficiency filters.
provide information on the pressure drop and moisture may support the growth of Medium efficiency filters do
through their products under different microbiologicals. Attention to air filters is need routine maintenance,
conditions. Low efficiency filters, if particularly important in HVAC systems however, which the filter in
this photo did not receive.
loaded to excess, will become deformed with acoustical duct liner, which is
and even “blow out” of their filter rack. frequently used in air handler fan housings
When filters blow out, bypassing of and supply ducts to reduce sound transmis-
unfiltered air can lead to clogged coils and sion and provide thermal insulation. Areas
dirty ducts. Filtration efficiency can be of duct lining that have become contami-
seriously reduced if the filter cells are not nated with microbiological growth must be
properly sealed to prevent air from replaced. (See later discussion of ducts
bypassing. and duct cleaning .) Sound reduction can
Filters should be selected for their also be accomplished with the use of
ability to protect both the HVAC system special duct-mounted devices such as
components and general indoor air quality. attenuators or with active electronic noise
In many buildings, the best choice is a control.
medium efficiency, pleated filter because Air handlers that are located in difficult-
these filters have a higher removal to-access places (e.g., in places which
efficiency than low efficiency filters, yet require ladders for access, have inconve-
they will last without clogging for longer nient access doors to unbolt, or are located
than high efficiency filters. on roofs with no roof hatch access) will be

HVAC Systems and Indoor Air Quality 127


Heating and Cooling Coils
Heating and cooling coils are placed in the
airstream to regulate the temperature of the
air delivered to the space. Malfunctions of
the coil controls can result in thermal
discomfort. Condensation on under-
insulated pipes and leakage in piped
systems will often create moist conditions
conducive to the growth of molds, fungus,
and bacteria.
During the cooling mode (air condition-
ing), the cooling coil provides dehumidifi-
cation as water condenses from the air-
stream. Dehumidification can only take
place if the chilled fluid is maintained at a
cold enough temperature (generally below
45°F for water). Condensate collects in the
drain pan under the cooling coil and exits
via a deep seal trap. Standing water will
accumulate if the drain pan system has not
been designed to drain completely under
all operating conditions (sloped toward the
drain and properly trapped). Under these
conditions, molds and bacteria will
proliferate unless the pan is cleaned
frequently.
It is important to verify that condensate
Without proper installation more likely to suffer from poor air filter lines have been properly trapped and are
and maintenance, rust and maintenance and overall poor mainte- charged with liquid. An improperly
corrosion may accumulate in
condensate pans under nance. Quick release and hinged access trapped line can be a source of contamina-
heating and cooling coils. doors for maintenance are more desirable tion, depending on where the line termi-
The rust in the pan indi-cates than bolted access panels. nates. A properly installed trap could also
that it was installed without a
Filters are available to remove gases be a source, if the water in the trap
pitch or was pitched in the
wrong direction, so that water and volatile organic contaminants from evaporates and allows air to flow through
did not drain out properly. ventilation air; however, these systems are the trap into the conditioned air.
not generally used in normal occupancy During the heating mode, problems can
buildings. In specially designed HVAC occur if the hot water temperature in the
systems, permanganate oxidizers and heating coil has been set too low in an
activated charcoal may be used for gaseous attempt to reduce energy consumption. If
removal filters. Some manufacturers offer enough outdoor air to provide sufficient
“partial bypass” carbon filters and carbon ventilation is brought in, that air may not
impregnated filters to reduce volatile be heated sufficiently to maintain thermal
organics in the ventilation air of office comfort or, in order to adequately condi-
environments. Gaseous filters must be tion the outdoor air, the amount of outdoor
regularly maintained (replaced or regener- air may be reduced so that there is insuffi-
ated) in order for the system to continue to cient outdoor air to meet ventilation needs.
operate effectively.

128 Appendix B
Humidification and Dehumidification
Equipment
In some buildings (or zones within
buildings), there are special needs that
warrant the strict control of humidity (e.g.,
operating rooms, computer rooms). This
control is most often accomplished by
adding humidification or dehumidification
equipment and controls. In office facili-
ties, it is generally preferable to keep
relative humidities above 20% or 30%
during the heating season and below 60%
during the cooling season. ASHRAE
Standard 55-1981 provides guidance on
acceptable temperature and humidity
conditions. (See also the discussion of
humidity levels in Section 6.)
The use of a properly designed and
operated air conditioning system will
generally keep relative humidities below
60% RH during the cooling season, in
office facilities with normal densities and
loads. (See the previous discussion of the
cooling coil.)
Office buildings in cool climates that
have high interior heat gains, thermally
efficient envelopes (e.g., insulation), and
economizer cooling may require humidi-
fication to maintain relative humidity
within the comfort zone. When humidi-
fication is needed, it must be added in a
manner that prevents the growth of micro-
biologicals within the ductwork and air
handlers.
Steam humidifiers should utilize clean
steam, rather than treated boiler water, so Above: Occupants of this building
complained of an inter-mittant fish tank odor.
that occupants will not be exposed to An investigation showed that this water spray
chemicals. Systems using media other humidifi-cation system is regularly
than clean steam must be rigorously maintained. The coils are washed roughly
every two weeks using fresh tap water,
maintained in accordance with the eliminating the need for any use of algacides.
manufacturer’s recommended procedures Below: Further investigation identified the
to reduce the likelihood of microbiological fact that the maintenance practice was
causing the odor problem. This picture of
growth. the downstream side of the coils was taken
Mold growth problems are more likely one day after the washing. A high pressure
if the humidistat setpoint located in the stream of water caused algae in the water
occupied space is above 45%. The high to foam and float for several days,
coinciding with the occupant complaints.
limit humidistat, typically located in the
ductwork downstream of the point at

HVAC Systems and Indoor Air Quality 129


Fan performance is expressed as the
DUCT LEAKAGE ability to move a given quantity of air
(cubic feet per minute or cfm) at a given
Leakage of air from ducts can cause or exacerbate air quality problems, in
addition to wasting energy. In general, sealed duct systems specified with resistance or static pressure (measured in
a leakage rate of less than 3% will have a superior life cycle cost analysis inches of water column). Airflow in
and reduce the likelihood of problems associated with leaky ductwork. ductwork is determined by the size of the
Examples of excessive duct leakage leading to problems include:
duct opening, the resistance of the duct
■ leakage of light troffer-type diffusers at the diffuser/light fixture interface configuration, and the velocity of the air
when they are installed in a return plenum. Such leakage has been
known to cause gross short-circuiting between supply and return, through the duct. The static pressure in a
wasting much of the conditioned air. If the “room” thermostat is system is calculated using factors for duct
located in the return plenum, the room can be very uncomfortable while length, speed of air movement and changes
the temperature in the plenum is operating at the control setpoint.
in the direction of air movement.
■ leakage of supply ductwork due to loose-fitting joints and connections It is common to find some differences
or “blow outs” of improperly fabricated seams
between the original design and the final
■ leakage of return ducts located in crawl spaces or below slabs, allowing
installation, as ductwork must share
soil gases and molds to enter the ductwork
limited space with structural members and
other “hidden” elements of the building
system (e.g., electrical conduit, plumbing
which water vapor is added, is generally pipes). Air distribution problems can
set at 70% to avoid condensation (with a occur, particularly at the end of duct runs,
potential for subsequent mold growth) in if departures from the original design
the ductwork. Adding water vapor to a increase the friction in the system to a
building that was not designed for point that approaches the limit of fan
humidification can have a negative impact performance. Inappropriate use of long
on the building structure and the runs of flexible ducts with sharp bends also
occupants’ health, if condensation occurs causes excessive friction. Poor system
on cold surfaces or in wall or roof cavities. balancing (adjustment) is another common
cause of air distribution problems.
Supply Fans Dampers are used as controls to
restrict airflow. Damper positions may be
After passing through the coil section relatively fixed (e.g., set manually during
where heat is either added or extracted, air system testing and balancing) or may
moves through the supply fan chamber and change in response to signals from the
the distribution system. Air distribution control system. Fire and smoke dampers
systems commonly use ducts that are can be triggered to respond to indicators
constructed to be relatively airtight. such as high temperatures or signals from
Elements of the building construction can smoke detectors. If a damper is designed
also serve as part of the air distribution to modulate, it should be checked during
system (e.g., pressurized supply plenums inspections to see that it is at the proper
or return air plenums located in the cavity setting. ASHRAE and the Associated Air
space above the ceiling tiles and below the Balance Council both provide guidance on
deck of the floor above). Proper coordina- proper intervals for testing and balancing.
tion of fan selection and duct layout during
the building design and construction phase Ducts
and ongoing maintenance of mechanical
components, filters, and controls are all The same HVAC system that distributes
necessary for effective air delivery. conditioned air throughout a building air
can distribute dust and other pollutants,
including biological contaminants. Dirt or

130 Appendix B
dust accumulation on any components of increased levels of pollutants and should
an air handling system — its cooling coils, be carried out by experienced workers.
plenums, ducts, and equipment housing — Correcting theproblems that allowed the
may lead to contamination of the air ductwork to become contaminated in the
supply. first place is important. Otherwise, the
There is widespread agreement that corrective action will only be temporary.
building owners and managers should take The porous surface of fibrous glass duct
great precautions to prevent dirt, high liner presents more surface area (which
humidity, or moisture from entering the can trap dirt and subsequently collect
ductwork; there is less agreement at water) than sheet metal ductwork. It is
present about when measures to clean up therefore particularly important to pay
are appropriate or how effective cleaning attention to the proper design, installation,
techniques are at making long-term filtration, humidity, and maintenance of
improvements to the air supply or at ducts that contain porous materials. In
reducing occupant complaints. addition, techniques developed for
The presence of dust in ductwork does cleaning unlined metal ducts often are not
not necessarily indicate a current microbio- suitable for use with fibrous glass thermal
logical problem. A small amount of dust liner or fiberboard. Such ducts may
on duct surfaces is normal and to be require a special type of cleaning to
expected. Special attention should be maintain the integrity of the duct (i.e., no
given to trying to find out if ducts are heavy brushing tools that might fray the
contaminated only where specific prob- inner lining) while removing dirt and
lems are present, such as: water damage or debris.
biological growth observed in ducts, debris More research on both the efficacy and
in ducts that restricts airflow, or dust the potential for unintended exposures to
discharging from supply diffusers. building occupants from various cleaning
Problems with dust and other contami- techniques is needed before firm guidance
nation in the ductwork are a function of can be provided regarding duct cleaning.
filtration efficiency, regular HVAC system Pay attention to worker safety when
maintenance, the rate of airflow, and good working with air handling systems
housekeeping practices in the occupied including during duct cleaning. Any
space. Problems with biological pollutants worker who may potentially breathe duct
can be prevented by minimizing dust and contaminants or biocides should wear
dirt build-up, promptly repairing leaks and suitable protective breathing apparatus.
water damage, preventing moisture Workers who are doing the duct cleaning
accumulation in the components that are should be encouraged to also look for
supposed to be dry, and cleaning the other types of problems, such as holes or
components such as the drip pans that gaps in the ducts that could allow contami-
collect and drain water. nants to enter the ventilation airstream.
In cases where sheet metal ductwork Building managers can obtain more
has become damaged or water-soaked, information on the issue of HVAC
building owners will need to undertake contamination and cleaning from the
clean-up or repair procedures. For professional standards developed by some
example, in cases where the thermal liner trade associations (See Guidelines of Care
or fiberboard has become water-soaked, Developed by Professional and Trade
building managers will need to replace the Associations in Section 5 and refer to
affected areas. These procedures should Appendix G for a list of organizations
be scheduled and performed in a way that with expertise and materials on these
does not expose building occupants to issues.)

HVAC Systems and Indoor Air Quality 131


PRELIMINARY RECOMMENDATIONS ON DUCT CLEANING
1. Any duct cleaning should be vacuum equipment should only be smell, and are not intended to provide
scheduled during periods when used with extreme care because high real control of microbiological
the building is unoccupied to negative pressure together with limited contaminants.
prevent exposure to chemicals airflow can collapse ducts.
7. Use of sealants to cover
and loosened particles.
4. Duct cleaning performed with interior ductwork surfaces is not
The air handling unit should not be high velocity airflow (i.e., greater recommended.
used during the cleaning or as an air than 6,000 cfm) should include No application techniques have been
movement device for the cleaning gentle, well-controlled brushing of demonstrated to provide a complete
process. The National Air Duct duct surfaces or other methods to or long-term barrier to microbiological
Cleaning Association recommends dislodge dust and other particles. growth, nor have such materials been
that the system should be run to
Duct cleaning that relies only on a high evaluated for their potential health
allow at least eight air changes in the
velocity airflow through the ducts is not effects on occupants. In addition,
occupied space when duct cleaning
likely to achieve satisfactory results using sealants alters the surface
has been completed.
because the flow rate at the duct burning characteristics of the duct
2. Negative air pressure that will surface remains too low to remove material and may void the fire safety
draw pollutants to a vacuum many particles. rating of the ductwork.
collection system should be
5. Only HEPA filtered (high- 8. Careful cleaning and sanitizing
maintained at all times in the
efficiency particle arrestor) vacu- of any parts of coils and drip pans
duct cleaning area to prevent
uming equipment should be used if can reduce microbiological
migration of dust dirt, and
the vacuum collection unit is inside pollutants.
contaminants into occupied
the occupied space. Prior to using sanitizers, deodorizers,
areas.
Conventional vacuuming equipment or any cleansing agents, carefully
Where possible, use vacuum
may discharge extremely fine particu- read the directions on the product
equipment or fans during cleaning
late matter back into the atmosphere, label. Once cleaned, these compo-
and sanitizing to make sure that
rather than collecting it. Duct cleaning nents should be thoroughly rinsed
cleaning vapors are exhausted to the
equipment that draws the dust and dirt and dried to prevent exposure of
outside and do not enter the occu-
into a collection unit outside the building occupants to the cleaning
pied space.
building is also available. People chemicals.
3. If it is determined that the should not be allowed to remain in the
9. Water-damaged or contami-
ductwork should be cleaned, immediate vicinity of these collection
nated porous materials in the
careful attention must be given units.
ductwork or other air handling
to protecting the ductwork.
6. If biocides are to be used, then system components should be
When gaining access to sheet metal select only products registered by removed and replaced.
ducts for cleaning purposes, it is EPA for such use, use the products Even when such materials are
essential to seal the access hole according to the manufacturer’s thoroughly dried, there is no way to
properly in order to maintain the directions, and pay careful atten- guarantee that all microbial growth
integrity of the HVAC system. tion to the method of application. has been eliminated.
Access doors are recommended if
At present, EPA accepts claims and
the system is to be cleaned periodi- 10. After the duct system has
therefore registers antimicrobials for
cally, and all access holes should be been cleaned and restored to
use only as sanitizers, not disinfectants
identified on the building’s mechani- use, a preventive maintenance
or sterilizers in HVAC systems. (See
cal plans. program will prevent the recur-
Appendix F for definitions of antimicro-
Particular attention is warranted rence of problems.
bials.) There is some question about
when cutting fibrous glass ducts, and Such a program should include
whether there are
manufacturers’ recommended particular attention to the use and
any application techniques that
procedures for sealing should be maintenance of adequate filters,
will deposit a sufficient amount of the
followed stringently. Use existing control of moisture in the HVAC
biocide to kill bacteria, germs,
duct system openings where system, and periodic inspection and
or other biologicals that may be
possible because it is difficult to cleaning of HVAC system compo-
present. Materials such as deodorizers
repair the damage caused by cutting nents. (See discussion of Preventive
that temporarily eliminate odors caused
new access entries into the Maintenance on page 36 in Section
by microorganisms provide only a fresh
ductwork. Large, high volume 5.)

132 Appendix B
Terminal Devices
Thermal comfort and effective contami-
nant removal demand that air delivered
into a conditioned space be properly
distributed within that space. Terminal
devices are the supply diffusers, return and
exhaust grilles, and associated dampers
and controls that are designed to distribute
air within a space and collect it from that
space. The number, design, and location
(ceiling, wall, floor) of terminal devices
are very important. They can cause a
HVAC system with adequate capacity to
produce unsatisfactory results, such as
drafts, odor transport, stagnant areas, or
short-circuiting.
Occupants who are uncomfortable
because of distribution deficiencies (drafts,
odor transport, stagnant air, or uneven
temperatures) often try to compensate by Return air is frequently car-
adjusting or blocking the flow of air from particularly important to maintain the ried through non-ducted ple-
supply outlets. Adjusting system flows integrity of the ceiling and adjacent walls nums. It is more difficult to
control leakage of pollutants
without any knowledge of the proper in areas that are designed to be exhausted, into or out of this type of re-
design frequently disrupts the proper such as supply closets, bathrooms, and turn air system than a ducted
supply of air to adjacent areas. Distribu- chemical storage areas. system.
tion problems can also be produced if the After return air enters either a ducted
arrangement of movable partitions, return air grille or a ceiling plenum, it is
shelving, or other furnishings interferes returned to the air handlers. Some systems
with airflow. Such problems often occur if utilize return fans in addition to supply
walls are moved or added without evaluat- fans in order to properly control the
ing the expected impact on airflows. distribution of air. When a supply and
return fan are utilized, especially in a VAV
Return Air Systems system, their operation must be coordi-
nated in order to prevent under- or over-
In many modern buildings the above-
pressurization of the occupied space or
ceiling space is utilized for the unducted
overpressurization of the mixing plenum in
passage of return air. This type of system
the air handler.
approach often reduces initial HVAC
system costs, but requires that the designer,
Exhausts, Exhaust Fans, and
maintenance personnel, and contractors
Pressure Relief
obey strict guidelines related to life and
safety codes (e.g., building codes) that Most buildings are required by law (e.g.,
must be followed for materials and devices building or plumbing codes) to provide for
that are located in the plenum. In addition, exhaust of areas where contaminant
if a ceiling plenum is used for the collec- sources are strong, such as toilet facilities,
tion of return air, openings into the ceiling janitorial closets, cooking facilities, and
plenum created by the removal of ceiling parking garages. Other areas where
tiles will disrupt airflow patterns. It is exhaust is frequently recommended but

HVAC Systems and Indoor Air Quality 133


may not be legally required include: achieving a neutral or slightly positive
reprographics areas, graphic arts facilities, pressure.
beauty salons, smoking lounges, shops,
and any area where contaminants are Self-Contained Units
known to originate.
In some designs, small decentralized units
For successful confinement and exhaust
are used to provide cooling or heating to
of identifiable sources, the exhausted area
interior or perimeter zones. With the
must be maintained at a lower overall
exception of induction units, units of this
pressure than surrounding areas. Any area
type seldom supply outdoor air. They are
that is designed to be exhausted must also
typically considered a low priority mainte-
be isolated (disconnected) from the return
nance item. If self-contained units are
air system so that contaminants are not
overlooked during maintenance, it is not
transported to another area of the building.
unusual for them to become a significant
In order to exhaust air from the build-
source of contaminants, especially for the
ing, make-up air from outdoors must be
occupants located nearby.
brought into the HVAC system to keep the
building from being run under negative
Controls
pressure. This make-up air is typically
drawn in at the mixed air plenum as HVAC systems can be controlled manually
described earlier and distributed within the or automatically. Most systems are con-
building. For exhaust systems to function trolled by some combination of manual and
properly, the make-up air must have a clear automatic controls. The control system can
path to the area that is being exhausted. be used to switch fans on and off, regulate
It is useful to compare the total cfm of the temperature of air within the conditioned
powered exhaust to the minimum quantity space, or modulate airflow and pressures by
of mechanically-introduced outdoor air. controlling fan speed and damper settings.
To prevent operating the building under Most large buildings use automatic controls,
negative pressures (and limit the amount of and many have very complex and sophisti-
unconditioned air brought into the building cated systems. Regular maintenance and
by infiltration), the amount of make-up air calibration are required to keep controls in
drawn in at the air handler should always good operating order. All programmable
be slighter greater than the total amount of timers and switches should have “battery
relief air, exhaust air, and air exfiltrating backup” to reset the controls in the event of a
through the building shell. Excess make- power failure.
up air is generally relieved at an exhaust or Local controls such as room thermostats
relief outlet in the HVAC system, espe- must be properly located in order to
cially in air economizer systems. In maintain thermal comfort. Problems can
addition to reducing the effects of un- result from:
wanted infiltration, designing and operat- ■ thermostats located outside of the
ing a building at slightly positive or neutral occupied space (e.g., in return plenum)
pressures will reduce the rate of entry of ■ poorly designed temperature control
soil gases when the systems are operating. zones (e.g., single zones that combine
For a building to actually operate at a areas with very different heating or
slight positive pressure, it must be tightly cooling loads)
constructed (e.g., specified at less than ■ thermostat locations subject to drafts or
one-half air change per hour at 0.25 to radiant heat gain or loss (e.g., exposed
pascals). Otherwise unwanted exfiltration to direct sunlight)
will prevent the building from ever

134 Appendix B
■ thermostat locations affected by heat
from nearby equipment
To test whether or not a thermostat is
functioning properly, try setting it to an
extreme temperature. This experiment will
show whether or not the system is respond-
ing to the signal in the thermostat, and
also provides information about how the
HVAC system may perform under extreme
conditions.

Boilers
Like any other part of the HVAC system, a
boiler must be adequately maintained to
operate properly. However, it is particu-
larly important that combustion equipment
operate properly to avoid hazardous
conditions such as explosions or carbon
monoxide leaks, as well as to provide good
energy efficiency. Codes in most parts of
the country require boiler operators to be
properly trained and licensed.
Modern office buildings tend to have It is important to determine
Both ASME and ASHRAE have made periodically whether the
much smaller capacity boilers than older
recommendations of how much combus- HVAC controls are correctly
buildings because of advances in energy calibrated. In addition, time
tion air is needed for fuel burning appli-
efficiency. In some buildings, the primary clocks must be checked to
ances. see if they are properly set
heat source is waste heat recovered from
Elements of boiler operation that are and running. Power failures
the chiller (which operates year-round to frequently cause time clocks
particularly important to indoor air quality
cool the core of the building). to be out of adjustment.
and thermal comfort include:
■ Operation of the boiler and distribution Cooling Towers
loops at a high enough temperature to
Maintenance of a cooling tower ensures
supply adequate heat in cold weather.
proper operation and keeps the cooling
■ Maintenance of gaskets and breeching to
tower from becoming a niche for breeding
prevent carbon monoxide from escaping
pathogenic bacteria, such as Legionella
into the building.
organisms. Cooling tower water quality
■ Maintenance of fuel lines to prevent any
must be properly monitored and chemical
leaks that could emit odors into the
treatments used as necessary to minimize
building.
conditions that could support the growth of
■ Provision of adequate outdoor air for
significant amounts of pathogens. Proper
combustion.
maintenance may also entail physical
■ Design of the boiler combustion exhaust
cleaning (by individuals using proper
to prevent re-entrainment, (especially
protection) to prevent sediment accumula-
from short boiler stacks, or into multi-
tion and installing drift eliminators.
story buildings that were added after the
boiler plant was installed).

HVAC Systems and Indoor Air Quality 135


FIGURE B-2: Selected Ventilation Recommendations

Occupancy Cfm/person Cfm/ft2


Application (people/1000 ft2)

Food and Beverage Dining rooms 70 20


Service Cafeteria, fast food 100 20
Bars, cocktail lounges 100 30
Kitchen (cooking) 20 15

Offices Office space 7 20


Reception areas 60 15
Conference rooms 50 20

Public Spaces Smoking lounge 70 60


Elevators 1.00

Retail Stores, Sales Floors, Basement and street 30 0.30


Showroom Floors Upper floors 20 0.20
Malls and arcades 20 0.20
Smoking lounge 70 60

Sports and
Amusement Spectator areas 150 15
Game rooms 70 25
Playing floors 30 20
Ballrooms and discos 100 25

Theaters
Lobbies 150 20
Auditorium 150 15

Education
Classroom 50 15
Music rooms 50 15
Libraries 20 15
Auditoriums 150 15

Hotels, Motels,
Resorts, Bedrooms 30 cfm/room
Dormitories Living rooms 30 cfm/room
Lobbies 30 15
Conference rooms 50 20
Assembly rooms 120 15

SOURCE: ASHRAE Standard 62-1989, Ventilation for Acceptable Air Quality

136 Appendix B
Water Chillers used because source strength is usually not
known.
Water chillers are frequently found in large
Whichever procedure is utilized in the
building air conditioning systems because
design, the standard states that the design
of the superior performance they offer. A
criteria and assumptions shall be docu-
water chiller must be maintained in proper
mented and made available to those
working condition to perform its function
responsible for the operation and mainte-
of removing the heat from the building.
nance of the system.
Chilled water supply temperatures should
Important features of ASHRAE 62-
operate in the range of 45°F or colder in
1989 include:
order to provide proper moisture removal
during humid weather. Piping should be ■ a definition of acceptable air quality
insulated to prevent condensation. ■ a discussion of ventilation effectiveness
Other than thermal comfort, IAQ ■ the recommendation of the use of source
concerns associated with water chillers control through isolation and local
involve potential release of the working exhaust of contaminants
fluids from the chiller system. The rupture ■ recommendations for the use of heat
disk (safety release) of the system should recovery ventilation
be piped to the outdoors, and refrigerant ■ a guideline for allowable carbon dioxide
leaks should be located and repaired. levels
Waste oils and spent refrigerant should be ■ appendices listing suggested possible
disposed of properly. guidelines for common indoor pollutants

ASHRAE STANDARDS AND Standard 55-1981, “Thermal


GUIDELINES Environmental Conditions for
Human Occupancy”
Standard 62-1989, “Ventilation for
Acceptable Air Quality” ASHRAE 55-1981 covers several environ-
mental parameters including: temperature,
ASHRAE 62-1989 is intended to assist radiation, humidity, and air movement.
professionals in the proper design of The standard specifies thermal environ-
ventilation systems for buildings. The mental conditions for the comfort of
standard presents two procedures for healthy people in normal indoor environ-
ventilation design, a “Ventilation Rate” ments for winter and summer conditions.
procedure and an “Air Quality” procedure. It also attempts to introduce limits on the
With the Ventilation Rate procedure, temperature variations within a space. In
acceptable air quality is achieved by addition to specifications for temperature
specifying a given quantity and quality of and humidity, guidelines are given for air
outdoor air based upon occupant density movement, temperature cycling, tempera-
and space usage. Examples of the tables ture drift, vertical temperature difference,
listing the prescriptive amounts of outdoor radiant asymmetry, and floor temperatures.
air for the Ventilation Rate procedure are Adjustment factors are described for
presented at the end of this section. various activity levels of the occupants,
The Air Quality procedure is a perfor- and different clothing levels.
mance specification that allows acceptable
air quality to be achieved within a space by Important features of this standard
controlling for known and specifiable include:
■ a definition of acceptable thermal
contaminants. This procedure is seldom
comfort

HVAC Systems and Indoor Air Quality 137


test and the atmospheric dust spot test.
The atmospheric dust spot test is the test
used to determine the “efficiency “ of an
air cleaner. The values obtained with
these two tests are not comparable. For
example, a filter with a weight arrestance
of 90% may have an efficiency by the
atmospheric dust spot test below 40%.
The weight arrestance test is generally
used to evaluate low efficiency filters
designed to remove the largest and
heaviest particles; these filters are com-
monly used in residential furnaces and/or
air-conditioning systems or as upstream
filters for other air cleaning devices. For
the test, a standard synthetic dust is fed
into the air cleaner and the proportion (by
weight) of the dust trapped on the filter is
determined. Because the particles in the
standard dust are relatively large, the
This air washer is used to ■ a discussion of the additional weight arrestance test is of limited value in
remove particles and environmental parameters that must assessing the removal of smaller, respi-
water-soluble gaseous
contaminants and may also be considered rable-size particles from indoor air.
control temperature and ■ recommendations for summer and winter The atmospheric dust spot test is
humidity in the airstream. comfort zones for both temperature and usually used to rate medium efficiency air
Such systems are subject
to severe bacterial
relative humidity cleaners. The removal rate is based on the
contamination. ■ a guideline for making adjustment for cleaner’s ability to reduce soiling of a
activity levels clean paper target, an ability dependent on
■ guidelines for making measurements the cleaner removing very fine particles
It should be noted that space tempera- from the air. However, it should be noted
tures above 76°F but within the summer that this test addresses the overall effi-
comfort envelope have nevertheless been ciency of removal of a complex mixture of
associated with IAQ complaints in offices. dust, and that removal efficiencies for
Note: As of summer 1991, a revised different size particles may vary widely.
Standard 55 was nearly ready. Recent studies by EPA, comparing
ASHRAE ratings to filter efficiencies for
Standard 52-76, “Method of Testing particles by size, have shown that efficien-
Air-Cleaning Devices Used in cies for particles in the size range of 0.1 to
General Ventilation for Removing 1 microgram are much lower than the
Particulate Matter” ASHRAE rating.
This standard is intended to assist profes- Important features of this ASHRAE
sionals in the evaluation of air cleaning standard include:
systems for particle removal. Two test ■ definitions of arrestance and efficiency
methods are described: the weight ■ establishment of a uniform comparative
arrestance test and the atmospheric dust testing procedure for evaluating the
spot test. The standard discusses differ- performance of air cleaning devices used
ences in results from the weight arrestance in ventilation systems

138 Appendix B
■ establishment of a uniform reporting mat for testing the system for acceptance
method for performance by the owner. In addition, the guideline
■ methods for evaluating resistance to addresses adjustments of the system to
airflow and dust-holding capacity meet actual occupancy needs within the
capacity of the system when changes in
No comparable guidelines or standards
building use are made and
are currently available for use in assessing
recommissioning is warranted.
the ability of air cleaners to remove gas-
eous pollutants or radon and its progeny. Important features of this guideline
include:
Guideline 1-1989, “Guideline for the ■ definition of the commissioning process
Commissioning of HVAC Systems” ■ discussion of the process involved in a
This guideline is intended to assist profes- proper commissioning procedure
sionals by providing procedures and meth- ■ sample specification and forms for log-
ods for documenting and verifying the ging information
performance of HVAC systems so that ■ recommendation for the implementation
they operate in conformity with the design of corrective measures as warranted
intent. The guideline presents a format for ■ guideline for operator training
documenting the occupancy requirements, ■ guidelines for periodic maintenance and
design assumptions, and the design intent recommissioning as needed
for the HVAC system. It provides a for-

HVAC Systems and Indoor Air Quality 139

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