Cement

Engineers' Handbook
Originated Ьу ОНо Labahn
Fourth English edition

Ьу В. Kohlhaas
and

U. Binder H.-U. Schater

Е.Bomke О. Schmidt
G.Funke G. Schmiedgen
Н. К. Klein-Albenhausen Н. Schneider
О. Кпбfеl Н. Schuberth
F. Mechtold Р. Schwake
D.Opitz Е. SteinbiB
G. Schater H.Xeller

Translated Ьу С. van Amerongen from the sixth German edition

BAUVERLAG GMBH ·WIESBADEN AND BERLIN

 PubIisher's foreword
CIP-Kurztitelaufnahme der Oeutschen BibIiothek Since the pubIication of the first edition of "Cement Engineer's Handbook"
28years ago, this book has gained an estabIished reputation as "Labahn" in the
labahn, Otto: cement industry. In its conception it has suгvived its original author. In form and
Cement engineers' handbook / originated Ьу Otto contents it has become an entirely new book, however. This change reflects the
Labahn. Transl. Ьу С. van Amerongen from the great technical developments that have taken place in cement manufacture in
6. German ed. - 4. Engl. ed. / Ьу В. Kohlhaas the inteгvening years .
. . , - Wiesbaden ; Berlin : Bauverlag, 1983. The first edition was, with the exception of the chapter оп quarrying, written
Ot. Ausg. u. d. Т.: Labahn, Otto: Ratgeber fur Zementingenieure entirely Ьу Otto Labahn. The fully revised fourth German edition of 1970 was
still within the range of one individual author, Wilhelm Andreas Kaminsky, who
ISBN 3-7625-0975-1 undertook the revision. When it was decided to produce the present sixth edition,
NE: Kohlhaas, Bernhard [ВеагЬ.] it soon emerged from the preliminary discussions that in this age of specializ-
ation the preparation of the new text for а book of this scope would have to Ье
entrusted to а team comprising authors from а wide variety of technologicai dis-
ciplines associated with cement manufacture.
In this effort we have been fortunate in having had the services of Bernhard
Kohlhaas as editor, co-ordinator and author.
Не proved indefatigabIe in seeking suitabIe co-authors for this project and he
himself undertook the revision of а number of the manuscripts supplied. These
duties made greater claims upon his time and attention than had been expected.
We аге indeed grateful to him for his unflagging devotion to the task.
The guiding principle of this new edition is the same as that which Kaminsky
enunciated in the preface to the edition which he had revised:
The subject matter of the book as а whole corresponds approximately to the
range of probIems which concern the engineer engaged in present-day cement
manufacturing practice. The guiding principle remains: to present all that is es-
sential and important in а conveniently assimilabIe form. At the same time, this
approach rules out any very detailed treatment of individual subjects.

Bauverlag GmbH

First edition Ьу Otto Labahn, 1954

Second revised edition Ьу Otto Labahn, 1965
Third revised and enlarged edition Ьу W. А. Kaminsky, 1971
Forth edition Ьу В. Kohlhaas and 16 other authors, 1983

© 1983 Bauverlag GmbH, Wiesbaden and Berlin

Printed Ьу: Wiesbadener Graphische Betriebe GmbH, Wiesbaden
and Guido Zeidler, Wiesbaden
ISBN 3-7625-0975-1
 Biographical notes оп the authors

Ing. Ulrich Binder

Born at Helmstedt in 1946. From 1967 to 1971, studied at the State College for
Constructional Engineering, Huttental-Weidenau, specializing in the process еп­
gineering of the rock and mineral products industry. Project and commissioning
engineer with the firm of Gebr. Hischmann, 1971 to 1977. Commissioning
engineer with О. & К. Orenstein & Koppel AG, Ennigerloh, 1977 to 1981. Since
1981, head of the process engineering, pilot plants and laboratory division of
О. & К., Ennigerloh.
Address: О. & К. Orenstein & Koppel AG, Р.О. Вох25, 4722 Ennigerloh, W. Ger-
тапу.

Erich Bomke
Born at Beckum in 1923. Studied mechanical engineering and economics at
the Technological University of Karlsruhe. In 1953, full partner and technical
head of the Bomke & В leckmann cement works (Iater renamed Readymix Zement-
werke GmbH & Со KG) at Beckum. Supervisory board member of that сотрапу,
1974 to 1977. Member of the "Process engi(1eering" committee of the German
Cement Works' Association. PubIications.
Address: Sonnenstrasse 18,4720 Beckum, W. Germany.

Obering. Gerhard Funke

Born at Bremen in 1924. Studied mechanical engineering at the Engineering
College in that city. From 1950, five years' service as production engineer at two
cement works. Head of the air pollution control division in the Research Institute
of the Cement Industry, Dusseldorf, since 1955. PubIications.
Address: Flandrianstrasse 24, 5653 Leichlingen, W. Germany.

Heinrich К. Кlein-Albenhausen
Born at Gelsenkirchen in 1934. Studied at the Engineering College at Kiel. From
1960 to 1975, staff member and technical head of the pit and quarry engineering
division of а plant engineering firm. Since 1976, partner and technical director
of the engineering firm of IBAU HAMBURG, Hamburg, and its subsidiaries in
Paris and New York.
Address: Leinpfad 33, 2000 Hamburg 60, W. Germany.

Prof. Dr. rer. nat. Dietbert КпЫеl

Born in 1936. Studied science (mineralogy, chemistry, geology), taking doctor's
degree in 1962. Several years as head of department in the construction materials
industry (concerned mainly with cement research and consultancy). From 1969
to 1978, head of the laboratory for constructional chemistry at the University
of Siegen; then, 1978 to 1980, at the Stuttgart University of Technology. Since
1980, head of the laboratory for constructional and materials chemistry at the
Universlty of Siegen (principal fields of work: mineral materials, attack of та-

v
Biographical notes оп the authors
terials, conservation of buildings); professor at the Universities of Karlsruhe and
Marburg; chairman or member of several working committees; sworn expert
for constructional chemistry (materials, corrosion, conservation of buildings).
Pu Ы ications.
Address: Hermann-Pleuer-Strasse 18, 7000 Stuttgart 1, W. Germany
Obering. Bernhard Kohlhaas
Born at Bad Godesberg in 1911. Studied general electrical engineering. From
1932 to 1954, production engineer, subsequently member of technical central
department of Portland Zementwerke Heidelberg AG; senior executive in 1948
and appointment as chief engineer. From 1954 to 1975, head of the design and
sales department for cement works installations with КНО Humboldt Wedag AG,
Cologne; appointment to senior managerial status in 1960.
Address: Gartnerstrasse 1, 7290 Freudenstadt, W. Germany
Dr. Mont. Fritz Mechtold
Born at Monchengladbach in 1928. Studied mechanical engineering at the Tech-
nological University of Aachen. Took doctor's degree in mining technology at
the University for Mining Engineering, Leoben. Since 1955, staff member of
AUMUND-Fordererbau GmbH, Rheinberg; now technical director of that firm;
accredited expert оп lifting and handling appliances. PubIications.
Address: Heinrich-Doergens-Strasse 9,4150 Krefeld 1, W. Germany
Dr. 'П9.Dieter Opitz
Воrn at Chemnitz in 1935. Studied engineering materials technology for а time
at the University for Building Construction, Weimar, then graduated in rock and
mineral products technology at the Technological University of Aachen
(Springorm medal). From 1963 to 1973, in the Research Institute of the Cement
Industry, process engineering division, Dusseldorf. Took doctor's degree in the
faculty for mining, metallurgical technology and mechanical engineering. Tech-
nological University of Clausthal (subject: 'The coating rings in rotary cement
kilns") in 1973. Since 1974, head of department for fuel and power in the
technical division of Rheinische Kalksteinwerke GmbH, Wulfrath.
Address: Rheinische Kalksteinwerke GmbH, Wilhelmstrasse 77, 5603 Wulfrath,
W. Germany
Dipl.-Ing. Dr. Gernot Schater
Born at Lubeck in 1939. Studied mining and economics at the Technological
University of Aachen, where hetook hisdoctor'sdegree in economics. Since 1974,
managing director of Beumer Maschinenfabrik KG, Beckum, and of the sub-
sidiaries in the U.S.A. and France. PubIications.
Adress: Beumer Maschinenfabrik KG, Oelderstrasse 40, О-4720 Beckum, W. Ger-
тапу
У'
Biographical notes оп the authors
Dr. гег. nat. Heinz-Ulrich Schater
Born at Bietigheim, Wurttemberg, in 1949. Studied geology at the Technological
University of Clausthal, where he took his doctor's degree. From 1971 to 1974,
engaged in basic geological research; then two years in field exploration of rock
and mineral deposits. Since 1976, with КН D Humboldt Wedag AG as process
engineer for raw materials preparation and for the geochemical assessment of
raw materials for cement manufacture.
Address: Pastor-Loh-Strasse 3,4018 Langenfeld, W. Germany
Ing. Dietrich Schmidt
Воrn at Radebeul, Saxony, in 1933. From 1954 to 1960, staff member in the
chemico-mineralogical department of the Research Institute of the Cement 'п­
dustry, Dusseldorf. Then head of laboratory at cement works at Wetzlar and
Hardegsen; studied chemical technology side Ьу side with his professional duties.
Since 1979, works manager of the Hardegsen cement works of Nordcement AG,
Hannover.
Address: Ат Sonnenberg 16, 3414 Hardegsen, W. Germany
Obering. Gunter Schmiedgen
Воrn at Leipzig in 1935. Studied electrical engineering. Since 1955 with the firm
of Siemens, where, since 1972, he has Ьееп in charge of the department for
process engineering and automation for the cement industry. PubIications.
Address: 1т Heuschlag 21,8520 Erlangen, W. Germany
Dipl.-Ing. Horst Schneider
Born at Schlaney in 1925. Studied mlnlng engineering at the Technological
University of Aachen, 1949 to 1954. Then ап assistant in that University's Institute
for Preparatory Processing, Coking and Briquetting. From 1959 to 1961, head of
the cement department in the experimental division of Friedr. Krupp Maschinen-
und Stahlbau, Rheinhausen. From 1961 to 1969, scientific staff member in the
department for plant engineering in the Research Institute of the Cement 'п­
dustry, Dusseldorf. Then technical director of the engineering firm of Gebr.
Hischmann, 1969 to 1977. Since 1977, technical director of О. & К. Orenstein
& Корреl AG, Ennigerloh. PubIications.
Address: О. & К. Orenstein & Корре' AG, Postfach 25, 4722 Ennigerloh, W. Ger-
тапу
Dipl.-Ing. Bergassessor Hermann Schuberth
Born at Kulmbach in 1934. Studied mining at the Clausthal Academy of Mining.
Major government examination 1962. Since 1963, with Rheinische Kalkstein-
werke, Wulfrath, initially as assistant to the works management, then in charge
of opencast mining and preparation engineering; senior departmental head for
processing and planning, also acting works manager, in that firm since 1974.
Address: Metzgeshauser Weg 21, 5603 Wulfrath, W. Germany
VII
Biographical notes оп the authors

Obering. Paul Schwake

Born in 1924. Studied mechanical engineering at the Government School of
Contents
Engineering, Konstanz. From 1949 to 1957, designer with а firm at Krefeld. Since
1957, designer and development manager of Haver & Boecker, Oelde, where А. Introduction.
he has Ьееп head of the research and development department with the rank of Ву В. Kohlhaas
chief engineer since 1968. Appointment to senior managerial status in 1976.
Address: Mozartstrasse 12, 4740 Oelde 1, W. Germany
В. Raw materials . 3
Dipl.-Ing. Eberhard Steinbiss
1. Geology, raw material deposits, requirements applicate to the deposit,
Born at Wiesbaden in 1941. Studied general mechanical engineering at the Tech- exploration of the deposit, boreholes, evaluation of borehole re-
nological University of Darmstadt. 'П 1969, scientific staff member in the Ае­ sults, calculation of reserves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
search Institute of the Cement Industry, Dusseldorf. With КНО Humboldt Wedag
AG, Cologne, since 1982. PubIications. Ву H.-U. Schafer
Address: Uerdinger Strasse 25, 4000 Dusseldorf 30, W. Germany 1 Raw materials and quarrying methods . 4
2 Exploration 6
Dipl.-Ing. Horst Хеllег References . . . . . . . . 25
Born at Biberach/Riss in 1935. Studied mechanical engineering at the Tech-
nological University of Stuttgart. Since 1960, production engineer in various 11. Quarrying the raw materials . 27
cement works and in the thermal engineering section of the central technical Ву Н. Schuberth
office of Heidelberger Zement. PubIications.
Address: larchenweg 1,6906 leimen, W. Germany 1 Guidelines for quarrying 28
2 Overburden. . . . . 30
3 Breaking out the rock 32
4 loading . . . . . . 46
5 Haulage . . . . . . 50
6 Mobile crushing plants. 55
7 Site restoration 57
References . . . . . . . 62

111. Raw materials storage, bIending beds, sampling stations. 64

Ву О. Schmidt
1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
2 Bed bIending theory. . . . . . . . . . . . 66
3 Machinery and process engineering methods. 73
4 Sampling stations 93
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

С. Cement chemistry - cement quality. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

Ву О. Кпбfеl

1. н istorical introduction 103

11. Raw materials and the raw mix 105

VIII 'Х
Contents Contents

1 Raw materials . 105 4 Supply and identification of cements 163

2 Raw mix: proportioning and analysis 109 5 Quality control 165
References 119 6 Suggestions for the use of cements 165
References 166
111. Chemical, physical and mineralogical aspects of the cement burning
process . 119 Х. Cement testing 166
1 Drying 121 1 Fineness 167
2 Dehydration of clay minerals . 121 2 Setting times 168
3 Decomposition of carbonates . 122 3 Soundness 168
4 Solid reactions (reactions below sintering) . 123 4 Strength 169
5 Reactions in the presence of liquid phase (sintering) 123 5 Heat of hydration 169
6 Reactions during cooling . 124 References 170
7 Factors affecting the burning process 125 Cement Standards . 170
References 128 References 171

IV. Portland cement clinker. 128

1 Clinker phases. 128 О. Manufacture of cement. 177
2 Judging the quality of clinker. 133
References 137 1. Materials preparation of cement . 179

V. Ву Н. Schneider and U. Binder

Finish grinding 137
1 The materials involved in finish grinding. 137 1 Primary reduction 179
2 Fineness and particle size distribution 141 References 213
3 Mill atmosphere . 142 2 Size classification 214
4 Grinding aids 144 References 238
References 145 3 Grinding 239
References 266
VI. Storage of cement . 145 4 Roller mills 266
1 Storage in the cement works 145 References 276
2 Storage оп the construction site 146 5 Grinding and drying of coal 277
References 146 References 293

VII. Hydration of cement (setting, hardening, strength) 146 11. Raw meal silos 295
1 General. 146
Ву Н. К. Кlein-Albenhausen
2 Hydration of the clinker phases . 149
3 Hydrogen of slag cements and pozzolanic cements . 153 1 General. 295
References 153 2 Batchwise homogenization . 295
3 Continuous bIending. 297
VIII. Relations between chemical reactions, phase content and strength of 4 Combined systems. 304
portland cement . 153 5 Summary . 304
References 158 References 305

IX. Types, strength classes, designation and quality control of cements. 158 111. Cement burning technology. 307
1 General. 158 1 Kiln systems. 307
2 Classification and designation of cements 160 Ву Е. SteinbiB
3 Constituents of cements . 163 References 319

Х ХI
Contents
Contents

2 Preheaters and precalcining. 320

Ву Е. Steinbir..
3 Loading of clinker and crushed stone 503
References . . . 4 "Big bag" despatch . . . . . . . . 503
326
3 Clinker cooling 5 Shrink wrapping. . . . . . . . . . 506
328 6 Automation of despatch procedures .
Ву Н. Xeller
512
References . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512
417
4 Firing technology 421
Ву Е. Steinbir..
References . . . . 440
5 Refractory linings F. Handling and feeding systems - Continuous conveyors. . . . . . 515
442
Ву О. Opitz Ву F. Mechtold
References . . 458
1. General introduction 515
IV. Clinker storage. 459
11. Belt and band conveyors . 516
Ву В. Kohlhaas 1 Belt conveyors . . . 516
2 Steel band conveyors 523
1 General . 459
2 Forms of construction and space requirements . 459
3 Selection criteria. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
111. Bucket elevators. . . . 523
463 1 General explanation . 523
4 Design . 464
5 Filling and emptying silos and other storage structures
2 Belt bucket elevators. 525
465
6 Storage buildings and outdoor stockpiles
3 Chain bucket elevators . 529
465
References . 4 Swing bucket elevators. 535
471

V. Cement silos. IV. Chain Conveyors. . . . . 539

472 1 Flight conveyors. . . . 539
Ву Н. К. Кlein-Albenhausen 2 Continuous-flow conveyors 541
3 Аргоп conveyors 543
1 General . 472
2 Large-capacity silos 472
V. Vibratory conveyors 550
References . . . . . 476
VI. Screw conveyors . . 556

Е.
VII. Pneumatic Conveyors 559
Packing and loading for despatch 477

1. Packing . . . . Vi 11. Feeders. . . . . . . 570

477
Ву Р. Schwake 'Х. Weighing equipment . 578
1 Introduction. References . . . . . 582
477
2 Types of packaging 478

11. Despatch of cement . 490

Ву Е. Bomke and G. Schafer G. Process engineering and automation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585
1 Despatch in sacks. . . . 490 Ву G. Schmiedgen
2 Bulk loading . . . . . . 495
1. G e n e r a l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585
ХII
ХIII
Contents Contents

11. Measurement and process control . 586 К. Workshops and spare parts store . . 709
1 Measurement . . . 587 Ву В. Kohlhaas
2 Closed loop control . . 591

111. ProgrammabIe controllers. 596

L. Water supply, compressed air. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 717
IV. Monitoring and operation. 600
Ву В. Kohlhaas
V. Process computers. . . . 605 1. Water supply for cement works 717
1 Development and use of process computers 605 1 Estimated quantities required . 717
2 Computerized control centre 608 2 Raw water . 719
3 Hardware and software. 612 3 Supply system. cooling water circuit, water storage . 720
4 Microprocessors. . . 613 4 Waste water disposal 722

VI. Process control system . 614 11. Compressed air supply . 722
References . . . . . . 619

М. Personnel requirements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 725

Н. Environmental protection and industrial safety . . . . . . . . . . 621 Ву В. Kohlhaas
Ву G. Funke
1. Environmental protection . 622
1 Prevention of air pollution 622 N. Lubricants, storage and consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 729
2 Noise control . . . . . . 658 Ву В. Kohlhaas
3 Ground vibratio!1s due to bIasting . 680
References . . 685 1. General . . . . 729

11. Industrial safety 688 11. Types of lubricants. 730

1 Accident prevention regulations. 688
2 Promotion of safety in cement works 690 111. Storage of lubricants . 730
3 Safety ru les . 692 1 Delivery and handling 730
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . 693 2 Storage . 734
3 Issue of lubricants to consumers 741
4 Distribution of lubricants to the machines 742
J. Maintenance and wear. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 695
IV. Lubricants consumption 743
Ву В. Kohlhaas 743
References . . . . . .
1. Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . 695
1 General . 695
О. Firefighting equipment . 744
2 Spares and renewabIe parts planning 696
3 Determining the cost of maintenance 697 Ву В. Kohlhaas
References . . . 704

11. ProbIems of wear 705 Р. Laboratory equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 749

References . . . 705 Ву В. Kohlhaas

XIV XV
 А. Introduction
Contents

1. Introduction . 749 А. Introduction

752 Ву В. Kohlhaas
11. Proposed outline specification for equipment of individual rooms.

111. Laboratory equipment with apparatus and measuring instruments. 761 The first edition ofthe Cement Engineers' Handbook was pubIished in 1954. Upto
that time по such reference book for the engineer or technician in cement works
practice had been availabIe. Although four subsequent editions appeared, the
IV. General laboratory apparatus 771
demand for the book continued as brisk as ever. The major developments that had
V. Chemicals......... 779 meanwhile taken place in the cement industry in Germany and other countries
justified the decision to produce an entirely new edition that would take due
account of the latest cement manufacturing technology.
. . . . . 785 The text for this new edition has been written Ьу а team of experts in their
Subject Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
respective fields of specialization relating to cement manufacture and the
machinery used at all stages of the process. Some of the chapters have been
substantially enlarged and updated from those contained in the earlier editions of
the Handbook. А number of new chapters have moreover been added. The entire
subject matter has been extensively recast and rearranged, as will Ье apparent from
the comprehensive tabIe of contents. Each chapter is accompanied Ьу а list of
literature references enabIing the reader to consult тоге detailed pubIished
information оп matters of particular interest to him. The names of the authors аге
given at the beginning of the chapters.
The following information оп the sections and chapters into which the book is
divided will help the reader to understand its layout and to use it with greater
convenience.

В. Raw materials
1. Geology, raw material deposits
This section is of especial significance in connection with setting up а new cement
works and ensuring а long-term supply of good-quality raw materials.

11. Quarrying the raw materials

The modern techniques of winning the raw materials Ьу quarrying ог mining
operations аге described. The restoration of worked-out quarry sites in the interests
of landscape conservation also receives attention.

Ш. Raw materials storage

The raw materials needed for cement manufacture are seldom found in the ideal
chemical composition in their natural state. Besides, quarrying operations usually
stop at the week-ends, whereas cement production proceeds continuously. То
соре with the high production rates of modern cement plants and keep them
supplied with materials, capacious intermediate storage facilities аге required, so
as to make the plants independent of the quarry operating rhythm.

XVI
А. Introduction
В. Raw materials 1. Geology, deposits

С. Cement chemistry - cement quality

В. Raw materials
After presenting а historica/ introduction, the author of this section deals in detail
with the cement raw materials, their suitability and the calculation of the raw mix
proportions. The chemical, mineralogical and physica/ processes associated with
burning the materials in the kiln аге described.
Portland cement clinker and the assessment of its quality аге discussed. Other
sections deal with cement grinding, storage and hydration. The types and strength
classes of cement, as well as cement testing procedures and associated matters, аге 1. Geology, raw material deposits, requirements
also considered. Finally, some information оп standard specifications for cement аррliсаЫе to the deposit, exploration of the
in various countries is given. deposit, boreholes, evaluation of borehole results,
These matters аге dealt with much more fully than in earlier editions of the CalCiJlation of reserves
Handbook, with the object of giving the mechanical and electrical engineers
(including those concerned with process control and instrumentation) in cement
manufacture а better understanding of the probIems involved. Ву H.-U. Schafer

1 Raw materials and quarrying methods . 4

D. Cement manufacture 2 Exploration . . . . . . . . . 6
2.1 Exploration procedure . . . . 6
This chapter is devoted to the actual process of making cement. The various stages 2.1.1 Trial pits and surface samples . 7
аге described. The wet process and the shaft kiln аге only briefly considered. Оп the 2.1.2 Drilling . 8
other hand, the dry process with raw meal preheating and the precalcination 2.1.2.1 Соге drilling in limestone. 9
principle аге treated in some detail, as аге the preparation of the raw materials, the 2.1.2.2 Соге barrels 9
storage and homogenization of the raw meal, and the cooling of the cement 2.1.2.3 Flushing media . . . . 11
clinker. 2.1.2.4 Соге drilling in clay . . 12
This latest edition of the Handbook moreover contains up-to-date information оп 2.1.2.5 Treatment of the cores . 12
firing technology, kiln systems and refractory lining construction. 2.1.2.6 Testing of drilled cores . 13
Clinker storage now has а separate section allotted to it. /п view of today's сопсегп 2.1.2.7 Rotary percussive drilling with crawler-mounted machines. 14
with environmental pollution prevention, the dust-free storage of large quantities 2.1.3 Stratigraphic investigations . 14
of clinker is very important. 2.1.4 Tectonics . . . . . 15
Present-day methods of packing and despatch loading аге described (Chap- 2.1.4.1 Limestone deposits . . . 15
ter Е). 2.1.4.2 С/ау component. . . . . 16
Whereas the subject of materials handling and conveying (Chapter F) was rather 2.1.4.3 Overburden investigations 16
summarily dealt with in earlier editions, it has now received much more detailed 2.1.5 Geophysical investigations 17
treatment. Feeding and proportioning аге also included. 2.1.6 Hydrogeological investigations 20
Process engineering and automation аге of such importance in modern cement 2.2 Laboratory investigations. . . 20
manufacturing technology that they have а separate chapter devoted to them, in 2.2.1 Chemical investigations . . . 20
which the principal aspects аге considered in some detail (Chapter G). 2.2.2 Mineralogica/ and petrographic investigations 21
The subjects of environmental protection and industrial safety (Chapter Н) аге 2.2.2.1 Limestone.. . . . . . 21
now likewise fully dealt with in the Handbook for the first time. These аге subjects 2.2.2.2 Clay component. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
of great importance in connection with modern cement manufacture, which 2.2.3 Physical investigations. . . . . . . . . . . 22
indeed сап Ье carried out only if the statutory and other requirements relating to 2.3 Evaluation of the resu Its of the investigations. 22
them аге duly complied with. 2.3.1 Geochemical evaluation with quarrying operations planning . 23
The book contains some further chapters devoted to various matters that сопсегп 2.3.2 Calculation and classification of reserves. . 23
the cement works engineer: maintenance and wear; workshops and spare parts 2.4 Organizing ап exploration project. . . . . 24
store; water supply, compressed air; personnel requirements; lubricants; firefight- 2.5 Using а computer in ап exploration project. 25
ing equipment; laboratory equipment. References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2
3
В. Raw materials 1. Geology, deposits
1 Raw materials and quarrying methods
The raw materials for cement manufactuгe which аге the subject of geological
exploration аге mainly limestones and clays. 'П the geological sense both аге
sedimentary rocks which may occur as hard ог dense material (commonly known
as "rock") ог softer soil deposits. They may Ье of апу geological age. Limestones
mostly occuг in the form of rock, sometimes constituting whole mountainous
formations. 'П Europe, more particularly the Devonian granular limestones, the
Jurassic and Triassic limestones oftheAlpine region and the Cretaceous limestone
deposits аге of importance.
Whereas the limestone deposits of the Precretaceous period аге usually composed
of fossil limestones which in many instances were subjected to metamorphic
change (e.g., marbIes, siliceous limestones), the younger and mostly
Postcretaceous limestones occur both as fossil deposits and as limestone-clay
mixtuгes. The latter аге referred to as lime marl (calcareous marl) ог marl,
depending оп the limestone/clay ratio of the mixture (see Duda, Vol. 1, Section 1).
These limestones also include the so-called natuгal cements in which СаО, Si0 2 ,
АI 2 О з and Fе 2 О з аге present in such proportions that the lime standard is around
1 OOand the desired moduli сап Ье obtained bythe addition ofonly small quantities
of corrective materials. Such deposits аге, however, ог гаге оссuггепсе.
The youngest recent and sub-recent limestones include coral limestones, which
occupy in some cases ап intermediate position Ьетееп (consolidated) rock and
unconsolidated material. Deposits of shells, which сап also Ье used in the
manufactuгe of cement clinker, belong to the last-mentioned category.
The clay mineral component used for cement manufacture will generally Ье а soft
ог loose-textuгed material: clays, silts, ог sands with high content of clay minerals.
These materials аге classified according to particle size distribution rather than
mineralogical composition (ТаЫе 1). Rock-type clay materials may occur as clay
slate, shale and (to some extent) crystalline slates. Subject to chemical suitability,
such rocks as granites, gneisses, basalts and basaltic tufas ог pozzolanas may also
serve as clay mineral components.
Additive materials for ciinker production may Ье needed for correcting the
chemical composition of the raw mix, e.g., materials providing Fe, Si0 2 ог АI 2 О з ,
more particularly the most inexpensive ones that сап serve the puгpose, e.g.,
roasted pyrites ог low-grade iron оге, laterite, quartz sand ог quartziferous
weathering products of metamorphic rocks, and bauxite.
ТаЫе 1 : Nomenclature of clay. silt. etc. in accordance with particle size
distribution (DIN 18123)
clay < 0.002mm
silt 0.002-0.063 mm
sand
0.063 - 2.0 mm
gravel
2.0-63mm
stones >63mm
4 5
Quarrying methods
ТаЫе 2: limits imposed оп the MgO content of portland cement
materials Ьу Standards in various countrjes (according to Cembureau.
1968)
Country max. % MgO
Ьу weight
Rumania 2.5
Belgium, Denmark 3
Italy, Mexico, New Zealand, Pakistan, Portugal,
Great Britain 4
Australia 4.2
Bulgaria 4.5
Argentina, Austria, Canada, Chile, Cuba, Finland, France,
German Democratic Аер., Fed. Аер. of Germany, Greece,
Hungary, Indonesia, Ireland. Israel, Japan, Netherlands,
Norway, Poland, South Africa. Spain, Sweden,
Switzerland, Taiwan, Tuгkey, USSR, Venezuela,
Jugoslavia, People's Аер. of China 5
Brazil, Czechoslovakia. India, USA 6
The assessment of the suitability of the raw materials for cement manufactuгe is
based chiefly оп their chemical composition. For limestone components the so-
called lime standard is used as а criterion, giving information оп the СаО content as
well as оп the "hydraulic" constituents Si0 2 , АI 2 О з and Fе 2 О з . It is in апу case
preferabIe to assessing the materials merely оп the basis of СаО content.
The rocks to Ье used as clay mineral components сап most suitabIy Ье assessed Ьу
calculation of the silica ratio and the alumina ratio.
For deciding оп the suitability of raw materials it is furthermore essential to perform
mix proportioning calculations in order to ascertain the content of alkalies,
sulphates, chlorides and MgO introduced into the raw mix.
The permissibIe limit values for the content of sulphates, alkalies and chlorides
must Ье conformed to.
The content of magnesium that сап Ье permitted is laid down in standards
which vary from опе country to another (ТаЫе 2).ltwill haveto Ье decided in each
particular case whether anything in excess ofthe standard specified content сап Ье
allowed, since there аге по suitabIe raw materials that fulfil the requirement of, in
most cases, not exceeding about 4-5% MgO (Ьу weight) in the cement. Under
certain circumstances, too, infrastructuгal ог economic reasons may constitute а
deciding factor in justifying а departure from the standard limit.
Exploration of limestone and clay deposits for cement clinker manufacture has
three aims:
(1) verifying the quality of the raw materials;
В. Raw materials 1. Geology, deposits
(2) estabIishing the range of variation in quality of the raw materials throughout
the working life of the deposit;
(3) verifying the workabIe reserves of raw materials.
For the technological planning of the machinery for а cement manufacturing plant
it is of major importance to ascertain the ranges of variation of individual raw
material constituents in the deposit throughout the operating life of the plant, for
only in this way сап tгоubIе-fгее operation yielding а final product of good quality
Ье ensured. Variations of relatively short duration, ranging from months up to
about half а уеаг, should also Ье known in good time, so that suitabIe precautions
in terms of machinery and process technology сап Ье taken ог otherwise, in the
ligbt of economic considerations, corrective ingredients that will help maintain а
product of unvarying quality сап Ье quarried ог purchased.
Exploration for limestone and clay mineral components for cement manufacture
mainly comprises geochemical investigations, though the bedding conditions of
the deposit also play ап important part with regard to subsequent planning of
the quarrying operations to meet the raw material requirements of the cement
works.
Besides qualitative conditions, the deposit will also have to fulfil quantitative
conditions more particularly in connection with the method of quarrying ог
digging to Ье employed.
Cement works with clinker outputs of between 1000 and 6000t/day need а raw
material input of 2000 to 12000 t/day (assuming clinker production оп 330 days
and quarrying operations оп 260-280days рег уеаг), about 50-90% of this
quantity being limestone and 10- 50% clay mineral material.
2 Exploration
2.1 Exploration procedure
The exploration procedure will always have to Ье suited to the particular
conditions of the deposit under investigation, so that it is here not possibIe to give
more than а general outline description.
Generally speaking, the exploration of cement-grade deposits will comprise three
stages:
Stage 1: Field inspection of а number of deposits, surface tests, а limited number of
exploratory borings (including core borings, if necessary), simple hydrological and
tectonic investigations, large-area mapping.
The object of this first stage of ап exploration, which сап Ье referred to as
reconnaissance prospecting, is to select опе or more deposits for further detailed
prospecting. In this connection the quality of the deposit is especially important,
while probIems of mining or quarrying are given comparatively little attention at
this stage.
Stage2: Оп completion of the first stage, опе or more deposits are selected for
detailed investigation. ОП the basis of а comprehensive drilling program the
6 7
Exploration procedure: Trial pits and surface samples
deposits аге broadly studied with а view to ascertaining their chemical characteris-
tics over extensive areas. In conjunction with the borings, further investigations are
carried out for determining the bedding conditions, ground water and possibilities
of working the deposit, the object being to assess the suitability of а site for
quarrying or open-cast working. More particularly, the second stage aims to find
the most suitabIe area for siting the quarry or to select the most favourabIe of two or
more deposits potentially availabIe for supplying the raw materials.
Stage 3: This is the stage of detailed exploration, using а grid of closely spaced
boreholes for the purpose of determining chemical properties of the raw material
components and their variations over short distances, in order to gear the process
engineering design of the cement works to these conditions.
Furthermore, special investigations for planning the quarrying operations аге
carried out. The structure of the deposit is studied in detail. In addition, the
possibility of working the material Ьу ripping may, for example, Ье examined. While
these exploratory operations аге in progress, assessment of the results already
availabIe is undertaken, so that апу probIems emerging therefrom сап Ье fed back
to the exploration work and duly taken into consideration. Оп completion of the
third stage of exploration, the deposits are fully known as regards their qualitative,
quantitative and mining or quarrying engineering features and сап Ье got ready for
opening-up.
2.1.1 Trial pits and surface samples
Taking samples from а trial pit is usually а form of surface testing, because it is not
possibIe economically to dig shafts of апу great depth into limestone rock.
Оп the other hand, with clay soils it is possibIe to base the exploration оп а
comprehensive grid of test shafts. However, if the clay deposit is of substantial
thickness, it is better to use drilling techniques, as the digging of deep shafts is very
expensive.
Mostly а combination of the two methods is adopted.
With limestone, pits аге dug in places where the solid rock is covered Ьу other
material which has to Ье removed in order to expose the limestone for testing. Such
exploration also affords ап opportunity of testing the overlying material and
assessing its possibIe usefulness.
When the surface of the rock has Ьееп exposed Ьу excavation, or if it occurs as ап
outcrop, material for examination сап Ье sampled in two ways: either as spot
samples from а locally limited агеа of exploration or as continuous samples taken
along а line (or а long exploration trench) extending at right angles to the strike.
With continuous sampling it is important that the samples should Ье properly
representative of the rock strata under investigation. This сап most simply Ье
achieved Ьу excavating а cut from which, for approximately unvarying cross-
section, а constant quantity of sample material per unit length is obtained.
If а cut is too expensive or indeed impracticabIe, it will alternatively Ье necessary to
take from the strata in question а sample quantity which bears ап appropriate
relation to their depth and extent.
 В. Raw materials 1. Geology, deposits
When а trial excavation is made, sampling and testing should, as far as possibIe,
not Ье confined just to the surface of the limestone, but should extend down to at
least below the top weathered layer of rock. 'П most cases this will require the aid of
а heavy excavator ог rock breaking hammers and а compressor. 'П young chalk
limestones ог corallimestones а ripper ог even lighter equipment тау suffice for
the purpose.
'П апу case it must Ье investigated whether the limestone is liabIe to undergo
changes in its chemical character as а result of atmospheric influences, weathering,
circulating underground water, ог ground water occurring close to the surface. In
the last-mentioned case the chemical properties of the ground water аге also of
considerabIe importance.
If clay occurs in the form of а loose-textured soil-type deposit, exploratory
excavations (trial pits, etc.) сап Ье made with simple means. The stability of the
walls of such excavations should Ье given due attention in view of the danger to
теп working in the excavation, ог to machines stand ing at the edge thereof, arising
from а sudden collapse of а wall. If necessary, timbering will have to Ье installed.
The arrangement of trial pits and trenches in clay is similar in principle to that in
limestone. The same is true of the sampling procedures.
It is advantageous to have hermetically closabIe jars ог canisters availabIe for
storage of the rock ог soil samples with their in situ moisture content
because тоге particularly with clays the moisture conditions аге important i~
deciding what type of preparatory processing machines will have to Ье used.
Where excavating machinery is used for digging the trial pits, the experience thus
gained сап provide useful indications with regard to the p/anning of the future
quarrying operations (Iumpiness, stickness, distintegration, suitability for ехса­
vation Ьу means of power shovels, wheel loaders, etc.).
2.1.2 Drilling
The selection of the most suitabIe drilling ог boring method in terms of technical
suitability and also of есопоту is the fundamental condition for successful
exploration. 'П the main, there аге three drilling techniques to choose from:
soli~-bit drilling ~i.th re~oval of ~he cuttings Ьу circulating water ог other flushing
m~dlum; соге dГIIIIП~ wlth contlnuous соге extraction; percussive rotary drilling
wlth removal of cuttlngs Ьу means of compressed air.
?oli~-bit drilling with rotary bits and removal of cuttings with the flushing medium
IS sUltabIe only in exceptional cases for exploratory drilling in solid rock deposits. If
this method is used, it should Ье known in advance whether it will not cause
changes in the chemical character of the samples, е. g., Ьу the dissolving of solubIe
compounds (alkali chlorides, for example) ог Ьу failing to reveal the presence of
marl strata ог clay enclosed within the rock under investigation.
Similar considerations аге applicabIe to percussive rotary drilling with crawler-
mounted machines of the type used for the drilling of bIastholes. This method is
unsuitabIe for deposits consisting of loose-textured ог soil-type deposits.
Соге drilling is the most reliabIe method of obtaining samples for assessment. 'П
this technique а continuous соге is extracted over the full depth of the hole, so that,
8 9
Exploration procedure: Drilling
if the drilling operations аге carried out Ьу suitabIy experienced personnel, the
geologist сап obtain full information of all details of the limestone deposit at all
levels below the surface.
2.1.2.1 Соге drilling in limestone
For successful exploration with the aid of соге drilling the correct choice of drill
bits, соге barrels and f/ushing media is of major importance.
For соге borings in limestone the diameter should Ье not less than 75 тт. With
smaller соге diameters there is а risk that jammed cores will pulverize thin soft
intermediate strata, that the hole will Ье choked Ьу caving and that material from
some strata тау Ье removed along with the flushing medium.
Ап иррег limit to the соге diameter is imposed Ьу considerations of есопоту.
Diameters of 120 тт and upwards аге seldom used, except under critical
conditions where drilling has to Ье done with water flush in porous rock and, Ьу
employing а large diameter, washing-out of solubIe compounds сап Ье prevented
at least in the interior ofthe соге. ОП the other hand, cores which аге too small will
make the evaluating geologist's task тоге awkward, while the halves into which
the соге specimens аге split for the purpose of possibIe supplementary ог follow-
ир tests аге then rather unsuitabIe for the purpose.
The choice of а suitabIe drill bit will depend оп the rock itself: the bedding,
fissuring and tectonic characteristics of the deposit, and the abrasiveness of the
rock. Carbide-tipped as well as diamond drill bits аге used. With large diameters
and heavily fissured rock the risk that parts of the соге will tilt and jam in the соге
barrel is greaterwith carbide bits; besides, the соге is тоге exposed to the action of
the flushing medium than with diamond bits. 'П such cases the choice of the most
suitabIe bit will depend оп the foreman-driller's experience.
2.1.2.2 Со ге barrels
Three types of соге barrel аге availabIe from which to make а choice:
the single tube, the doubIe tube and the wire line type. 'П addition, there аге special
types of barrel, which тау have to Ье used under exceptionally difficult
conditions.
The three types аге illustrated schematically in Fig. 1. The single tube Ьаггеl is
provided, пеаг its bottom end just above the bit, with а соге catcher ring which
grips the drilled соге during extraction of the drill rod and thus prevents it from
dropping down the hole. The basic condition for successfully using the single tube
Ьаггеl is that the rock is of such а kind (massive and uniformly strong) that а соге
сап indeed Ье drilled from it. If the limestone is composed ofthin plate-like strata ог
if it easily disintegrates during drilling, there will Ье а risk that part of the со ге will
fall back into the hole оп extraction. Furthermore, in such cases the geological and
geochemical assessment and analysis of the sample is rather difficult, since the
sample consists merely of fragments which make it impossibIe to саггу out all the
necessary obseгvations in detail. Another and very serious drawback of the single
tube is that the соге is enveloped in а flow of flushing medium along its entire
 В. Raw materials 1. Geology, deposits
Exploration procedure: Drilling

length, so that, especially if water flush is employed, fine stone chippings and апу
sandy, silty ог clayey inclusions аге likely to Ье washed out.
With the doubIe tube type of соге barrel the inner tube is connected through ball
bearings to the outer tube and therefore does not revolve with the latter (which
carries the drill bit). In this way the соге remains at rest and thus substantially
undistuгbed. The most important advantage of the doubIe tube, however, is that
the соге is not enveloped in the flushing medium, which is, instead, forced through
the annular space between the inner and the outer tube. The соге comes into
contact with the flushing medium only at the lower end of the barrel, where the
inner tube terminates and а gap for the passage of the medium exists between the
two tubes. Because of this limited агеа of contact, very little of the соге is washed
out, though of course some dissolving of solubIe constituents in this агеа cannot
Ье avoided.
2 з
SрШflUssigkеi I
flushing medium (fluid)
Special doubIe tube соге barrels аге equipped with bits which аге so designed that
the flushing medium does not emerge from the gap between the inner and the
outer tube, but is discharged to the outside before ог within the cutting edge of the
bit. Inside the bit (Fig. 1) the inner tube is in such close contact with it, that
practically по water сап get to the со ге sample.
If borings аге carried out in very soft and shattered material (though firm enough to
епаЫе а stabIe hole to Ье drilled), it is possibIe to use а special doubIe tube соге
barrel in which а third tube, made of plastic, сап Ье inserted into the inner tube. The
соге is then removed together with the plastic tube from the barrel, so that а
substantia/ly undisturbed sample for assessment is obtained.
If the deposit consists of material in which it is not possibIe drill а stabIe hole even
with mud flush, а wire line barrel сап Ье used.
With thewire line barrel thewhole drill rod isofthe same diameter as the соге barrel
itself. The inner tube, however, is not permanently connected to the outer tube Ьу
ball bearings, but is gripped in it Ьу means of а catch mecha~ism. Wh~n t.he /e~gth
of соге corresponding to the length of the barrel has Ьееп drllled, а wlre /lПе wlth а
kind of grapple is lowered into the hole and releases the catch, enabIing the tube
containing the соге sample to Ье drawn up. This procedure offers the advantage
that the drill rod need not Ье extracted in order to extract the sample from the hole,
so that the risk of caving and bIockage of the hole is obviated. Besides, the
operation of extracting the соге tube takes less time than it does with the other
systems. There аге also special wire line соге barrels in which the flushing medium
emerges before the cutting edge of the bit, so that there is hardly апу contact
between the соге and the medium.

i 2.1.2.3 Flushing media

f Kernrohr
AuBenrohr
ouler lube
The choice of the flushing medium for borings in limestone is of major importance
in connection with the subsequent geochemical investigation of the samples.
It has already Ьееп noted that with а fluid medium for flushing the borehole there is
а risk that clay and marl strata, as well as sand and silt inclusions, will Ье washed

~
I соге Ьаггеl
out and that solubIe constituents of the limestone willlikewise Ье lost. 'П principle,
а distinction is to Ье drawn between air and liquid flushing media. 'П all cases air
I flush is preferabIe, because it ensures that по constituents will Ье removed Ьу
washing ог dissolving action. With air flush it is often unnecessary to use а doubIe

U
tube соге barrel, for in the single tube the samle is enveloped only in а stream of air,
though admittedly the rate of drill bit wear is then higher.
With water flush the pressure of the water should Ье kept as low as possibIe. The
higher the pressure, the greater is the risk of disturbing the sample Ьу washing out
~~~~C:;~~~J SpUlflUssigkeit some of the material. For the purpose under consideration water is the only suitabIe
flushing medium (f(uid) liquid flushing medium ог otherwise only such media whose constituents сап
afterwards, in the chemical analysis of the rock samples, unambiguously Ье
Fig.1 : Types ofcore Ьапеl: single tube barrel (1), doubIetube barrel (2),
identified as having originated from the flushing medium.
grapple device (3) with wire line barrel (4) (based оп information from
Atlas Сорсо) In connection with water flush, the porosity of the limestone is of major
importance. In апу case the water used for the purpose should Ье analysed to make
10
11
 В. Raw materials 1. Geology, deposits
it possibIe subsequently to draw conclusions as to апу effect that it may have had
оп the samples. For example, if salt water is employed, it will in апу case Ье difficult
to distinguish between the alkali content of the limestone and the alkali introduced
with the flushing water.
In highly porous limestone which сап Ье suspected of having а high content of
alkali, chlorine and sulphate the соге drilling technique with air flush is the only
possibllity of obtaining suitabIe samples for geochemical investigation.
2.1.2.4 Соге drilling in clay
Ifthe clay mineral componentfor cement manufacture occurs in the form of а solid
rock (shale, slate, etc.), the same drilling techniques as for limestone сап Ье
applied. However, if it occurs as non-cohesive soil, other methods will have to Ье
chosen. 'П such cases, as а rule, percussive drilling will Ье used and the hole will Ье
cased as drilling proceeds, so as to prevent caving оп extraction of the rod. The
sar:npling device used in borings of this type is usually а spoon sampler which, оп
ЬеlПg extracted, closes its lower end and thus prevents the soil sample from falling
out. The sample obtained in this way is distuгbed, however, so that the information
it gives оп bedding conditions, fissuгing, etc. may Ье questionabIe.
This technique сап also Ье applied to cohesive soils, but in such soils it is
alternatively possibIe to use а rotary drill, equipped with а carblde-tipped blt. If
undistuгbed samples аге required, а соге barrel of the doubIe tube type сап Ье
used. 'п many instances, however, а single tube соге barrel will adequately serve
the puгpose if water flush сап Ье dispensed with. Drilling operations аге liabIe to Ье
particularly difficult, even if little water is used, in clays containing minerals whict1
swell and thus cause а narrowing of the hole. Under such conditions it is certainly
necessary to case the hole directly above the drill blt.
Drilling in loose-textuгed ог friabIe material should, if at all possibIe, Ье performed
without а flushing medium.
'П especially difficult cases the drilling operations may Ье carried out with doubIe
tube соге barrels ог wire line barrels equipped with а plastic inner tube for
enclosing the sample. The plastic tube is withdrawn along with the sampled
material and serves also as its container for despatch to the laboratory.
2.1.2.5 Treatment of the cores
The cores extracted from the boreholes аге stored in boxes. If they аге to Ье
transported ~s freight over long distances, the boxes should Ье made of suitabIy
strong materlal and strengthened with metal. Cores obtained from loose-textured
deposits should additionally Ье protected in plastic bags.
1n the field, the cores should Ье recorded Ьу the geologist directly апег their
removal from the соге barrel. Such records сап most suitabIy Ье supplemented Ьу
colouг photographs of each соге. Fields records should Ье as comprehensive as
pos.sibIe so as to епаЫе the samples also to Ье correlated with апу supplementary
borlngs that may Ье made later ог with the actual conditions encountered оп
12
Exploration procedure: Drilling
opening-up the quarry. The drilling report should contain technical data relating to
the drilling operations and also geological data, so that, when the geochemical
tests results become availabIe, а complete diagram for each borehole is obtained.
Each report should contain information оп the location, altitude of the starting
point and designation of the borehole. For each drilling depth, the diameter of the
hole, the type of соге barrel, the type of blt and change of blt, amount of соге ге­
covered, flushing losses and rate of drilling progress should Ье noted. With the aid
of this information it will, in the event of subsequent additional investigations, Ье
possibIe to discuss whether drilling сап Ье done more easily and cheaply with
different equipment. Fuгthermore, the foreman-driller should keep а record of the
ease ог difficulty with which the rock сап Ье drilled. Although this is а matter of
subjective judgment, it сап facilitate the work of correlating the profiles in rock of а
macroscopically very uniform character.
The correct geological description of the samples comprises the designation of the
type of rock penetrated, the colouг of the rock, its granularity, information оп
inclusions of foreign rock ог mineral inclusions, porosity and hardness, bedding,
fissuгing, and information оп апу faults encountered.
Fuгthermore, each drilling report should record the samples taken from the соге
drilling run, unless the соге is divided and опе half is retained for possibIe futuгe
reference. If information оп approximate stratigraphic classification is availabIe,
this too should Ье included in the report. Under certain circumstances, field tests
may Ье performed оп the cores in order to check the СаСО з content ог the
suspected presence of MgO. The results of these tests аге likewise to Ье added to
the report. А graphic representation of the conditions encountered is in апу case
necessary.
2.1.2.6 Testing of drilled cores
For the puгpose of testing, the cores аге divided into sections оп the basis of
macroscopic criteria. Each section is then subdivided into portions for analysis,
with due regard to the method of quarrying to Ье employed. In the case of а
relatively thin deposit, i.e., of limited depth, which will have to Ье worked Ьу
ripping (ог if ripping has to Ье applied for other reasons), the length of the analysis
portions should not exceed twice the ripping depth.
Оп the other hand, if benching is to Ье employed, the portions for complete
analysis should not Ье more than 5 m long.
If at а" possibIe, the соге should Ье divided in halves, опе half being retained for
futuгe reference, while the other is sent to the laboratory. Cores of very large
diameter may also Ье quartered.
If such division of the соге is not possibIe, the whole соге must Ье despatched to
the laboratory, where it may have to Ье comminuted Ьу crushing. 'П such cases the
соге portions should not exceed 1 m in length, in order to keep down the cost of
analysis (see below).
13
 В. Raw materials /. Geology, deposits
2.1.2.7 Rotary percussive drilling with crawler-mounted machines
То supplement the соге borings and to fill in the network of boreholes in solid rock
deposits, additional drilling сап Ье carried out inexpensively with the aid of а
c~awler-mounted drilling machine, of the type used also for the drilling of large-
dlameter holes for bIasting.
The. drill bit, operating Ьу rotary percussive action, shatters the rock, and the
cuttlngs аге removed from the hole Ьу air issuing from the bit.
The dust carried out of the hole with this flushing air сап Ье trapped in а dust
coll.ector, which is mounted оп the drilling machine. It comprises а cyclone in
whJch the coarser particles аге precipitated, while the finer ones аге retained
in special filters. The suction extractor is connected to а flexibIe tube which
terminates in а plastic sleeve forming ап airtight closure over the mouth of the
?orehole, so that all the dust сап Ье collected. For testing the samples it is
~mportant not only to analyse the dust precipitated in the cyclone, but also to
Include the fine particles trapped in the filter equipment.
With borings of this type it often occurs that the dust is collected without the aid of
а suction extractor, merely Ьу p/acing а sheet of plastic around the top of the hole
and collecting the dust, discharged from the hole, оп this sheet. This method is to
Ье .c~ndemned,.u.nl.ess the object of such borings is merely to obtain approximate
gUldlng dat~ ог If It IS desired, quickly to obtain details of the chemical composition
at опе partlcular point in а deposit оп which reliabIe information is already
availabIe.
Clay intercalations, sand inclusions ог soft moist limestone strata аге forced aside
Ьу the rotary percussive drill bit and remain sticking to the wall of the borehole, so
~hat а p~opeг sample of such material is not obtained. Nor is it possibIe to get
Iпfогmаtюп оп the presence of апу cavities in the rock. The most serious drawback
of rotary percussive dri/ling, however, is that it offers по possibility of sampling the
rock as such and thus forming а reliabIe picture of the occurrence of limestone in
the deposit under investigation.
2.1.3 Stratigraphic investigations
~п prospecting for raw materials for the manufacture of cement only secondary
Importanc~ attaches to stratigraphic investigations, because the suitability of the
raw materlals depends mainly оп chemical features and is not confined to апу
particular geological age.
Acco.r~in~ly, stratigraphic investigations аге usually limited to macroscopic
сlаSSlflсаtюп of the drilled cores and to assigning characteristic datum horizons for
correlating the individual соге borings.
Моге important, оп the other hand, is the chemostratigraphic examination of the
borehole profiles, especially if the deposit appears to Ье of а very unvarying
character оп the evidence of field observations and of the cores.
Quite often it is only in this way that differences in facies аге ascertainabIe which
would otherwise remain undetected. Such differences тау nevertheless Ье of
considerabIe importance in connection with the subsequent planning of the
14
Exploration procedure: Tectonics
quarrying operations, e.g., if the average СаО content of the limestone is only
about 46% and there is а marked shift to lime marl facies.
2.1.4 Tectonics
Of greater importance than stratigraphic investigations in the present context аге
investigations оп the bedding conditions and structure of the deposit. The precise
interpretation of these factors constitutes the basis for the reliabIe geochemical
evaluation of the results of the borings and for planning the quarrying
procedure.
2.1 .4.1 Limestone deposits
The investigation begins with surveying the availabIe exploration points relating to
the deposit. The bedding features and апу faults affecting them сап Ье observed
and measured there. Particular attention should Ье paid to "micro-tectonics", i.e.,
the structural characteristics and their variations within distances of the order of а
few metres ог indeed of decimetres, since such characteristics сап Ье of major
importance in determining the alignment of the quarry face. Furthermore, the
exploration points provide information оп the presence of апу strain zones which
manifest themselves in variations in bed depth ог which have caused foliation of
the limestone.
Fracturing and faults which extend as тоге ог less straight planes through the
limestone аге important in connection with further planning. Young limestone
deposits, in particular, аге often penetrated Ьу such fractures whose faces аге often
crusted with calcite and coated with а thin 'ауег of clay. Such planes should receive
particular attention in quarry p/anning, because ground vibrations due to bIasting
аге liabIe to cause subsequent rock slips along these p/anes, resulting in sudden
collapse of large portions of the quarry face.
If the exploration points availabIe for the deposit аге not sufficient to permit
complete mapping of its structural features, photogeological mapping тау Ье
helpful, provided that aerial photographs in the scale range from 1: 5000 to
1 : 15 000 аге obtainabIe and the vegetation оп the terrain does indeed allow
photogeological interpretation.
Another valuabIe aid in assessing the structural conditions of the deposit is
provided Ьу the results of borings. For these, correlation сап Ье based primarily оп
the stratigraphic description of the individual borings. Such correlation must not
wait till the drilling operations have Ьееп completed, but should proceed at the
same time as those operations, in order to monitor and, if necessary, correct the
locations chosen for the further exploratory boreholes in the light of the structural
assessments.
Interpretation of the macroscopic stratigraphic соге drilling records is linked to
рюfilе sections along the network of boreholes and to maps indicating the depths
at which particular stratigraphic horizons occur. 'П this way а good idea of the
structure of а deposit сап Ье obtained, which сап Ье supplemented with the results
of geochemica/ investigations.
15
В. Raw materials 1. Geology, deposits Exploration procedure: Geophysical investigations

The chemical data of each borehole, like the stratigraphic details, are recorded in For interpreting and evaluating the overburden investigations it is most suitabIe to
profiles and sub-surface contour maps, so that then, Ьу combination of the two use а тар оп which lines of equal overburden depth have Ьееп drawn, unless the
sets of evaluated data, the tectonic and the geochemical structure of the deposit is depth is uniform and very small.
clearly apparent.
The tectonic data are especially important in а case where, as а result of secondary
2.1.5 Geophysical investigations
actions, changes in the chemical properties of the limestone have occurred оп
either side of а fault. Although such variations are of а locally limited character, they Hammer bIow and geo-electric methods represent two simple geophysical
are liabIe to cause entirely different raw meal conditions for а time during quarry techniques which сап Ье used with relatively little effort and expense for
operation and material processing. determining the depth of overburden, the thickness of consolidated and uncon-
solidated strata, the detection of waterbearing strata, and ascertaining the ground
2.1.4.2 Clay component water tabIe. 'П addition, determination of the velocity of sound transmission in the
ground provides indications as to whether the material сап Ье broken out Ьу
If the clay component occurs as а solid rock-type material, the requirements
ripping.
applicabIe to the tectonic investigations are the same as those for limestone.
The hammer bIow method is especially suitabIe in cases where the depth of
'П deposits consisting of softer material а thorough tectonic investigation is more
exploration is limited to 10-15 т. The seismic shock (setting up а vibration in the
particularly necessary if adjacent or underlying strata show а distinct deviation
ground) is produced with а heavy hammer which automatically switches оп the
from the chemical character of the clay mineral component. Furthermore, water-
electronic measuring equipment. А seismic detector (geophone) responds to the
bearing horizons affected Ьу faults тау Ье encountered during excavation. Also,
ground movements and displays them оп ап oscillograph. The time it takes for the
the stability of slopes is often affected Ьу tectonic conditions, which тау give rise
first shock wave to travel from the hammer to the detector is measured (Fig. 2). If
to difficulties in excavating the material, especially in countries with heavy
the distance from the hammer to the detector is large enough, the wave produced
rainfall.
Ьу the hammer will Ье refracted at the stratum boundary оп penetrating into the
underlying material, more particularly the bedrock. The distance between the
2.1.4.3 Overburden investigations
hammer and the detector is progressively increased, and in each position the wave
The layer of material which overlies the deposit should Ье included in the propagation time is measured.
investigation, in order to decide whether such material is to Ье discarded as useless
overburden or сап Ье utilized in the production process, e.g., as part of the clay

'L::==_..
mineral component or as а sand admixture.
The overburden сап Ье investigated with shallow borings, soundings (penetration
testing) or trial trenches.
Sampling is done Ьу the same methods as those for loose rock or soil.
If the overburden is solid rock or similar consolidated material, it is especially
important to assess its potential usefulness, for otherwise its removal as mere waste
is bound to Ье а cost-intensive operation (e.g., Ьу bIasting). 5
If the object is only to investigate the depth of overburden, geophysical methods
сап advantageously Ье applied. 'П а case where the overburden is of а loose or
fairly soft character, seismic measurements, more particularly Ьу means of the 578
hammer bIow technique, are very suitabIe, as they сап Ье performed quickly and
inexpensively. However, this technique does require а relatively level surface ofthe У,
limestone. If the surface is very irregular, e.g., as а result of underground water
percolation, this method of investigation cannot Ье used. The application of the
hammer bIow technique in conjunction with penetration tests is especially to Ье
recommended.
With greater overburden thicknesses it is alternatively possibIe to use а geo-electric
method (based оп contrasts in the electrical resistivity of strata), which сап Ье very
effective more particularly when used in combination with the hammer bIow Fig. 2: Propagation and refraction of seismic waves, and time-distance
technique. diagram

16 17
В. Raw materials 1. Geology, deposits Exploration procedure: Geophysical investigations

The results аге, to begin with, represented graphically, the propagation time being ТаЫе З: Seismic velocities
plotted against the hammer-to-detector distance. The points in the graph аге
connected to опе another Ьу straight lines which show changes in slope according residual (weathered) soil 300- 600 m/s
to the number of strata involved. The reciprocals of the slopes of these lines sand, gravel, dry 450- 900m/s
correspond to the wave velocities in the respective strata. The velocities сап most sand, gravel, wet 600-1500 m/s
quickly Ье calculated from the linear regression of the measured values, omitting clay 750-1500 m/s
the values close to the "breaks" (changes in direction) because those values аге shale 1200 - 2000 m/s
unreliabIe оп account of transition effects: limestone 1600-3000 m/s
sandstone 1600-4000 m/s
у = Вх +А where у = time axis (t)
х = distance axis (s)

Another geophysical method, somewhat тоге elaborate as regards its application

and interpretation, is that of geo-electric exploration, which has а substantially
greater range in depth (to about 150-200т). А distinction is drawn between
1 geo-electric mapping, comprising substantial areas of the subsoil, and soundings
v, =в v = velocity in the stratum. which give in-depth information at specific exploration points.
In both cases the so-called four-point arrangement is usually adopted (Fig.3),
comprising ап outer pair of electrodes Е to which а voltage is applied and ап inner
When the lines have Ьееп calculated, their intersections сап Ье determined and the pair of electrodes S (probes) across which the resulting voltage is measured.
distances from these "breaks" оп the graph to the origin (point О) then Ье worked In the sounding technique, the distance between the electrodes is progressively
out. With this distance and the velocities in the two strata it is possibIe to find the increased, so that changes in the electric potential distribution in the ground occur
depth at which the interface ог boundary surface of the strata is located: and аге measured, thus enabIing the apparent resistance to Ье calculated.
The potential distribution in the ground depends substantially оп the thickness of
the strata with equal electrical resistivity.
О,=-
Хк , ~2-V,
--- If strata differing in their resistivity аге present, the pattern of potential distribution
2 V 2 + v, at the surface of the ground is altered. The interpretation of the results of the

where D = depth of interface

Хк = distance from "break" to point О

Vn = velocity in stratum п.

Since this method of seismic exploration operates with only а limited input of
energy for producing the ground vibrations, it сап Ье used only for depths not
exceeding about 10-15 m and comprising not тоге than three strata. For greater
depths it will Ье necessary to use explosive charges for producing the vibrations.
The advantage of the hammer bIow method is that the equipment with the cabIes
and accessories weighs only about 25 kg and that, operated Ьу опе ог two теп, it is
easily possibIe to measure 10-15 profiles а day. Quite often this method сап
suitabIy Ье used for the mapping of sand ог marl horizons ог the ground water tabIe
in clay deposits.
Ап important requirement is that the velocities in the respective strata (ТаЫе 3) аге
sufficiently far apart, i.e., differing in magnitude, to епаЫе them to Ье reliabIy Fig. З: Current paths and potential distribution in geo-electric
distinguished from опе another. measurements (Е = electrodes. S = probes)

18 19
В. Raw materials 1. Geology, deposits
measurements with progressively increasing electrode distances enabIes the
resistivity and thickness of the individual strata to Ье determined.
If geo-electric mapping is required, the electrode spacings аге kept constant and
the whole set-up is moved along to different locations. 'П this way а тар showing
lines of equal resistivity is obtained, e.g., enabIing large sand inclusions, the
surface of а water-bearing stratum ог the undersurface of а raw material deposit to
Ье mapped.
2.1.6 Hydrogeological investigations
For planning the quarrying operations it is necessary to know the ground water
level оп the site to Ье worked. The most convenient method of obtaining this
information is observing the water level in the boreholes. If the water flush
technique is used, it is necessary to wait some time until the water introduced into
the hole during drilling has dispersed. In апу case, the water level observations
should Ье continued over а full уеаг, so as to include seasonal variations.
Hydrogeological observations аге liabIe to Ье particularly elaborate in limestone
deposits with karst characteristics, where а comprehensive network of water level
observation points will Ье needed. If the boreholes fail to provide adequate
information оп ground water level, geo-electric soundings тау Ье employed,
which тау moreover Ье supplemented Ьу geo-electric mapping of the ground
water tabIe.
2.2 Laboratory investigations
2.2.1 Chemical investigations
Besides the borings, the chemical investigations associated with ап exploration
project of the kind described here аге responsibIe for the major part of the expense
involved. This being so, it is desirabIe to use every possibIe means of working
economically Ьу suitabIy classifying the samples.
For the evaluation of ап exploration project for the detection of raw materials for
the cement industry it is, as а rule, necessary to know the content of each of the
following: 5i0 2 ,АI 2 О з , Fе 2 О з , (Тi0 2 ), СаО, MgO, 50 з , К 2 О, Na 20, С' and Р205'
Under certain circumstances it will also Ье necessary to determine the content of
organic matter in the limestone and in the clay mineral component, because it
tends to undergo oxidation in the preheater and thus, Ьу causing reduction of
Fе 2 О з , give rise to incrustations which tend to clog the equipment.
The samples аге divided into sections оп the basis of macroscopic criteria. There is,
however, а risk that variations which тау Ье important in connection with quarry
operations planning remain undetected within апу particular portion for analysis.
For this reason the samples will preferabIy Ье subdivided into portions of 1 m
length for processing into the actual samples for analysis. For each of these 1 m
samples the total carbonate content is first determined, in order thus to obtain
information оп the variations of the most important constituents, namely, СаО and
20
Exploration procedure: Laboratory investigations
MgO in the limestone, 5i0 2, АI 2 О з and Fе 2 О з in the clay mineral component. 'П
testing the limestone the amount of residue insolubIe in НС' shou Id always also Ье
stated, because this residue тау contain minerals which significantly affect the
MgO content.
After the results for the 1 m portions have Ьееп determined, mixtures of the
availabIe samples сап Ье prepared, thus providing composite samples comprising
several metres of borehole depth. Complete analyses аге performed оп these. For
this purpose it тау, to begin with, suffice to perform only а limited number of such
analyses for overall guidance,. If these show the alkali content Ье to Ье
substantially uniform, the alkali analyses тау Ье reduced in number so as to
comprise even larger sample quantities, i.e., representative of material from а
greater length of borehole. In апу case the compounds 5i0 2, АI 2 О з , Fе 2 О з , СаО
and MgO should Ье determined only for sample sections of such size that it is
possibIe to alter the quarry operations planning according to the geochemical
requirements. For example, if а bench height of 15 m is intended, it is, with sections
of 5 т, possibIe to shift the level of а bench upwards ог downwards, in order thus to
keep the quarrying geared to, as far as possibIe, equal geochemical conditions.
Х-гау fluorescence analysis has proved very useful for analysing relatively large
quantities of limestone and clay samples in а short time. The alkali and the sulphate
content will have to Ье checked Ьу wet chemical analysis, however, because the
results of Х-гау fluorescence analysis tend to Ье unreliabIe except when such
analysis is performed Ьу very experienced personnel. Wet analysis will in апу case
Ье needed for determining the chloride content.
2.2.2 Mineralogical and petrographic investigations
2.2.2.1 Limestone
Iп connection with the exploration of limestone for cement manufacture,
mineralogical and petrographic investigations have а less important part to play
than chemical investigations.
Quite often the limestone occurs in а natural mixture with clay, and in such cases
the designation тау Ье based оп the chemical analysis, using the nomenclature
given Ьу KLihl (1958) (cf. Vol.ll, Chapter 2 of his book "Zement-Chemie").
М ineralogical investigations аге of interest if the aim is to separate the raw material
into lime-rich and clay-mineral-rich components respectively (е. g., for the
manufacture of white cement clinker, involving the removal of the constituents
containing Fе 2 О з ).
5uch investigations assume greater importance in dealing with siliceous lime-
stones. For such materials it is necessary to ascertain the distribution of the quartz
in the limestone matrix. The type of intergrowth and the grain size of the
constituents сап Ье determined in thin sections under the microscope.
The residue insolubIe in НС' should also Ье examined. This сап most simply Ье
done Ьу dissolving away the calcareous matter with monochloro acetic acid ог
formic acid, followed Ьу Х-гау examination of the residual material.
Furthermore, the distribution of dolomite сап Ье investigated Ьу means of staining
21
В. Raw materials 1. Geoiogy, deposits Exploration procedure: Evalutions of the results of the investigations

methods applied to thin sections. However, for practical purposes of assessing ~aw 2.3.1 Geochemical evaluation with quarrying operations planning
material deposits it is usually simpler to obtain this information Ьу chemlcal
The first step, in conjunction with planning the quarrying operations, consists in
analysis. . determining the average chemical composition. Then follows the calculation of the
In addition, mineralogical information сап Ье very useful in predicting the severlty
raw mix composition. With the results of this calculation the proportion of
of wear that will occur in the crushing and grinding machinery.
limestone from the first quarry bIock required in the mix сап Ье determined. Опсе
\п тапу cases the quickest way to obtain adequate information оп the miner~logi­
this value has Ьееп determined, the precise working life of the bIock сап Ье
cal composition is Ьу Х-гау examination of the fine structure of the materlal.
calculated.
It is possibIe that the composition of the materials, other than limestone, added to
2.2.2.2 Clay component the mix will undergo some change during this period of time, so that а shift in the
mix proportions will occur. This must of course Ье taken into account, so that
Mineralogical and petrographic investigations оп the clay m.ineral co~pone~t ~гe
during the excavation of the first bIock it тау well Ье that variations in the daily
of interest both in the choice of preparatory processing machlnery and In obtalnlng
quantities of limestone produced will Ье necessary.
information оп the burning behaviour of the material in the kiln.
Similar considerations apply to variations in the composition of the limestone itself.
In both cases the mineralogical form ofthe silica, determined Ьу chemical analysis,
If, for example, а very marly limestone is encountered in а fault zone, it will have to
plays а significant part. Large amounts of free quartz will cause heavy mechanical
Ье ascertained how much higher-grade limestone from another part of the quarry
wear Ьу abrasive action and will, in contrast with the clay minerals, Ьесоте
will have to Ье added in order to obtain the required raw mix composition. It тау
reactive only at high temperatures.
indeed occur that, as а result of such changes in the chemical characteristics of the
Swelling clays аге liabIe to cause troubIe in storage and in extraction from storage
limestone, the addition of clay to the raw mix сап Ье entirely dispensed with for
containers ог stockpiles.
fairly long intervals. In that case there must of course Ье sufficient plant availabIe
Information оп the mineralogical mode of occurrence of alkalies, sulphates and
for producing, handling and preparing the extra limestone required. This extra
chlorides сап provide clues to possibIe circulations involving these substances
demand for limestone will reduce the working life of the quarry in comparison with
in the cement plant. the initial estimate.
These investigations сап most simply Ье carried out Ьу Х-гау methods.
If, in such cases, operations planning is based оп average values over long periods,
Alternatively, differential thermal analysis has proved very suitabIe for the
it тау occur that the quarry machinery capacity originally provided will turn out to
purpose.
Ье inadequate for daily output requirements in course of time. Under such
circumstances а crusher, for example, сап compensate for this shortfall in capacity
2.2.3 Physical investigations only Ьу working longer hours each day.
Such calculations show furthermore that а cement plant which is operated with
The physical investigations to which the raw materials аге subjected usually
only two raw material components in the first few years of its working life тау, as а
comprise only the determination of the natural moisture content of the fresh rock
result of changes in the average composition of the limestone as quarrying
and the maximum water absorption.
proceeds further into the deposit, require additional corrective components after
Grindability and weartests аге performed in connection w!th the ch~ice and design
several years. Alternatively, special arrangements тау Ьесоте necessary such as,
of the crushing, grinding and other preparatory ргосеSSlПg mасhlПегу.
for example, the installation of а bypass system to соре with increasing contents of
In some cases it is also necessary to determine the particle size distribution of clay
chloride and alkali.
ог sand.
Also, оп the basis of such ап evaluation of the geological investigations, it is
possibIe to direct the quarrying operations in such а way that certain masses of rock
2.3 Evaluation of the results of the investigations in which some of the constituents exceed the permissibIe limits сап nevertheless
Ье usefully quarried and processed. For example, Ьу varying the floor level of а
The availabIe results of the investigations should Ье so processed that all variations
bench ог Ьу working ап intermediate bench it тау Ье possibIe so to control the
in chemical characteristics, workabIe quantities, materials mixture, and type of
operations that the limiting concentration is never exceeded.
machinery to Ье used in quarrying the deposit сап Ье ascertained from the
interpretation and evaluation of the data that emerge. .
It is of major importance that the analyses should yield average values for materlal 2.3.2 Calculation and classification of reserves
quantities corresponding to between опе and five years' production. Larger The information concerning reserves which is contained in the final report of ап
quantities тау falsify the overall picture, so that useless parts of the deposits тау exploration for raw materials intended for cement manufacture should always
wrongly Ье rated as useful. relate to workabIe (recoverabIe) reserves.

22 23
В. Raw materials 1. Geology, deposits
Material excavated for the construction of haulage roads, turning areas, access
ramps and safety zones, where по production of rock for processing сап Ье done,
should Ье deducted. Also, some allowance for waste or loss in quarrying should Ье
made.
The total reserve quantity and the working life thereof is obtained simply Ьу adding
up the quantities in the respective bIocks and the estimated lives of these bIocks.
Such а calculation should comprise the proved reserves.
The classification procedure for the pit and quarry industry is generally similar to
that recommended for ores Ьу the Gesellschaft Deutscher Metallhutten- und
Bergleute (Association of German Metallurgical and Mining Engineers, 1981).
"Proved reserves" (category А) comprise reserves which have Ьееп the subject of
detailed exploration and have Ьееп fully investigated with regard to chemical
features and their range of variation, bedding, tectonics, preparatory processing,
hydrogeological conditions and the legal aspects associated with quarrying the
materials concerned. Category В relates to "probabIe reserves", i. е., the zones
which lie adjacent to а deposit containing category А reserves and which have
already Ьееп explored Ьу borings to such ап extent that inferences as to chemical
features, bedding conditions and structure, hydrogeological conditions and
preparatory processing сап Ье drawn from the experience gained in investigating
the category А reserves.
These last-mentioned reserves should Ье ascertained as the result ofthe third stage
of ап exploration project in connection with which the reserves assignabIe to
category В are also estimated.
"Indicated reserves" (category С 1) аге determinabIe at the end of the second
stage of ап exploration project for cement raw materials. These have Ьееп
investigated оп the basis of а network 01 widely spaced Ьогеtюlеs; the types of
rock and their chemical characteristics аге substantially known, as аге also the
structure and bedding conditions in broad outline.
Final'y, the "inferred reserves" (category С 2) are those which аге tentatively
determined as the result of the first exploration stage, in which the deposit has Ьееп
prospected Ьу means of а fimited number of individually located boreholes, so that
the chemical characteristics and structure of the deposit аге known in ап
approximate and general way.
2.4 Organizing ап exploration project
The various activities involved in prospecting for raw materials for the manufacture
of cement, as described above, comprise тоге than just the work of the geologist ог
geological institution. 'П order to tackle the task successfully, it is necessary to
employ the services of а team of experts from the very outset. It is especially
important that this team should include а mining engineer and а process engineer
familiar with the cement industry, for only in this way will it Ье possibIe to Ье sure of
avoiding serious mistakes which might otherwise Ье committed already in the
planning stage of the exploration project. Моге particularly, the participation of the
process engineer is of major importance in order to ensure that the geochemical
investigations аге properly geared to the cement industry's needs.
24
Using а computer in ап exploration project
2.5 Using а computer in ап exploration project
The evaluation of the geochemical data obtained from the exploration сап Ье
substantially speeded up Ьу means of а suitabIe computation system.
The chemical analyses of the drilled cores сап Ье stored section Ьу section, with
associated data relating to the co-ordinates of the borehole, the depth and the
thickness of the deposit. Ву making use of appropriate programs it is moreover
possibIe to store the results obtained from inclined boreholes and from trial pits
and, with due regard to the dip of the strata, to obtain а strata-related ге­
presentation of the geochemical conditions.
Since the benches in the quarry аге usually horizontal, the computer сап, via the
standard deviation, determine coefficients of variation and limiting concentrations
for selected areas of the deposit. From this information the bench height and bench
sections сап then in turn Ье obtained.
This data collection сап Ье regularly updated and supplemented with further
analyses during the subsequent actual quarrying operations, so that pred ictions of
the chemical composition of the material encountered in the individual stages of
quarrying сап reliabIy Ье made.
It is also possibIe to let the computer produce maps indicating lines of equal
chemical concentration, which provide information for determining the direction
of quarrying.
Calculations of reserves, evaluations of geophysical investigations and analyses of
the bedding conditions сап then Ье carried out.
References
1. Bender, F. (Н rsg.) : Angewandte Geowissenschaften. - Stuttgart: Enke- Verlag
1981.
2. Cembureau (Hrsg.): Cement Standards of the world (portland cement and its
derivatives). - Paris 1968.
3. D1N 18123 Baugrund: Untersuchung von Bodenproben,
КогпgгБВепvегtеiluпg. - Berlin und Кбlп: Beuth-Verlag 1971.
4. Duda, W. Н.: Cement Data Book. Internationale Verfahrenstechniken der
Zementindustrie, 2. Auflage. - Wiesbaden und Berlin: Bauverlag GmbH
1978.
5. Engelhardt, W. v. / Fuchtbauer, Н. / Muller, G.: Sediment-Petrologie, TI.II:
Fuchtbauer / М uller: Sedimente und Sedimentgesteine. Stuttgart:
Schweizerbart'sche Verlagsbuchhandlung 1970.
6. Flathe, Н. / Homilius, J.: Geoelektrik. In: Schneider, Н. (Hrsg.): Die
WassererschlieBung, 2. Auflage. - Essen: Vulkan-Verlag 1973.
7. GDMB Gesellschaft Deutscher Metallhutten- und Bergleute (Erzmetall)
(Hrsg.): Lagerstatten der Steine, Erden und Industrieminerale 1981. - GDMB,
Paul-Егпst-StгаВе 1О, 3392 Clausthal-Zellerfeld.
25
В. Raw materials 1. Geology, deposits В. Raw materials 11. Quапуiпg

8. Kuhl, Н.: Zementchemie. - Berlin: Verlag fur Bauwesen 1958. 11. Quarrying the raw materials
9. Schater, Н. - U.: Prospektion auf Kalksteinlagersti:itten gezeigt ат Beispiel zur
Erkundung von Rohstoffen zur Herstellung von Zementklinker. - In:
Ву Н. Schuberth
Aufbereitungs-Technik 2. u. 3/1979.
10. Schi:ifer, H.-U.: Prospecting Methods in Ceramic Raw Material Exploration. -
'п: Interceram. Vol. 28, No. 4/1979. 1 Guidelines for quапуiпg 28
1.1 Layout of open-cast operations . 28
1.2 Quапу equipment 29

2 Overburden . 30
2.1 Overburden removal 30
2.2 Storage of overburden material 31

3 Breaking out the rock 32

3.1 Drilling and bIasting . 32
3.1.1 Drilling large-diameter holes 32
3.1.1.1 Single-row bIasting 33
3.1.1.2 Surface bIasting . 35
3.1.1.3 Drilling tools 35
3.1.1.4 Drilling machines 36
3.1.2 Blasting. 36
3.1.3 Cost 40
3.1.4 Tunnelling method. 40
3.1.5 Series firing of small-diameter bIastholes. 41
3.1.6 Secondary bIasting. 41
3.1.7 Storage of explosives 42
3.2 Ripping. 43
3.3 Stripping 45

4 Loading. 46
4.1 Development trend. 46
4.2 Loading machines . 46
4.2.1 CabIe-ореrаtеd excavators 46
4.2.2 Hydraulic excavators . 47
4.2.3 Wheel loaders . 48
4.2.4 Crawler loaders 49

5 Haulage 50
5.1 Rail haulage. 50
5.2 Haulage Ьу rubber-tyred vehicles and other means 50
5.2.1 Heavy trucks 50
5.2.2 Belt conveyors 52
5.2.3 Load and сапу 53
5.4 Aerial ropeways . 54

6 Mobile crushing plants . 55

26 27
В. Raw materials 11. Quarrying Guidelines for quarrying

7 Site restoration . . . . . . . . . . 57 the rock. It will then usually Ье necessary to сапу out the quarrying operations in
7.1 The situation in the cement industry . 57 several benches and at several working points simultaneously, so that the
7.2 Quarries and landscaping. 58 composition of the raw material сап Ье controlled. It will only rarely оссш that the
7.3 Restoration features . . 58 deposit will consist of material having ап ideal composition for cement manufac-
7.3.1 Hillsides....... 58 ture, enabIing the quarrying operations to Ье confined to а single face and а single
7.3.2 Berms and quarry faces 59 working point. With subsurface quarrying in Ешореап latitudes it will usually Ье
7.3.3 Final quarry floor 59 necessary to control the inflow of ground water Ьу pumping ог other means. The
7.3.4 Waste tips . . . . . . 59 cost of this must not Ье underestimated.
7.3.5 Settling ponds. . . . . 60 The various quarry floor ог base levels should Ье connected to опе another and to
7.4 Noise and dust emission 60 the surrounding general ground level Ьу means of ramps, so that machines,
7.5 Cost 61 equipment, operating personnel and repair gangs сап readily move from опе level
References to another. If the ramps аге moreover used as hau lage roads for heavy trucks, they
62
should not Ье moresteeply inclined than 1 in 1 О and should Ье sufficiently wide so
that two vehicles travelling in opposite directions сап conveniently pass each
other. Narrower ramps for single-line traffic with passing bays аге not to Ье
1 Guidelines for quarrying recommended except perhaps for small quarries with only а few vehicles. The best
direction of quarry face advance is along the strike of the bed. 'П this way it will
Raw materials for the cement industry аге usually obtained Ьу large-scale ореп­ most easily Ье possibIe to meet the safety requirement that hazardous effects of
cast (ог open-pit) mining ог quarrying operations. Depending оп the intended rock pressure ог instability must Ье avoided. If particular reasons necessitate а
clinker production quantities, quarry outputs may гип to several million tonnes of different direction of face advance, e.g., diagonally inclined, either ascending ог
material рег уеаг. In order to avoid misdirected capital expenditure ;t is therefore descending, the danger of falling rock from overhanging parts should Ье
imperative to obtain reliabIe information оп the raw material deposit, more counteracted Ьу increasing the batter of the working faces. It should also Ье Ьогпе
particularly in terms of quality and quantity. Such information yielded Ьу in mind that surface water is liabIe to collect оп, and гип off along, such bedding ог
geological exploration is of decisive importance with regard to the conduct of the parting planes, thus forming а possibIe cause of rock slips.
quarrying operations. 'П addition, however, various statutory requirements and The height of the working face is, for example in the Federal RepubIic of Germany,
obIigations have to Ье fulfilled concerning the excavations themselves, accident subject to statutory regulations with regard to permissibIe maximum values
prevention and environmental protection. 'П many cases these so dominate the depending оп the method of quarrying ог the size of machines used. The slope and
picture that purely economic and technical considerations of winning the material width ofthe benches should Ье suited to the nature and stability of the rock and to
become secondary to satisfying the statutory conditions. the method of quarrying.

1.1 Layout of open-cast operations 1.2 Оиаггу equipment

The most widely used method of quarrying is based оп the conventional benching
technique, in which the material in the deposit is quarried in several benches
C'steps"), опе above the other, with predetermined heights of face. If the deposit
is located above the level of the cement works, thus involving "hillside quarrying",
it is advantageous to use the maximum permissibIe face heights, because the
material broken out of the face falls Ьу gravity to the haulage level, е. g., if large-
hole bIasting is employed. The restricting conditions оп face height may Ье the
accessibility of the top part of the face ог the attainabIe bIasthole drilling depth.
Conversely, with "subsurface quarrying", i. е., if the deposit is located below the
level of the cement works, it will generally Ье advantageous to work with relatively
low faces, so as to keep to а minimum the expensive work of raising the quarried
material from the working floor level to the level of the surrounding ground. The
low face is moreover advantageous in cases where quarrying has to Ье done
selectively in order to compensate for variations in the chemical characteristics of
The mechanical equipment of the quarry, more particularly the number and size of
the machines, will depend оп the intended rate of production and оп the haulage
distance. With regard to the economy of the operations it сап, roughly speaking, Ье
said to improve with increasing size of the machines employed, provided that а
sufficiently high rate of production in the quarry will епаЫе а correspondingly high
degree of plant utilization to Ье achieved.ln many cases, however, fulfilmentofthis
requirement is restricted Ьу quality considerations, more particularly when а
certain constant average quality ofthe outputfrom the quarry has to Ье obtained Ьу
the controlled combining of various grades of rock.
Of especial importance is the ргорег interadjustment of the machines employed,
i. е., ensuring that they аге duly suited to function efficiently with опе another,
more particularly in the operations of loading, haulage and crushing.
Thus, the loading machine should Ье so suited to the haulage trucks, and vice
versa, that the number of loading bucket operating cycles for filling а truck is

28 29
 В. Raw materials 11. Quarrying
between three and eight, the larger питЬег being applicabIe to the smaller bucket.
From th.e economic P?int of view it is important not to allow the capital tied ир in
the епglПеs and ГUППlПg gear of the vehicles to remain idle for too long periods.
They must еагп their keep!
Оп the other hand, the receiving capacity of the crusher shou Id Ье large enough to
a.cc~pt the full .conte~ts of а haulage truck discharged in just опе dumping (ог
tlРРlПg) орегаtюп. FlПаllу, the size of the rock pile fragments fed to the crusher
should ~ot Ье so large as to cause jamming in the feed opening.
In plannlng the quarry, the need for providing intermediate storage directly before
ог after the primary crusher should Ье considered. Such buffer capacity makes the
rate of quarrying to some extent independent of the rate of further processing and
сап thus Ье invaluabIe in maintaining continuity of supply in the event of
temporary hold-ups in quarrying activities (see also Chapter В. 111).
2 Overburden
It will only seldom оссш that а raw material deposit is not covered Ьу а layer of
o~erburden ог that the overburden сап Ье directly excavated and processed along
wlth the actual deposit because the chemical composition fits in with that of the
raw mix it~elf. 'п апу case the overburden will have to Ье removed separately from
the m.aterlal of th~ deposit. It will either have to Ье dumped as unprocessabIe
~aterlal (alon~ wlth апу unwanted inclusions and impurities from the deposit
Itself) ог Ье sшtаЫу stockpiled, so that it сап Ье reclaimed in controlled quantities
and mixed in the right proportion with the main material from the deposit.
2.1 Overburden removal
The method of removal will depend оп the following factors relating to the
overburden:
strength and hardness; soil ог solid rock;
th ickness of the 'ауег;
haulage distance;
loadbearing capacity;
susceptibility to weathering.
Prov.ide.d that rock overburden сап Ье suitabIy broken ир Ьу drilling and bIasting ог
Ьу ГIРРlПg, the following conventional types of machine сап Ье used for its
removal:
backacting excavator (back-hoe);
dragline excavator;
bulldozer.
'П general, the ground surface which is as yet intact will, оп account of its
~egetation, have better bearing capacity for loads than ground that has already had
ItS top layer removed. As indicated, the preferred machines for topsoil digging
- nowadays mostly with hydraulic controls - аге the backacter and the dragline.
30
Overburden
The backacter is better аЫе to remove unconsolidated material from апу fissures,
crevices ог dolines (swallow-holes). ОП the other hand, the dragline has а larger
outreach and greater digging depth. Besides, the dragline bucket, suspended loose
from its горе, сап swerve to miss obstacles оп а rough rocky surface, so that the
excavator is not subjected to excessive wear and tear. If the material to Ье handled
is fragmented rock, the pieces will have to Ье fairly small, however.
With both types of excavator it is necessary to use some form of haulage machine
for removing the excavated overburden material. 'П most cases, various types of
truck аге used for such purposes. Multi-axle articulated dump trucks with multi-
wheel drive have Ьееп found most suitabIe because of their good manoeuvrability
оп the generally bad ground оп which they have to travel. Alternatively, the
excavated material сап Ье loaded, via suitabIe feed devices, onto belt conveyors in
cases where these сап Ье economically used in order to соре with large handling
quantities ог to meet other requirements.
The bulldozer сап suitabIy Ье used as а means of overburden stripping if the
handling distances аге not too great, if there is only а limited thickness of
overburden ог if highly cohesive soilleaves по alternative to this method without
necessitating extensive additional measures (construction of roads). Furthermore,
а bulldozer is usually а very useful piece of equipment for work оп building ир the
soil tips.
Besides the above-mentioned "classic" overburden handling machines, other
types of machine аге used for special purposes ог under special conditions, such as
face shovels, scrapers, scraper-dozers, wheel loaders, crawler loaders, possibIy
even bucket ladder excavators ог small bucket wheel excavators.
2.2 Storage of overburden material
The planning of suitabIe piles ог tips for dumping the overburden material, тоге
particularly with regard to quantities to Ье stored and favourabIe location relative
to the source of the material - and, of course, outside ог at the edge of the deposit
to Ье quarried -, should Ье done with considerabIe саге. It often occurs that, due
to inefficient planning, the агеа reserved for overburden dumping turns out to Ье
inadequate and сап subsequently Ье extended only at considerabIe expense ог
indeed not at all. As for the technical layout of ап overburden pile the following
points call for consideration:
The pile should Ье well and firmly based оп the subsoil. If the latter is waterlogged,
it should Ье drained. The overburden material should Ье placed layer Ьу 'ауег, for
only in this way will there Ье adequate compaction of the dumped material Ьу the
haulage and handling vehicles travelling over it during the build-up of the pile. The
layers should not exceed 8 m in thickness. Each individual layer should end at а
distance of 4 m before the опе below, so that а Ьегт is formed. The berms should
Ье inclined slightly backward, and surface water run-off should Ье intercepted in
adequate discharge channels and removed under controlled conditions, in such а
way as to prevent erosion оп the berms and slopes ог at the toe of the overburden
pile.
31
 В. Raw materials 11. Quarrying
Slopes should never Ье steeper than 1 :2 and should Ье grassed and planted as
soon as possibIe after being given а covering of topsoil, so that the vegetation сап
help to keep the soil in position and scouring action Ьу rainwater is avoided. The
build-up of ап overburden pile should Ье so controlled in terms of time that it will
not have to go through the winter months, with heavy rain and/or snow, while its
slopes remain devoid of vegetation because grassing them was left too late for the
grass seed to germinate. 'П addition, ап intercepting ditch should Ье dug at the toe
ofthe pile. Апу material washed down сап settle in thisditch, and excess rainwater
collecting in it сап Ье discharged under controlled conditions after sedimentation
of solids.
з Breaking ои! the rock
, drilling). With face heights commonly around 20 m, а sub-drilling depth of about
3.1 Drilling and bIasting
Drilling and bIasting continue to Ье the favoured combination for breaking out the
material, i. е., dislodging it from the quarry face and fragmenting it. Although it has,
in recent years, increasingly Ьееп brought into discredit оп account of the noise
and vibrations that unavoidabIy arise and has, as а result of environmentalist
activity ог statutory regulations, often Ьееп restricted and sometimes indeed
banned, the real economic advantages it offers in most cases аге still utilized
wherever the opportunity exists. 'П addition, efforts аге continually being made,
and with some success, to adapt the drilling and bIasting technique to the specific
conditions of the deposit and the local environment and thus reduce its
undesirabIe effects to а minimum. Even so, it must Ье remembered that the steady
growth of "environment-consciousness", both оп the part of the authorities and of
the general pubIic, often rules out а choice of quarrying methods based оп purely
economic considerations. 'П such cases а different method of breaking out the
material will have to Ье applied, such as ripping ог stripping.
3.1.1 Drilling large-diameter holes
The large-hole bIasting method (sometimes called well-drill bIasting) is now
predominant in quarrying in open-pit workings. It сап bring down large masses of
rock from the face, suitabIy fragmented for loading, with due regard to the layout of
the quarry and the planned progress of operations, while avoiding severe ground
vibrations and involving only а small amount of secondary bIasting for breaking up
over-Iarge fragments.
The economic advantage of large-hole bIasting, and therefore its widespread use,
аге due to the fact that the operations of "drilling" and "Ioading of the rock pile"
сап Ье carried out quite independently of each other.
The definition of large-diameter bIastholes is, in Germany, linked to the relevant
accident prevention regulations and relates to holes тоге than 12 m in depth.
Irrespective of this statutory definition, the engineer оп the job rates апу hole
8,xceeding 50 - 60 mm diameter as coming within this category. The predominant
32
Breaking out the rock: Drilling and bIasting
diameter range in current German use is between 60 тт and 105 тт, occasionally
up to 150 тт. 'П other countries, тоге particularly in the USA, larger diameters аге
preferred, namely, 225 - 300 тт and even тоге. In densely populated areas the
acceptabIe bIasthole diameter is often limited Ьу considerations of ground
vibrations, which аге liabIe to Ье excessively severe if the charge fired рег hole ог
рег stage of detonation is too large.
3.1.1.1 Single-row bIasting
'П most cases the large-diameter bIastholes аге drilled in опе row рагаllеl to the
slope ofthequarry face. The most favourabIeslope is between 700 and 800. In order
to ensure ргорег break-out of the toe of the face, the holes аге usually drilled so as
to extend а certain а short distance below the level of the quarry floor (sub-
1 m has Ьесоте the estabIished practice. It should Ье noted, however, that
particularly the explosive charge in the sub-drilled part ofthe holes is likely to cause
the most powerful ground vibrations. 'П Germany, face heights in excess of 30 m
аге now prohibited оп account of the accident hazard associated with them. The
great majority of faces in quarries аге about 20 m in height ог less. There is а trend
towards reducing the height because this makes for better selectivity in conducting
the quarrying operations.
There is а whole range of possibIe variations in large-hole bIasting practice, from
single-row and multiple-row bIasting with ог without toe holes to so-called
surface bIasting.
The choice of bIasting method, тоге particularly the number of bIasthole rows,
depends оп the properties of the rock as well as оп the vibration effects that сап Ье
tolerated. For example, holes disposed in а number of rows over а certain агеа аге
тоге likely to offer а suitabIe solution in brittle easy-to-shatter rock than in tough
rock fracturing into large bIocks.
The column of explosive in а bIasthole should, if possibIe, extend continuously
from the bottom of the hole up to the stemming. Only in this way сап the cost of
producing such large bIasthole volumes Ье fully utilized Ьу working with
sufficiently large hole spacings and burdens.
It often occurs, however, especially in heavily fissured rock, that the bIasting
energy is insufficient to dislodge the тоге heavily restrained rock mass at the toe.
But if the geometric features of the bIastholes (diameter, burden, spacing) аге
sufficiently reduced to ensure break-out of the toe, it will frequently Ье necessary
to use intermediate stemming in the upper part of the holes in order to avoid
w~steful use of explosive and the risk of large rock fragments being hurled out with
dangerous force, particularly in places where irregular break-out at the quarry face
has locally reduced the burden. 'П such cases the waste of а certain proportion of
expensively drilled bIasthole volume will Ье unavoidabIe.
These drawbacks тау Ье overcome Ьу suitabIy increasing the bIasthole volume at
the toe of the face, so as to obtain а larger quantity of explosive charge where it is
needed most.
This is usually done Ьу systematically drilling so-called toe holes from the quarry
33
В. Raw materials 11. Quarrying
Breaking out the rock: Drilling and bIasting

а: burden
~гgabe 3.1.1.2 Surface bIasting
Ь: spacing
Seitenabstand Оп account of the above-mentioned drawbacks, so-called "surface" bIasting is
gaining wider acceptance. With this technique the rock is loosened in соп­
sequence ofthe fragmenting effect of bIasting in а number of holes distributed over
а certain агеа instead of being disposed in опе row. This method is especially
suitabIe for selective quarrying ог when separate loading of different materials
found in the same quarry is required, since the location of the material remains
substantially unchanged after bIasting. There is essentially а lifting action and
bulking of the rock as а result of fragmentation. А drawback is that this method
requires about twice as much drilling (in terms of hole length) and twice as much
sub-drilling explosive. The holes themselves аге generally of much less depth than those in
Unteгbohгung conventional large-hole bIasting from а face. Ап advantage of surface bIasting is
Fig.1 : Blasting with large-diameter holes that the amount of subsidiary work - such as secondary fragmentation, quarry
face trimming and floor levelling - is generally less.
а': burden
Voгgabe
Ь': spacir19 А ~
Seitenabstand
Р,
1:
"
,1
"
,1
r:'
,
"
l" '

"
,1 А
,1
':
"
r.
"
Р, " ::
" 1"
1,
"
" ,,А,, l'1" '
"
'1
1,
"
"
"
" ,,
"
,, "

'' ,,
" "

" 1" , 1: "

,,
"

"
"

" :: ] : :, :; ,1
"
"

' , ::
,j
,,
"
" "
"
<,
'1 "
~ci ,'1, '1tJ
"
"
1, ,, :,
.,
"
,,
C~

Blasting with large-diameter holes and toe holes

Fig.2. Surface bIasting with large-diameter holes

floor, these being of such diameter and spacing as to achieve the required extra
bIasting effect at the toe. With the right type of drilling machine and the
introduction of free-flowing granular explosive into the toe holes Ьу means of
bIowing equipment, this procedure тау, in suitabIe rock, Ье тоге economical than
having subsequently to сапу out supplementary drilling and bIasting to dislodge
those portions of the toe which have remained standing after the firing of the main
charge.
AII the same, the techniques for obtaining greater bIasthole volume at the toe ofthe
face, though offering the advantages mentioned here, аге not in very widespread
use. The reason ргоЬаЫу lies in the difference in technical development of the
machines for drilling vertical and those for drilling horizontal holes, in the relatively
low cost of the А N С (аттоп iu m nitrate-ca гЬоп) explos ives ch iefly used in vertica I
holes, and the need to remove all rock pile (fragmented rock) from the toe of the
face before toe hole drilling сап соттепсе.
34
3.1.1.3 Drilling tools
Rotary drilling and percussive rotary drilling аге almost the only methods used for
forming the bIastholes in quarries for cement raw materials. The drilling tool is
generally а step bit; for larger diameters а roller bit is sometimes used ог, in
percussive rotary drilling, а cross bit ог а stud bit. The last-mentioned type of bit is
claimed to Ье especially advantageous in hard rock because of the higher specific
feed pressure that сап Ье applied. Besides, it is better аЫе to соре with fissured
rock because it cannot jam so easily in the crevices. With down-hole hammers the
drilling force is developed at the bottom of the hole instead of being transmitted
down through the drill rods, so that the latter аге less severely stressed, while the
drilling machine itself is also relieved of mechanical load. Besides, there is less
likelihood of deviation of the drill hole from the vertical.
35
В. Raw materials 11. Quarrying Breaking out the rock: Blasting

3.1.1.4 Drilling machines soft, compact, fissuгed ог affected in some other way. The bIasthole location grid,
i. е., the spacing and buгden dimensions, is determined оп the basis of the
Modern rotary drilling machines аге operated Ьу just опе man. They mostly have
calculated quantity of explosive needed for breaking out the intended quantity of
fully hydraulic drive systems, аге reliabIe in operation and attain drilling rates of up
rock Ьу bIasting with holes of given diameter (which in turn depends оп the type of
to 30 m/houг, depending оп the nature ofthe rock and the diaR1eterofthe hole. The
drilling machine availabIe). The appropriate relationship of bIasthole spacing and
power pack, compressor, hydraulic units, drilling mast, rod magazine, operator's
buгden сап Ье expressed as а product of these two dimensions (in m 2 ). The value
platform and dust suppression system аге mounted оп а traction unit usually
of this product in any given case сап Ье calculated Ьу determining the quantity of
equipped with crawler tracks. The prime mover is generally а diesel engine.
explosive (in kg) which сап оп average Ье charged рег bIasthole and dividing this
Although it is more expensive in energy consumption than ап electric motor, it is
quantity Ьу the required specific explosive consumption (in kg/m З of rock).
nevertheless preferred because it provides better mobllity of the drilling machine
The smaller the spacing and the burden, with correspondingly smaller bIasthole
and makes it independent of power feed cabIes. Оп some machines а slewing ring
diameter, the better will Ье the fragmentation obtained, because the explosive will
enabIes the superstructuгe to swivel оп the crawler chassis, thus enabIing
Ье more uniformly distributed along the face. А finer location grid is more
unproductive manoeuvring of the whole machine to Ье reduced. The use of
particularly advantageous in deaiing with thick-bedded rock tending to produce а
increasingly long drill rods likewise aims at increasing the efficiency of the
coarsely fragmented rock рilе.
machine, а trend which has led to the development of the "single-pass" machine
which drills the hole to its full depth with just опе long rod, i. е., without having to
couple successive rods as drilling proceeds. Rubber-tyred traction units сап ТаЫе 1: Single-row bIasting with large-diameter holes
suitabIy Ье used under circumstances where the machines each have to operate at
а number of different points, ог at different working levels ог indeed in different hole bIasthole buгden spacing bIasthole
quarries, so thatsubstantial distances have to Ье travelled. However, the ground оп diameter grid volume
which they travel will"have to Ье of sufficient bearing capacity to саггу their (mm) 2
(m ) (m) (m) (Iitres/
weight. corresponding drilled metre)
There is по doubt that the fully automatic one-man-operated rotary drill requires to m З of rock
more skill оп the part of the operator, and also more servicing, than does the рег drilled
percussive rotary drill powered with compressed air and mounted оп crawler metre
tracks. These machines аге of relatively low weight. With а suitabIe compressor in
tow, а mасhlПе of thls klnd сап move about under its own power even оп difficult 92 20 3.5 to 5 3.5 to 4.5 6.6
terrain. The drill guide mast сап Ье tilted and swivelled in all directions, so that а
105 24 3.5 to 6 3.5 to 5 8.6
wide variety of drilling duties сап Ье performed. These machines аге the preferred
type in small and medium-size quarries and in cases where highly skilled operating 150 without
personnel аге unavailabIe. toe holes 30 4 to 7 4 to 6 17.6
150 with
toe holes
3.1.2 Blasting 76mm fZ5 50 5 to 1 О 5 to 7 17.6 + 4.5
225 50 6 to 1 О 5 to 8 29.8
When the bIastholes have Ьееп drilled, they аге charged with explosive and the
charges аге fired. The object of bIasting is to loosen and fragment the rock so as to
obtain а rock pile suitabIe for loading. The amount of explosive to Ье used in апу
given case will depend оп the specific explosive consumption, i. е., the amount
needed for producing а tonne of rock pile ог for loosening and fragmenting а cubic With increasing bIasthole diameter, spacing and buгden there is an increase both in
metre of solid rock. It is ап empirical value which varies from опе set of quarrying the proportion of very finely fragmented material (due to shattering of the rock in
conditions to another and should Ье known in апу quarry where production is in the immediatevicinity ofthecharge) and in thatof large lumps (dislodged from the
progress. When opening up the quarry, this value сап Ье determined Ьу reduced- parts of the rock farthestfrom the charge). А coarse grid of this kind will as а rule Ье
scale trial bIasts based initially оп known average values from practical experience economically advantageous only in rock which is fractuгed, finely fissured and
under comparabIe conditions. The specific explosive consumption is mostly brittle. Blasting Ьу the tunnelling method, now seldom used, represents ап extreme
between 200 and 400 9 рег m З of solid rock. It does, however, vary within wide case of firing large concentrated charges.
limits, depending to а great extent оп the natuгe of the rock - whether it is hard, As already stated, the aim is to fill the entire bIasthole with explosive, if possibIe.

36 37
В. Raw materials 11. Quarrying Breaking out the rock: Blasting

The stemming inserted in the top part should as а rule have а depth equal to the (")(1) ..... q-<D L!)(1)N<DN
О
burden. L!) r--:Lri..tNО Фм"":cx:iLri
-.r- or- -.r- or--.r- N N N ..........
А whole range of explosives is availabIe to the quarry engineer. It extends from
powder to gelatinous explosives and includes slurry explosives; there are low N O(")<D(1)N О
О
explosives and high explosives, as well as intermediate types; explosives which are N О r--:Lriм"":О N
то- то- то- т- то-

used in cartridge form and those which are used in bulk. Careful consideration of
the choice of explosive, so that the most su itabIe type for the job is used, makes for
О
greater есопоту. <D L!)<D<Dr--r--
cx:i xaicx:ir--:фLri
In raw materials quarrying for the cement industry there is а trend towards the о

preferred use of the inexpensive ANC (ammonium nitrate-carbon) explosives. а.

L!) Q. Or--q- ..... oo L!)
These are superseding the more expensive gelatinous types (gelatines, gelignites), О
cor--оо(1) ..... N m"":Oair--: О
~cx:ir--:ффLri
whose use is now mainly confined to that of а priming charge for initiating the '(j)
slower ANC, but even here they are making way for the heavier-grade detonating с:
00 <D q- N ..... О
fuse (more particularly the 40g fuse). They are, however, still in соттоп use for
О
О
~ (1) ..... (")L!) l ' Е' о ai cx:i l '
....: О
(1) l' Е' r--: r--: ф Lri..t
secondary bIasting, i. е., the further reduction of oversize fragments of rock Ьу О §
individual drilling and bIasting. 'П quarries where ANC explosives are used, their Х <5
proportion is seldom below 70% of the total explosive consumption. In certain L!) о q- -; ..... "': 1': ~ с"?
cases it тау Ье as high as 99% or more.
(1) ~Ф a>r--<DL!)L!)q-
"о
со
'Е
Another reason why the ANC explosives (known also as ANFO = ammonium ф ф
~ ~~Г"r-L!)СХ) L!)<D<Dr--r--
nitrate-fuel oil) have rapidly Ьееп gaining ground is their high degree of handling ф О '(j) l'
aicx:ir--:фLri
О ф
Е (1) с: Lri ,!: ФLriLri..tМ (1) Е
safety and the possibility of conveying them in special mixingjloading trucks to the со
Ф
~ со
"о Ф
actual site of bIasting - provided that sufficiently large quantities of explosives are '6 > :::J '6
~' '(j) r-- ..... L!)oq- (jj
L!) Ф
consumed to make this economically attractive and that the quarry floor offers а Ф L!)

reasonabIy level riding surface. The actual explosive mixture of ammonium nitrate
000
-s
ELri %LriLri..t..tM 00 о
-s
с: х ф (J)
and diesel oil is produced "оп the spot" in the truck and is pumped through а hose (J)
со
Ф
> со
Ф' L!) U О '(j) L!)OOO(")L!) О :Б
into the bIastholes. Alternatively, it сап Ье introduced into the holes with special "Б О L!)O L!)O

pneumatic loading devices. The wage costs involved in loading the bIasting Е 00 "~ ..t Z
«
Lri..t..tMM % r--:ФФLri..t 00
Е
о
Е
х
Ф
Е
charges Ьу this method are very low. Besides, there are substantial savings due to Q. ф

~ ~ > q- О L!) ..... l ' Ф

ФО(")ФО L!)
eliminating the transport of the explosives from the magazine to the actual site of
bIasting and dispensing with апу handling of explosives at the magazine itself. It
u q- .~ ..t..tMMN
~ ФФLri..t..t l'
z Q. "ё
should not go without mention, however, that the economically advantageous «a>L!) х
Ф
Е OON<DOL!) О
method of "оп the spot" bulk delivery of explosives Ьу truck to the bIastholes is О
-"'"М Ф~~~~~ .~ Lri Lri..t..tM l'
.~
l'
used also with other types of explosive, more particularly the slurries. о
The degree of filling and therefore the charge efficiency of the bIastholes depends L!) с: (")01'(")0 Е OL!)OL!)O L!)
<D EMMNNN Е Lri..t..t м м <D
not only оп the density of the explosive itself, but also оп the bIasthole and со
,~
cartridge diameters employed or оп whether the explosive is used in bu Ik form. This О
C:OOL!)(")or--
(J)
:::J Nooq-OL!) О
should Ье duly borne in mind when calculating the explosive quantity in kg per <D ~NNNN"": О ..tMMMN <D
с:
linear metre of bIasthole. The degree of filling is around 70% for powder explosives .~

in cartridge form; around 90% in the case of slurry or gelatine-type explosives; and О
L!)
~~CX?~"':~ ф
Or--q- ..... oo
MNNN"":
О
L!)
O'Nr-r-т-т-
а>
around 100% when explosives are used in bulk. -"'" а>
(") ..... 0(1)00 -"'"
For reasons of safety, bIasting charges should Ье fired only Ьу electric detonation. ~or-~oo
Detonators (bIasting caps) with varying degrees of sensitivity are availabIe for the
purpose. They are produced as instantaneous detonators or delay detonators, the О 00000 00000
latter being of the ordinary delay (usually half а second) or the millisecond delay О O(1)oor--<D O(1)oor--<D

type. The last-mentioned detonators are manufactured in а range of delay periods

БU!lI!llО ЭЭJБэр
differing Ьу some tens of milliseconds. The detonating current is now usually

38 39

В. Raw materials 11. Quапуiпg
supplied Ьу а condenser discharge bIasting machine (exploder). This is а reliabIe
type of machine which is increasingly superseding the earlier electrodynamic
exploder with direct discharge of current. For bIastholes exceeding 12 m in depth
the use of detonating fuse is compulsory under German regulations. 'П such cases
the detonators аге fitted to the end of the fuse outside the hole. If the relevant
regulations allow the electric detonator to Ье used for firing а primer cartridge at the
foot of the hole, detonation will Ье initiated in the region where the highest degree
of restraint from the suпоuпdiпg rock exists, so that then the greatest bIasting
effect will Ье obtained. Besides, the detonation report will Ье тоге muffled and
thus cause less nuisance to neighbouring residents.
It should Ье mentioned, however, that the older method of bIasting with safety fuse
and appropriate detonators is still used to some extent. This type of fuse consists of
а train of bIack powder enclosed in а waterprooftubular casing and has to Ье lit.
3.1.3 Cost
It is not possibIe to give generally-valid information оп the cost of bIasting with
large-diameter holes. It will depend оп а variety of determining factors, including:
the type and stability of the rock, the size and utilization of the drilling machine, the
type and method of use of the explosive, requirements as to the fragmentation of
the rock pile in connection with availabIe loading or further processing facilities,
etc. 'П approximate terms it сап Ье stated, however, that the specific cost of drilling
and bIasting рег tonne of 10adabIe rock pile shows а slight hyperbolically
decreasing trend, so long as the diameter remains within reasonabIe limits, as
envisaged in the foregoing description of the bIasting operations.
However, in seeking to take advantage of this trend it will often occur that
economic limits are encountered, тоге particularly when the drilling machine
capacity substantially exceeds the quantities of rock pile actually needed Ьу the
cement works in а given period. 'П such cases it often works out cheaper to let ап
outside firm сапу out the entire dri 11 ing and bIasting operations оп а contract basis.
Obviously, this is тоге likely to Ье ап attractive solution where relatively small
quantities of material аге required than in medium-sized ог large quапiеs, though
local conditions and other considerations will of course play а part.
3.1.4 Tunnelling method
1n the tunnelling method of bIasting (known also as "coyote bIasting") fairly large
charges аге fired in tunnels driven into the face. It is now hardly every used. It
could, however, Ье considered in cases where capital expenditure has to Ье kept
low ог where the surface of the raw material deposit is inaccessibIe to drilling
machines, е. g., in very rough ог mountainous country. The major drawbacks ofthis
method аге the tunnelling work itself, the severe vibrations set up Ьу the bIasts, and
the very coarse fragmentation achieved, necessitating much secondary bIasting.
40
Breaking out the rock: В lasting
3.1.5 Series firing of small-diameter bIastholes
This technique is still used where relatively small quantities have to Ье fr.agmented,
е. g., in dealing with residual rock masses, ог in а supplementary c~paclty to other
bIasting methods for dealing with particular features of the d.eposlt. The holes, of
small diameter, тау Ье drilled horizontally into the face ог vertlcally ог at апу angle.
They тау Ье located side Ьу side ог опе above the other; the~ тау Ье para~lel t.o
опе another ог fan out. If the burden is kept small, the exploslve сопsumрtюп IS
often quite low and fragmentation is good, i. е., relatively few large fragments
requiring secondary bIasting аге formed. This result wil~ u.sually depend оп
achieving а uniform distribution of the explosive charges wlth.ln the rock mas~ to
Ье broken out Ьу drilling а large number of holes carefully sшtеd to th~ Ьеdd.lПg
conditions. А major drawback is that this method is very labour-lntenslve,
especially if separatedrilling platforms have to Ье erected against the quапу face. It
also involves Ьу по means negligibIe accident hazards because the теп have to
work close up against the face and spend fairly long times there.
3.1.6 Secondary bIasting
No bIasting method сап completely avoid the production of а certain proportion ~f
oversize pieces of rock C'boulders"), though it is often possibIe to keep thls
proportion down to а minimum Ьу suitabIe choice of bIasting method. These
oversize pieces have to Ье further reduced, otherwise they would ~ave ап
obstructive effect оп the further operations of loading, haulage and сгushlПg. The
maximum size of boulders that сап Ье tolerated will of course depend also оп the
size and capacity of the handling and crushing plant used in the quarry.
Boulders аге usually broken up Ьу bIasting C'secondary bIasting") because th~s
nearly always gives а suitabIy fragmented product, whatever the typ.e of rock. Thls
is mostly done Ьу drilling small-diameter holes t? а depth equal to а Iltt.le тоге t~an
the diameter ofthe boulder. They аге charged wlth 60-90 9 of exploslve рег m of
rock, stemmed and detonated (electrically, if possibIe).
Another method of secondary bIasting is called "mudcapping" ог "plaster
shooting". 'П this case а substantially larger quantity of а gelatine-type high
explosive, characterized Ьу high detonation velocity, is used (250 - 500 g/m ). It
3
is simply applied to the surface of the boulder, well ste~med and det?nated. rhe
drawbacks of this technique аге that it is very noisy (envlronmental nUlsance) and
often not economical either, so that it is tending to go out of use.
Secondary fragmentation Ьу mechanical methods in lieu of bIasting i~ gaining
ground. They аге based either оп the pounding action of а heavy dropwelght ог оп
demolition of the boulder with pneumatic ог hydraulic breaking hammers.
Obviously, the success of such methods will depend to а great extent оп the
hardness and toughness of the rock, the underlying material оп which the bould~r
rests, and the size and power of the mechanical equipment employed. Thls
being so, it is necessary to саггу out tests to find out if mechanical sec~ndary
fragmentation is economical before а decision is made. Another drawback IS tha.t,
with such methods, it often occurs that some of the secondary fragments аге stlll
геаllу too large.
41
В. Raw materials 11. Quarrying
3.1.7 Storage of explosives
The primary consideration with regard to the storage of explosives is that of safety.
Непсе it is сап Ье presumed that in по country anywhere in the world the
accumulation of storage of stocks of explosives сап Ье permitted without апу
restriction Ьу official regulations of some kind. 'П the Federal RepubIic of Germany
the statutory requirements аге laid down in the second Decree for the implemen-
tation of the Explosives Act (of 23. 11. 1977), including the Appendix containing
the principal technical regulations, and furthermore in the relevant Guidelines in
which these requirements аге further elaborated.
АII these regulations are directly applicabIe, i. е., they do not Ьесоте effective only
after the granting of а liсепсе to store explosives. Since the whole question of
storage involves some legal complexities, it is advisabIe to seek guidance for the
relevant inspection authorities at the very outset, when the setting-up of ап
explosive magazine is contemplated. This precaution сап save а lot of frustration,
time and топеу.
Although these statutory requirements аге applicabIe only to Germany, it сап Ье
helpful to seek guidance from them оп the safe storage of explosive in countries
where these matters аге not subject to such close regulations.
Of major importance is the classification into "storage categories" to which
potentially hazardous explosive materials аге assigned. For the present purpose
only category 1.1 is of interest, comprising the industrial explosives and bIack
powders.
The safe distances from the explosives magazine to residental areas and pubIic
highways, depending оп the quantity of explosive stored, аге stated in Supplement
1 to the Appendix. These distances сап permissibIy Ье varied within certain limits,
depending оп the importance of the areas ог installations to Ье protected and оп
the constructional features of the magazine.
The general requirements applicabIe to explosives storage аге laid down in the
second part of the Appendix. The most important of these, besides the safe
distances, is а general prohibition оп the storage of these materials in the ореп air
ог in vehicles. It is also stated that по explosives аге allowed to Ье stored directly at
access ways to places of work. Emphasis is laid оп fire protection arrangements,
and precautions against the action of electricity and against theft or unauthorized
removal of explosives аге outlined, е. g., а Ьап оп windows, the requirement that
suitabIy strong doors, walls and roofs Ье provided, and that the magazine Ье
reliabIy locked up and the keys kept in safe custody. The safety precautions should
- in view of the factthatthe manufacture of "home-made" explosives Ьу criminals
and terrorists is now commonplace - concentrate тоге particularly оп detonating
equipment such as detonators, detonating fuse and electric exploders.
Other regulations are concerned more particularly with the construction, fitting-up
and operation of the magazines.
In the fourth part of the Appendix the requirements applicabIe to the storage of
explosive materials outside а magazine аге outlined. These comprise what are
defined as small quantities needed for day-to-day use in the quarry and held readily
availabIe at various conveniently located points. Also included is the mobile
storage of such quantities in containers, cabinets ог site vehicles.
42
Breaking out the rock: Ripping
3.2 Ripping
Another method of breaking out the rock, as ап alternative to drilling and bIasting,
is represented Ьу ripping. А distinction is to Ье drawn between the ripping of rock
from horizontal surfaces and ripping from vertical faces.
Obviously, the ease ог difficulty with which апу particu lar type of rock сап Ье
dislodged and fragmented Ьу ripping will depend to а great extent оп its hardness
and compactness, as well as other geological and tectonic properties. Factors that
make for easier ripping аге heavy fissuring of the rock, thin but well developed
bedding, coarsely crystalline structure, inhomogeneity, zones affected Ьу weather-
ing ог tectonic action. Conversely, homogeneous, solid, fine-grained rock without
weak spots is difficult to break up Ьу ripping.
"Horizontal" surface ripping, which is the соттопег method, is carried out with
the aid of опе or тоге ripping teeth mounted at the rear end of а heavy crawler
tractor. The teeth penetrate into the rock and drag grooves ог furrows in it as the
tractor travels. The material loosened in this way is then shifted Ьу bulldozing.
The most reliabIe way to decide whether а particular type of rock is indeed suitabIy
"rippabIe" is Ьу practical trials.
А simpler, though not nearly so informative, method is based оп the principle of
seismic refraction. The transit times of shock waves in the subsoil are measured,
these waves being produced Ьу hammer bIows applied to steel plates located at
varying distances and being detected Ьу а seismic pick-up device (geophone).
The velocity of propagation of these waves in the rock is а measure of its in-situ
strength and thus provides ап indication of the ргоЬаЫе rippability. The
relationship between wave velocity and ripping characteristics has Ьееп deter-
mined empirically from numerous observations. Though of course the power and
weight of the machines concerned аге major factors, it сап broadly Ье stated that
with the crawler rippers in present-day current use the types of rock which are of
interest to cement manufacture, such as limestone or shale, are likely to Ье suitabIy
rippabIe if the seismic wave velocity does not exceed about 2000 - 2500 т/
second.
As Fig.3 shows, only the latest super-heavy crawler rippers сап tackle rock in
which this limit is somewhat exceeded. However, the seismic wave velocity сап
offer по тоге than approximate guidance. Determining the rippability and the
ripping effort of rock is still more of ап art than а science. It requires much
experience to hit upon the optimum combination of ripping speed, depth and
spacing of the furrows.
The design, number and method of attachment of the ripping teeth are of major
importance in connection with this. The teeth соте in various shapes, straight or
curved, each type being тоге particularly suited for certain types of rock. The
design of the tooth tip also plays а part. Thus, short tips аге better suited for rock
which is difficult to penetrate, whereas long ones аге тоге effective in abrasive
rock. Medium-Iength tips set to the correct cutting angle сап develop high
breaking-out forces and сап соре adequately even with rock of ап abrasive
character.lfthe ripping attachment is mounted so that it сап swivel about а point of
rotation, the cutting angle of the teeth will vary with their depth of penetration. This
43
 В. Raw materials 11. Quarrying Breaking out the rock: Stripping

method of mounting is generally restricted to certain types of rock. For many other The ripping method of breaking-out in quarries must Ье judged in comparison with
types the parallel-motion system of mounting is тоге suitabIe, because here the the alternative of drilling and bIasting. Ripping тау Ье preferabIe in one ог тоге of
?ptimu~ cutting angle: once it has been cQrrectly set, remains unchanged the following cases:
Irrespectlve of the worklng depth. There is, finally, а combination of these two the effect of ground vibrations due to bIasting presents an environmental
systems in that the working angle is adjustabIe, usually Ьу means of а hydraulic ргоЫет and thus seriously restricts the operations in the quarry (though it
гат, the reason being that the optimum angle for penetrating into the rock at the should Ье borne in mind that ripping тау introduce its own probIems, тоге
~tart of work тау differ from the optimum angle for the actual ripping operation particularly due to noise and dust emission);
Itself. As а rule, а single tooth should initially Ье tried. Only in relatively easily the quarrying of the material over large areas Ьу ripping achieves an
rippabIe rock will it Ье possibIe to operate with several teeth.
advantageous degree of homogenization in deposits of inhomogeneous
composition;
residual areas of the workabIe deposit, which have been left standing because
seismic velocity km/sec their proximity to vulnerabIe installations ruled out bIasting (е. g., near roads,
seismische GeschWlndigkeit km/sec 2 з
railways, buildings), have to Ье quarried as well.
4
crawl ег tractor Ripping requires large working areas and extensive opening-up of the quarry. А
rating drawback is that, depending оп seasonal factors, the raw material quarried Ьу this
Raupen storke
method will absorb up to 2% тоге moisture in the quarry, and this extra moisture
7OO~sp· ~ will of course have to Ье removed in the cement works, involving correspondingly
41OPsp· higher energy input.
ЗОО~sр· The performance and therefore the cost of ripping depend very much оп the length
с raw lеr tractor of the ripping passes and bulldozing distances. As а rule, shorter passes аге тоге
rating
Raupen stiirke advantageous. With passes up to about 50-60 m in length, which аге to Ье
regarded as the maximum, outputs (production rates) of up to 550t/hour сап
01 700~sp· ~
з·~
1/1- '1O~p.
reasonabIy Ье expected when the usual heavy crawler rippers of up to 60t overall
weight and up to 500 h.p. engine ratings аге employed.
01'"
E~ ЗОО~sр· Ripping makes severe demands оп the robustness of the machines. The frame and
:::~
undercarriage have to Ье very stabIe, for the ripping action develops not only high
rippabIe reissbar peak values of the traction force, but also swerving moments that tend to push the
crawler tracks off course. High operating, maintenance and repair costs have
I 1 borderl ine case Grenzfoll
hitherto generally made ripping unattractive as an alternative to quarrying Ьу
~ поt rippabIe nicht reissbar drilling and bIasting, except in cases where there аге compelling reasons not to
Fig. З: Ripping capacity 01 crawler rippers employ the latter method, тоге particu larly in cases where environmental
protective restrictions have to Ье complied with. Hence the development of ripping
will continue to Ье watched with interest. The operating results obtained with the
super-heavy crawler rippers of about 86 t overall weight and 700 h.p. engine
The most economical quarrying technique in given circumstances will have to Ье rating, which have latterly appeared оп the market, will have to Ье awaited before а
determined Ьу trials. For instance, the spacing of the ripping furrows will affect the тоге definite assessment сап Ье made. It тау then well Ье that, with sufficiently
~esulting fragm~ntation ofthe material. The maximum attainabIe penetration depth high levels of plant utilization, ripping will offer an economically тоге acceptabIe
IS not necessarrly always the optimum. Оп sloping ground the ripping direction alternative to drilling and bIasting.
most often employed is downhill; this is likely to achieve the highest output of
10adabIe rock despite idle uphill travel of the ripper. Failure to remove all the
З.З Stripping
dislodged material will cause "cushioning" of the tractor оп its next ripping pass
and will increase the friction factor between the crawler tracks and the solid rock Stripping with bucket wheel ог bucket chain excavators of the usual type is а
underneath. Sometimes it тау Ье advantageous to do occasional bIasting with method of raw material winning which is used in soft deposits with high natural
light charges in cases where intermediate strata of rock resistant to ripping аге moisture content, such as chalk ог marine clay. Excavating and loading аге
encountered. performed in а single operation.

44 45
 В. Raw materials 11. Quarrying

4 Loading
4.1 Deve/opment trend higher operational readiness than the excavator. latter is, however, тоге
suitabIe under conditions where it has to travel fairly frequently from опе working
The trend in loading machines in the last ten years has Ьееп steadily away from position to another. Diesel excavators аге manufactured chiefly in the smaller size
cabIe-орегаtеd face shovels and towards the increasing use of wheel loaders and range. From about 2.5 m З bucket capacity upwards, electrically powered excava-
hydraulic excavators. The diagram in Fig.4 illustrates this development, which is tors аге usually employed in the Central European countries.
representative of about 65% of German cement production. Depending оп its size, the electric excavator is equipped with опе ог тоге motors.
'П the latter case, there is often а separate motor for crowding, slewing, lifting and
travelling. ОП large machines, loss-free control and favourabIe starting conditions
50 аге provided Ьу Ward - Leonard ог thyristor systems. Otherwise rheostatic control is
the usual method.
40 The declining use of cabIe-орегаtеd excavators as loading machines in quarrying
is attributabIe to several drawbacks:
the rigidly fixed bucket requires а well fragmented rock pile suitabIe for
30 cabIe-орегаtеd
.... loading;
/ Seilbagger
excavatoгs
~:c the excavator itself has роог mobility, i. е., it cannot Ье moved quickly and
ЕCI
~c
N 20 .0- wheel loadeгs conveniently to fresh working positions (and is therefore unsuitabIe for
С« ----А Radlader selective loading);
10 ..o--~-~::'. -' \hydгaulic it is rather unsuitabIe for dislodging rock from а quarry face ог clearing away
- 0---- excavatoгs
~~~ апу masses rock that have remained standing at the toe of the face.
Hydro - Bagger

1966 1971 1976 4.2.2 Hydraulic excavators

Fig.4: Trends in /oading machines
4.2 loading machines
The machines used for loading in open-pit quarrying in solid rock, including
limestone, marl and shale, аге cabIe-орегаtеd excavators, hydraulic excavators,
wheelloaders and (in special cases) crawler loaders. The choice of machine to Ье
used in апу given instance must Ье made with great саге, because опсе а particu lar
system has Ьееп adopted, а subsequent change to а different system involves
heavy expenditure which тау overtax the resources of relatively small under-
takings. Large ones usually operate with several systems of loading machinery,
enabIing these to Ье interchanged to suit varying conditions of service.
4.2.1 CabIe-орегаtеd excavators
Mechanization of loading in quarries started with the introduction of the саЫе­
operated excavator, тоге particular/y the face shovel, which is still оп the market
and availabIe from тапу manufacturers and in тапу sizes. With its bucket fixed
immovabIy to the агт, the diesel ог electrically powered face shovel is purely а
loading machine. Its relatively high capital cost сап Ье justified Ьу long service life,
often twenty years ог тоге. Larger machines generally last longer than smaller
ones.
46
Although hydraulic excavators have long Ьееп used in quarrying, they initially
made iittle headway because of their smali size (0.3-0.7 m З bucket capacities)
and the rigid attachment of the bucket to its агт. It was only with the introduction
of the movabIe loading bucket in lieu of the fixed bucket (actuated Ьу hydraulic
rams for tilting movements) that the advantages of these machines began to Ье
widely recognized. The bucket of the hydraulic excavator has three degrees of
freedom:
(1) raising the bucket;
(2) crowding (forward motion of the bucket);
(3) swivelling of the bucket in relation to the агт.
Hydraulic excavators mostly have а service weight 'п the range between 50 and
90 t, with bucket capacities of 3 to 4 m З . Larger machines аге seldom used 'п
cement raw materials quarrying. In the open-pit mining of other minerals, however,
there is а trend towards the use of machines weighing тоге than 100 t, with
buckets of 6 to 8 mЗ. The buckets тау Ье of the tipping ог the bottom-opening
type, the latter being better suited for carefulloading of the haulage vehicles, but
has the disadvantage of heavier wear and the need for additional hydraulic
equipment to operate the opening mechanism.
The three degrees of freedom епаЫе the hydraulic excavator bucket to perform а
swivelling movement up ог down, so as to adjust the position of its teeth to obtain
the best possibIe penetration for digging, without causing collapse of а heaped-up
rock pile. Also, larger pieces of rock сап Ье selectively scooped up from the pile. For
47
 В. Raw materials 11. Quarrying
digging from а rock face the angle of the teeth сап Ье su ited to the direction of the
strata. The excavator сап in fact Ье used for the direct breaking-out of material from
а quarry face, though of course the loading cycle time will then Ье increased and
the performance of the machine in terms of loading rate (tonnes/hour) согге­
spondingly reduced. However, as ап adjunct to bIasting, the hydraulic excavator
сап suitabIy Ье used for clearing and trimming the quarry floor and for removing
апу toe rock masses that have Ьееп left standing.
Besides this good bucket manoeuvrability and the resulting optimum utilization of
the biting ог break-out force, other advantages of the hydraulic excavator аге its
lower weight and greater mobility as compared with the cabIe-орегаtеd excavator.
This mobility relates тоге particularly to its travelling capacity and also to the
speed with which it performs its various operating motions. In addition, various
types of bucket as well as other attachments сап interchangeabIy Ье fitted to the
excavator, so that it is indeed а universal machine. For example, а hydraulic
hammer for secondary fragmentation of boulders сап Ье attached, ог а spade
which сап Ье operated with remote control of the excavator, so that it сап Ье used
for the trimming of quarry faces with по risk of personal injury.
Оп the other hand, hydraulic excavators аге usually at а disadvantage in having а
shorter service life and а lower degree of operational availability than the саЫе­
operated excavator. Although the drive and hydraulic units аге generally so
designed as to Ье readily exchangeabIe and renewabIe, repairs nevertheless require
тоге skill and саге.
Hydraulic excavators аге availabIe as diesel ог as electrically powered machines.
The high cost of diesel fuel is а strong argument in favour of electric drive, which
has the additional advantage of а higher service life expectation. ОП the other
ha~d, it receives its power supply through а саЫе which поУ oniy limits its range ot
асtюп but тау also impede the movements of the haulage vehicles.
The lJSe of hydrostatic drive in combination with power-summation control
achieves favourabIe operating efficiency. With this method of control the power
and the working speed сап Ье adapted to the working conditions, while the oil
pressure in the dual circuit hydraulic system plays а major part in applying the
appropriate force in performing the required motion (bucket, slewing gear, bucket
агт, Ьоот, travel machinery). The rate of oil supply is the deciding factor for the
speed with which the motion is performed.
4.2.3 Wheel loaders
The wheelloader, ог wheel-mounted loading shovel, has Ьееп further improved in
recent years. Iп respect of mobility it is far superior to the excavator and is тоге
particularly suitabIe for selective quarrying where the loader has to serve several
loading points, sometimes rather widely separated, all within short intervals of
time. Besides carrying out rock loading duties in the quarry, the wheel loader is
suitabIe for clearing and trimming work as well as for other handling and loading
duties in the cement works itself.
Most of these machines used in the cement industry have bucket capacities of
between 3 and 8 m . About 80% of all these machines employed in rock quarrying,
З
48
Loading machines: Crawler loaders
and 100% of those with тоге than 2 m З bucket capacity, have articulated frames
and аге equipped with centre pivot steering. Such machines аге тоге manoeuvra-
Ые and attain higher loading rates than rigid-framed wheelloaders of equal bucket
capacity. Because of the travel movements that the loader has to perform between
scooping up the material and depositing it in the haulage vehicle, its working cycle
time is longer than that of the excavator (which does not change its position during
the loading operations), though this drawback сап Ье compensated Ьу the use of
larger bucket capacities. The travel movements cause heavy wear оп tyres. Efforts
to improve tyre service life include the use of tyre chains for protection against cuts
Ьу sharp pieces of rock. Another development with the same purpose is the so-
called beadless tyre, which has а carcass formed as ап oval-section air chamber, to
the circumference of which а renewabIe fitting belt is attached. U-shaped shoes
аге bolted direct to anchor eyes vulcanized into the belt. Better traction grip,
protection of the tyres from damage Ьу cuts and the elimination of overheating аге
advantages claimed for this tyre system.
For successful use of wheelloaders the rock pile should Ье well fragmented, as the
ripping and break-out forces that such machines сап develop аге only about опе­
sixth to one-third of those of сотрагаЫе excavators. The wheel loader is thus
unsuitabIe for the loosening of rock, а circumstance which limits its use as а
loading machine in conjunction with quarrying Ьу surface bIasting, for example.
Оп the other hand, besides being used purely for loading fragmented rock into
trucks the wheelloader сап also Ье used for transporting this material over limited
distan~es - up to about 100 -150 m ("Ioad and саггу" operation).
The service life of а wheel loader is shorter than that of ап excavator. The
mechanical and hydraulic systems of the articu lated wheelloader with centre pivot
steering аге sophisticated and subject to severe operating loads and stresses,
requiring а correspondingly large amount of servicing and maintenance. Against
this the initial cost of the machine is relatively low, and when used for "Ioad and
саггу" duties it enabIes savings in haulage vehicles and personnel to Ье effected.
When digging into rock pile consisting of jagged interlocking fragments, the wheel
loader will have to develop its maximum digging force, which тау exceed the
overturning load of the machine, so that its геаг wheels tend to lift off the ground.
Extra counterweight to prevent instability сап Ье obtained Ьу filling the tyres with
water.
4.2.4 Crawler loaders
'П quarrying, the use of these machines is generally confined уо sites where the
ground is very rough ог very soft, е. g., in open-pit clay digging. The bucket is
mounted оп а crawler undercarriage which сап function underthese unfavourabIe
conditions. Оп the other hand, the travel movements аге slower than those of а
wheelloader and the cycle time (and therefore the loading rate) correspondingly
less favourabIe. Equipped with а ripping attachment, the crawler loader сап
additionally perform light breaking-out duties.
49
 Haulage
В. Raw materials 11. Quarrying

5 Haulage 50
Haulage comprises the transport of the fragmented rock pile material from the
loading point to the crushing plant. Two main systems аге to Ье distinguished: 40 80
(1) haulage Ьу rail-mounted vehicles;
(2) haulage Ьу rubber-tyred vehicles and other means.
30 60
ф payload in t
Depending оп the choice of haulage system and the particle size of the material to
Ье handled, the rock pile loaded Ьу the loading machine is either fed to а primary
't) Q; 1& Nutzlast i~t _-------<r-
.в~20 ~~40 ::.~. _. ;0- ..0-.-0-.-0...."0...-0
crusher in the quarry, the product of which is fuгther transported to the cement >- ....
works, ог the rock pile is carried in heavy dump trucks ог railway wagons to а О;:; :J~ cement production БХ 1Q б t
a.z С«
Zementproduktion х 10 t
crushing plant located away from the quarry. Intermediate solutions аге possibIe. 10 2
Thus, the rock тау Ье loaded into trucks and taken to а primary crusher in the
quarry, the crushed material then being delivered Ьу а belt conveyor system to the
cement works. Other variants аге likewise availabIe, and the choice of haulage 1966 1971 1976
method will depend primarily оп considerations of есопоту. 'П addition, local
factors play а part, such as the haulage distances, the gradients оп the haulage Fig. 5: Evolution in haulage vehicles
routes, the number of working points in the quarry, the bearing capacity of the
ground, and the need for selective quarrying.

5.1 Rail haulage
With а
few exceptions, haulage of quarried materials Ьу rail-mounted vehicles has
Ьееп superseded in recent years. "Railless" haulage, mainly Ьу dump truck ог belt
conveyor, is now predominant.
Traction is provided Ьу diesellocomotives ог, оп larger projects, electric 'осото­
tives. The latter have the advantage of requiring fewer repairs, but аге liabIe to
cause probIems and extra expense оп account of the system of overhead contact
wires needed for powering them. Standardized track gauges аге 600 тт, 900 тт
and 1435 тт. The payload рег wagon is limited Ьу the gauge, е. g., 4 m З for
600тт.
Itshould Ье noted that certain minimum radii ofcuгvature haveto becomplied with
in laying the tracks and that the maximum gradient а loaded train of wagons сап
negotiate (over short distances) is 1 :17.
5.2 Haulage Ьу rubber-tyred vehicles and other means
5.2.1 Heavy trucks
Trucks as the principal means of haulage were first used in open-pit mining in
America in 1937. Those vehicles were of 15 to 20 t payload and engine power
rating up to 11 О kW (150 h.p.). Developments since those days have led to trucks
with load capacities of up to 318 t and powered Ьу locomotive diesel engines that
сап develop 2427 kW (3300 h.p.).
The vehicles сап Ье subdivided into non-articulated and articulated vehicles with
two ог тоге axles and various systems of dumping, i. е., discharging the load. The
following description is confined to forward-contro\ two-axle rear-dump trucks,
the type most extensively used in cement raw materials quarrying.
'П about 90% of аН open-pit rock quarries in the Federal RepubIic of Germa~y with
annual outputs of over 50 000 t, in 1976 the main haulage e9ui~ment conslste~ of
heavy and medium-duty trucks. Fig.5 illustrates the еvоlutюп ,п haulage vehlcle
utilization Ьу cement works representing about 65% of аll West~German ceme.nt
production. It appears from this diagram that the number of. vehlcle~ has steadlly
diminished in the last ten years, while the payload рег vehlcle has IПсгеаsеd.
High-speed and low-speed diesel engine~ аге. used for powering the mod~rn
heavy trucks. The largest vehicle at present In eXlstence, wlth 318 t load capaclty,
is equipped with а 3300 h.p. slow-running diesel. The truck.s mo~t com~only ~sed
in quarrying operations аге, however, of 35t ог 50t capaclty, wlth englne гаtlПgs
mostly between 400 and 700 h.p. . . .
Powershift transmission is now standard equipment оп medlum-slzed vehlcles
(upto about 1OOt), while mechanical gearboxes аге used only in .the smaller.ty~es
of vehicle. For heavy dump trucks (above about 100 t) mecha~lcal tгапsml~SЮП
systems аге now obsolete. These vehicles have diesel-electric drlve ог have dlrect-
drive axle motors (mechanically connected to the wheels) ог wheel-hub motors.
The third possibility is hydrostatic power transmission. .
The braking system is subject to heavy loads and has to Ье deslgn.ed and
constructed to appropriate standards of efficiency a~d safety. It comprlses the
service brake and emergency brake, ап auxiliary or parklng brake, and а retarder. 'П
principle, the brakes аге designed as multiple-circuit sys.tems.
The tractive force diagram is ап important basis for as~essl.ng the performance ~f а
dump truck. It is necessary to find the optimum соmы
аtюпn between the tractlve
force in the low speeds and in the highest speed ("top gear"). .
As the ratio of payload to unladen weight is steadily incre~sin~ and the welght of
the vehicle therefore varies greatly, while the roads оп whlch It travels ar~ usually
unpaved, the suspension has to stand up to severe conditions of seГVlce. The

51
50
В. Raw materials 11. Quarrying
requirement that springing should Ье equally good for the unladen and the fully
laden vehicle is fulfilled Ьу а suspension system with а parabolic spring
characteristic, i. е., the curve representing the spring tension as а function of the
spring travel is not а straight line but а parabola, so that the tension increases тоге
than proportionally with increasing compression of the springs. The vehicle
manufacturers strive to achieve this suspension behaviour Ьу means of various
springing and damping systems:
hydropneumatic suspension (oil/gas);
rubber springing systems (rubber cushions and telescopic struts ог rubber-
element telescopic struts);
steel springs;
hydraulic suspension systems.
The dump bodies, ог hoppers, of the vehicles have to withstand very rough service
conditions and аге made of highly wear-resistant steel plate with stiffening
features. At the front end there is а projecting shield to protect the driver's саЬ. The
body сап Ье heated with engine exhaust gas to prevent sticky materials from
caking inside it under wet weather conditions. The tipping movement of the body,
for dumping the load, is performed Ьу hydraulic action.
Among the various cost items in the operation of haulage vehicles, tyre wear is
especially important. The rate of wear depends оп several factors, including the
tread pattern and the possibIe use of protective chains оп severely abrasive rock
terrain.
The functional availabllity rating of а heavy truck with ргорег maintenance, repairs
and spares planning сап Ье put at around 80%. The condition ofthe haulage roads
not oniy affects {уге wear, but aiso hiil-climbing ability, vehicle speed and fuel
consumption. As the roads аге, as а rule, not surfaced with permanent paving
materials, а grader is а useful machine for maintaining them in adequate
condition.
With regard to the interadjustment of the loading machine and the trucks it сап Ье
said that the ratio of loading bucket capacity to truck payload capacity should Ье
between 1 : 3 and 1 : 8 if loading is done Ьу ап excavator and between 1 : 3 and 1 : 6
if it its done Ьу wheel loader. The outreach and loading height of the loading
machines should Ье sufficient to ensure complete filling of the truck.
5.2.2 Belt conveyors
Encouraged Ьу the good experience gained in lignite mining, belt conveyor
systems have evolved into ап important means of transport in open-pit quапуiпg
and mining operations in loose-textured material ог soft ground. 'П rock quarrying,
оп the other hand, this method of material handling is only sporadically used and
then for the most part only in the production of raw materials for the European lime
and cement industry.
Th.e coars~ly fragmented material produced Ьу rock bIasting has to undergo
sUltabIe prlmary crushing in а mobile ог portabIe plant and hasto Ье fed carefully
onto the belt conveyor Ьу means of а special device so as to prevent damage to the
52
Haulage
belt. These arrangements аге the main reasons why the introduction of such
conveyors into quarrying is making rather slow progress. The sequence:
drilling and bIasting,
- loading,
- haulage (е. g., in dump trucks),
is replaced Ьу:
drilling and bIasting,
loading,
(primary) crushing,
conveying (belt conveyor).
Overland belt conveyor systems аге usually designed for carrying the quarried
materials over medium distances. These installations аге characterized Ьу flexibllity
of design, enabIing them to adaptthemselves to uneven terrain conditions, е. g., Ьу
the use of catenary-type idler sets with rollers mounted оп steel wire ropes. The
specific cost of transport with the belt conveyor decreases with increasing length
of the system and increasing material handling rate, the latter in turn being
dependent оп belt width, speed, and cross-sectional (troughed) shape. The speed
тау Ье anything up to 3 m/second, and instead of а standard trough angle of 200,
тоге deeply troughed cross-sections with angles of 250 ог 300 тау Ье used. With
increasing centre-to-centre distances the steel wire саЫе belt becomes the type
predominantly employed. Depending оп the length of the belt, its slope (angle of
ascent) and handling rate, опе ог тоге drive motors, ins~alled at опе ог both ends
of the belt, аге used to power it.
'П comparison with vehicular haulage, the overland belt conveyor makes much
тоге modest demands upon route alignment and the structures for bridging апу
traffic routes that have to Ье crossed - not least because the uniformly distributed
loading of the conveyor does not require anyappreciabIe bearing capacity of the
subsoil. Gradients of up to 180 сап moreover easily Ье overcome.
А drawback of the belt is its limited adaptability to alignments curved оп plan and
the susceptibility of the belt to suffer damage from coarse hard lumps of material.
Furthermore, somewhat limited positional adaptability in the quапу in order to
соре with varying locations of the mobile crusher (which in turn will depend оп
variations in the working and loading points in the quarry) is another disadvantage
of the belt conveyor.
Keeping the belt conveyor in good operational order requires some monitoring
devices, е. g., metal detectors and devices for the detection of tears and holes in the
belt. Sideguide idlersshould Ье provided in orderto assist in the training ofthe belt
to run true and in line with the carrying idlers.
5.2.3 Load and сапу
For relatively small distances between the rock pile loading point and the mobile
crusher (not тоге than about 200 т) it тау Ье advantageous to make use of the
good mobility of the wheel loader and its favourabIe ratio of bucket capacity to
53
В. Raw materials 11. Quапуiпg
service weight. The currently availabIe machines with up to 20 m З bucket capacity
аге adequate for the purpose.
In the load and сапу method the wheel loader scoops up its bucket-Ioad of
fragmented rock at the quarry face and directly transports it to the crusher, which is
equipped with а special receiving hopper to accept the material discharged from
the bucket. With some types of crusher the loader travels up onto а kind of ramp
and deposits the load into the crusher opening. The crushed product is conveyed
to the cement works Ьу overland belt conveyor.
Time studies in а limestone quarry where two wheel loaders, each of 10.6 m З
bucket capacity, were used оп load and сапу duties over а distance of 100 m
showed the average loading cycle time, inclusive of safety margins, to Ье about
120 seconds. Theoretical handling rates of up to 500 t/hour were attained, not
allowing for time spent оп repairs and оп waiting for removal of the crusher to fresh
working locations. It was found that the performance is substantially dependent оп
the travel speed of the wheelloader, the condition of the terrain and the gradients
to Ье overcome. The rolling resistances encountered Ьу the loader directly and
considerabIy affect the performance (rate of material handling) Ьу their reduction
of the travel speed. In practice, speeds аге between 6 and 12 km/hour for the laden
journey and between 8 and 14 km/gour for the unladen return journey to the
loading point. For а travel distance of 30 m these differences in speed between the
two limits of the range оп each journey may cause handling rates attained Ьу а
particular machine to vary Ьу 29%. For а distance of 150 m the rates may, for the
same reason, vary Ьу 63%. Оп soft subsoil and/or оп terrain with steep gradients
the maximum travel distance between loading point and crusher should therefore
Ье limited to not more than 60 - 80 m.
5.3 Aerial ropeways
The advantages offered Ьу ап aerial ropeway (aerial tramway) are due to its ability
to overcome difficult terrain conditions. This method of transporting materials is
largely independent of the nature and utilization of the ground over which the
system is routed. It provides а short connection between the terminal stations and
сап overcome considerabIe gradients. Operation of the ropeway сап Ье fully
automated, while power consumption is relatively low.
Double-саbIе and single-cable systems аге available. In the latter, опе and the
same саЫе (wire горе) serves to support as well as to tow the buckets. Ropeways
сап Ье used for virtually апу distance from, say, 1 km to 100 km. The speed of the
buckets is about 4 m/second.
There аге some major drawbacks, however, which limit the use of ropeways to
exceptional cases. The handling capacity is limited to about 500t/hour. The
capacity of ап existing installation сап Ье increased, if at all, only at considerabIe
capital expense. Also, а ropeway system is susceptible to faults and breakdowns
(especially in larger installations), while operating performance is liable to Ье
hampered Ьу high winds.
54
Mobile crushing plants
6 Moblle crushing plants
The combination of mobile crusher and belt conveyor system has in recent years
managed only in the quarries of the Ешореап lime and cement industry to secure
anything like а substantial proportion of the material handling duties. However,
there have lately Ьееп moves to test and introduce this system also in other ореп­
pit rock quапуiпg and mining operations. The overall trend is towards higher
throughput rates. In contrast with the static crushing plant installed at the edge of
the quarry (which is still the more usual arrangement), necessitating haulage ofthe
material from the quarry face to the crusher over а distance which increases as
quarrying advances, а mobile plant сап Ье moved close to the loading point ог to
varying central positions in the quarry which аге most favourably located at апу
given stage of the operations. Depending оп the depth of the quarry and the length
of the haulage roads, the mobile crusher in combination with а belt conveyor
system may prove а substantially more economical alteгnative to the static
crusher.
The mobile crusher is fed either directly ог indirectly. With direct feed the loading
machine takes up the material from the rock pile at the face and deposits it straight
into the feed opening of the crusher. The best performance (highest feed rate) is
obtained if the feed opening is low so that the loading machine сап most
conveniently discharge the contents of its bucket ог hopper into it. This means that
the height of the crusher and undercarriage should Ье suitabIy low.
In the indirect method the loading machine first deposits its load into а feed device
which in turn discharges it into the crusher feed opening. The device should deliver
the material uniformly to the crusher and may Ье ап apron conveyor, а ПJЬЬег belt
conveyor or а chain conveyor. The direct feed method is used only in about 4% of
all mobile crushers, the indirect method being standard practice in 96% (of which
about 80% of such installations have аргоп conveyors, 14 % belt conveyors and 2%
chain conveyors).
1n order to increase the throughput, the material may Ье screened between the feed
device and the crusher, so that only the larger pieces of rock аге fed to the latter,
while the undersize pieces аге delivered directly onto the belt conveyor.
The actual crusher may Ье апу of the usual types of primary crushing machines. The
machines manufactured in the Federal RepubIic of Germany for the international
cement industry comprise the following types'
60%
single-rotor and doubIe-гоtог hammer crushers
30%
- impact crushers
10%.
- jaw crushers and gyratory crushers
These figures comprise mobile as well as static crusher plants.
А swivelling conveyor may Ье used to receive the crushed product and provide ап
adaptabIe connecting link between the mobile crusher and the overland belt
conveyor system. This intermediate conveyor is usually а belt conveyor (in 74% of
the cases), ог else ап apron conveyor (24%) ог а chain conveyor (2%).
The travel mechanism of the mobile crusher is of major importance. There аге
various types:
55
В. Raw materials 11. Quarrying Site restoration

walking mechanism; Crawler tracks тау Ье fitted parallel or transversely to the direction of passage of
crawler tracks; the material through the crushing plant. This method of travel.is a~va.ntag.eous in
rubber-tyred wheeled chassis; cases where the bearing pressure оп the ground has to геmаlП wlthl~ falrly I~w
semi-mobile crusher. limits and where frequent changes of location сап suitabIy Ье achleved wlth
The choice of the appropriate type will Ье based оп numerous criteria, such as moderate travel speeds. А disadvantage is the high service weight in. comp~ri~on
service weight, bearing pressure exerted оп the ground, headroom (overall with the walking crusher, generally poorer climbing capacity оп gradlents, '~~It~d
height), drive power rating, travel speed, manoeuvrability in different directions, scope for installing the crusher оп sloping ground, and inadequate moblllty ,п
performance оп gradients, permissibIe slope оп which the plant сап Ье installed, different directions.
maintenance and repair possibilities during plant operation, behaviour with regard Rubber-tyred mobile crushers have advantages in terms of servic~ ~eight, tr~vel
to frequent changes of location. Fig. 6 shows the proportions of the various types speed, and possibility of carrying out servicing while t~e c~usher IS In орегаtюп.
of travel mechanism for mobile crushers as they have Ьееп introduced and Also, the climbing capacity, mobility in various dlгесtюпs, and scope for
developed over the years. installation оп sloping ground are adequate, but the high bearing pressure exerted
The advantages and disadvantages of these types are bound up with the Ьу the wheels is а drawback. . '
conditions of use. А semi-mobile crusher has по permanently attached travel mechanlsm or chassls
of its own. When in service, the plant is supported оп а steel frame or оп skids. For
moving it to а different working location, а special lifti.ng truck or. а travelling
60 chassis is used, the advantage being that these travel devlces are avallabIe for use
pneumatic tyres also with other semi-mobile crushers. This arrangement helps to keep down the
1/1
~ 50 Pneufahrwerk capital cost of the crushing plant. Lifting trucks of up to 600 t capacity are now
о
~J!
availabIe for the purpose. Travel speeds are in the region of 2 kmjhour.
'NOlking mechanism
cф~t 40 Schreitwerk
Её 7 Site restoration
ф ...
и~ ЗО
EN In addition to the probIems of environmental protection to Ье overcome, the pit
:.г and quarry industry has the special probIem of site restoration, .reinstatem~nt or
l):r; 20
recultivation. These terms indicate the need for the raw materials quаГГУlПg or
E~ crawler tracks mining activities to соте to terms with the demands of nature and landscape
::Jc
С<{ 10 Raupenfahr werk
conservation. Restoration in this sense means restoring the landscape to some-
thing like its original or at least ап environmentally acceptabIe appear~nc~ after the
quarrying operations have ceased оп the site concern~d. R~сultlvаtюп r:n ore
1956 1960 62 б4 66 68 70 72 74 76 particularly refers to creating а biologically and ecologlcally Intact and vlabIe
Fig.6: Evolution in mobile crushers (Manufacturers in Fed. Аер. of natural habitat for animal and plant life.
Germany)
7.1 The situation in the cement industry
The building materials industry, including the cement industry, uses raw materials
The walking mechanism is powered Ьу а hydraulic system. Vertical rams lih the which, generally speaking, are extracted rather close to the surface of the.g.round.
machine and its walking pad or shoe, while horizontal rams move the shoe forward These materials are found in relatively limited quantities in particular localltles and
and thrust the whole machine in the desired direction. This is the general principle, сап Ье economically transported only over fairly short distances. The choice of
but actual details of the mechanism vary from опе manufacturer to another. location for the processing plant (cement works) is therefore directly bound up
The advantages of the walking method of travel are the low bearing pressure per with the location of the quarrying area.
unit area of ground оп which the machine travels, the mobility in different The raw material needs of the German cement industry involve the quarrying of
directions, the ability to climb gradients, and the possibility of installing the about 1 km 2 of fresh land per year. Since the Federal RepubIic of Germany is а
crushing plant оп sloping ground. Оп the other hand, this travel method is not very country with limited raw material resources, but is опе the world's largest raw
suitabIe in cases where the crusher has to Ье moved fairly frequently from опе material consumers, the indigenous supplies obviously must Ье utilized in the most
location to another. The travel speed is low, but so is the drive power required. efficient possibIe way.

56 57
 В. Raw materials 11. Quarrying
1.2 Quarries and landscaping
With increasing size of individual quarries, the probIems associated with site
restoration have correspondingly increased.
For the present-day large and deep quarries methodically conducted restoration
measure~ аге ne~e~sary and а statutory requirement. Since it is, generally speaking,
~o.t posslbIe to fIIlln the excavations because there is not enough backfill material,
It IS necessary to remodel the landscape in ап acceptabIe таппег. Additional
changes in the арреагапсе of the restored site will Ье caused Ьу the presence of
overburden tips and settling ponds.
Experience has shown that early p/anning for the subsequent utilization of the
qu~rry site an,d ancillary features (waste tips, etc.) is essential to speedy and
satlsfactory rel.nstat.ement of а functional landscape configuration. What usually
cannot Ье avolded IS that the restored site will comprise exposed rock faces. The
important thi~g, however, is the overall resulting арреагапсе of the landscape.
WI.th metho?lcal restoration, а varied landscape with а good range of plant and
anlmal specles сап Ье obtained. Not only is it thus possibIe to restore а pleasing
арреагапсе to the countryside, but in some exceptional cases the restored site тау
even look better than it originally did before quarrying started. For reasons of cost,
the quarry operators will strive to restore the site as soon as possibIe after the
quarr~ing. operations .in а particular агеа have ended, so that topsoil spreading and
гесultlvаtюп сап Ье Interlinked as closely as possibIe.
Ап alternative useful quarry site restoration method is to utilize the excavations for
refuse disposa/, so that they аге filled in before final landscaping.
1.3 Restoration features
Planni~g the site ~estoration measures involves hillsides, benches, final quarry
floor, tlPS and sеttllПg ponds. 'П addition, the effect of trees and shrubs planted in
co~nection with these measures upon the propagation of noise, waste gases and
nOlse should Ье taken into consideration.
7.3.1 Hillsides
In the present context these comprise the areas situated between the rim of the
quarry and the unaffected surrounding land. The plants, shrubs, etc. planted оп
these strips of land should protect them from soil erosion and should moreover
scatter their seeds onto the benches, floors and quarry faces. Непсе the hillside
vegetation forms the basis and starting point for the natural flora and the associated
/a~dscaping within the quarry Апу waste tips (overburden piles, etc.) that тау
eXlst оп ог пеаг the hillside strips сап suitabIy Ье included in the planting program.
Whll.e quarr~l~g operations аге sti/l in progress, such grassed and planted tips
proVlde аddltюпаl protection against dust and noise nuisance. The areas in
question should Ье planted with undemanding deep-rooted species, such as
sallow (Iow-growing willows). These not only form and hold the topsoil but in
conj~ nction with the su~cessive vegetation stages of grass, plants and bushes they
provlde the natural habltat for subsequent other species.
58
Site restoration
7.3.2 Berms and quarry faces
After extraction of the workabIe mineral, berms ог benches remain оп the final
slopes, and the correct choice of width for these horizontal/edges is important in
connection with the subsequent growth of vegetation оп them. As а rule, they
should Ье 3 to 6 m wide, depending оп the height above the quarry floor and unless
statutory regulations require other dimensions. Against the need for suitabIy wide
berms must Ье set the requirement that the least possibIe quantity of workabIe
mineral should Ье left behind in the quarry. А compromise will therefore have to Ье
effected.
Маг' and 'оат тау Ье used for filling and banking against quarry faces, because
topsoil is generally not availabIe in sufficient quantities. Soil-forming a~d de~p­
rooting plants should preferabIy Ье used, which сап protect the subsoll аgаlПst
erosion Ьу water flowing down the quarry faces.
Steep rock walls аге unsuitabIe for planting with vegetation, except wher~ sin.ks
(dolines) filled with 'оату material already exist. А certain amount of plant Ilfe wlll,
however, gain а foothold in loam-filled crevices and at the j~nctions between
strata and will in course of time spread to give а natural coverlng of greenery to
parts ofthe rock. 'П апу casethe wallsshould Ье stabIe and properly ~rimmed.l~ has
Ьееп found that the stability сап Ье considerabIy improved Ьу lеаVlПg а relatlvely
thin 'ауег of the workabIe deposit in situ.
7.3.3 Final quarry floor
The final floor of the quarry should generally Ье levelled. However, if sufficient
quantities of overburden аге availabIe, artificial hillocks тау Ье formed, which help
to introduce some pleasing variety into the overall visual impression created Ьу the
restored site. Апу depressions caused Ьу overburden stripping operations should
Ье filled in. If the final floor is dry and topsoil is in short supp/y, it тау Ье necessary
to provide artificial irrigation. Otherwise а certain amount of replanting will have to
Ье carried out to make good the losses of vegetation that occur in periods of dry
weather.
Оп the other hand, ifthe final floor is below ground water level, flooding тау occur
when the quarry pumps аге stopped. А lake will then Ье formed, which сап Ье а
pleasing feature of the landscape in combination with the ~Iants, bus~es and trees
growing оп the berms and hillside strips, besides сгеаtlПg ап envlronment for
aquatic birds. Also, the water in the quarry сап serve as а reservoir.
7.3.4 Waste tips
The recultivation of the tips (overburden and waste material piles) is normally
carried out before restoration work starts оп the quarry itself. Economic, technical
and landscaping criteria аге applicabIe to the operations of locating, building up
and shaping the tips.
1n order to keep transport costs down, waste tips аге generally located as close to
the quarry as possibIe so as to have minimum overburden haulage distances. When
59
 В. Raw materials 11. Quarrying
Site restoration

the quarry has reached its final extent, it тау Ье advantageous to dispose the tips
Planted areas of this kind do not themselves produce dust, ап~ much of the du~t
around the quarry site, where they сап serve а useful purpose in visually screening
carried into them Ьу wind is trapped. Моге particularly, the slО~lПg down of the a.lr
the workings and acting as а barrier curbing the emission of noise, dust and
exhaust gases. currents Ьу the foliage cause them to discharge m~ch of thelr dus~ burden. Thls
result is тоге effectively achieved if the dust-Iaden а/г сап penetrate IПtо the ~elt?f
Grassing and planting the tips should begin, in the ргорег season, as soon as
trees, so that dust precipitation takes place in ог just behi~d. it..Eddy fогmаtюп IП
possibIe after they have Ьееп completed. Besides grass, other species of plant
front of dense forest also results in а certain smount of ргеСIРltаtюп, but а lot of the
should Ье sown, е. g., clover, lupins, etc. Aher this vegetation has had time to
dust remains airborne and is carried along in the wind that sweeps over the top of
develop, afforestation should соттепсе with fast-growing species such as alders.
The ultimate aim should Ье to achieve mixed plant;ng. such forest instead of penetrating into it. . .
Roughly speaking, forest with 40% penetrability achieves the bes~ dust preclpl.-
tating effect. 'П winter, when the trees and bushe~ hav~ shed thelr leaves, thelr
7.3.5 Settling ponds effectiveness is reduced to about 60% of that аttаlПеd ,п summer.
With regard to the effect of planted areas (тоге particularly: belts of forest) оп the
Like the waste tips, the settling ponds must also Ье incorporated into the restored
distribution and objectionabIe action of waste gases there аге four aspects to Ье
landscape. The choice of location for these features сап Ье ап important factor in
distinguished:
this connection. Natural depressions in the ground, hollows ог old quarry workings
сап suitabIy Ье used for the purpose. reduction of wind velocity;
The outer face of ап impounding dam should Ье planted with trees. Оеер roots increase of turbulence;
help to stabilize the soil. The silted-up settling pond areas should likewise Ье true filtering action Ьу the foliage;
planted with trees ог otherwise Ье used as pasture ог агаЫе land. Other possibIe physiologically beneficial effect of wind screening Ьу the trees and
uses аге as sports fields ог recreational facilities, as such areas аге usually very bushes. . k
flat. If а belt of forest is to Ье at all effective in the attenuation of роllutюп Ьу smo е,
When substantial pond areas have thus filled up, p/anting оп them should fumes and waste gases, two conditions have to Ье satisfied:
соттепсе as soon as they аге sufficiently firm and trafficabIe. the belt of forest should rise well above the initial level at which the smoke
plume spreads out;
the distance from the trees to the source of smoke emission must not Ье too
7.4 Noise and dust emission great.
(See also Chapter Н: En~ironmental protection)
7.5 Cost
The planting of shrubs and trees for the purpose of noise and dust emission control
should Ье p/anned and carried out before the quarry is opened up. The execution of Because of the тапу and varied possibilities for the subsequent utilization of
such measures тау, however, run into difficulties, тоге particularly in open-pit worked-out quarries and their ancillary installations, and. al~o beca~se of the other
projects extending Over very large areas of land. Planting should in апу case variabIe factors involved (wages, etc.), по generally-valld Iпfогmаtюп оп the cost
immediately Ье started along the boundaries where the final extension of the of site restoration сап Ье given. For the most commonly encountered case where
quarry workings has Ьееп reached. This will Ье conducive to speedy restoration of restoration consists of landscaping the site Ьу the planting of trees ап~ shrubs,
the site and its re-integration into the surrounding landscape. however, the following figures (for German conditions in 1979) сап provlde some
Although the sound-attenuating effect of а belt of trees and bushes ;s often approximate guidance:
overrated, dense forest with well developed undergrowth сап reduce the sound soil stripping at least 1.00 ОМ/т2
~evel b~ betw~e.n 0.5 and 2.0 dB (А) рег 1 О m of sound transmission path through supplying fill material at least 2.00 ОМ/т 2
It. ОЬvюuslу, It IS advantageous to make the strip of forest bordering the quarry as spreading 0.30 m topsoil 3.60 ОМ/т2
wide as possibIe. spreading 0.35 m organic soil 3.15 ОМ/т
2

As а barrier to atmospheric pollution, especially Ьу dust, strategically planted trees planting of seedlings, incl. subsequent саге 2.25 ОМ/т2
and bushes сап Ье of real vafue. From this point of view it is тоге effective to have ОМ/т
2
planting of saplings and shrubs 3.00
а belt of high trees in stepped formation ог rows of trees in а staggered spray seeding of rubbIe slopes
arrangement, in either case allowing the wind to bIow through them. This form of (depending оп angle of slope) 2.00 to 3.80 ОМ/т2
protection is тоге effective than dense forest presenting а relatively impenetrabIe quarry floor afforestation, individual trees 2.00 ОМ/т2
obstacle to the flow of air.
The cost рег hectare тау thus Ье of the order of 100000 ОМ.
60
61
 References
В. Raw materials 11. Quarrying

22. PreuBer, W.: Versuchssprengungen mit losem ANC-Sprengstoff (Атто­

References пех 1) im Werk Flandersbach der Rheinischen Kalksteinwerke GmbH,
Wulfrath. - In: Die Industrie der Steine und Erden 2/1966.
1. Alth~ff, Н.: Die Weiterentwicklung der Schreitwerke fLir schwere ortsbe-
23. R6ttgen, R.: Flachensprengungen a\s Mittel zum selektiven Abbau. - 'п:
wegllche Brechanlagen. - 'п: ZKG 21/1968/512- 515.
Nobel Hefte 33/1967/149.
2. Beek,~.: Rekultivierung eines Steinbruchs. - In: ZKG 31/1978/247 -249. 24. Rottgen, R.: Das Flachensprengverfahren beim Einsatz eines ANC-Misch-
3. Caterp~llar Tractor, Со.: Handbook of Ripping. - August 1975.
ladefahrzeuges. - 1п: Nobel Hefte 42/1976/123.
4. Caterplllar Tractor Со.: Performance handbook, 8th edition. - Oktober 1977 25. Schater, H.-U.: Maschinensystem zur Rohstoffgewinnung in Festgestein-
5. Dynamit Nobel: Die Sprengarbeit in Tagebauen und Steinbruchen 2 Auf~
tagebauen. - In: ZKG 30/1977/541-544.
lage, 9/1975. ' .
26. Schiele, Е. / Forsthoff, W.: Stand der Tagebau- und Steinbruchtechnik. - In:
6. EII~, K.-H./~ruschka, О.: Leistungen, Betriebskosten und Standzeiten von
ZKG 24/1971/158.
RelBraupen In Kalksteinbruchen. - In: ZKG 30/1977/516. 27. Sillem, Н.: Rohstoffgewinnung: TiefreiBer, Fahrbrecher, Mischbetten. - 'п:
7. Flachsenberg, Р.: Laden und Transport in Steinbruchen. - In: Aufbereitungs-
ZKG 21/1968/56.
Technik. 6/1965/149 -160. 28. Stumpf, К.: Abraumwirtschaft und Haldenlagerung bei der Kalksteinge-
8. Flachsenberg, Р.: Qualitatssteuerung und Qualitatsuberwachung im
winnung. - In: ZKG 21/1968/23 - 31.
Kalkwerk. - In: ZKG 19/1966/155-163. 29. Stumpf, К.: Die Rohstoffgewinnung als Ausgangsstelle der
9. Flachsenberg, Р.: ~as РгоЫет der Qualitats- und Mengensteuerung beim
Zementproduktion. - 'п: ZKG 24/1971/443-450.
A.bbau von Ka.lksteln. Vortrag auf der 9. Arbeitstagung des Fachausschusses 30. Thelen, А.: GгоВ-НуdгаulikЬаggег im Tagebau. - 'п: Baumaschinen u.
fur ВегgtесhПlk der GDMB ат 8.5.71 in Hameln. - GDMB Gesellschaft
Deutscher Metallhutten- und Berg/eute (Erzmetall), Paul-Егпst-StгаВе 1 О, Bautechnik 6/1977.
31. Thum, W.: Sprengtechnik im Steinbruchbetrieb und Baubetrieb.
3392 Clausthal-Zellerfeld.
Wiesbaden und Berlin: Bauverlag GmbH 1978.
1 О. Fr~y, Р.: Eine neue Steinbrecheranlage. - Separatabdruck aus der Neuen 32. Weinmann, W.: Die zweite Verordnung zum Sprengstoffgesetz: Neue bun-
Zurcher Zeltung Nr.29 vom 19.1.70. deseinheitliche Vorschriften uber die Aufbewahrung explosionsgefahrlicher
11. Grimmer, K.-J.: M6~lichkeit~n und Entwicklungsrichtungen zur F6rderung
Stoffe. - In: Nobel Hefte 44/1978/81.
groBer Massenschuttgutstrome. - 'п: Berg- und Huttenmannische 33. Weirich, К.: Einsatz einer verfahrbaren Brecheranlage im Steinbruch eines
Monatshefte 6/234 - 244. Zementwerkes. - In: Berg- und Huttenmannische Monatshefte 10/1969.
12. Grosse, О.: Wanderbrecher im Steinbruch eines Zementwerkes. - 'п: ZKG 34. WeiB, Н.: Fahrbare Grol1brechanlagen-Untersuchung der durch den Einsatz
23/1970/141 -146. fahrbarer Vorbrechanlagen in den Gewinnungsbetrieben verursachten
13. Hinz, W.: Umweltschutz und Energiewirtschaft. - 'п: ZKG 31/1978/215- Kostenanderungen. - 1п: Aufbereitungs- Technik 7/1966/109.
229. 35. Wilmanns, F.: GroBbrechanlagen mit Hydro-Schreiter in Steinbruchen. - In:
14. K6nig, R.: Entspricht unsere Sprengtechnik dem internationalen Stand? - In:
Aufbereitungs-Technik 9/1968/235 - 240.
Bergbau 5/1975/107. 36. Zepter, К.-Н.: Rohstoffgewinnung und Aufbereitung. 'п: ZKG
15. Korak, J./Martens, P.-N./Z6I1ner, G.: Bandtransport auch im Festgestein-
30/1977/499-507.
Tagebau. - In: F6rdern und heben 14/1974. 37. Zepter, К.-Н.: Schutzder naturlichen Umwelt - M6glichkeiten und Grenzen.
16. Korak, J. / Martens, P.-N. /Z61lner, G.: Radlader als Ladegerat im Festgestein- Vortrag, internationaler (techn.) KalkkongreB, Hershey, РА, USA, 21.-
Tagebau. - 'п: F6rdern und heben 1976/215-220.
22.9.78.
17. Korak, J. (Martens, Р.- Н. / Z6Ilner, G.: Schwerlastkraftwagen. Ein
T~ansportmlttel fur Massenschuttguter aus tagebautechnischer Sicht. - 'п:
Fordern und heben 1976/587 - 594.
18. Korak, J./Mart~ns, P.-.N./Z?llner, G.: Ladegerate fur den Festgestein-
Tagebau - eln Betrlebsmlttelvergleich. - 'п: F6rdern und heben
28/1978/819 - 824.
19. Matte~, Н.: Die Grenzen der Gewinnung vom Rohmaterial durch ReiBen und
Abschleben. - In: ZKG 25/1972/214.
20. Mentges, G.: Kalksteinabbau und Landschaftspflege. In: ZKG
27 /1974/518-586.
21. Pieper, 1.: Umweltschutz und Industrie. - In: ZKG 26/1973/409-412.
63
62
 В. Raw materials 111. Storage, bIending beds, sampling stations
Introduction

ш. Raw materials storage, bIending beds, 1 Introduction

sampling stations
The intermediate storage of raw materials between the quarry and the raw mill has
Ву D. Schmidt traditionally formed the stockpile from which а steady supply of materials for
processing in the cement works has Ьееп maintained. 'П addition, it has in recent
years Ьесоте increasingly important for the puгpose of рге-bIепdiпg ог рге­
1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . homogenizing of the crushed stone. In а few cases, final homogenization is even
65
2 Bed-bIепdiпg theory. . . . . . . . . achieved in this way. The principle of "bed-bIепdiпg"Ьу longitudinal stockpiling
66
2.1 Mode of operation of the bIending bed and transverse reclaiming of bulk materials has already long Ьееп practised in the
66
2.2 Assessment of а bIending bed . . . . . . . . coal and аге mining industries, such stockpiles being known as bIending beds. It is
69
2.3 Estimating the homogenizing effect in advance . being increasingly used in the cement industry for the homogenization of raw
71
3 Machinery and process engineering methods. stone orthe bIending ofdifferent raw materials, butalso forthe homogenization of
73
3.1 Stacking methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . clinker, bIastfuгnace slag and coal.
73
3.1.1 Chevron method. There аге а number of reasons for providing intermediate storage of raw materials
73
3.1.2 Windrow method in the form of а stockpile:
73
3.1.3 Horizontal layers. 75 processing in the works is thus made largely independent of the operations
3.1.4 Strata method. . . 75 in the quarry;
3.1.5 Cone-shell method. 75 multi-shift working in the quarry is rendered unnecessary Ьу the use of high-
3.1.6 Chevcon method . . . . . . . . 76 capacity loading, haulage and primary crushing machinery;
3.2 Stacking and reclaiming machines . . . . 77 noise and dust emission аге reduced in that they аге limited to shorter periods
3.2.1 Chevron stacking and end-on reclaiming. 77 of time;
3.2.1.1 Stacking machines. . . . . . . . . . . 77 the stockpile safeguards the uninterrupted supply of material to feed the
3.2.1.2 Reclaiming with front-acting machines . . .
3.2.2 80 present-day large kilns;
Blending bed system with windrow stacking . 83
3.2.2.1 Stacking machines. . . . . . . . . . . . . the stockpile сап deal тоге efficiently, in terms of material handling, with
3.2.2.2 83 sticky materials than storage in silos сап;
Reclaiming Ьу side-acting scrapers . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3.2.3 the stockpiling and reclaiming operations сап Ье satisfactorily automated;
Blending bed systems with horizontal and inclined stacking . 87
3.2.3.1 гound-the-clock operation of the fiпish-bIепdiпg and preparation plants fed
Stacking machines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
3.2.3.2 Reclaiming machines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . from the stockpile enabIes full advantage to Ье taken of cheaper electricity at
3.2.4 88 nights and week-ends.
Blending bed based оп the cone-shell method . 88
3.3 Arrangement of bIending beds 89 The following consideration5 аге additionally applicabIe to а bIending bed for raw
3.3.1 Longitudinal stockpiles.
90 material homogenization:
3.3.1.1 Parallel stockpile5 ..
90
3.3.1.2 In-line stockpi/es . . . better utilization of inhomogeneous raw material deposits;
3.3.2 90
Circular stockpile . рге-bIепdiпg of different raw material components is possibIe;
91
3.3.3 Homogenizing tanks ог troughs. . . . . better uniformity of the raw meal and therefore of the clinker is achieved, 50
92
3.4 Measuгes to combat end-cone probIems . that the quality of the cement is тоге nearly constant.
4 93
Sampling stations . . . . . . .
4.1 93 As а rule, new cement works аге equipped with bIending beds of various types,
Sample quantity. . . . . . . . 94
4.2 with ог without sampling stations. Similar arrangements аге provided under most
Proces5 engineering featuгes . . 94
4.2.1 modernization schemes for existing works. The following types of bIending bed аге
Sampling installation 1 (MIAG). 94
4.4.2 to Ье distinguished, all of which сап Ье designed as longitudinal (straight) ог
Sampling installation 2 (FLS). 97
4.3 circular beds:
Checking the sampling system 97 - Storage stockpiles
References. . . . . . . . . . . . No special requirements as to pre-homogenizing efficiency аге applied, and по
99 sampling station is needed. Stacking and reclaiming the material аге done Ьу
methods not involving the use of expensive and sophisticated machines.
64
65
В. Raw materials 111. Storage, bIending beds, sampling stations Bed-blending theory

DoubIe stockpiles, for raw materials containing а high and а low percentage of Reclaiming the material from the pile is done transversely to the direction of
lime, respectively, аге basically similar to the single-component stockpile. The stacking Ьу what is in principle а slicing action, тоге particularly if а side-acting
"high" and the "Iow" material аге simultaneously reclaimed from the bIending scraper is used. With this type of reclaimer the material is removed in а certain
stockpiles and аге used for approximately proportioning the raw mix. Further thickness all the way from the ridge to the toe of the stockpile. With а front-acting
corrective materials аге added ahead of the raw mills. reclaimer the entire cross-section of the pile is simultaneously acted upon Ьу the
raking-down device, so that the material removed in this way cannot really Ье
Blending beds with specified target values regarded as а "slice". AII the same, for the present purpose, such layers of reclaimed
Single-component bIending bed: This type of bIending bed is intended тоге material will likewise Ье conceived as thin slices.
particu larly for the stockpiling of limestone confirming to specified characteris- ОП these assumptions, the reclaiming operations сап Ье described as follows:
tic values (Iime standard, СаСО з , СаО). The stacking operations for building
Because of the superposition of the input variations in the composition of the
up the stockpile аге monitored Ьу а sampling station. In order to ensure а good
material stacked оп the stockpile, the material reclaimed in slices at right angles to
homogenizing ог bIending effect, the stacking and reclaiming equipment is
the stacking layers will Ье subject to certain output variations, which аге of two
тоге elaborate than that used in the ordinary storage stockpile.
kinds:
Proportioning stockpile: In this variant the required mix proportioning is (а) variations within an individual slice of material (short-term deviations);
obtained Ьу the simultaneous ог successive stacking of different raw material (Ь) variations in the average values of the slices (Ionger-term deviations).
components in the same pile. The input of materials has to Ье monitored Ьу а
sampling station. Неге, too, elaborate stacking and reclaiming equipment is
essential to achieving the bIending effect. In practice, however, this type of
x(t)
bIending bed has not соте into widespread use.
In general, it сап Ье said that pre-homogenization of the raw materials сап very
seldom enabIe subsequent homogenization of the raw meal to Ье dispensed with.
Depending оп the layoutofthe blending bed and its equipment, somevariations in
the composition of the reclaimed raw materials аге bound to occur, and these аге quantity (t)
passed оп to the subsequent stages of processing. Such variations have to Ье Menge (t)
evened out mainly Ьу homogenization of the raw meal. In planning the in-
stallations it is therefore necessary to consider the blending bed and the raw meal
homogenization system as а single whole. If the blending bed is designed to ~a
reclaiming in slices
achieve а high blending ог homogenizing effect, the subsequent homogenizing
stacking in equal
·Ат
layers transversely to the layers
treatment applied to the raw meal need Ье correspondingly less elaborate. Aufbau in gleichen Abbau in Scheiben
Conversely, ifthe blending bed is designed to а lower standard of homogenization, Schichten quer zu den Schichten
the raw теаl homogenization system will have to compensate for this. -:Кт.
material quantity \, material quantity
'2
рег layer = Ь. т ;/' '/:
рег slice = Ь. Q
Materialmenge рго fj~ /. Materialmenge
Schicht = Ь. т рго Scheibe = Ь. Q
2 Bed-bIепdiпg theory
2.1 Mode of operation of the bIending bed x(t)
Homogenization of materials in а blending bed сап Ье explained as follows:
The stacking (ог stockpiling) system disposes the incoming raw material in the
longitudinal direction of the pile Ьу continual to-and-fro movements, so that а
number of relatively thin layers of material аге deposited. In this way the raw quantity (t)
material flow is divided into quantities of М tonnes, each corresponding to one Menge (t)
layer. The longer-term variations in chemical composition, which depend оп а
particular system of working ог а particular working cycle in the quarry, аге thus Fig.1 : Variations in the raw material composition homogenized in the
"cut up" and superimposed one upon another in an irregular sequence. Ыепdiпg bed

66 67
В. Raw materials 111. Storage, bIending

Because of the slice-by-slice reclaiming technique the variations within the slice
Н(Х)
are evened out to а greater or less extent, depending оп the type of reclaiming
machine. The variations in the averages of the respective slices are predetermined
Ьу the quantities ~c and the number of layers N. For correct bIending bed design
the quantities of material per layer and the number of layers should Ье so chosen
that the remaining variations from опе slice to another are reduced to а minimum.
The bIending effect сап Ье improved - and indeed theoretically Ье made infinitely
good - Ьу increasing the number of layers in building up the stockpile and Ьу
using а reclaiming system that will efficiently homogenize the material.
These considerations indicate that the cycle of operations in the quarry deserves
closer attention. True, the standard deviation of the input variations cannot Ье
altered Ьу changing the cycle, but it is possibIe to improve the variations from опе
slice to another, the more so as the quantity of material per stacked layer exceeds

II Iзrd
1st ice S,liCe
1. Scheibe 3. Scheibe
kth slice mth slice
k-te Scheibe m-te Scheibe
the loading capacity of опе or more loading machines. The procedure in the quarry,
е. g., the loading and haulage from several qualitatively different rock piles, may
conceivabIy Ье correlated with the stockpiling of the material in the bIending bed,
2nd slice length of bed so that quantities of material with similar characteristics of quality or composition
2. Scheibe Mischbettlange
are stacked оп top of опе another in the same parts of the bed. This undesirabIe
Fig. 2: Frequency distribution within the individual reclaimed slices of situation, which diminishes the bIending effect achieved, сап Ье remedied Ьу
ап ideal bIending bed suitabIy varying the operations in the quarry, so as to achieve ап irregu lar sequence
of delivery of the material to the bed.
Figs.2 and 3 show two theoretical bIending bed reclaiming models. The material
x(t) slices and the statistical frequency distributions of the input and output variations
are shown.
Н(х) Fig.2 relates to reclaiming from ап ideal bIending bed. The continuous line
represents the input variations, the dotted line the output variations. "Ideal"
stacking of the material signifies that the chemical composition at every cross-
section of the bIending bed is equal to the overall average composition:
х; =5<.

The remaining output variations exist only within the slices of material. There are
по variations between опе slice and another.
In ап actual, as opposed to ап ideal, bIending bed there additionally occur
variations from slice to slice, as Fig. 3 shows. Even though the variations within the
slices remain unchanged, their average (or mean) values are now по longer equal
to the overall average of the chemical composition:
5<; =f=. 5<.

I
1st slice 3rd sl ice kth sl ice mth sl ice 2.2 Assessment of а bIending bed
1. Scheibe 3. Scheibe k-te Scheibe m-te Scheibe For assessing the homogenizing performance of а bIending bed, the following
2nd slice length of bed parameters will Ье considered.
2. Scheibe Mischbettlange
Four of these are introduced as estimated values of the statistical variance:
Fig. З: Аеаl frequency distribution within the individual reclaimed slices Sa 2 overall variance of the input variations
from а bIending bed
SJ32 overall variance of the output variations
68
69
Sx 2 variance of the averages of the slices.
Other parameters to Ье considered are:
N the number of layers
~c [t] the quantity of material per layer
~Q[t] the quantity of material per reclaimed slice.
The variations within the slices (SQ) are short-term ones. 'П the reclaiming
operation they are evened out to а greater or less extent, depending оп the type of
reclaiming equipment. This сап Ье most readily visualized when considering the
action of а side-acting scraper, а reclaimer which removes the material from the pile
in successive slices. The contents of each slice comprise marked variations, which
are passed оп to the processing equipment further down the linefrom the bIending
bed. With front-acting reclaimers the slices are thinner, the reclaiming action
comprises the entire cross-section of the pile, and the variations in each slice are
substantially smaller. 'П general, variations in the raw material are not equalized to
апу appreciabIe extent in the raw grinding plant. Непсе they will have to Ье
removed in the raw meal homogenizing system.
If reclaiming is done Ьу side-acting machines, the output variations, i. е., the
variations in the material coming out of the bIending bed, will Ье greater than if
front-acting machines are used. Therefore, with the former method it will Ье
necessary to provide suitabIy effective raw meal homogenizing facilities, whereas
these сап Ье simpler if the latter method is used. If each slice of reclaimed material is
regarded as а unit, the variations within it (sQ) сап Ье neglected, so that then only
the variations between the individual slices (5,,) remain to Ье considered. The latter
are ionger-term in character. Since the averages of these raw material slices differ
from the overall average, these variations cannot Ье removed Ьу raw meal
homogenization, but only Ьу means of а suitabIe components proportioning
system upstream of the raw mill.
The effectiveness of а bIending bed is expressed Ьу the concept of "homogenizing
effec(' (е), namely, the ratio of the standard deviations of the raw material
characteristics оп entering and leaving the bIending bed respectively; thus'
Sll
е=-
sp
However, this criterion Ьу itself is not sufficiently informative. In addition, the
absolute values of the output variations should Ье availabIe. In the planning of new
installations these values determine the performance requirements applicabIe to
the proportioning devices before the mills and/or to the homogenizing equipment
for the raw meal. With а well designed bed-bIепdiпg system it is possibIe to
achieve good homogenizing effects, Ьу which is more particularly to Ье under-
stood: low final variations in the chemical composition of the material, despite
possibIe high input variations of the material stockpiled in the bed.
The homogenizing (or bIending) effect of а bIending bed depends оп the method
of stacking and оп the characteristics of the reclaiming machinery. Опсе these two
70
to build up the bed has Ьееп decided, the homogenizing effect of the stockp~le as а
whole will have Ьееп predetermined. The final variations are bound up wlth the
output variations in the material reclaimed from the bed. 'П o.t~er words: whe~ the
design and operation of а bed have Ьееп fixed, the homogenlzlng effect I~ a~hleves
will Ье constant. Higher input variations will result in higher output vаrlаtюпs.
2.3 Estimating the homogenizing effect in advance
The bIending bed design methods reported in the literature are mainly concerned
with the variations between the slices of reclaimed material. The following method
is generally employed. It presupposes that the raw material values of the individual
slices conform to а normal distribution and are statistically independent.
For estimating the output variations the following relation is availabIe:
Theoretically, high homogenizing effects сап Ье attained Ьу making the number of
layers large enough, i. е., using very thin layers. . . . .
ОП the other hand, the presupposed statistical independence dlmlnlshes wl~h
decreasing layer thickness, for the quality characteristics of ~djacent raw materl~1
layers stacked in the bIending bed tend to Ье correlated wlt~ опе another. T.hls
phenomenon сап most easily Ье visualized at the reversal РОlПts of the stacklng
operation. Atthe end of each forward pass and the beginning of each return pas~ of
the stacker, material possessing the same properties is stack~d i~ two succes~l.ve
layers. Thus the condition that the material must Ье stacked In dlscrete quantltles
~'t"[t] is fulfilled only after every second layer, i. е., only every second layer
contributes to the homogenization achieved in the bIending bed.
The relationship between the standard deviation and the number of layers is shown
in Fig.4 for single-component and multi-component bIending beds. It emerg~s
that а worthwhile reduction in the output standard deviation is attained only If
there are at least about 50 layers. With increasing number of layers the rate of
improvement diminishes, so that from about 500 layers onwards there is hardly апу
further improvement in the homogenizing or bIending effect, while the sheer
technical effort and expense of building up the bed in so large а number of layers
would not Ье commensurate with the advantage gained.
The following conclusions are to Ье drawn from all this:
Predictive estimates in accordance with the method indicated above are to Ье
regarded only as approximate. With increasing number of layers the results
found for the homogenizing or bIending effect increasingly tend to over-
estimate the effect. (This has Ьееп verified Ьу check calculations based оп
accurate measured data.)
71
В. Raw materials 111. Storage, bIending beds. sampling stations Machinery and process engineering methods

5(·'.) standard deviation з Machinery and process engineering methods

from mean
\5 Standardabweichung
vom Mittelwert
3.1 Stacking methods
3.1.1 Chevron method
The raw material is deposited Ьу а stacking device moving continually to and fro
over the longitudinal centre-line of the stockpile. In this way individual layers
5 comp.onents,
- mean input variation containing equal quantities of material аге disposed опе upon another in the shape
5 Koml!9nenten of а series of ridged roofs. This means that. subject to ignoring the short-term
mittl. Eingangsschwankung
variations, all cross-sections have the same composition. The material discharged
from the stacker slides and rolls down the sides ofthe pile, thus causing а degree of
particle segregation depending оп the properties of the material concerned. The
coarser particles will tend to accumulate at the base of the pile. The arrow (Fig. 5)
indicates that building up the pile requires only опе central throw-off point of the
10 20 number of layers stacking device in the longitudinal direction and сап Ье achieved with relatively
Schichtzahl z simple equipment.

Fig. 4: Blending effect as а function of the number of stacked layers of

material

- When using the formula Sx = sa/VN it is advisabIe to introduce only half the
actual number of layers.
- There is по point in using fewer than 50 ог тоге than 500 layers.
Attempts to make тоге accurate predictions of the homogenizing effect of а
bIending bed usually fail for the following reasons:
the input variations in the material coming from the quarry аге not known and Fig.5: Chevron stacking method
аге then mostly over-estimated;
the thickness of the layers stacked in the bIending bed is not constant, this
being due to variations in performance of the handling and stacking
systems;
3.1 .2 Windrow method
the bed-bIепdiпg stockpile comprises two end cones where the conditions аге
different from those in the rest of the pile and which, depending in part оп the The drawback of particle segregation сап Ье avoided Ьу using the windrow
particle size of the material to Ье homogenized, have а marked detrimental method of stacking, in which the layers ("windrows") аге disposed longitudinally
infiuence оп the homogenizing effect. over and beside опе another. Although some segregation тау occur during the
stacking of the individual rows, it is limited to each individual row. Besides. this
Despite all its imperfections, the method of predicting the homogenizing effect as
effect сап Ье minimized Ьу appropriate choice of the height and spacing of the
outlined above is now widely used.
rows of stockpiled material. The larger the number of rows, the тоге favourabIe
According to Hasler. experience to date shows that with present-day bed-
will Ье the particle size distribution in the pile.
bIending technology the following values of the homogenizing effect сап Ье
obtained: 'П actual practice, however, the windrow method in its pure form, as illustrated in
е = 3 to 6 if the overall variations аге considered (Iong-term and short-term Fig. 6, is hardly everemployed. Much тоге often а combination ofthis method and
output variations) ; the chevron method is adopted.
е = 6 to 15 if the short-term variations аге left out of account (i. е., ignoring the А drawback ofthe windrow stacking technique is that it requires several throw-off
variations within each slice). positions, necessitating expensive slewing Ьоот stackers.

72 73
 В. Raw materials 111. Storage. bIending beds. sampling stations Machinery and process engineering methods

3.1.3 Horizontal layers

Step-by-step advancing of а bridge stacking system in conjunction with continual
slewing of the stacker belt conveyor оп its boom will produce а stockpile whose
individuallayers aredisposed horizontally опе оп top of another. With this method,
bulk materials differing in their angle of repose and consisting of particles in
relatively wide size ranges сап Ье stacked in layers varying in thickness, without
appreciabIe segregation.
It is also а suitabIe method for circular stockpiles, the stacking being done Ьу
means of а belt whose throw-off point moves in а meandering path.

Fig. 6: Windrow stacking method 3.1.4 Strata method

'П terms of cгoss-sectionaldistribution of the material in the stockpile, this method
его 55- seetion 01 bed is equivalent to the preceding опе, but with the drawback of а certain amount of
Mi schbetl querschni1t
segregation due to accumulation of the coarser particles at the bottom of the pile.
height The layers in this system аге inclined at ап angle of about 320 to 380.
Нбhеnlаgе
- - - - - - - - -----8 This type of stockpile is especially suitabIe for reclaiming Ьу side-acting
-----------7 machines.
---------6
--------5
-------4
-----3
--- 2
-,
I
I
strip No. 2 3 5 6 7
Strelfen Nr

Fig. 7: Actual stacking in а bIending bed

Fig. 9: Strata stacking method

3.1.5 Cone-shell method

As contrasted with the methods so far described, in which the stacking device
travels continually to and fro, in the cone-shell method the stacker - а belt
conveyor that сап Ье moved along the length ofthe pile ог а fixed-boom stacker -
forms а series of conical piles heaped опе against another. As soon as such а pile
has Ьееп built up to the appropriate height, the stacker moves оп. In this method а
distinction is to Ье drawn between continuous stacking and alteгnate stacking
(Figs. 1 О and 11).
The homogenizing ог bIending effect achieved with this method is less good than
Fig. 8: Stacking in horizontal layers
that achieved with the methods described above. while there is а fuгther
74
75
 Machinery and process engineering methods
В. Raw materials 111. Storage, bIending beds, sampling stations

disad~a~tage in thatthe coarser particles tend to accumulate at the base ofthe pile.
Reclal~lng сап Ье done only Ьу side-acting scrapers or Ьу underfloor +k I
\
ехtrасtюп.
n I
I
$=+- ( ( r (Г r r r r rr ~ I
11 6 L
~ ~
а.

schematic diagram
Schemati sche Daгstel\ung

Fig.12: Chevcon stacking principle

Fig.10: Continuous stacking method (numbers denote sequence)
there is very little segregation into coarser and finer particles. The stacker belt сап
continue to deposit the incomimg material even in the immediate vicinity of the
reclaimer, so that utilization of the fu 11 capacity of the bIending bed сап Ье attained
at all times. Since stacking is done continuously, а circular bed built up оп this
principle сап justifiabIy Ье called ап infinite bIending bed.

3.2 Stacking and reclaiming machines

Fig.11: Alternate stacking method (numbers defюtе sequence)
3.1 .6 Chevcon method
The firm of РН В offers this method as а hybrid of the chevron and the cone-shell
method. Itis suitabIy only for circular stockpiles.
The s~a.cking proced~re is similar to that used in the chevron method, but instead of
rеmаlПlПg over the rldge of the pile, the throw-off point of the stacker is varied а
rad!al dista~c~ ~ L i~ the course of each to and fro cycle. The slope of the face from
whlch reclalmlng wllI subsequently Ье done сап Ье varied Ьу appropriate alteration
of ~L. For constant stockpiling rates the angle а of the slope will then remain
unchanged (see Fig.12).
This ~ethod. very effectively overcomes the "end-cone probIems" that are
assoclated wlth bed-bIепdiпgstockpiles and will Ье further discussed later in this
chapter. In ad~iti?n, thanks to the overlapping of old and new material in the pile,
long-term vаrlаtюпs. or the effects of possibIe sudden changes in incoming
b~tches of raw materlal сап Ье cancelled. The number of layers comprised in each
~llceta~e~ bythe reclaimer is about30%greater (п + k) than the number (п) sliced
IП reclalmlng from ~he chevron pile with its flanks sloped at the natural angle of
repose of the materlal. As а result, а better homogenizing effect is obtained. Also,
76
Over the years, а large number of systems and machines have Ьееп developed, and
from these have evolved certain types of bIending bed, which will Ье described
here.
The combination of chevron (or, where applicabIe, chevcon) stacking with front-
acting reclaimers is to Ье regarded as the most favourabIe procedure, as it involves
the least expenditiure оп machinery. The process engineering disadvantages
associated with the chevron method of stacking are cancelled Ьу the use of front-
acting reclaimers. Such reclaiming machines are used also for stockpiles built up in
horizontal layers.
The alternative system consists in windrow stacking with reclaiming Ьу means of
side-acting scrapers. The MIAG "step-back" method is more particularly suitabIe
for this purpose.
Good homogenizing or bIending effects are also attained with the strata method
and side-acting scraper reclaimers.
The homogenizing effect of bed-bIепdiпg stockpiles built up Ьу the cone-shell
method and operating with side-acting scrapers or underfloor extraction is poor,
and for this reason it is а system little used for bIending beds.
3.2.1 Chevron stacking and end-on reclaiming
3.2.1.1 Stacking machines
Blending beds тау Ье of the outdoor type or Ье accommodated in suitabIe
buildings. 'П the latter case the material сап Ье stacked Ьу belt conveyors mounted
under the ridge of the roof or Ьу mobile f\oor-mounted stackers travelling the
77
 Machinery and process engineering methods
В. Raw materials 111. Storage, bIending beds, sampling stations

length of the building. The arrangement and installation of belt conveyors will
depend оп the type of roof construction. These handling devices have the
advantage of being relatively inexpensive and not taking up so much space as а
floor-mounted mobile machine, so that the cross-sectional dimensions of the
building сап Ье correspondingly smaller. А disadvantage associated with belt
stacking is the large height of fall of the material onto the pile. With dry material this
сап throw up much dust.
Stackers with fixed or movabIe booms (which сап Ье raised and lowered) are used
for covered as well as for outdoor bIending beds. For reasons of cost it is not а good
idea to install permanently mounted belt conveyer systems over outdoor stock-
piles. А drawback associated with fixed-boom stackers is that dust nuisance тау
arise, and the attachment of telescopic discharge spouts or similar devices to Fig.15: Воот stacker with тоуаЫе (Iuffing) Ьоот (Iongitudinal
stockpile)

Fig.16: Stacking in а circular bIending bed with simple chevron method

Fig. 1 З: Longitudinal stockpile with overhead stacker belt and tripper

Fig.11: Circular bIending bed with "infinite" stacking оп the chevcon

Fig.14: Воот stacker with fixed Ьоот (Iongitudinal stockpile) principle
79
78
В. Raw materials 111. Storage, bIending beds, sampling stations Machinery and process engineering methods

combat this nuisance is not without probIems. It is preferabIe, under such

circumstances, to employ а movabIe-Ьооm stacker enabIing the height of free fall
of the material to Ье kept down to а minimum.

3.2.1.2 Reclaiming with front-acting machines ~i!

AII front-acting reclaimers, i. е., machines for "end-on" removal of material from
stockpiles, аге equipped with some form of handling device which is only аЫе to Fig.19: Bridge-type scraping reclaimer with harrow attachment
сапу away the material from the toe of the pile. The material is dislodged from the
pile Ьу the action of а raking-down device which sweeps across the cross-
Bridge type scraping reclaimer:
sectional face. Each cycle of the device removes а thin "slice" comprising all the
layers in the pile, and in the process of sliding and tumbIing down the sloping face The bridge оп which the raking-down device is mount~d accommodates а ~cгapeг
the material of the various layers is mixed together. То obtain а good homogenizing chain conveyor whose bIades shift the dislodged materlal along to а соllесt1Пg belt
effect it is of course essential for the raking-down device to involve the entire face conveyor that extends along one edge of the stockpile.
of the pile. Advantages:
Good homogenizing action because thin slices аге removed from the entire
cross-sectional агеа of the pile.
The rate of rec\aiming and handling of the material is constant and quite simple
to regulate. . . .
The machine takes up only а modest amount of сross-sесtюпаlspace Inslde а
Q Q building.
harrow rope-operated scraper chain The direction of reclaiming сап conveniently Ье reversed.
Egge scraper Kratzerkette
Seilriiumer Disadvantages:
Fig.18: Raking-down devices There is an upper limit to the handling rate.
Along the edge ofthe pile beside the collecting conveyor а scrape feeding shelf
has to Ье provided, which must not Ье covered with material during stacking
and which thus restricts the utilizabIe stockpiling width
These devices аге of various kinds (Fig. 18) :
Напоws аге triangular structures fitted with renewabIe teeth and so inclined as
to suit the angle of repose of the stockpiled material. The latter is dislodged Ьу
the to-and-fro movement of the harrow across the face of the pile.
The rope-operated scraper comprises two ropes which pass around pulleys at
the top а frame near the арех of the pile and аге attached to а slide ог carriage
which moves to and fro оп the supporting bridge. As а result of this shuttling
motion of the slide, the ropes perform movements somewhat like those of а саг
windscreen wiper and thus dislodge the material from the entire face of the
pile. Fordealingwith difficultmaterial, thetwo ropes тау Ье interconnected Ьу
pivotabIy attached cross-members fitted with teeth, thus substantially increas-
Fig. 20: Bucket-wheel reclaimer, bridge-mounted type
ing the loosening effect and reducing wear оп the ropes.
Scraper chains аге тоге particularly appropriate for dealing with very difficult
material requiring considerabIe effort to dislodge it from the face of the pile. In Bridge mounted bucket-wheel reclaimer.
the course of its to-and-fro movement the scraper chain sweeps across the This type of machine comprises опе ог тоге bucket-wheels and а raking-down
entire face and actively scrapes the materia! down to the toe. device which together аге moved to and fro оп the bridge across the face of the
Associated with these raking-down systems there аге, in the main, four different stockpile. The material dislodged from the pile is scooped up at the toe of the face
types of front-acting reclaimer; these аге illustrated in Figs. 19 to 22. Ьу the bucket-wheel

80 81
В. Raw materials 111. Storage, bIending beds, sampling stations
Advantages:
Good homogenizing action. The variations due to the fact that the material is
not constantly taken from the entire face of the pile during the to-and-fro cycle
of the bucket-wheel are of short duration and сап without difficulty Ье
averaged out in the subsequent processing stages.
The handling rate is virtually unlimited. For high rates, two or more bucket-
wheels сап Ье mounted оп the same bridge.
Sideways transport of the material to the longitudinal collecting belt conveyor
is done Ьу а belt installed in the bridge. This arrangement saves energy in
comparison with the scraping reclaimer and moreover enabIes а low toe wall to
Ье constructed as а lateral boundary to the stockpile. Thus there is по risk of
overfilling the pile, while the amount of space occupied is kept down to а
minimum.
Disadvantages'
The rate of material handling during the transverse movement of the bucket-
wheel is not constant. This is compensated Ьу using three different transverse
travel speeds for the bucket-wheel wh ich are applied at successive stages of its
to-and-fro cycle. The drawback is that such three-speed operation requires
more elaborate control arrangements.
The cross-sectional space requirements are greater than those of the bridge-
type scraping reclaimer.
ОП reversal of the reclaiming direction the buckets have to Ье turned over.
Fig.21: Bucket-wheel reclaimer with slewing boom
Bucket-wheel reclaimer with slewing boom.
The bucket wheel is mounted at the end of the boom which swings to and fro
across the stockpile, so that the reclaiming face is slightly curved. In other respects
the action is similar to that of the bridge-mounted bucket-wheel reclaimer.
Advantages:
These are as already mentioned for the bridge-mounted machine.
The track rails arewithin the width ofthe pile (and buried Ьу it), so thata further
saving in space is obtained.
82
Machinery and process engineering methods
Disadvantages
These are also as mentioned for the bridge-mounted m.achine. .
Turning the machine round requires much space, whlch сап Ье а sеrюus
drawback inside а building.
Drum reclaimer:
The material dislodged from the face of the stockpile .is picke~ up Ьу scoops
mounted оп а revolving cylindrical drum or tube and. IS ~eposlted o.nto а b~lt
conveyor installed inside the drum. This type of mа~hlПе .IS characterl.ze~ Ьу Its
good homogenizing or bIending effect, since the епtlrе wldth. of the .plle IS at all
times being acted upon. However, the elaborate and expe.nslve deslgn featu.res
make the drum reclaimer uneconomical except for very hlgh rates of hапdllПg
(above 2000 t/hour).
Fig. 22: Drum reclaimer
3.2.2 Blending bed system with windrow stacking
3.2.2.1 Stacking machines
Stacking Ьу the windrow system сап, like chevron stacking, also Ье done in
buildings with ridge-mounted belt coveyors a.nd appropriate trans.verse belt
conveyors, but all the disadvantages already mепtюпеd - е. g., great helght ~f f~lI,
etc. - are applicabIe in this case too. It is better to use ?oom stackers for ЬUlldIПg
up the stockpiles. There are three types of such mасhlПеs:
(а) stacker with fixed boom and telescopic belt conveyor; .
(Ь) stacker with movabIe boom (Iuffing motion) ~nd tel~s.coPlc belt con~eyor,
(с) stacker with movabIe boom comprising lufflng (ralslng and lowerlng) and
slewing motion.
Туре (а) has the disadvantage that the material falls from а great hei.gh.t. just ~s it
does from а belt conveyor mounted under the ridge of the roof of а .Ь~lldlПg.~Ith а
boom stacker of type (Ь) the height of fall сап Ье kept~own to а r:n'nlmum. FlПаllу,
type (с) is а universal machine, which is more partlcularly sUltabIe where two
83
parallel stockpiles have to Ье formed side Ьу side, in which case the stacker travels
longitudinally between the piles, these being built up as required, Ьу slewing the
Ьоот in either direction.
Fig.2З: Boom stacker with fixed boom and telescopic belt
Fig. 24: Boom stacker with movabIe (Iuffing) boom and telescopic belt
Fig. 25: Boom stacker with movabIe (Iuffing and slewing) boom
84
The windrow system of stacking сап Ье applied to апу type of bIending bed, i. е.,
straight or circular. In the latter case it must Ье borne in mind that the outer rows
contain more material than the inner. Another advantageous method of stockpiling
consists in depositing the material in large homogenizing troughs or tanks such as
those constructed Ьу the engineering firms of FLS and MIAG.
The windrow method applied to а circular bIending bed is illustrated in Figs.26
and 27.
Fig. 26: Boom stacker with luffing boom and telescopic belt conveyor
for а circular stockpile
Fig.27: Slewing bridge with movabIe belt conveyor. supported оп
central tower and external rail
3.2.2.2 Reclaiming Ьу side-acting scrapers
Апу of the front-acting machines described in 3.2.1.2 сап Ье used for reclaiming
from bed-bIепdiпg stockpiles built up Ьу the windrow method. Such machin.es
would certainly effect somefurther, though slight, improvement in the homogenlz-
ing effect. However, the use of scraper chain reclaimers, operating either as front-
acting or side-acting machines, has Ьесоте estabIished practice for such bIending
beds. More particularly the so-called step-back method of MIAG has Ьееп
developed for the purpose. The material is reclaimed from опе side of the pile Ьу а
machine which travels short distances to and fro in conjunction with raising and
85
 В. Raw materials 111. Storage,

I! : I I
: I I I I
I I I I longitudinal section
1st гeclaiminq stepl I I Langsschnit!
1. Abbauschritr :. I ь I :
I I I I

2nd reclaiming 'st~p - - - - -; I

2. Abbauschritt' I I
:" , I
f- - - - - --~
Fig.31 : Reclaiming Ьу portal scraper
Fig. 28: MIAG step-back reclaiming principle

Fig. 32: Reclaiming Ьу front end scraper

Fig. 29: Reclaiming Ьу side scraper lowering ofthe scraper агт. During reclaiming from the topto the toe of the pile the
reclaimer travels slowly back, so that the face of the pile is scraped away in the
shape of а he/ically cuгved surface. The effect achieved in this way is similar to that
of reclaiming with а front-acting machine. The reclaiming action does not
comprise the entire face simultaneously.
Reclaiming with side scrapers has the disadvantage that the rate of flow of the
reclaimed material is not constant, while the homogenizing effect is less good than
that obtained with front-acting machines.

3.2.3 Blending bed systems with horizontal and inclined stacking

Fig. 30: Reclaiming Ьу semi-portal scraper
3.2.3.1 Stacking machines
А bed-bIепdiпg stockpile сап Ье built up in horizontal layers Ьу means of а
slewing-boom stacker ог ап overhead belt conveyor (mounted under the ridge of
the roof) with slewing throw-off belts. А luffing-boom stacker ог а ridge-mounted
belt conveyor with simple transversely movabIe throw-off belts сап alternatively Ье
used for building up stockpiles consisting of inclined layers. These stacking
machines have already Ьееп described. Stacking in horizontallayers is widely used

86 87
 8. Raw materials 111. Storage,
Fig. 33: ТгаvеШпg scraper and strata stacking method
also f?r ~e~osi.ting materials into trough ог tank type homogenizing systems
~tасklПg ,п Inclln~d layers Ьу the strata method, and reclaiming Ьу а slow-movin~
slde scraper, аге IlIustrated In Fig.33.
3.2.3.2 Reclaiming machines
Scraper chains aг~ unsuita~'e for reclaiming from а stockpile buiJt up in horizontal
/ayers. Front-a~tl~g mасhlПеs, as described in 3.2.1.2, must Ье used for the
purpose.. RесlаlmlПg from piles with inclined layers тау Ье done not only with
froпt-асtlПg but also with side-acting scrapers.
Reclaiming fro~ homogenizing troughs сап Ье done with scrapers ог with bucket-
ladder (ог chaln-bucket) machines.
The homogenizing e.ffect o?tained wi~h а troug~ type bIending bed is generally
better than that оЬtаlПеd wlth а bIendlng stockplle built up Ьу the strata method.
80th systems аге to Ье rated as very efficient, however
Fig. 34: Homogenizing trough with bucket-Iadder reclaimer
3.2.4 81ending bed based оп the cone-shell method
This ~~thod, illu.strated i~ F!g. 35, calls for по special comment. The stacking and
~есlаlmlПg m.ас.hlПеs аге slmllar to those already described. 'П terms of homogeniz-
Ing effect th,s IS not а good system, however.
88
Machinery and process engineering methods
Fig. 35: Stacking and reclaiming of а bIending bed based оп the сопе
shell-method: overhead stacker belt, longitudinally tгаvеШпg scraper
reclaimer
3.3 Arrangement of bIending beds
As a/ready stated, а distinction is to Ье drawn between longitudinal (straight)
stockpiles and circular stockpiles, while the trough ог tank type, in which the
material is stored substantially below ground.level, is а third main variant. With the
longitudinal arrangement the bIending bed will generally comprise two stockpiles,
worked discontinuously in that опе is being built up Ьу the stacking equipment
while material is being reclaimed from the other. Оп the other hand, with а circular
pile the то operations - stacking and reclaiming - сап proceed simultaneously
оп the same pile, опе end of which is being built up while the other is being
reclaimed, so that these operations сап proceed continuously. The chevcon
method is тоге particularly suitabIe for circular bIending beds, in which case
virtually the entire capacity of the pile is effectively availabIe and the stacking and
reclaiming operations proceed in ап "infinite" cycle.
'П the case of homogenizing troughs the two operations - stacking and reclaim-
ing - аге usually carried out simultaneously in that reclaiming takes place in опе
part of the trough while stacking proceeds in another part of the same trough.
'П deciding which layout to choose for а bed-bIепdiпg system the following
considerations аге аррl icabIe:
how much space is availabIe for accommodating the bed?
what scope for possibIe future extension is there?
do subsoil conditions (bearing capacity) have to Ье taken into account in
planning the bed?
It is not possible to make апу generally-valid statements as to the size (capacity) of
the stockpiles, as the bIending bed for each cement works has to Ье laid out to suit
the particular requirements of the case. Roughly speaking, however, it сап Ье said
that а stockpile should contain about опе week's supply of raw materia/ for the
cement works.
89
 annir~a<.. irln methods

Longitudinal (straight) bed-bIепdiпg stockpiles тау Ье arranged either parallel or Stacker BrUckenkratzer
in line.

3.3.1.1 Parallel stockpiles

Advantages:
Moderate length/width ratio оп plan.
- Fits in easily with the layout scheme for а cement works.
- Capacity сап easily Ье increased.
О isadvantages:
Fig. 37: In-line stockpiles
Reclaimer has to Ье changed over from опе pile to another.
Either а slewing stacker or а stacker with two booms is needed. Disadvantages:
Large number of belt conveyors and transfer points. Long buildings if the stockpiles are under roofed cover.
Long roof spans for stockpiles accommodated in а building. End-cone probIems.
Extra space required for change-over of machines. High length/width ratio, besides requiring long buildings, makes such
End-cone probIems. bIending beds difficult to accommodate in а cement works layout.

bridge-mounted
scraping reclaimer 3.3.2 Circular stockpile
BrUckenkratzer

-::::::::F=-==I-==-:= '~--==-~~-=~~
I '
- - - - ' - - ' - - ------r-
,='~~--='"""-1-/'

L stacker
tripper Stacker traverser
Schleifenwagen SchiebebUhne
Fig.36: Parallel stockpiles

3.3.1.2 In-line stockpiles

Advantages:
No change-over of machines.
No slewing stacker required.
Only two belt conveyors.
Short roof spans for buildings.
Fig. 38: Circular stockpile
Capacity сап Ье increased.
91
90
 В. Raw materials 111. 5torage, bIending beds, sampling stations Machinery and process engineering methods

Advantages:
Very short belt conveyors.
5imple roof construction for buildings, with central column as supporting
тетЬег.
It is relatively simple to keep the reclaiming output rate constant.
No end-cone probIems.
Агеа оп plan about 40% less than for straight stockpiles.
No change-over of reclaiming machines.
Disadvantages:
А circular stockpile is sometimes difficult to fit into the cement works layout.
5ticky ог very moist material тау choke the chutes in the central column.
The poke-holes for unbIocking the chutes аге relatively inaccessibIe.
Ground-water тау cause difficulties in the material extraction tunnels.
Capacity сап Ье increased only Ьу setting up а second pile.
3.3.3 Homogenizing tanks ог troughs
Under certain circumstances it тау Ье advantageous to buiid а sub-surface
stockpile, тоге particularly in а suitabIy lined excavation formed, for example, Ьу
bIasting in rock, the object being to save оп the cost of above-ground building
construction. However, in some cases trough-type bIending beds at ground level,
i.e., not recessed into the ground, аге recommended тоге particularly Ьу the
engineering firm of Fl5.
Advantages:
Very good space utilization.
- No end-cone probIems.
Roof сап Ье of simple and light construction
Very good homogenizing ог bIending effect.
Disadvantages:
Trough is expensive to construct.
Expensive machinery.
Material falling from а great height throws up much dust.
3.4 Measures to combat end-cone probIems
The end cones - i. е., the semi-conical ends - of longitudinal bed-bIепdiпg
stockpiles аге liabIe to cause some probIems. For опе thing, it is difficult to ke~p the
rate of reclaiming constant at the ends of the pile because here the сгоs~-sесtlO~ of
the face from which the material is being reclaimed will vary from sllce to sllce.
Besides, not all the stockpiled layers аге then simultaneously removed in each slice.
Especially when the reclaimer starts оп the stockpile, the homogenizing effect is at
first liabIe to Ье very unsatisfactory, because there will have Ьееп considerabIe
segregation at the time of stacking. VOIlmin mentions various methods of
counteracting these drawbacks:
If the capacity of а stockpile is to Ье increased, it is better to ~ake the ~ile
longer than wider, because the relative volume of the end cones IS smaJler ,п а
narrower pile.
For а length/width ratio of 4 the end cones comprise about 15% of the volume
of the pile. This proportion increases to about 20% for а ratio of 3.
The end сапе at the "far end" of the pile сап Ье left standing ог Ье only partly
reclaimed. This does теап some loss of effective stockpiling capacity,
however.
The reversal points of the stacker сап Ье staggered in relation to the height
attained Ьу the pile during the course of building it up. 'П this way the
segregation at the front end сап Ье reduced. . . .
These end-cone probIems аге obviated if а circular stockplle IS used, especlally
if the chevcon stacking method is adopted.

4 Sampling stations
For monitoring the operation of single-component ог multi-compon~n.tbIendi~g
beds which have to attain specified homogenizing ог bIending effects It IS essentlal
to have suitabIe automatic sampling stations.
50 far, not much information оп such installations has appeared in the literature, so
that guidance оп these matters must Ье sought from the manufacturers of cement
plant equipment. There is as yet по standardization of sampling stations, ~nd they
аге always tailored to suit the requirements of each individual case, whlch тоге
particularly depend оп the properties of the materials to Ье sampled. This being so,
the brief outline presented here сап lay по claim to completeness of treatment of
Fig. 39: Homogenizing trough the subject.
92
93
В. Raw materials 111. Storage, bIending beds, sampling stations Sampling stations

4.1 Sample quantity

According to availabIe information, а representative sample of raw material in the .......
form of crushed stone will Ье something between 0.2% and 2% of the total
handling flow. If the chemical composition of the material entering the bIending I Е ~
1/1
01 01

*1
bed is subject to large variations, ог if it comprises а wide range of particle sizes, оЕ а. с
:=- Е
с
О
::::J 01
sample quantities in excess of 1 % should Ье taken. Stacking rates for modern :=.>- 1/1-
010 Cn',i: .с _й
0.2

~~I
_ 011/1 с 1.1 :::::! С -О
bIending beds аге between 400 and 1000 t/hощ so that the sample quantities to :E~
'С

с_ ::::J 01
15 01 01 ~:;
Ье taken and prepared for testing will range from 0.8 to 20 t/hour. -Ес "6"6 01 о .а-
1.1-
~ .!!?:g "6 Е Е
Е>- ='0 :::::! 01 001
с-
,:,е.> с::: О 1.1
.g~
с»а.
It is advisabIe to perform the sampling as а weight-dependent rather than as а time- :; :::Е ф _01
а.с
01-
.аЕ
01- .ас ~и;
dependent operation. In the former case the sampler is controlled direct Ьу а belt с
..с. Е:Е ~C»
::::J.-
О О
0 0
_::::! О::::!
с::::! еО
х::::Е а..о шо U50 а..c.n
weigher. The cumulative sample is homogenized in а special mixer after а certain 1.1 ::::J o
Cii'ii

•
c.n~
NI-
quantity (tonnage) of material has Ьееп collected. With both methods suitabIe belt
conveyors and automatic counting equipment аге required. The samplers сап Ье
-~
-::::!
С»..с.
..с.,:,е.
1.11.1
С»::::!
IDro
~] ШJ []] rn
Е 1.1
adjusted to take апу desired quantity. 01 _
..с.-

сс»
1n order to obtain qual itatively correct samples it is necessary to take these from the с-
с»а.
full cross-section of the flow of material being carried оп the raw material belt .аЕ
conveyor. еО
а..c.n

4.2 Process engineering features

Two raw material sampling systems in actual use at cement works will now Ье
described. In both cases the material in question is limestone.
In general, it is advisabIe to provide drying facilities, ог а crusher that сап Ье heated,
for dealing with material with а moisture content of 3% ог тоге. The sampling
station is as а rule accommodated in а tower-like structure upstream of the
bIending bed and comprises the various items of sample preparatory processing
machinery installed опе above another. Ву making use of gravity inside the
sampling station the material handling equipment сап Ье kept to а minimum and
the capital cost and operating expenses of the sampli ng system Ье correspondingly
reduced. In cases where the sampling of the material сап Ье done only at ground
level, it is advisabIe additionally to install а bucket elevator
~I
I
L.. _

4.2.1 Sampling installation 1 (MIAG) I

II......-..,...III:!!L_

Capacity of raw material handling

I:'I....---I-~
system:
Sampling quantity:
500t/hour
1.2% = 0.6 t/hour tl ~
I ~~

I
Sampling rate: at 2-minute intervals = 200 kg/cycle U:U:
Sample splitter (1 :50) . 4kg/cycle I
Sample mixer: 120 kg charge I

Quantity from mixer for despatch

to laboratory (1 :600 division) . 200 g/hour. II
The samples аге taken with а three-compartment chute which intercepts the raw I
material flow every 2 minutes. The centre compartment diverts the material onto а
slow-running belt conveyor which feeds it to а doubIe-shаft hammer crusher
I~
~
which reduces from 30 тт to below 2 тт product size. This crusher is heated, so

94 95
В. Raw materials 111. Storage, bIending beds, sampling stations Sampling stations

Fig.41 : Sample divider and mixer
that the initial 3.5% moistuгe content is lowered to under 1%. А screw conveyor
delivers the sample to а rotary-tube splitter whose discharge opening сап Ье varied
from the outside Ьу means of а sliding gate, so that the sample splitting ratio сап Ье
adjusted to апу desired value. The final reduced sample quantity is collected in а
mixer.
А beltweigher incorporated in the belt conveyer bringing the raw material from the
quarry records the quantity handled. Under adjustabIe electronic control, the
contents of the mixer аге intensively mixed after every 500 t of material passing the
weigher. ОП completion of the mixing operation а quantity of about 200 9 is
removed from the mixer Ьу а pneumatically powered extraction device and is fed to
ап automatically functioning pneumatic despatch station which sends the samples
to the laboratory. 'П the laboratory each sample is fuгther dried and prepared for
analysis Ьу pulverization in а vibratory mill.
The remainder of the sample material in the mixer is not required for testing and is
returned to the main material flow. When the mixer has Ьееп emptied, the sampling
cycle starts over again. The actual mixing operation is of relatively short duгation.
No samples аге taken duгing this period, so that there is по risk of the sampling and
testing proceduгe being falsified.
The sampling station has а dust collection system. The dust precipitated in the
latter is returned to the sample splitter, so that по dust losses occur.

4.2.2 Sampling installation 2 (FLS)

Capacity of raw material handling
system: 500 t/houг
Sample quantity: 0.18% = 1 ОХ 90 kg = 900 kg/hour
1st splitter (1 :1 О) : 90 kg/hour
2nd splitter (1 :20) : 4.5 kg/houг
3rd splitter (1 :20) : 0.225 kg/houг.
The samples аге taken with а swivelling chute which discharges the material onto а
vibratory feeder. The latter feeds it to а jaw crusher in which it is reduced from а
feed size of up to 50 mm to а product size of about 1О mm. The sampled quantity of
material is discharged into the first sample splitter. The reduced quantity is passed
through ап electrically heated drying device, fuгther crushed to below 1 mm
particle size and then fuгther reduced in the second splitter. The sample from this
device is crushed for the third time, now to а product size not exceeding 0.2 mm. In
the third splitting stage, which then follows, the final sample quantity of about
225 9 is obtained.

4.3 Checking the sampling system

Cumulative samples from automatic sampling stations may Ье affected Ьу
Fig.42: TurntabIe in pneumatic systematic errors. The only way to detect such errors is Ьу taking random samples
despatch station at the same time as the cumu lative samples. The random samples аге split, prepared

96 97
 В. Raw materials 111. Storage, bIending beds, sampling stations Sampling stations

-~~.~
and analysed Ьу hand. The errors that оссш in these operations аге greater with
increasing maximum paгticle size of the material from which the smaller subsample

t +-. (J
has to Ье obtained Ьу "splitting" the original sampled quantity. Investigations have
shown that the епог thatthis тау involve in raw material of 0-30 тт particle size
' I /' _swivelling chute (sampler) range is ± 6.8 lime standard units. Оп the other hand, the епог associated with
/ '-j-"""" Drehschurгe (Probeentneh тег)
belt сопуеуог ~ splitting а sample of comminuted and homogenized material is negligibIe.
Transportband ~ _vibratory feeder
Q v_*=_ Vibrationszuteiler

Q-iQW "ush...
Backenbrecher
References
Ouda, W. Н.: Cement- Oata- Book, 2. Auflage. - Wiesbaden und Berlin.
Bauverlag GmbH 1978.
• г---:- vibratory feeder 2. Hasler, R. /V61Imin, К.: Stand der Mischbett-Technik in der Zementindustrie. -

V'Q"ООЯ"'i'''.
'---/ 1п' ZKG 28/1975/497.
belt сопуеуог 3. Helming, В. Oie Zementherstellung, Teil2. - Fa. Polysius, Neubeckum.
Transportband
_sample spl/tter 1 4. Катт, К.: Oosierung und VегglеiсhmiШiguпg von Rohmaterial durch
Teiler 1 Abbaukratzer. - In ZKG 25/1972/89.
5. Schmidt, О.: Оег Vergleichma(l,igungseffekt der gesamten Rohmaterialauf-
bereitungskette des Werkes Hardegsen. - In: ZKG 30/1977/532.
• b_vibratory feeder 6. Weddig, H.-J.: Abbau-Kratzer und Bagger in Schuttguthalden. - In.
~. Vibrationszuteiler
Aufbereitungs-Technik 10/1969/Н 10.
• -belt dryer
Вandtгockner
7. Weddig, H.-J.: Methoden des Auf- und Abbaues von Schuttguthalden. - 'п.
Aufbereitungs- Technik 12/1971/328
8. Zimmer, К. Е. / Frommholz, W .. Kreislager als Homogenisierungsanlagen. - Iп:
Aufbereitungs-Technik.16/1975/80.
~~cr~1t~~e6~to~

t
t 9. Information literature from the following firms.
material
Becherwerk fur а. Buhler-Miag GmbH, Postfach 3369, 0-3300 Braunschweig
Ruckgut Ь. Buckau-Wolf (Maschinenfabrik), Postfach 69, 0-4048 Grevenbroich
с. Weserhutte Otto Wolff GmbH, Postfach 940,0-4970 Bad Oeynhausen i. W.
d. Holderbank Management u Beratung AG (НМВ), - Technische Stelle-,
«Г'I_ sample splitter 2 СН -5113 Holderbank (AG)
l?\i Teiler 2
• Ф е. РНВ Pohlig-Heckel-Bleichert, Vereinigte Maschinenfabriken AG,
е ,J;;:ё5!I-viЬгаtогу feeder Heckelstr. 1, 0-6672 Rohrbach (Saar)
~ ~ .. Vibrationszuteiler F L. Smidth & Со. AS, 77 Vigerslev Alle, ОК-2500 Copenhagen-Valby

• sample
..ri4-
2?d Teiler 3
• splitter 3
I t .. Acknowledgements for illustrations
!81I
It
\ ..
t ..
gross sample
Sammelprobe
•
Hasler/V61Imin, Technische Stelle Holderbank Management und Beratung AG
(НМВ): Figs.· 1,2,3,13,18,19,20,21,22,33,34,38,39
Н Weddig, Buhler- М iag (В М В), Braunschweig' Figs.· 5, 6, 8, 9, 1 о, 11, 14, 15,
23,24,25,26,27,35,36,40,41,42
Kamm/Zimmer/Frommholz, Pohlig-Heckel-Bleichert (РНВ), Rohrbach' Figs.· 4,
12,16,17,29,30,31,36,37
Schmidt, NOROCEMENT, Hannover: Figs.: 7, 28
Fa. Polysius, Neubeckum: Fig. 32
Fig. 43: Automatic sampling station for limestone (FlS) F. L. Smidth (FLS), Kopenhagen: Fig 43
98 99
 С. Cement chemistry - cement quality

С. Cement chemistry - cement quality

Ву D KnOfel

1. Historical introduction . 103

11. Raw materials and the raw mix . 105
1 Raw materials. . . . . . . . . 105
1.1 General considerations; origins . 105
1.2 Use in cement production . . . 108
2 Raw mix: proportioning and analysis 109
2.1 Principles of proportioning the raw materials. 109
2.2 Calculation of the raw mix proportions 113
2.3 Raw mix (or raw meal) analysis . 117
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
111. Chemical, physical and mineralogical aspects of the cement burning
process . 119
1 Drying . . . . . . . . . . . 121
2 Dehydration of clay minerals . 121
3 Decomposition of carbonates. 122
4 Solid reactions (reactions below sintering). 123
5 Reactions in the presence of liquid phase (sintering) 123
6 Reactions during cooling. . . . . . 124
7 Factors affecting the burning process 125
References. . . . . . . . . . 128
IV. Portland cement clinker 128
1 Clinker phases . . . . 128
1.1 Alite (tricalcium silicate) 128
1.2 Belite (dicalcium silicate) 129
1.3 Aluminate phase . . 129
1 .4 Ferrite phase . . . . . . 132
1.5 Other clinker phases. . . 132
2 Judging the quality of clinker. 133
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
V. Finish grinding . . . . . . . 137
1 The materials involved in finish-grinding. 137
1.1 Portland cement clinker 137
1.2 Blastfuгnace slag 137
1.3 Pozzolanas 139
1.4 Fly-ash..... 139
1.5 Sulphates . . . . 139
2 Fineness and particle size distribution . 141
3 Mill atmosphere. 142
4 Grinding aids. . 144
References. . . . . . . 145

101
 С. Cement chemistry - cement quality
1. Historical introduction

VI. Storage of cement. . . . . . . 145

1 Storage in the cement works. .
1. Historical introduction
145
2 Storage оп the construction site 146
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . The word "сетепС is of ancient Roman origin. The Romans made а kind of
146 structura/ concrete composed of broken stone ог similar material with burned lime
VII. Hydration of cement (setting, hardening, strength) 146 as the binding medium. This form of construction was called "opuscaementitium".
1 General.. . 146 Later оп, the term "cementum" was used to denote those admixtures which, оп
References . being added to the lime, imparted "hydraulic" properties to it, i. е., gave it the
149
power to set and harden under moist conditions ог indeed under water. Such
2 Hydration of the clinker phases . 149 admixtuгes were тоге particularly brick dust and volcanic tuff.
2.1 Aluminate .
149 The Romans made excellent use of this material. Perhaps their most famous
2.2 Alite .
151 building in which it was employed оп а large scale is the Pantheon, а circular
3 Hydration of slag cements and ~ozz~la'ni~ ~e~~n~s : 153 temple built in Rome in the reign of the Етрегог Hadrian (about 120 А.D.). It is
References. . . . . . . . 153 43 m in diameter and has а domed roof with а circular aperture at the centre. This
VIII. Relations between chemical reactions, phase content and strength dome, as well as the walls several metres in thickness, аге constructed of
of portland cement . . . . . . . . . 153 "concrete" (the walls аге faced with brick). For achieving the hydraulic properties
References. . . 158 ofthis concrete the builders used pozzolana, а volcanic tufffrom the region ofwhat
is now known as Pozzuoli пеаг mount Vesuvius.
IX. Types, strength classes, designation and quality control of
cements . . . . Up to the latter half of the 18th century the factors that gave certain types of
158 cementing material their hydraulic properties were shrouded in mystery. The
1 General
158 British engineer John Smeaton (1724-1792) recognized the importance of the
2 C/assification and designati~n' ot ~e~e'nt~ 160 clay component as essential to hydraulic setting and hardening behaviour when, in
3 Constituents of cements . . . . . . 163 1756, he sought а water-resisting binding medium for the masonry of the new
4 Supply and identification of cements 163 Eddystone lighthouse пеаг Plymouth. Моге particularly, it was discovered that
5 Quality control . . . 164 those cements which did not dissolve completely in nitric acid were found to
5.1 Internal quality control . 164 possess good hydraulic properties (the insolubIe residue being due to clay and
5.2 External quallty control. . . . .. 164 quartz) .
6 Suggestions for the use of cements 165 'П 1796 another Briton, James Parker, made а hydraulic cement, which he called
References. . . . . .
166 "Roman сетепС, from the calcined nodules of argillaceous limestone known as
Х. Cement testing septaria. The first attempts to produce cement Ьу the burning of ап artificial mixture
166
1 Fineness . 167 of limestone and clay were made in France, especially Ьу Vicat, in the early years of
1.1 Sieve residue . the 19th centuгy. Although these attempts were successful, the results were not
167
1.2 Specific surface .
167 followed up in that country, and it was the achievement of Joseph Aspdin, а British
2 Setting times
168 bricklayer, to produce ап excellent hydraulic lime, in 1824, Ьу burning а mixtuгe
3 Soundness . . . 168 containing certain proportions of lime and clay at а high temperature. Не called his
4 Strength . . product "Portland сетепС, а пате which has suгvived as а generic designation
169
5 Heat of hydration 169 and which was originally chosen Ьу Aspdin because the "artificial stone" made
References. . . . with his cement (and aggregates) was thought to resembIe Portland stone, ап
170
Cement Standards oolitic limestone found in southern Britain. However, it was not yet а true portland
170 cement as we now know it. This step was achieved Ьу his son William, who
References
171 succeeded, in 1843, Ьу applying even higher temperatures, to produce а material
which contained а substantial proportion of sintered matter in addition to the
"underburned" mass of the earlier product. "Sintering" means: burning at а
temperature which causes partia/ fusion of the material. William Aspdin's cement
was distinctly superior to its predecessors in attaining higher strengths and was
used, inter alia, in building the new Houses of Parliament in London (1840-
1852).
102
103
 С. Cement chemistry - cement quality

The second half of the 19th centurysaw the rapid еХI)аГISIС)П отtп'е сетеп1
in а number of countries, including Germany. first
which continued in production for а greatmanyyears, was set upatZLillchow, пеаг
Stettin, Ьу Н. Bleibtreu in 1855, followed Ьу а works at Oberkassel, пеаг Вопп, in
1858. Ву 1889 there were 60, and around 1900 there were 83 cement works in
Germany. The earlier ones used simple intermittently fired shaft kilns. Annular kilns
сате later. The first rotary kiln in Germany was commissioned in 1898.
In 1862, Е. Langen discovered the latently hydraulic properties of granulated
(rapidly-coo/ed glassy) bIastfuгnace slag, his investigations having shown that
mixtuгes of quicklime and such slag attained high strengths оп hardening. The
possibility of using portland cement to activate the bIastfuгnace slag was applied
Ьу G. Pri.issing in 1882. This principle was, in due couгse, applied in what in Britain
is known as portland bIastfuгnace cement. In the United States it is known as
portland bIastfuгnace slag cement, while in Germany there аге two main varieties,
namely, "Eisenport/and" cement and "Hochofen" cement. The principle of
sulphate activation was discovered Ьу Н. Ki.ihl in 1908 and was later to Ье applied
to the manufactuгe of supersulphated cement. These were main/y German
d~velopments. Thefirst high-a/umina cements were produced in France duгing the
Flrst World War. Based оп patents obtained Ьу J. Bied, а Frenchman, these
products consist mainly of the solidified /iquid phase (melt) of crystallized
monocalcium aluminate.
- ~г~~~ de~tzzolono,
ft;--t<:--'k-----'\r~-+-~40 Trass, Puzzolan,
gronuloted bI05tfuгnoce 510g
Hi.illensand Ziegelmehl
Hochofen cement
Hochofenzemen\
а mass product). The two portland bIastfuгnace cements,
and "Hochofen", were standardized in 1909 and 1917
The present definition of cement as given in German Standard DIN 1164 is as
follows: "Cement is а finely ground hydraulic binding medium for mortar and
concrete, consisting substantially of compounds of calcium oxide w!th s!licon
dioxide, aluminium oxide and ferric oxide, which have Ьееп formed Ьу SlпtеГlПg ог
fusion. When mixed with water, cement hardens both in air and under water and
retains its strength under water; it has to possess constancy of volume (sound-
ness) and attain а compressive strength of at least ~5 N/m~2 at 28 da~s"·
Portland cement is made from portland cement cllnker wlth ап admlxtuгe of
sulphate. Portland bIastfuгnace cements (slag cements) additionally contain
bIastfuгnace slag, while trass cement additionally contains trass. Besides these
cements, other types, such as high-alumina cement and supersulphated cement,
аге manufactuгed in some countries, but these two cements аге по longer
produced in the Federal RepubIic of Germany and аге not standardized he.re. ОП
the other hand, oil shale cement and trass bIastfuгnace cement аге types whlch аге
officially permitted in this country.
The position occupied Ьу cements and allied binding media in the so-~al~ed
Rankin diagram of the ternary system Si02-СаО/МgО-АI20з/Fе20з IS IП-
dicated in Fig.1. . .. .
In this chapter the chemical, mineralogical and physical aspects, 1. е., the sClentlflC
principles. of cement manufactuгe will Ье outlined and the corresponding aspects
of the application of cement will Ье briefly dealt with. .
The subject will Ье treated as far as possibIe in the sequence of th~ рroduсtюп
process: raw materials, preparation of the raw mix, buгning and сооllПg, portland
cement clinker, grinding, storage, types of cement. Various tests applicabIe to
cement will Ье described. 'П addition, since it is essential for the cement
manufactuгing engineer to know something also of the practical application of his
product (е. g., in connection with testing and in dealings with custo~ers), the
phenomena associated with the hardening (hydration) of cement wlll also Ье
considered.

11. Raw materials and the raw mix

1 Raw materials
hydraulic limes
Hydraulische Kalke 1.1 General considerations; origins
СОО The ideal raw material for cement manufacture is а rock which already in its natural
• MgO 70 60 50 40 за 20 10 state contains the correct proportions of the constituents to produce а cement
clinker of the desired composition. Besides, it should Ье availabIe in abundance,
Fig.1: Diagram of ternary system Si02-СаО/МgО-АI20з/Fе20з easy to quarry and of homogeneous character. In reality this ideal combination is
(Rankin diagram)
extremeiy гаге. Instead, it is nearly always necessary to base the manufacture of
104
105
 11. Raw materials and raw mix
С. Cement chemistry - cement quality

cement оп raw materials which аге not in themselves very suitabIe, but which have character is usually quite clearly discernibIe, but the strata тау Ье discontinuous,
to Ье appropriately combined and bIended. For practical purposes the raw displaying sudden breaks which must Ье taken into account in quarrying the
materials аге limestone and clay (occurring in deposits in which they аге usually material.
mixed with certain amounts of other components). Limestones consist predominantly of calcium carbonate (СаСО з ), generally in its
Limestones and clays аге, in the geological sense, sedimentary deposits. These most stabIe modification known as calcite. In addition, they often contain
тау Ье formed inorganically from the weathering residues ог the precipitated
magnesium, aluminium and iron combined as carbonates and silicates; silica
solution products of older rocks (е. g., granite ог basalt, but also sandstone, (Si0 2 ), usually in the form of quartz, is also often present. Most limestones utilized
~imestone and тагЫе) ог тау оссш as new formations. The latter тау Ье inorganic
Ьу the cement industry аге either chemically precipitated ог organic limestones.
In character (е. g., clays formed from weathering products) ог organic (е. g., chalk Chemically precipitated limestones аге formed тоге particularly in warm seas
formed from the shells of marine organisms). Most sedimentary deposits аге of where water supersaturated with lime and of low СО 2 content тау оссш (е. g., at
marine origin, i. е., formed in seas (most limestones, for example). Clays аге present оп the Bahama banks). This inorganic process of precipitation proceeds as
deposited in lakes, along rivers and as offshore formations in seas. Some sediments follows
subsequently undergo processes of change and consolidation (diagenesis) Са(НСОЗ )2 ----+ СаСО з + Н 2О + СО 2
(Fig.2).
dissolved in precipitation water given оН
The typical form in which sediments аге laid down is in layers, known as strata ог
sea water of lime as gas.
beds in geological terminology. Since they аге nearly always deposited in water,
the layers аге originally horizontal. The actual stratification, i. е., the presence of А fairly соттоп variety of limestones in this category аге the oolitic limestones,
individually distinguishabIe layers, is caused Ьу variations in the sedimentation ог which аге composed of so-called ooliths, i. е., тоге ог less spherical rock particles
other conditions governing the formation of the sediment. As а result of these grown Ьу accretion around а nucleus and of the order of 1 тт in diameter. These
ge~logical processes over millions of years, deposits of considerabIe depth
calcareous ooliths аге formed in shallow water (Iess than about 2 m depth) subject
(thl~kness), s?metimes amounting to hundreds ofmetres, тау Ье built up. Though
to considerabIe motion. When а certain amount of lime has Ьееп deposited around
ОГlglПаllу horlzontal and extending uniformly over large areas, these strata тау
the nucleus (which тау Ье а grain of sand ог а shell fragment), the oolith sinks
subsequently Ье affected Ьу so-called tectonic processes - upheavals and to the ЬоНот Ьу gravity. Portland limestone belongs to this type.
disturbances of various kinds - which cause them to Ьесоте tilted, folded, fau Ited The organic, ог biogenic, limestones represent а substantial proportion of lime-
ог disrupted in other ways. When such deposits аге quarried. their stratified
stones. Мапу marine organisms - plants and animals - form hard shells ог
skeletons of calcium carbonate. When they die, their calcareous remains accu-
mulate as а sedimentary deposit. Such organisms аге, for example, тапу species of
ргосе55 formation of rock algae, corals, shellfish and protozoa (тоге particularly the Foraminifera). If these
Vorgang Gesteinsbi Idung
аге distinctly identifiabIe in the limestone as fossil remains, they form the basis of
weathering гос k + water + at m05phere classification, е. g., shelly limestones, согаl limestones, algal limestones, for-
Verwillerung Jrimares Gestein + Wasser + Atmosphiire aminiferallimestones, etc. Chalk is а limestone consisting mainly of the remains of
------- у - - - - unicellular planktonic algae, тоге particularly so-called coccoliths, which аге
relict new for~ation5 501 utions microscopic calcareous plates secreted Ьу those organisms.
5tructure5 Neubildungen, Losungen
Relikte //', МагЫе is а limestone consisting very largely of calcite (СаСО з ) in а relatively
(5urviving origi - / / " coarsely crystalline form. It is what is known as а metamorphosed limestone
ru~~:r~~~r '~ Ge stei~s. " produced under conditions of high temperature and pressure, тоге particularly in
bruchsti.ic ke) / / ', the process of mountain formation (orogenesis). ОП account of its hardness,
I-tr-a-n-5-p-oг-t------i j Chief~y in water (river5 , ) se~'s i marbIe is seldom used as а raw material for cement.
There аге various transitional types and varieties of limestone.

'.
Transport 9berwiegend in Wasser { FlUssen. Me;ren J I

Clays аге c\astic sediments, i. е., they consist main Iy of the remains of pre-existing
dep'osition
AbIagerung
clas.tic sediments
/

klastlsche Sed.
chemical and biogenic
chemische und biogene Sed.
sedime~ns
1.
rocks which have Ьееп broken down Ьу weathering and/or erosion. The clay
minerals аге present in the form of very small particles ( < 0.002 тт) which have
burial diagenetic changes (consolidation ) Ьееп deposited mainly in water - fresh, brackish ог marine. Geologically the clays,
Absenkung diagenetische Veriinderungen (Verfestigung) along with shales, marls, etc., аге classed as argillaceous rocks. The term "clay" is
тоге especially reserved for material which has по pronounced bedding planes
"-- ----L_ _

and which forms а plastic mass when wet. The principal constituents аге the clay
Fig.2: Diagram of sediment formation
107
106

оссш ос-
casionally fibrous, crystals. Most clays consist of different clay minerals which are
present together, е. g., illite, montmorillonite, kaolinite, halloysite, etc. Their
chemical composition is far from simple, as the following two examples will
show:
montmorillonite АЫ(ОН)2 Si 40,o] ·4Н 2 О
kaolinite AI 4[(OH)B Si 40,o].
Besides clay minerals, clays may contain various proportions of other finely divided
~ubst~nces: quartz (Si0 2 "sand"), calcite (СаСО з ), gypsum (CaS0 4 ' 2Н 2 О),
Ilmonlte (FeOOH), pyrite (FeS 2), feldspars (aluminosilicates), carbonaceous
particles, etc.
Clay soils with а substantial proportion of sand and silt, and often with а certain
amount of limonite (iron oxides and hydroxides giving the material а yellowish or
brownish colour), are called loam. The term marl is applied to calcareous
mudstones, which are natural mixtures of clay and lime. Loess is formed as an
accumulation of wind-born dust with particles in the size range of 0.01 to 0.1 mm,
originally derived from desert areas and of а brownish-yellow colour. The
constituents are mainly siliceous (clay, quartz, feldspar) and about 10% of lime. If
the lime has been dissolved out, the material is called loess loam.
1.2 Use in cement production
As а rule, the main components availabIe for the manufacture of cement are
limestones (the source of СаО) and clays (the source of Si0 2, АI 2 О з and Fе 2 О з ).
These have to Ье mixed with each other in proportions depending оп their own and
оп the required final chemical composition. However, overall chemical com-
position is not the deciding factor, because the reactions in the cement burning
process take place between the individual phases present in the kiln feed mix, so
that the fineness and homogeneity of the raw material and raw meal are also
important. If the kiln feed has а large reactive surface area and the mineral phases
are homogeneously distributed, the diffusion rates and therefore solid reaction
velocities will Ье higher than in coarser and less well homogenized material. The
reaction behaviour of those raw materials whose natural composition is already
fairly close to the desired chemical composition (Iime marl, for instance) will
generally Ье more favourabIe, because the components are naturally present in а
very finely crystalline and well bIended form. Оп the other hand, mixtures of
"extreme" raw materials (е. g., рше limestone and рше clay) react less
favourabIy.
As already stated, the CaO-Ьеаriпg component is usually а limestone. Limestones
which already contain some natural admixture of clay are to Ье preferred, as already
noted above. The following approximate classification is applicabIe'
pure limestone >95% СаСО з (Ьу weight)
marly limestone 85-95% СаСО з (Ьу weight)
lime marl 70-85% СаСО з (Ьу weight)
108
Prr)ncHtinnlina and analysis
marly clay 5-15%
clay < 5%
The raw materials for cement manufacture have а СаСО з content between about
74 and 79% Ьу weight.
Some limestones contain а certain amount of dolomite СаМg(СОЗ )2 and thus
introduce magnesium oxide (MgO) into the raw material. Magnesia .expansion
must Ье reckoned with if the MgO content exceeds about 5% Ьу welght.
The oxides Si0 2, АI 2 О з and Fе2Оз are generally provided Ьу an argillace~us
component, i. е., а clay or allied material (clay, marly clay, clay marl). R~w materlals
containing sand are sometimes also used, е. g., sandy marl or sandy Ilmestone .. ln
some instances these components may contain harmful сопсепtrаtюпs of a\kalles
(К О, Na 20), sulphates (е. g., gypsum CaS04' 2Н 2 О; the sulphates are usually
2
reckoned as sоз) and, more rarely, chlorides. These substances ~ay c~~se
difficulties in the burning process, more particularly in consequence of Intenslfled
cyclic processes and coating formation in the kiln system. The clays also have а
major etfect оп the pelletizing or nodulizing properties of the raw meal and оп the
water demand of the raw slurry in the wet process of cement manufacture.
If it is not possibIe to obtain the desired chemical composition of the raw mix just
with the two above-mentioned raw material components, it will Ье necessary to
add relatively small quantities of corrective ingredients to th~ mix .. Th~se
should contain the required oxides - deficient in the main raw materlals - In falrly
high concentrations. At the same time, however, they must not contain appreci.abIe
amounts of harmful oxides (е. g., MgO or К 2 О). Their purpose, therefore, IS to
adjust the chemical composition of the raw mix and improve i~s sinter.ing capa~i.ty.
More particularly, the following are used: quartz sand for Increaslng the slllca
content; roasted pyrites or iron ore for increasing the ferric oxide content
(these substances should contain at least 25% Fе20з)' . ..
Other сопесtivе ingredients are sometimes used, depending оп local avallablllty
and need.
Blastfurnace s\ag is only exceptionally used as а raw material compon~~t for
cement manufacture (it is, however, extensively used as а subsequent addltlve to
cement in the production of portland bIastfurnace cement). .
If so\id fuels are used in the burning process, the ash arising from these wlll
become incorporated in the cement and have to Ье taken into account.
2 Raw mix: proportioning and analysis
2.1 Principles of proportioning the raw materials
For the production of cement it is necessary to have, or make, raw material mixtures
whose chemical composition is within certain limits. The continuous production of
high-quality cement is possibIe only if the raw mix possesses optimum com-
109
 Raw mix: Proportioning and analysis
С. Cement chemistry - cement quality 11. Raw materials and raw mix

Thus LSt = 100 represents the optimum СаО content. Two formulas f?r the lime
ТаЫе 1 : Limiting values of chemical composition of cement raw mate-
standard will Ье given here. The first, designated LSt 1, was due to Kuhl:
rial (after ignition)

oxide limiting value content 100 СаО

LSt I = ----------~­
[М.-%] [М.-%] 2.8 Si0 2 + 1.1 АI 2 О з + 0.7 Fе 2 О з

СаО 60-69 65
Si0 2 18-24 21 А somewhat modified version was later substituted as LSt 11, while LSt 111, due to
Spohn, Woermann and Knbfel, furthermore takes account ofthe possible presence
АI 2 О з 4- 8 6
Fе 2 О з 1- 8 of MgO, which сап replace up to 2% (Ьу weight) of СаО:
3
MgO <5.0 2
К 2 О, Na 2 0 <2,0 1 100 (СаО + 0.75 MgO)
LSt 111 = ----~-----------::­
SОз <3,0 1 2.80 Si0 1.18 АI 2 О з + 0.65 Fе 2 О з
2 +

position and furthermore if variations in this composition remain within the
nar.rowest possibIe range. The limiting values stated in ТаЫе 1 аге to Ье regarded as
valled for the manufacture of cement generally, i. е., they relate to all таппег of
cement works. Within апу particular works the variations have to Ье much
smaller.
For practical purposes the raw material composition (and also the composition of
the cement clinker) is usually characterized Ьу certain ratios, often called "moduli".
They аге in fact proportioning formulas into which the percentages of the various
oxides, as determined Ьу chemical analysis, should Ье substituted.
For calculating the optimum lime content of the mix, the so-called hydraulic
modulus, as expressed Ьу the following formula, тау Ье used:
НМ = СаО
Si0 2 + АI 2 О з + Fе 2 О з .
Nowadays, however, this has largely Ьееп superseded Ьу the lime standard
(LSt), for which some variant formulas have been evolved.
А high content of lime (СаО) enables lime-rich clinker phases, which have the
most favourable properties (especially with regard to strength development), to Ье
formed тоге abundantly in the burning process, but subject to the condition that
all the СаО must Ье combined with the three other major oxide components (Si0 2 ,
АI 2 О з , Fе 2 О з ). The object of the proportioning formulas is to provide а means of
calculating the maximum proportion of lime that сап Ье made to combine with
these acidic oxides.
If there is ап excess of uncombined lime, i. е., existing as free lime (CaOtr ) in the
cement, it тау cause damage in mortar ог concrete as а result of expansion
phenomena (see also Section IV.1). The lime standard provides а criterion for
determining the optimum lime content. It expresses the actual content of СаО
present in the raw material (or in the clinker) as а percentage of the maximum СаО
content which сап Ье combined Ьу the acidic oxides (Si0 2 , АI 2 О з , Fе 2 О з ) in the
most lime-rich clinker phases under technical conditions of burning and cooling.
11 О
Va\ues of the MgO content only ир to 2 % are to Ье taken into account in the LSt 1.11
formula; if this content is higher, the second term in parentheses should геmа1П
constant at 1.50.
As а further refinement, the term -0.7 SОз тау Ье introduced into the numerat~r,
to take account of the possible formation of CaS04' This is done, for example: In
the generally similar "Iime saturation factor" used in British cement mапufасtUГlПg
practice.
Example of the application of the lime standard:
The chemical analysis of а raw теа' gives the following results (in % Ьу mass ог
weight) .
65.7 СаО, 21.1 Si0 2 , 6.6 АI 2 О з , 3.1 Fе2Оз, 2.0 MgO, residue 1.5;
100 (65.7 + 75 х 2.0) _ 975
LSt 111 = - .,
2.80х21.1 + 1.18х6.6 + 0.65хЗ.1
For technical clinkers the value of LSt 111 is between 90 and 102 (values above 97
аге to rated as very high-qua\ity).
The silica modulus (SM) (ог silica ratio) is the ratio of silica (Si0 2 ) to the sum of
the alumina (АI 2 О з ) and fепiс oxide (Fе 2 О з)·
This modulus characterizes the ratio of solid to liquid in the clinkering of t~e
material, because at clinkering temperature the Si0 2 is pre.dominantly pres~nt ~n
the solid phases (alite and belite), whereas the other two oXldes оссш In the IlqUld
phase (melt). 'П industrial cements the silica modulus is generally between 1.8 and
3.0.
111
 С. Cement chemistry - cement quality 11. Raw materials and raw mix
Calculation of the raw mix proportions

The iron modulus (1М), also known as the alumina ratio (АА), is the ratio of
alumina to fепiс oxide: Ь = ~ = kg of raw meal рег kg of clinker
а

% СаСО х56 . .
с = з_ _ = %СаО IП the сllПkег.
ах 1 00

The following values аге obtained with these formulas:

Since these two oxides both occur almost entirely in the liquid phase at clinkering
temperature, this modulus characterizes the composition of that phase. If the fепiс
oxide content is higher, so that the iron modulus is lower, the viscosity of the melt % СаСО з in the 74 75 76 77 78 79
decreases. For а va/ue of 1М < 0.638 the clinker phase called tricalciumaluminate raw теаl
(СзА) fails to form: СзА-fгее cements аге characterized Ьу increased sulphate
resistance. 'П industrial cements this modulus is generally between 1.3 and 4.0 and а = kg of clinker
рег kg of raw meal 0.656 0.652 0.649 0.645 0.641 0.638
most often between 1.8 and 2.8. In special cements it тау have much lower values
(down to about 0.4). Ь = kg raw meal
рег kg of clinker 1.524 1.533 1.541 1.550 1.558 1.567
'П the burning process, volatile constituents аге driven out of the raw materials.
с =% СаО
Моге particularly, сагЬоп dioxide (С0 2 ) isdrivp.n out ofthe limestone and water of
hydration is driven out of the clay. As а resu/t, the materials undergo а decrease in in the clinker 63.2 64.4 65.6 66.9 68.1 69.3
weight in the production of cement clinker.
The required quantity of dry raw material (i. е., without its inherent natural
Intermediate values сап Ье directly read from the accompanying diagrams
moisture) for the production of portland cement clinker сап Ье computed as
follows: (Fig.3). . . . 11
Taking account of losses of material in the manufacturlng process, It IS gener~ у
The сагЬоп dioxide is driven out of the limestone: assumed in practice that 1.55-1.60 kg of raw material is needed for produclng
Са С Оз = Са О + С 02 1 kg of clinker.
(40 + 12 + 48) = (40 + 16) + (12 + 32)
100 parts СаСО з = 56 parts СаО + 44 parts С0 2 . 2.2 Calculation of the raw mix proportions

Furthermore, about 7% of water of hydration is expelled from the clay in the raw (а) For the approximate calculation of the mix proportions.for t~? ~?w material
meal (organic constituents, etc. аге not considered). components it is convenient to set down the relevant values IП ап Х pat~ern, at
Thus, when а raw теаl containing, say, 76% СаСО з and consisting only of СаСО the centre of which is written the desired СаСО з content of the raw mlx. The
and clay is ignited, the loss оп ignition will Ье approximately as follows:
з СаСО content of the limestone is written in the upper left-hand согпег, and the

from СаСО з = 0.76 х44 = 33.44% С0 2 СаСОз content of the clay is written in the lower left-hand corner. The differences
from clay = 0.24 х 7 = 1.68% Н 2 О з
betwe~n the two last-mentioned values and the desired СаСО content of the raw
mix at the centre of the "Х" аге now written in the diagonally opposite c~rners. ~he
values thus finally obtained represent the proportions of the raw materlals whlch
35.12% totalloss оп ingnition,
will form the desired mix.
Example:
i. е., raw теаl with 76% СаСО з gives about 64.9% of clinker, for ап ignition loss of
about 35.1 % (ог: 1 kg of raw теа' yields about 0.65 kg of clinker) Suppose that the following raw materials аге availabIe:
For different values ofthe СаСОз of the raw теаl the quantities of materials сап Ье
calculated with the following formulas: % SЮ 2 АI 2 О з FеО з СаО MgO loss оп
ignition
0.44 х % СаСО з 0.07 х (100 - %сасо з ») = kg of clinker рег kg of
а=1- ( 100 + 100 limestone 3.8 0.9 0.6 52.9 0.3 41.5
raw meal clay 53.4 20.2 7.5 4.3 2.1 12.5

112
113
 С. Cement chemistry - cement quality 11.
raw

О.66г-----;--,--г-----,-,----.----т---т-_т--_
'-
Q.o",
.... 52.9 х 100
The limestone contains - - - - = 94.5% СаСО з .
~~ 0. 65 г---j'--------t----f:::.....-...+--=+-+--+--+------iL-_I 56
ii~
0101
.:0:;..><
0, 64 t----j---+--+--+----!--+--+_...::::::::t::::..-....Ib-- 4.3 х 100
The clay contains = 7.7% СаСО з .
О.БЗ+------'----+------J--+--...!.-------J-_--L_J----...L----I 56
74 75 ~ 77 78 79 "IoСаСО з
а) kg of clinker / , kg of raw mea!
kg КLinker / 1 kg Rohmehl (It has Ьееп assumed that all the СаО is present as СаСО з .) .
For 77 % СаСО з in the raw теаl the above-mentioned "Х" pattern for соmрutаtюп
gives:

94.5 69.3 (parts of СаСО з deficient in the clay)

',57 ,----,-----,--,--г-----,-----,----,--г-----.-_ ':>. /'
77
',56 t---+---+--+----+--+--+---I----ь~:t----____i /' ':>.
7.7 17.5 (parts of СаСО з in excess in the limestone).
'.55 t----+--+--+---+--+--::;;~::.......+--+--I--
~_ ',54+---t---+--+~4---!--+--+_-+------i-_I The raw mix should therefore Ье proportioned as follows:
E~
~ Й 1.53 t----t-=--""9---+---+---+-+--+---I------iL----i
20 limestone 68.3 3.96
~ 1,52 t----t---+--+--+----j--+--+---I---____i-_I
01 clay 17.5 1
.:0:;"><

',51 -!-----.L--+--L---+----1.-_-I-------l_-+---_L----i
The following analysis values аге calculated:
79 О/О СаСО
Ь)
74 75
kg of raw meal/ , kg clinker
76 77 78
з
kg Rohmehl /1 kg Klinker
СаО MgO loss оп
ignition

limestone (3.96 parts) 15.1 3.6 2.4 209.5 1.2 164.3

70
clay (1 part) 53.4 20.2 7.5 4.2 2.1 12.5
69 ./ ----------------------
V 176.8
68.5 23.8 9.9 213.8 3.3
68 V (496.1)
1/
67 ./ raw mix (%) 13.8 4.8 2.0 43.1 0.7 35.6
о ./
а V (100)
u 66
V raw mix,
65 ./ ignited (%) 7.5 3.1 66.9 1.1
./ 21.4
./
64
У It is fuгther necessary to check that the composition of the raw mix calculated in
63 V this way is within the permissibIe limits (ТаЫе 1) and to ascertain its lime standard
74 75 76 77 78 79"10 Са СОЗ (тоге particularly LSt 111, which in this case is 95.7) and moduli (in this case:
с) "10 СаО in clinker / "10 СаСО з in raw meal
% СаО im Кlinker 1"10 Са СО silica modulus = 2.0, iron modulus = 2.4). If necessary, а different lime content
З im Rohmehl
will have to Ье chosen ог corrective materials added.
Fig. З: Yield obtained for different percentages of СаСОз in the raw (Ь) Calculation of а two-component raw mix with the aid of Kuhl's lime
теаl (from Labahn/Kaminsky, 1974)
standard formula [41]:
114
115
 С. Cement chemistry - cement qua/ity 11. Raw materials and raw mix
Raw mix (or raw meal) analysis

Suppose that the availabIe components are limestone (k) and clay (t) with the
Оп the assumption that the clinker made from this raw mix contains 5% (Ьу
following composition (in % Ьу weight):
weight) of constituents unaccounted for (Ioss оп ignition, MgO, alkali oxides,
limestone k etc.), the following clinker analysis is calculated:
clay t
Si0 2 Sk = 5.0 ~ = 57.6
АI 2 О з
Si0 2 = 19.2% Ьу weight LSt = 98
Ak = 1.9 Ас = 25.4 АI 2 О з = 8.2% Ьу weight SM = 1.6
Fе 2 О з Fk = 1.4 Ft = 9.7 Fе 2 О з = 3.6% Ьу weight 1М =2.3
СаО Ck = 91.2 Ct = 4.9. СаО = 63.9% Ьу weight.

Since the SM in this example is very low (cf. information given in Section 11.2.1), it
would Ье advantageous to add ап appropriate quantity of quartz sand as а third
What quantity х of clay t must Ье mixed with 1 part of limestone k to obtain the raw raw material component (corrective material).
mix for portland cement with the lime standard LSt? For the calculation of а three-component raw mix see, for example, KJJhl, 1963,
'П general, the raw mix composed of 1 part of limestone k and х parts of clay t will р.99Н. Formulas for the calculation of а mix comprising four components are
have the following composition: given Ьу Seidel/Huckauf/Stark, 1978, р. 61 Н.
The calculation of raw mix proportions is useful in connection with the planning of
Si0 2 = Sk + х . St АI 2 О з = A k + х . Ас new cement works or the opening-up of new raw material deposits in that it
Fе 2 О з = Fk + х· Ft СаО = Ck + х . Ct . provides approximate guidance оп the quantities of materials required and оп the
According to the formula for the lime standard LSt I (see Section 11.2.1): suitability of the availabIe raw material components. Оп the other hand, su~h
calculations are of dubious value for routine production purposes, because In
LSt 1 = 100· (Ck + х . Ct ) practice the respective components are continually subject to more or less
substantial variations. This would necessitate regular analytical monitoring of the
2.8 (Sk + х 'St) + 1.1 (Ak + Х -Ас) + 0.7 (Fk + х· Ft )' raw materials and, оп the basis of the results, continual recalculation of the mix
proportions.
Оп solving this equation for х, we obtain:

LSt ,. (2.8' Sk + 1.1 . A k + 0.7' Fk) -100· Ck

х=
2.3 Raw mix (or raw meal) analysis
LSt 1· (2.8' St + 1.1 . Ас + 0.7' Ft ) -1 00· ct
For the purpose of production control the raw mix or the raw meal and the clinker
Оп substitution of the oxide formulas this becomes: are regularly analysed. Besides "we(' chemical analysis, X-ray analysis is
extensively used for the purpose in modern cement works.
х = LSt· 1 (2.8' Si0 2 + 1.1 . АI 2 О з + 0.7' Fе 2 0 з -100 СаО (for limestone) The "non-destructive" X-ray-based analytical techniques have now Ьееп in
widespread and successful use in the cement industry for about 15 years and are
LSt·1 (2.8·Si0 2 + 1.1 'АI 2 О з + 0.7' Fе 2 О з -100СаО (for clay)
employed either for quantitative elemental analysis (X-ray fluorescence analysis,
X-ray spectrometry) or for quantitative phase determination (X-ray diffraction
For LSt 1 = 98 and the above-mentioned oxide concentrations we сап calculate: х
= 0.400. analysis, X-ray diffractometry). Of course, purely qualitative checks сап also Ье
made Ьу these methods. Whereas X-ray fluorescence analysis (elemental deter-
mination) is extensively used both for raw meal and for cement monitoring, X-ray
Therefore in this case the raw mix must consist of 1 part of limestoneand 0.400 part
diffractometry (phase analysis) has hitherto Ьееп used only for the determination
of clay. The precise composition of the mix is as follows:
of free lime content of cement.
'П the cement industry more particularly the so-called wavelength-dispersive
Si0 2 АI 2 О з Fе 2 О з СаО
1 part limestone principle of X-ray fluorescence analysis is generally used (in preference to the
5.0 1.9 1.4 91.2
0.400 part clay energy-dispersive principle) because it achieves higher intensities and better
23.0 10.1 3.9 2.0 resolution, so that errors are smaller. The methods of sample preparation are also
important deciding factors with regard to the reliability of the X-ray analysis
28.0 12.0 5.3 93.2 results.
116
117
 the сетеп! burning process
С. Сетеп! chemistry - сетеп! quality 11 Raw materials and raw mix 111. Chemical, physical

The physica\ basis for Х-гау analysis is the equation commonly known as Bragg's
law:
n . л, = 2d . sin Э
where: л, = wаvэlепgth of the radiation
Э = angle of incidence and diffraction ang\e
d = spacing of crystal lattice planes
n = integer.
'П Х-гау fluorescence analysis the values of d and Э аге known Ьу virtue of the
instrumentation set-up, while л', the characteristic wavelength of the emitted
radiation, is determined. Оп the other hand, with Х-гау diffractometry the values of
л, and Э аге known, while d, the characteristic lattice spacing of а crystalline
material, is determined.
In the case of fluorescence analysis the samp\e is irradiated with high-energy
X-rays in the spectrometer. The radiation dislodges electrons from the "inner
shells" of the atoms, and the vacant positions аге immediately occupied Ьу
electrons from the "outer shells" These last-mentioned electrons thus pass into а
lower-energy state, and the accompanying release of energy is emitted as X-rays
(of various wavelengths) which аге typical of each type of atom, i. е., each
chemica\ element. The intensity of this emitted characteristic X-radiation is
measured and is proportional to the quantities of the respective elements present in
the sample under investigation.
It emerges from Bragg's law that the characteristic X-rays аге to Ье measured
а! certain values of the angle between the sample and the detector. There аге
two systems of measurement: either the detection channel (comprising analyser
crystal and detector) is moved through а certain .angular range .and measures the
characteristic radiation of the elements successlvely (sequentlal system) ог the
apparatus is equipped with а number of detection channels in а fixed аггау, namely,
опе channel рег element to Ье detected (multichannel simultaneous system). The
sequential system offers greater flexibility, enabIing ~ vari~ty of elem~nts to Ье
detected. ОП the other hand, the simultaneous system IS qUlcker, comprlses fewer
moving parts and has proved advantageous тоге particularly in cas~s where the
same elements have to Ье analysed over and over again i~ the гоutlПе sa~ples.
Непсе this last-mentioned system is preferred for ргоduсtюп control u~e In .the
сетеп! industry. With such equipment а complete analysis сап Ье оЬtаlПеd In а
few minutes (the actual analysis and measuring time is very short, е. g.,
20 seconds). .
Х-гау fluorescence spectrometers сап Ье used independently. for оссаsюпаl
analyses ог for simple analysis programs ог Ье incorp~rated as ап Integral раг! of а
process control system associated with computer eqUlpme.nt. The outpu.t data ~ay
take the form of pulse rates, concentrations (Уа o
Ьу welght), modull and II~e
standard, ог Ье utilized in some other form for process control а! the r~w .materlal
end of the сетеп! manufacturing process (e.g., for raw mix ргорогtЮПlпg feed
control).
References
3,4,5,17,22,23,29,30,46,60,64,65,66,70,77,87

Х -гау tube
/Rontgenrohre

Ш. Chemical, physical and mineralogical aspects of

the cement burning process
For the production of сетеп! clinker the raw material has to Ье ~eated to а
temperature of about 14500 С, so that clinkering ~ccurs. T~e ЬurПlПg ~rocess
requires ап oxidizing atmosphere in the kiln, рrodUСlПg а gгеУlsh-gгееп сllПkег If
this condition is по! satisfied, the resulting clinker will Ье of а brown colour, .and
/
the сетеп! obtained from it will Ье of inferior strength and will set тоге rapldly.
detector Important chemico-physical processes occur already during the.heat~ng-upof the
Detektor focusing circle"'-
Fokussierungskrei 5 kiln feed material and especially а! the burning temperature (сl~пkеГlПg te~pera­
ture) , such as: dehydration of the clay minerals, dесагЬопаtюп (expul~l?n of
ту path in spectrometry гау path in diffract ometry сагЬоп dioxide) of the carbonates (this process is usually referr.e~ to ~s calclnl~g ?г
StrahLengang bei Strah lengang bei calcination), solid reactions and reactions involving the раrtlСlраtюп.оf .а. IЩUld
Spektralana Iyse Beugungsanalyse
phase (melt), and crystallization processes. AII these ~r?cesses аге slgnlflc~ntly
Fig. За: Х-гау analysis methods affected по! only Ьу chemical factors (chemical соmРОSltюп of the raw materlals),

119
118
С. Cement chemistry - cement quality 111. Cement burning process Dehydration of clay minerals

but also Ьу mineralogical (mineral composition) and physical factors (particle size, 2100 81.
homogeneity, etc.). The due completion of these endothermic reactions plays а ос ./.
decisive part with regard to the quality of the cement produced. ТаЫе 2 reviews the
\
transformations in the processing of the raw meal; these will Ье discussed below. \
1800 72
Fig. 4 and 5 give information оп the formation of new phases that occurs in the kiln \
system. \
\
\
\
1500 60 Q,o
ТаЫе 2: Chemical transformations in the thermal treatment of portland cement \ CJ'I
raw meal (principal reactions in clinker burning) а
.J::._
U~
temperature ос process chemical transformation 1200 1.8 с: с

~ .- '"
-с

-"'~

....=' ~
::;,
m
с:
< 200 escape of free water (drying 0-
.... " '': .~
Q,o
а.'"
Е а.
~
900 , 36
с: '"
100 .. 400 escape of adsorbed water
~! ,, I ~~
О'"
u(!)
400. . 750 decomposition of clay, AI 4(OH)8 Si40 ,O
е. g., with formation of -+2 (АI 2 О з . 2Si0 2 ) + 4 Н 2 О 600
, I 21.

,,,
I
/
/
metakaolinite I
I
I 12
600 .. 900 decomposition of 300 I
/quartz
metakaolinite and other ",
",

I Quarz
compounds, with formation -,,'
of а reactive oxide о L, _ _ ---L_ _ +-_-----'_ _~---~_____< О

, 10 2ОmЗОЗб
mixture
length 01 kiln
600 ... 1000 decomposition of lime- СаСО з-+ СаО + СО 2 ? ) :..--_О_fе_П_liI_·П__е
I
9 -------,
stone, with information 3 СаО + 2 Si0 2 + АI 2 О з ,----1 ~L.-------------.J
of CS and СА ~2(СаО . Si0 2 ) + СаО АI 2 О з
grate pгeheater rotary kiln
Rostvoгwiirmer Dгеhоfеп
800 .. 1300 uptake of lime CS + C-+C 2 S *
Ьу CS and СА,
Fig.4: Formation of new phases in the lepoi kiln (from Weber, 1960)
2C+S-+C 2 S
formation of C4AF СА + 2C-+С з А
СА + 3С + F-+C 4AF

1250 .1450 further uptake

of lime Ьу C2 S 2 Dehydration of clay minerals
Between about 1000 and 4000 С the clay minerals give off their adsorptively bound
1 Drying water, including the so-called interlayer water. At highertemperature~,depend~ng
оп the types of clay mineral concerned, generally between about 400 and 75~ С,
The water that is present as "free" (uncombined) moisture in the raw meal, or has the chemically combined water (hydroxide groups) is also expelled (dеhуdrаtюп),
Ьееп added to it (е. g., for pelletizing), is driven out at temperatures ranging up to exemplified Ьу the dehydration of kaolinite'
about 2000 С.
AI4[(OH)8Si40'O]-+2 (АI 2 О з . 2 Si0 2 ) + 4 Н 2 О
• For abbreviated notation see footnote оп page 123 kaolinite metakaolin

120 121
 С. Cement chemistry - cement quality 111 Cement burning process Reactions in the presence of liquid phase (clinkering)

quartz
Quarz - -- -- initially of, for example, СаО'АI 2 О з (=СА), 12СаО'7А1 2 О з (=С'2А7)'
СаО' Si0 2 (= CS) and 2СаО . Si0 2 (= C2S) *) in solid reaction. The content of
СаСОз - - free lime (СаО) is therefore low at temperatures below 8000 С (Iess than 2% Ьу
weight), rising to around 20% at higher temperatures.
C:!AS - --f - - -- -- The thermal dissociation of МgСОз , which is of much less importance in cement
С 12 А 7 ",,"-
- manufacture, is similar to that of СаСО з , but takes place at lower temperatures.
СА 1--- -

aluminate 4 Solid reactions (reactions below clinkering)

Aluminat
aluminoferrite From temperatures of about 5500 - 6000 С onwards there occur solid reactions, as
!--
Al -ferrit already mentioned, in which the decomposition products of СаСО з react with
belite 1--- those of the clays, at first resulting in the formation of compounds with lower
Belit
content of lime (е. g., monocalcium aluminate СА. dicalcium silicate C2S). The
alite
Alit formation of tricalcium aluminate (3СаО' АI 2 О з = СзА) and calcium aluminofer-
CaOfree rite [2СаО(АI 2 О з , Fе 2 О з ) = C2AF], which occur also in portland cement clinker,
CaOfr,,;
begins at around 8000 С. Examples of such reactions аге:
600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 ·С
tempeгature t СаО + 2 СаО -+ 3 СаО . АI 2 О з
. АI 2 О з
Temperatur t + 3 СаО + Fе 2 О з -+ 4 СаО . АI 2 О з . Fе 2 О з
СаО . АI 2 О з
СаО' Si0 2 + CaO-+2СаО' Si0 2 .
Fig. 5: Existence ranges of the phases i n the charge (phase determi-
nation in cooled samples; - confirmed information, - - - - reported
The solid reactions proceed very slowly, but сап Ье speeded ир Ьу: reduction of
only Ьу some authors (from Seidel/Huckauf/Stark, 1978)
the particle size of the materials involved (i. е., larger surface агеа), raising of the
burning temperature, presence of crystal lattice distortions.

Metakaolin undergoes decomposition already to some extent within the above-

mentioned temperature range and further up to about 9000 С, resulting in the
formation of reactive oxides, e.g., as follows. АI 2 О з 2Si0 2 -+А1 2 О з + 2Si0 2
The dehydration of clays is affected Ьу various factors, such as the type of clay
mineral, the natuгe and quantity of admixtures, the particle size, the degree of
crystallization of the clays, the gaseous atmosphere, etc.
з Decomposition 01 carbonates
The calcium carbonate (СаСО з ) which constitutes about 74 to 79% of the cement
raw meal is decomposed (dissociated, decarbonated, calcined) at temperatures
from, theoretically, 8960 С upwards, in accordance with the equation:
СаСО з -+ СаО + СО 2 .
At that temperature the dissociation pressure is > 1 Ьаг and thus equals the
external pressure. The requisite reaction enthalpy L'1H is 1660 kJ/kg. The value of
8960 С relates to pure calcite; with increasing content of admixtuгes (е. g., in
cement raw meal) the thermal dissociation shifts to lower temperatuгes. Iп actual
practice it begins between 5500 and 6000 С. This effect is due to chemical reactions
of the СаО with the admixtures Si0 2, АI 2 О з and Fе 2 О з , resulting in the formation
5 Reactions ёп the presence 01 liquid phase (clinkering)
The first formation of liquid (melt), marking the start of what is known as
"sintering" ог "clinkering", occuгs at а temperature of between about 12600 and
13100 С. With further rise in temperature the proportion of liquid phase increases to
around 20 - 30% (Ьу weight) at 14500 С, the actual proportion being dependent
оп the chemical composition of the material. (Thus, the proportion of liquid formed
is less according as the silica modulus is higher: see Fig. 6.) At these temperatures
the main component of portland cement clinker is formed, namely, tricalcium
silicate (СзS), known also as alite.
At the start of clinkering the material still contains substantial amounts of
uncombined СаО as well as dicalcium silicate (C 2S). 'П the presence of the liquid
phase these compounds pass into solution; the diffusion of the reactants is greatly
facilitated in the liquid (as opposed to the solid state), tricalcium silicate (СзS) is
formed in accordance with the following reaction and crystallizes:
СаО + 2 СаО . Si0 2-+ 3 СаО . Si0 2 (= СзS) .
') Iп cement chemistry the following abbreviated notation is employed to indicate the
compounds
С = СаО, S = Si0 2. А = АI 2 О з , F = Fе2Оз, М = MgO, Cs = CaS0 4 , Н = Н 2 О, N = Na 20,
К = К2 О

122
123
 С. Cement chemistry - cement quality 111. Cement burning process Factors affecting the burning process

alumina modulus ~- 22 the loss of tricalcium silicate - which is important to the strength development of
тм Fе 0 -
2 з I
the cement - Ьу dissolving in the liquid. With rapid cooling, which is desirabIe, the
lime standard =96 liquid solidifies quickly and there is по appreciabIe loss of tricalcium silicate. The
K5t equilibrium is "frozen", as it were. Thus, the composition of cooled technically
~
о
;!:
а; З5 ,--~-----r---,-----.---..,..,.<~- produced portland cement clinker is substantially similar to that attained at
clinkering temperature.
~ ~~ ЗА t--~,_____-+---+---,.L-__t_-~ In contrast with liquid phases with а high Si0 2 content, the lime-rich alumino-
о .g,.i~ ferritic liquid in portland cement clinker undergoes complete crystallization even
~ .~ ~ ~ 25 t----+--~"k---_A_--__t_-~ when cooled rapidly.
.I:. >. ~O The rate of cooling also affects the state of crystallization, the reactivity of the
~.Q"t>~ 20 t----+--+----I-~......,.+_-___1 clinker phases and the texture of the clinker itself. For instance, rapid cooling will
'5~ ~­ produce fine closely-intergrown tricalcium aluminate (СзА) and calcium alumino-
g.s:l1: 15 ~----+,_____-+-----I---__I__-___I fепitе [C 2 (A,F)] crystals, which react slowly with water.
1,5 2,5 З.О З,5 4р
Other effects of rapid cool ing аге:
silica modulus Si0 2
SШсаtmОdul АI 2 О з + Fе20з better grindability of the clinker due to stress cracks;
higher alite content because less alite is lost Ьу dissolving;
Fig. 6: Relation between the silica modulus and the content of clinker slower setting of the cement because of intergrown finely crystalline aluminate and
liquid phase. calculated according to l. А. Dahl. at а clinkering tempera- fепitе phases;
ture of 14500 С (from Locher. 1979)
better soundness (Iess expansion) if the MgO content is above 2.5%, because
тоге MgO is present in solid solution in the clinker, while free MgO occurs in finely
crystalline form.
With this the ma;n object of the clinkering process. i. е., the formation of the Оп the other hand, extremely rapid cooling over the entire temperature range from
valuabIe compound СзS. has Ьееп achieved, and it is this that requires and justifies clinkering to ambient temperature (quenching) is liabIe to result in lower cement
the effort and cost of heating the raw materials to the high clinkering temperature. strength. It has Ьееп observed, however, that limited quenching may produce ап
'П аddltюп. the liquid phase promotes other reactions, е. g.. involving relatively increase in strength. The rate of cooling in the upper temperature range appears to
coarse quartz ог limestone particles.
Ье the important factor. 'П this range, relatively slow cooling under oxidizing
Trica~ciu~ sili~at~ (СзS) and dicalcium silicate (C 2 S) аге present as solid phases in conditions from ciinkering temperature to around 14000 С (for high-alkali clinker)
the SlпtеГlПg IIQUld. At temperatures above 14000 С the liquid phase contains а" ог around 13000 С (for low-alkali clinker) - in the kiln - is reported to have а
the АI.2 О з and Fе~~з of the subsequent clinker and has approx;mately the beneficial effect оп the strength of the cement, which тау Ье attributabIe to crystal
fоllОWlПg compOSltl?n: 56% СаО. 7% Si0 2 • 23% АI 2 О and 14% Fе О з
(percentages Ьу we/ght). А state of equilibrium is estabIished at clinkering
2 з lattice dislocations caused Ьу incipient decomposition of alite. (The validity of
temperature. these observations and interpretations has Ьееп disputed Ьу some authors,
however.)
Th~ vi~cosity. of .the 'iq~id phase is lower with decreasing iron modulus (alumina The rate of cooling of the clinker after leaving the kiln is generally considered not to
гаtю), 1. е., wlth IпсгеаSlПg Fе 2 о з content. Subsidiary mix components also affect Ье of appreciabIe influence оп the strength of the cement, i. е., it does not matter
the viscosity, whic~ is. for example, increased Ьу alkalis, but decreased Ьу SОЗ and which type of cooler - planetary ог grate cooler, for example - is used.
MgO. These геасtюпs сап Ье accelerated тоге particularly Ьу:
increasing the proportion of liquid phase; 7 Factors affecting the burning process
lowering the viscosity of the liquid phase; The above-mentioned reactions аге affected Ьу numerous chemical, mineralogical
reducing the proportion of coarse particles (especially quartz) in the raw meal. and physical factors, some of which сап Ье controlled.
The chemical composition of the feed material supplied to the kiln has а marked
influence оп the burning time required. This сап Ье defined as the length of time
6 Reactions during cooling needed, at а certain burning temperature, to Ьшп а raw теаl of given fineness to
such ап extent that not тоге than 2% of free СаО (Ьу weight) is present. The
If the. clinker formed in the burning process were cooled very slowly. some of the burning time becomes longer with increasing lime standard, silica modulus and
геасtюпs already accomplished would Ье reversed. resulting тоге particularly in iron modulus (the influence of the last-mentioned modulus is only slight,
124
125
 Factors affecting the burning process
С. Cement chemistry - cement quality 111 Cement buгning process

./. ~---т-'-.,....----г--..,..-----т----'1000. С
alumina modulus = 2.04
1М 60 11О0·С
1,00
>. 50,+----J----I-7"""ъ4-:J;;;o----11200· С
~ 0,98 ..:~
~ t:-1400·C
~ r-...
I
1: 40.\L:...-h,....,q----ь,..-~-_г_---j
:.а
5
u
0,96
t=1З50·С~
v,""" '"
~ >- 0,94
:="8
"-
~
"оCCII
~ Q92
.Q
--о
3
8.~ 0,90 о 20 40 60 80 100 120 ~m
е=а average particle diamet~r ар
0.::.: 0,88 mittlerer Korndurchmesser d p
2 3 4 5 6
silica modulus Fig 8' Effect of limestone particle size оп free СаО content at vari-
Silicatmodul SM
ou~ burning temperatures (from Lehman/Locher/Thormann. 19~~):
Fig. 7: Relation between the silica modulus and the combining of lime in dp = average particle size of а fraction; lime standard K.St 1= 96; sll.. C~
synthetic raw meals made from pure oxides (from Sycev, 1962) modulus = 3.0; alumina modulus = 2.2; I1t/l1t = 5 to К/mю.; t = 30mln .•
clay component: illite

however). The relationship between the silica modulus and the combining of lime
is exemplified in Fig. 7. The values represented in this diagram were obtained оп
synthetic raw meals in the laboratory and аге only tentatively applicabIe to
conditions in industrial cement manufacture. Alkali oxides (when present in ап
amount of above about 0.5% Ьу weight) tend to inhibit the combining of lime,
whereas MgO (below about 2.0% Ьу weight) and SОз (below about 1.0% Ьу
weight) accelerate it in the buгning process.
The mineralogical composition, for example, affects the pelletizability of the
raw meal and also affects the water content needed in raw slurry, while the burning
behaviouг and the specific heat requirement аге modified, inter alia, Ьу the mineral
components of the raw meal. The mineral character of clays and coarsely crysta 11 ine
quartz, in particular, is а major influencing factor, but crystal lattice dislocations,
crystal size and intergrowth, admixtuгes and impurities, natural bIending of the
phases in the raw material, and other factors, also play а part.
The rates at which reactions take place аге generally dependent оп the particle
size ofthe reactants, i. е., оп the reactive surface areas. Непсе the raw meal shou Id
Ье of such fineness that in the burning process even its coarsest particles will react
as completely as possibIe. As а rule, this condition is satisfied Ьу cement raw meal
with а residue of not more than 5- 20% (Ьу weight) retained оп the 90 micron
sieve, the actual maximum acceptabIe percentage being dependent оп the
composition of the meal and the type of kiln system.
Fig.8 shows the effect of the limestone particle size оп the content of free СаО at
various temperatures, bearing in mind that these аге values obtained in the
laboratory and give only а tentative indication of conditions in actual industrial
practice.
126
The homogeneity ofthe raw meal is а major requir~mentfo~ ~btaining а ~Ii~ker of
uniform composition and for ensuring steady ЬurПlПg сопdltюп~ .. For thls It must
more particularly Ье ensured that the m~~1 is of unvary~ngсоm~оs~tюпthroughout,
even within small volumetric quantltles « 1 mm ). If thls .IS not the case,
"pockets" consisting of different phases will. оссш i.n the с.llПkег. T~ese. may
consist, for example, of concentrations of free.llme. (whl~~ are IlabI~ to glv~ rls~ to
expansion phenomena оп hydration) ог of dlcalclum sl\lcate (be.llte) w~lch ~п а
homogeneous material would have combined to produce the deslrabIe trlcalclUm
silicate (alite). .
So-called mineralizers as additives (e.g .. fluorlte CaF 2 ) may favourabIy affect the
burning process. . .
То sum up, the burning behaviour of а raw meal IS dependent оп the fоllОWlПg
factors: ..
chemical composition (Iime standard, silica modulus, iron modulus, subsldlary
constituents, liquid phase, mineralizers) ;
mineral composition; . .
particle size distribution, especially the maximum partlcle Slze;
homogeneity of the raw meal; .
burning conditions (rate of heating, more partlcularlx at ~emperatu.res ~bove
11000 С, maximum burning temperature, and геtепtюп tlme at thls hlghest
temperature) .
The result of the burning process is portland cement clinker, consisting of the
clinker phases.
127
 С. Cement chemistry - cement quality IV. Portland cement clinker Clinker phases

References which it was burned and the manner in which it was subsequently cooled. They
modify the properties of the alite: for example, the incorporation of foreign ions
4,7,8,9, 12,20,23,24,28,31,33,36,41,46,49,51,53,54,59,69,82,83,87,89,
92 usually increases its strength. Below 12500 С, tricalcium silicate may decompose
into СаО and C2S if subjected to very slow cooling, especially if it contains Fe 2+ as
а result of burning under reducing conditions. Quantitatively and also with regard
to the properties of the cement (more particularly its strength development)
tricalcium silicate is the most important constituent of cement. For this compound
to form in the burning process, it is essential that sintering should occur.
IV Portland cement clinker
Portland cement clinker consists substantially of the four crystalline clinker phases
alite, belite, calcium aluminate and calcium aluminoferrite in close interpenetrating 1.2 Belite (dicalcium silicate)
association. 'П addition, the clinker contains voids ("pores") and usually some free
(uncombined) lime; more rarely, periclase is present. Chemically pure dicalcium silicate (C 2S) *) is not found in cement clinker either; it
likewise contains incorporated foreign oxides. It occurs mainly in solid form at the
clinkering temperature and is present only in small proportions in clinker with а
1 Clinker phases high lime standard. Its strength development is slow, but in the long run it attains
strengths at least as good as those of alite. The ~ modification of belite, which is the
Some important data relating to the clinker phases аге given in ТаЫе 3. Fig.9
form in which this compound is predominantly present in clinker, may at room
shows the strength development of these phases. As already stated, free СаО and
free MgO (periclase) may also occur in the clinker. temperature change into the у modification, which is the more stabIe form, but
virtually lacking in hydraulic properties (beta-gamma inversion). This change is
accompanied Ьу а volume increase of about 10%, which is considered to Ье the
cause of the so-called "falling" of clinker, а rapid disintegration. This inversion сап
~
~2 Ье obviated, however, i. е., the belite сап Ье stabilized, Ьу the incorporation of
о, 80 тrт-.-------,,.----, foreign ions and also Ьу rapid cooling. With present-day technology of cement
с
~ manufacture the risk of clinker falling has Ьееп eliminated.
1ii The finely crystalline aluminate and ferrite phases аге often ranked as "interstitial
.~ j 40 Ц4--blL-!-------1 matter" ог "matrix". Both these phases аге formed from the clinker melt оп
III.~ cooling.
~Оо.х
~ 20 -II-++-+--!-------1
~~ 1.3 Aluminate phase
UQ 0728 90 180 360 days
hardening time
10ge The aluminate phase (in its pure form: СзА) likewise contains foreign ions. Неге
Erhortungszeit the incorporation of alkalis (Na 20, К 2 О), each in amounts exceeding 5~ .Ьу
weight, is possibIe. The aluminate phase possesses а high degree of reactlvlty,
Fig.9: Compressive strengths of clinker phases (water-cement ratio which is further increased Ьу the incorporation of alkalis. The presence of the
= 0.5); 1 = СЗS; 2 = C 2S; 3 = СзА; 4 = C 4 AF (from Bogue, 1955)
phases NСвА з and КСвА з has Ьееп reported. 'П order to retard the ~eaction of the
aluminate phase at the start of hydration, every cement must сопtаlП some added
sulphate (е. g., in the form of gypsum) as а setting retardant.
1.1 Alite (tricalcium silicate) Together with alite and belite, the aluminate phase may somewhat increase the
early strength of the hardening cement (this effect being due to the considerabIe
Chemically pure tricalcium silicate (СзS) *) does not occur in portland cement heat of hydration that this compound evolves). Its own hydraulic properties are
clinker; it always incorporates foreign oxides, е. g., approximately 2% MgO, also slight. however.
АI 2 О з . Fе 2 О з , Тi0 2 and others. The amounts in which these oxides аге present
The compound С'2А7 may also occur.
depend more particularly оп the composition of the clinker, the temperature at

*) For abbreviated notation see footnote оп page 123 ') For abbreviated notation see footnote оп page 123

128 129
w ТаЫе З: Clinker phases r>
о ()
ф
designation alite belite aluminate phase fепitеphase 3
of the phase tricalcium silicate dicalcium silicate tricalcium aluminate calcium aluminoferrite ф

in the clinker ....

:::3

ofthe pure phase

composition of the
pure phase 3 СаО' Si0 2 2 СаО' Si0 2 3 СаО 'АI 2 О з 2 СаО(АI 2 О з

abbreviated notation СзS C2 S СзА C2 (A,F)

ог C 2 A pF,_p

foreign ions Mg, AI, Fe alkaiis, AI, Fe, alkalis, Fe, Mg Si, Mg
commonly incprporated fluoride
in clinker phases
number of
modifications 6 5 3
modifications monoclinic (М 11) ~-belite, monoclinic cubic orthorhombic
оссuпiпg in trigonal (R) (а and а'belite) orthorhombic
technical clinkers tetragonal
colour of the white white white dark brown
рше phase due to MgO
incorporation:
dark grey-green

proportions in
portland
cement clinker
(% Ьу mass)
maximum 80 30 15 15
average 60 15 11 8
minimum 40 О 7 4
technical properties rapid hydration, slow hydration, rapid hydration, slow and moderate
in cement high initial and good final strength, high heat of hydration, hardly
good final low heat of hydration which апу strength de-
strength, moderate hydration promotes early velopment, moderate
heat of hydration, strength, shrinks heat of hydration,
main strength appreciabIy оп ion, gives погтаl
constituent in hydration, reacts cement its colour
погта' portland with sulphates
cement and thus undergoes
volume
(expansion)

~
 rh,t>П'\iс:t,·\/ - cement cement clinker of clinker

1 .4 Ferrite phase Ву way of example, ТаЫе 4 gives the chemical compositions of the phases of а
portland cement clinker.
The ferrite phase does not possess а constant chemical composition; it is in fact
а тетЬег of а solid solution series extending theoretically from С 2 А to C 2F (С 2 А
is sti\l not existing) :
ТаЫе 4: Experimentally determined chemical composition of the
С2А ... C6 A 2F ... C4 AF ... C6 AF 2 ··· C2F. clinker phases of а portland cement clinker (% Ьу weight)
Depending оп the availability of iron and aluminium, the members of the solid ferrite
alite belite aluminate
solution series will Ье situated пеагег the iron-rich ог пеагег the aluminium-rich phase
phase
end thereof. Quite often the composition of this phase in cement clinker
corresponds тоге ог less to C4 AF. The general formula of the series is C2(A,F) ог 59.50 51.40
СаО 69.70 63.20
C2A pF,.p. Foreign ions аге incorporated in the ferrite phase as well. It is the phase 4.21 2.28
Si0 2 24.90 31.50
that contributes тоге particularly to giving cement its colour: рше C2(A,F) is 27.52 19.60
АI 2 О з 1.12 1.84
brown, C2(A,F) containing MgO is of а dark grey/green colour. It is very slow- 5.76 22.52
Fе 2 О з 0.64 0.96
reacting and of little importance to the properties of the cement. 0.85 3.18
MgO 0.89 0.48
К2 О 0.19 0.75 0.66
1 .5 Other clinker phases 0.19 0.25
Na 20 0.06
Most cement clinkers contain free СаО (uncombined lime) in amounts up to Тi0 2 0.16 0.24 0.48 1.60
2% Ьу weight. Its presence is due either to unsuitabIe preparation of the raw теаl Р2О5 0.28
(inhomogeneous ог too coarse), to inadequate burning (so that it was not
combined Ьу other oxides), to too slow а rate of cooling (so that partial
decomposition of СзS ог СзА could оссш) ог to too high а lime content (LSt 111
> 100). Free lime is undesirabIe in appreciabIe concentrations (above about 2.5%
Ьу weight), as it is liabIe to cause expansion phenomena in mortar and concrete
(Iime expansion), [СаО + H 2 0---+Са(ОН)2]'
MgO-гiсh clinkers тау contain free MgO (periciase). Since about 2.0 to 2.5% 2 Judging the quality of clinker
MgO Ьу weight is combined in the form of а solid solution in the other phases of
the clinker, а cement conforming to the standard specifications тау permissibIy Various methods of judging the quality of cement clinker аге availabIe. As а rule,
contain up to about 2.5-3.0% of peroclase (according to German Standard several аге applied.
DIN 1164, up to а total of 5.0% MgO Ьу weight is a\lowed). The proportion of Complete chemical analysis (Ьу wet-chemical analysis ог Х-гау fluorescence
MgO that is combined in other phases will depend оп the chemical composition of analysis) gives information оп the overall composition. From the results it is
the clinker and its conditions of production. Periclase is undesirabIe because, if possibIe to calculate the lime standard and the moduli (silica modulus, iron
present in substantial amounts, it тау cause expansion similar to that caused Ьу modulus) which together provide тоге conveniently assimilabIe information оп
lime (magnesia expansion), but тоге surreptitious because in some cases the the quality of the clinker (see also Section 11.2.1). The potential phase com-
damage it causes тау remain undetected for years. position, as envisaged Ьу Bogue, сап also Ье calculated from the analytical
Finely crystalline and uniformly distributed periclase causes less expansion than results. This calculation presupposes that the clinker melt (Iiquid phase in
does ап equal quantity of periclase that is present in coarsely crystalline form ог in clinkering) crystallizes in equilibrium with the solid phases and that the clinker
'оса' accumulations ("pockets"). The same is true of free lime and its expansion phases аге of chemically рше and stoichiometric composition, i. е., рше СзS, C2S,
effects. СзА and C4 AF. 'П reality the first assumption (equilibrium оп crystallization) is not
The expansion due to free СаО is а result of its hydration, similar in principle to fulfilled, as was pointed out in Section 111.6 dealing with the reactions оп cooling;
slaking, but slower: it reacts with water to form Са(ОН)2' which has about twice Пог is the requirement of chemical purity, for the clinker phases contain
the volume of the СаО from which it was formed. Magnesia expansion is similarly incorporated foreign ions. AII the same, this phase calculation yields reasonabIy
due to the reaction of MgO with water. The expansion effects аге commonly useful approximate values for guidance. As а rule, the actual alite content is higher,
referred to as "unsoundness" of the cement. the belite content lower than calculated, whereas the actual content of the
'П гаге cases cement clinker тау moreover contain small amounts of, for example, aluminate and ferrite phases differs only Ьу а few рег cent from the calculated
alkali sulphates and glassy phase. ("potential") content (see ТаЫе 5).

132 133
С. Cement chemistry - cement quality iV. Portland cement clinker Judging the quality of clinker

ТаЫе 5: Comparison of potential and microscopically determined Са Icu lation:

(actual) phase compositions of various portland cement clinkers (% Ьу СзS =4.071 х 63.50 - 7.602 х 20.90 - 6.719 х 6.05 - 1.430 х 3.20 = 54.4%
weight) (say 54%)
C2 S = 2.868 х 20.90 - 0.754 х 54.4 = 18.9% (say 19%)
phase normal portland MgO-гiсh K2 O-rich СзА = 2.650 х 6.05 - 1.692 х 3.20 = 10.6% (say 11 %)
cement clinker portland portland C4 AF = 3.043 х 3,20 = 9.7% (say 10%)
cement clinker cement clinker
Sum of the clinker phases = 93.6% (say 94%)
pot. micr. pot. micr. pot. micr. (percentages Ьу weight).

alite 49 70 42 58 39 51 Another important criterion is the free lime content (uncombined СаО), which
belite 21 7 26 21 29 19 is determined Ьу wet-chemical analysis ог Х-гау diffractometry. 'П conjunction
aluminate phase 13 11 15 12 17 22 with the lime standard it gives information оп the production conditions, тоге
fепitе phase 11 10 11 9 13 8 particularly the degree of burning. The free lime content is not allowed to exceed а
certain iimiting value which is in the range of 2 to 3% (Ьу weight), depending оп

Bogue's formulas for calculating the potential composition:

For normal portland cement clinker:
СзS = 4.071 СаО - 7.602 Si0 2 - 6.719 АI 2 О з - 1.430 Fе 2 О з
C2 S = 8.602 Si0 2 + 5.068 АI 2 О з + 1.079 Fе 2 О з - 3.07 СаО
ог C 2 S = 2.868 Si0 2 - 0.754 СзS
СзА = 2.650 АI 2 О з - 1.692 Fе 2 О з
C4 AF = 3.043 Fе 2 О з .
For clinker with iron modulus 0.64 (rich in iron oxide. по СзА)
СзS = 4.071 СаО - 7.602 Si0 2 - 4.475 АI 2 О з - 2.863 Fе 2 О з
C2 S = 2.867 Si0 2 - 0.754 СзS
C2 F = 1.702 Fе 2 О з - 2.665 АI 2 О з
C4 AF = 4.766 Fе 2 О з .
For the oxide symbols in these formulas the respective analytical results (in % Ьу
weight) should Ье substituted. If the content of free lime is known, this should Ье
subtracted from the overall СаО content before the calculation is done.
If negative values аге found for C2 S, it means that free lime must Ье present.
Since the alkalis, MgO and other subsidiary constituents аге not taken into account
in the calculation, the potential phase content is always found to Ье below
100%.
Example of the calculation ofthe potential phase composition. Consider а normal
portland cement clinker with the following chemical analysis (% Ьу weight) :
loss оп ignition 0.42 MgO 2.00
insolubIe in HCI 0.15 К2О 0.95
Si0 2 20.90 Na 2 0 0.21 Fig.10: Portland cement clinker: micrograph obtained with reflected
АI 2 О з 6.05 SОЗ 0.54 light: alite: dark grey. mostly with straight boundaries; belite: light
Fе 2 О з 3.20 CaOfree 1.05 grey. curved boundaries; ferrite: white matrix; aluminate: dark in-
СаО 64.55 residue 1.03 clusions in white matrix

134 135
 С. Cement chemistry - cement quality IV. Portland
~.
JIDL .
Fig. 1.1 : Por~land cement clinker: under-burned (porous); micrograph
obtamed wlth reflected light: free lime: bIack pocket; belite: light-
c~loure~ textured areas; alite: dark textured areas; pores (here filled
wlth resm): grey areas with grinding scratches
the production conditions, for otherwise the risk of lime expansion in the mortar or
concrete made ~ith the cement cannot Ье ruled ощ. The factors causing the
prese~ce ~f free II.me are explained in Section IV.1. The test for /ime expansion is
descrlbed ,п Sесtюп Х.3.
The ~ulk density?f а parti~ular part;cle size fraction of clinker (е. g., 5- 7 тт),
оЬtаlПеd Ьу screenl.ng, provlde~ ~ check оп the degree of burning. Depending оп
the raw ~ea/ (chemlcal соmРОSltюп) and characteristics of the kiln plant (porosity
of the сllПkег, etc.), the va/ues for the bulk density of adequately burned clinker
range between 1.2 and 1.6 kg/dm З • The permissibIe minimum value in апу given
case has to Ье determined empirically.
Microsc~pic examination of the clinker yields information оп the nature
сопfогmаtюп and distribution of the clinker phases. The quantitative proportion~
of these p~ases depe~d ?п the chemical composition of the clinker, whereas their
сопfогmаtюп and dlstrlbution аге determined Ьу the production conditions
136
(fineness, partic/e size distribution, maximum particle size and homogeneity of the
raw meal, heating-up rate, duration of sintering, cooling rate, etc.). Experts сап
detect certain defects in the production conditions Ьу microscopic examination of
the cfinker and decide оп ways and means of overcoming them. As а rule, polished
and etched specimens аге employed, which аге examined Ьу reflected light at
magnifications of between 50 and 1000. Properties such as shape, reflectivity,
hardness, etching behaviour (е. g., in water ог in а solution of nitric acid in
a/cohol), etc. аге used as means of identifying the phases and also yield other
information оп them. Figs. 1 О and 11 аге micrographs of portland cement clinker in
reflected light.
The constituent clinker phases сап Ье determined qualitative/y, and also to а great
extent quantitatively, Ьу means of X-ray diffractometry (diffraction analysis).
The quantitative determination of free lime for production control purposes Ьу this
method has acquired practical importance. То use this method for quantitatively
determining а" the clinker phases presents difficulties, because various important
diffraction lines coincide (е. g., those of alite and belite), because the incorporation
of foreign ions causes variations and because the degree of disorder in the structure
of the various clinker phases differs in consequence of varying production
conditions.
References
3,8,19,23,25,28,30,31,33,34,36,39,41,42,45,46,53,57,67,69,83,84,87,
92, 93
v. Finish grinding
1 The materials involved in finish grinding
1.1 Portland cement clinker
With the exception of high-alumina, а" standard cements contain portland cement
clinker. This material has Ьееп dealt with in Section V.
1.2 Blastfurnace slag
Blastfurnace slag, тоге particularly in granulated form, is а so-called latently
hydraulic material, i. е., it needs ап activator to епаЫе it to harden "hydraulically".
'П practice, calcium hydroxide (in cement clinker ог as hydrated lime) and
sulphates (gypsum, anhydrite) аге used as activators. Slowly cooled crystalline
bIastfurnace slag in lump form is unsuitabIe, however; to possess latent hy-
draulicity, the slag has to Ье in а glassy form produced Ьу rapid cooling. This is
achieved Ьу quenching the molten slag in water, which yields а granulated
137
 С. Cement chemistry - cement quality У. Finish grinding

product. The granulated bIastfurnace slag should have the fowest possibIe residual
1.3 Pozzolanas
water content (favourabIe values аге below 10%). The particle size is usually
below 3тт. Pozzolanas аге materials, mainly of natural orlgln, which react at погтаl
The hy~r.aulic pr~perties of bIastfurnace slag аге determined Ьу its chemical temperature with calcium hydroxide and thus produce strength-developing
compo~'tlOn and ~ts glass content. The latter should Ье above 90%. Methods of chemical compounds (hydraulic hardening). Most pozzolanas аге volcanic
ргоdUСlПg. slag wlth 95 -100% glass content аге now availabIe. materials, especially those known as tuffs. The пате "pozzolana" is derived from
The chemlca~ compos.ition of.the granulated bIastfurnace slags used in cement Pozzuoli пеаг mount Vesuvious оп the Gulf of Naples. 'П Germany, similar
manuf~ctu.re IS apProXlma~ely IП the. range indicated in ТаЫе 6. There аге formulas materials known as Rhenish trass (а volcanic tuff from the Neuwied Basin пеаг
for estJmatln~ the hydraullc propertles оп the basis of the chemical analysis of the KobIenz) and Bavarian trass (а rock transformed Ьу meteorite impact, found in the
slag: АссогdlПg to DIN 1164 а granulated slag is to Ье classed as suitabIe for агеа called Nёнdliпgег Ries, about 80 km south of Nuremberg) аге used as
~~klПg slag c~ments (тоге particularly the two German varieties known as additives to cement. Trass has to conform to German 5tandard DJN 51 043.
EI~e~portland cement and "Hochofen" cement) if the following condition is Burned oil shale residue, used тоге particularly at Dotternhausen пеаг Donau-
satlsfled: eschingen, is another pozzolanic material that calls for mention. Iп other countries
such materials comprise, besides volcanic rocks, various siliceous sedimentary
deposits, including тоге particularly kieselguhr (diatomaceous earth consisting of
the remains of unicellular creatures with siliceous skeletons). Essential quality
requirements of а pozzolana аге that it contains large amounts of 5i0 2 and АI 2 О з in
а suitabIy reactive form, so that it сап react with Са(ОН)2' The suitability of such
However, such formu.las сап do по.тоге than give approximate guidance. 50 far, it
materials as ingredients of cement сап Ье determined Ьу means of comparison
has ~ot proved p~sslbIe to .estabIlsh а generally-va/id formula that will reliabIy
~redlct th~ hydraullc propertres оп the basis of the chemical analysis data, пог does tests (as with bIastfurnace slag) ог Ьу chemical methods (testing the capacity to
сотЫпе with lime).
It арр.еаг Ilkely that such.a formula. will Ье found. In general terms, however, it сап
Ье sald that the hydraullc propertles аге better according as the content of СаО
MgO and АI~Оз is higher (this applies for MgO only up to about 12%, while AI о' 1.4 Fly-ash
above 13% Improves only the early strength). 2 з Fly-ash ог pulverized fuel ash (PFA) is obtained, for example, in dust collection
equipment of furnaces fired with pulverized coal, especially those of electricity
generating plants. It is composed of glass-like particles of predominant/y spherical
ТаЫе.6: Chemical compositions of the granulated bIastfurnace slags shape and consisting mainly of 5i0 2, АI 2 О з and Fе 2 О з . It is а pozzolanic material
used '" cement manufacture (% Ьу weight) which is activated Ьу calcium hydroxide and is then сараЫе of hydraulic
oxide hardening. This applies тоге particularly to the glass content of the ash, which
content oxide content should therefore Ье as high as possibIe. Оп the other hand, it should contain the
5i0 2 least possibIe amount of burnt сагЬоп residue, as this is detrimental to the cement
28-38 СаО 35-48
АI 2 О з
properties (Iower strength and durability of concrete made with the cement).
9-18 MgO 2-10
FeO The reactivity offly-ash is higher according as its specific surface is larger. For most
0- 2
МпО
5 1- 3 types offly-ash this is between about 1000 and upwards of 4000 cm 2jg (Blaine),
0- 2 Na 20 0- 2 though it should Ье noted that these values тау Ье falsified ог shifted to higher
values Ьу the presence of сагЬоп particles. The ash particle sizes аге generally
between 0.5 and 200 microns. Coarse-graded fly-ash сап Ье improved Ьу
А тоге reliabIe meth~d o~ ~etermining the hydraulic properties of а granulated grinding, preferabIy Ьу intergrinding with portland cement clinker and gypsum to
bIastfurnace sl.ag CO~SIStS In Intergrinding it with clinker and gypsum to produce а produce the desired cement. Up to about 30% of fly-ash - depending оп the
slag cement ~Ith а hlgh slag content (in the laboratory) and testing this cement for quality and properties of the ash - тау thus Ье incorporated as ап additive in
strength ar,d, If nec.essary, for other properties as well. For comparison а "сетеп(' cement.
тау Ье made whlch contains, instead of slag, ап equal quantity' of ап inert
substance (е. g., quartz sand) of the same fineness ог, alternatively, а portland 1.5 Sulphates
~ement made from the same clinker, but without slag, тау Ье ground to the same А quantity of sulphate (in the form of gypsum ог а mixture of gypsum and
f,neness as the slag cement and tested.
anhydrite-II) is always added to the portland cement clinker in the finish grinding
138
139
 С. Cement chemistry - cement qua/ity V. Finish grinding
Fineness and particle size distribution

process, the object.of this ad?ition being to control (retard) the setting time of the
p~odu?t. The ret.ardlng eff~ct IS brought about Ьу а reaction of the sulphate with the
trlc~lclUm аluтlПаtе, whlch would otherwise set too quickly (clinker containing
а h.gher content of СзА will re.quire тоге sulphate; see also Section VII.2).
However, too m~ch sulphate IП the cement is liabIe to cause expansion
phenomena (Sесtюп VII.2), and for this reason upper limiting values аге specified
f~r the.cement content (reckoned as SОз). The values laid down in DIN 1164 аге
glven IП ТаЫе 7. Natural. impurities in raw gypsum (е. g., clay, calcite) do not
a.dversely affect the quallty of the ,cement. Depending оп the СзА content, the
fln~ness of the cement and the afkall content, there exists for еуегу cement а certain
OP~lmU~ sulphate content which. т~y тогеоуег distinctly improve the strength.
Th,s opt,,:num ~ont~nt of su Iphate IS h,gher according as the СзА and alkali content
o~ the clln~er IS hl~~er and the cement is тоге finely ground. Because of the
dlffere~ces IП SO/Ublllty between hemihydrate (highly), gypsum (moderately) and
аПhУdГlt~-11 (~oorly solubIe), ~he nature ofthe sulphate-bearing compound added
t~ the ~llПkег IS. also ?f some /mportance. The optimum sulphate content will Ье
hlgher If anhydrlte~lIls used. 'п order to avoid possibIe irregularities of setting, it is
prefera~'e to use mlxtures of gyp~Um a~d anhydrite- f I (in proportions ranging from
ab~ut 1 .1 to 1 :8). ~oг cement Wlth.a hlgh content of СзА and alkalis and ground to
а h.lgh degree of flneness the OptlmUm sulphate content is around 5% SO Ь
welg.ht. For coarsely ground cement containing little ог по С А and with а 10;
alkall content the SОЗ requirement is in the region of 2.5-3% Ьу weight.
2 Fineness and particle size distribution
Under otherwise similar conditions а substance will react тоге rapidly in
proportion as its specific surface (in cm 2 /g) is larger. For this reason the raw
materials for cement manufacture have to Ье ground before burning, and the
clinker (with admixtures, especially gypsum) has to Ье ground to suitabIe fineness
in order to produce а cement that will react readily with water in the hydration
process. Thus, опе and the same clinker will achieve better (тоге rapid) strength
development according as it is тоге finely ground, i. е., acquires а larger specific
surface. For еуегу additional1 00 ст 2 /g of specific surface the gain in strength of
the cement is in the region of 0.5 to 2.0 N/mm 2 , the average increase in 28-day
compressive strength being approximately 1 N/mm 2 • The same applies to а" the
usual standard testing ages for cement. Only after а much longer period (several
years), when еуеп the coarser particles have fully reacted, is there likely to Ье little
difference in the strength finally attained Ьу coarser and finer cements. Reference
values for cement fineness аге given in ТаЫе 8.
ТаЫе 8: Reference values for fineness of cements
cement percentage (Ьу weight) specific surface
retained оп 0.09 тт (Blaine) in cm 2 /g
standard sieve (DIN 4188)

portland cement 35 < 10 2400-4000

Hochofen cement 35 < 6 3000-4000
ТаЫе 7: Highest permissibIe SОз content in cements (DII\! 1164) portland cement 45 < 6 2800-4500
Hochofen cement 45 < 3 3300-4500
type of cement highest permissibIe SОЗ content portland cement 55 < 1 4000-6000
in % Ьу weight for specific surfасе З ) Trass cement < 4 3000-5500
of the cements

portland cement,
Eisen portland cement,
trass cement
Hochofen cement
with 36 to 70% Ьу weight
of bIas'tfurnace slag
Hochofen cement with
тоге than 70% Ьу weight
of bIastfurnace slag
140
from 2000 to оуег Iп clinker grinding, the gypsum, being тоге readily grindabIe, tends to Ье
4000 cm 2 jg 4000 cm 2 jg concentrated in the finer particle size fractions of the product. So does апу fly-ash
that тау Ье added, whereas bIastfurnace slag becomes concentrated in the coarser
fractions.
Strength development, especially the early strength, is distinctly improved if the
3.5 cement is тоге closely graded, i. е., if the middle range of particle sizes between 3
4.0
and 30 microns is increased to аЬоуе 50%, say, at the expense of the coarser and
the fi пег particles - provided that the specific surface of the cement is not reduced.
The improvement is due to the faster rate of hydration achieved. For producing
4.0 such closely graded cement it is essential that the grinding plant has а highly
selective classifier (air separator). The use of grinding aids is reported also to Ье
helpful in achieving this result. However, the effect of grading (particle size
distribution) оп the strength development of industrial cements is not always
4.5 clearly manifest. Fig. 12 shows the strength development of various granulometric
classes of cement.
141
 С. Cement chemistry - cement quality V. Finish grinding Mill atmosphere

~
mm 2
70 .--.----.-----.-----==.....
hemi-
hydrate
Halb -
.,.
gypsum
Gips ./.
с:
QI hydrat
~ 50 f---tF----.I!'о::::....,,,е......--+------,,,,.-"=----: 30 70
~~
'~ ~ 30 /-t-t+--++------,~-+-----I
40 60
"х ~. ;;--...
~..! 50 50
~~ 10 IН-Jho~----I------I ~
60 40
30 о "'"""'-L------I.._ _--'--- --' ""-
1 7 28 90 days 70 30
........
hydration time
Н ydrationszeit
Tage
80 20
х,
,
Fig.12: Strength development during the hydration of cements of
various granulometric classes (from Sweden); 1 = O/3f,Lm, 2 = 3/9f,Lm,
90 10 "'
3 = 9/25/lm, 4 = 25/50/lm) 100 О
95 100 105 110 115 120· С

Clinker which has Ьееп stored under damp conditions for some considerabIe time
already contains hydration products. When such clinker is ground, these products
tend to Ьесоте concentrated in the finest fractions (and cause high specific
surface values) while furthermore, е. g., Ьу forming coatings оп the grinding
media, they obstruct the grinding of the unhydrated clinker constituents which
thus tend to form higher concentrations in the coarser fractions. For these reasons
the specific surface values yielded Ьу such clinker should Ье rated with some
caution: in general, higher values should Ье aimed for than in the grinding of fresh
unhydrated clinker.
The fineness of grinding of cements тау Ье determined Ьу sieving ог а separation
method (the fineness being expressed as а certain percentage Ьу weight above а
certain size, е. g., as residue retained оп а standard sieve), but is тоге usually based
оп the specific surface determined Ьу the Blaine method (air permeability of а bed
of cement, the result being expressed in cm 2 /g; the finerthe cement, the higherthe
specific surface) (see also Section Х.1).
з м ш atmosphere
Heat is generated in the grinding of cement clinker, resulting in а rise in
temperature, which тау in some instances exceed 1200 С. The water content ofthe
gypsum (CaS0 4 ' 2 Н 2 О) is driven out, slowly at first (from about 400 -450 С
onwards), but above 800 С at а rapid rate, as а result of which the gypsum is paгtly
ог indeed comp/etely dehydrated (the latter above 11 00 С), so that it is transformed
into hemihydrate (CaS0 4 ' 1/ 2 Н 2 О) ог anhydrite 111 (CaS0 4 , solubIe anhydrite),
see Fig. 13. These partly ог wholly dehydrated sulphates dissolve much тоге easily
in water than gypsum does and аге thus тоге reactive. In СзА-гiсh cements this
142
temperature 01 materia\
Mal'd.guttemperatur
Fig.13: Content of gypsum and hemihydrate (including solubIe ап­
hydrite) as а function of mill charge temperature during grinding
reactivity is advantageous for its retarding effect оп the setting behaviour (СзА
reacts with sulphate to form ettringite: see also Section VII.2). Оп the other hand,
when "hot" -ground cement is mixed with water, а solution supersaturated with
calcium sulphate may quickly develop, from which gypsum is then precipitated in
the form of needle-shaped cгystals which interlock and cause а stiffening of the
mass called "false set". This is, however, а temporary phenomenon, which сап Ье
reversed Ьу further mixing. Rapidly forming needle-shaped crystals of syngenite
and ettringite тау also have а share in this early stiffening, and the alkali sulphates
contained in the clinker react just as quickly.
In portland cement of normal composition the SОз content corresponding to
hemihydrate, anhydrite 111 and clinker alkali sulphate together should Ье below
2.2 - 2.5% Ьу weight (depending оп the СзА content; а lower limit is applicabIe to
portland bIastfurnace cement, cements with low СзА content and certain others).
If this limiting value for the combined SОз content is exceeded, there is а risk of
false set. Apart from remining below this limit, other ways to overcome this
ргоЫет аге: increasing the mixing time of the cement ог, at the clinker grinding
stage, substituting anhydrite-II for а proportion (up to about 50% Ьу weight) of
the gypsum.
The moisture given off Ьу the gypsum dehydration to the atmosphere in the mill, as
also the water which тау Ье injected into the mill for cooling its charge during
grinding, will react тоге particularly with the finest particles of the cement formed.
As а result, the reactivity of the tricalcium aluminate (СзА) is in part substantially
reduced, and if fairly large amounts of moisture аге thus released into the mill, the
143
С. Cement chemistry - cement quality V. Finish grinding VI. Storage of cement

strength development of .the cement will Ье appreciabIy affected (strength VI. Storage of cement
losses.of more than 10% are IlabIe to occur). СзА-гiсh and alkali-rich cements are
especlally prone to this effect. 1 Storage in the cement works
The finished cement that is discharged from the clinker grinding mill is stored in
silos in which it should, ideally, undergo по subsequent changes. However, certain
4 Grinding aids inf\uences may act upon the cement in storage and have а detrimental effect оп its
Grin.ding aids have Ьееп used in Germany for the last twenty years or so, more quality.
partlcularly for the grinding of cements in the higher ranges of fineness (specific Cement shouid Ье stored at the lowest possibIe temperature.
surface above about 3500 cm 2 /g). Their usefulness is greater according as the
At temperatures of 500 - 600 С there is little dehydration of gypsum for storage
ceme~t to Ье ground is finer. For equal cement fineness, grinding aids сап
periods of up to about 28 days, but at 800 - 900 С the dehydration is very
some~lmes substantially increase mill throughput (ТаЫе 9). However. they must
considerabIe, and under such conditions the gypsum may lose all its crystal water.
Ье sшtаЫу tested with regard to their harmlessness in concrete made with the
Indeed, incipient dehydration is found to occur in cement stored at only 400 С for
cement; m?~e particularly, they must not promote сопоsiоп of reinforcing steel,
periods in excess of 28 days. The water thus released - together with moisture of
and а certlflcate to that effect must Ье supplied Ьу the manufacturers of the
atmospheric and possibIe other origin - reacts with the cement in the cooler zones
grinding aids. Whereas the advantageous action of these substances in connection
of the silo. The СзА in the cement is more particularly prone to react with water.
with the grinding of portland cement is beyond dispute, they are of relatively little
Acicular (needle-shaped) ettringite and syngenite are formed, also tabular
value in the grinding of slag cements.
aluminate hydrate. These newly formed crystals are liabIe to cause solidification
of the (formation of lumps, "bridging" in the silo). Since the compounds which
are more particularly involved in these solidification reactions with water are СзА
ТаЫе 9: Av~ra~e in~rease in performance of finish grinding mills as а and alkaii sulphates, cements which have а high content of these compounds
result of grlndвng alds (from Schneider. 1969) are notabIy prone to Ье affected in this way.
Water absorption Ьу cement, especially if the latter has а high СзА content,
cement specific surface increase in amount of furthermore causes retardation of setting (because of diminished reactivity of the
cm 2 /g throughput % additive % СзА) and, depending оп how much water is absorbed, also causes loss of strength
(in consequence of pre-hydration of the СзS in the cement). Besides, false set
PZ 35 2400-3000 bis10 0,01-0,03 _ temporary early stiffening of the cement when mixed with water - may also Ье
PZ 45 3000-4000 10-30 0,02-0.06 due to causes associated with silo storage (see Section V.3).
PZ 55 4000-5500 25-50 0.04-0,1 'П general, cement is less likely to Ье affected Ьу storage according as it is more
finely ground. This may appear somewhat surprising, but the reason is that in finer
cement the average radius of the pores or voids between the cement particles is
smaller, so that water vapour diffuses less easily through the bed of cement.
As сап Ье iпfепеd from the foregoing, as little moisture as possibIe should Ье
Particularly effective gr~nding aids are glycols (е. g., ethylene glycol, propylene
allowed to get into the cement storage silo, and the temperature of the stored
glycol) .and ethanol аmlПеs (е. g., triethanol amine). As а rule, they are added in
cement should, if possibIe, Ье below 600 С. То minimize the access of water to the
quantltles of less than 0.005% Ьу weight. Larger additions (above 0.2% Ьу weight)
cement, it may Ье advisabIe to reduce the gypsum content or to substitute
of triethanol amine are liabIe to lower the early strength, but the 28-day strength is
anhydrite 11 for some of the gypsum in clinker grinding, the amounts of water (if
not adverselx affected. ~rinding aids have Ьееп used for а good many years, as
апу) that are sprayed into the mill should Ье duly monitored, and the feed of moist
already mе~tюпеd, and It has Ьееп estabIished that they do not impair the long-
clinker and/or bIastfurnace slag to the mill should Ье avoided.
term Ьеhаvюur of concrete either.
Cement which, when fresh, has normal setting properties may become quick-
setting as а result of storage. This is more particularly liabIe to occur in the
following types of cement:
(1) Cements produced from clinker whose molar ratio (К 2 О + Na 2 0): SОз > 1. 'П
References this case the change from normal to quick setting behaviour may Ье caused Ьу
4,8,18,23,37,28,37,43,44,46,47,50,53.55,58,61,62,72,73,74,78,83,87. alkali carbonate (formed possibIy via alkali aluminate).
145
144
С. Cement chemistry - cement quality
(2) Cements with low С з 5 and high СзА and C2 (A,F) content. After storage in air
at low humidity values (relative humidity below about 50%) а diminished
reactivity of the С з 5, characterized Ьу less formation of Са (О Н) 2 at the start of
hydration, тау occur in conjunction with unimpaired intensive reactivity of the
СзА.
These causes тау Ье superimposed, and other causes тау Ье involved as well. The
following counter-measures are availabIe: changing to raw materials of different
composition (in particu lar, а low a/kali content) and using water-repellent
admixtures in the clinker grinding mill, so that the cement is rendered "hydropho-
Ыс" and thus insensitive to moisture.
2 Storage оп the construction site
Cement which is stored unprotected for апу considerabIe length of time will
absorb moisture, causing lumps to form and resulting in а loss of hardening
capacity. 50 long as the lumps are friabIe - easily crumbIed between the fingers -
the decline in strength is not serious, however.
Cement in sacks is more at hazard than bulk cement in а Ып or silo. Непсе properly
dry storage conditions for sacks of cement are important: under cover in а shed or,
if in the ореп, placed оп battens clear of the ground and covered with plastic sheet.
Cement thus stored in sacks, or in а Ып, оп the construction site undergoes а loss of
strength averaging somewhat over 10% in three months. The decrease in early
strength, especially in the case of more finely ground cements, тау Ье greater than
this. For this reason the period of storage should always Ье kept as short as
possibIe, and for very fine cements it should preferabIy not exceed опе month от at
most two months.
References
1,2,4,8,13,21,26,28,32,63,68,79,83,87.
VII. Hydration of cement
(setting, hardening, strength)
1 General
Hydration is а process in which water is combined with the reacting substance.
The hydration of cement is accompanied Ьу solidification, i. е., ап initially liquid or
plastic system (cement paste) progressively turns into а stone-like solid (referred
to as hardened cement paste). The process of solidification comprises two stages:
setting and hardening. Оп setting, the cement paste stiffens into а solid, but as yet
of negligibIe strength. 11'1 the then following stage of hardening the paste gradually
develops considerabIe strength. There is по sharp division between setting and
hardening, the transition is gradual.
146
VII. Hydration of cement
/1'1 the hydration and solidification of cement а number of different processes
actually take place simultaneously and/or successively. These include more
particu larly:
chemical reactions: especially hydration and hydrolysis reactions;
dissolving and crystallization processes: gel-like and crystallized newly formed
substances containing water (hydrate phases) are formed from supersaturated
solutions and in topochemical processes;
interfacial processes: surface attractive forces (adhesion) produce bonding of
the constituents of the cement paste.
The hydration reactions are exothermic, i. е., heat is evolved. The heat evolution of
cement hardening under adiabatic test conditions attains а maximum after 1 to
3 days and then proceeds at а diminishing rate. The heat given off, in terms of
quantity and in relation to time, depends оп the type of cement (more particularly
its constituent phases), its fineness and the presence of additives, if апу
(bIastfurnace slag, pozzolana).
The overall result of the hydration reactions is а hardened product possessing high
strength. The strength of the hardened cement paste is primarily due to its internal
structure, which in turn is determined Ьу the shape and size of the hydration
products (hydrate phases) and their spatial arrangement and packing density
(porosity). The water that has to Ье added to the cement in order to achieve
hydration is combined chemically as hydration water ог as hydroxide. The
theoretically requ ired amount of water is not тоге than about 30% of the weight of
the cement (water-cement ratio w/c ~ 0.3). Besides this chemically combined
water, however, а certain amount of water is physically bound оп the very large
surface areas ofthe hydrate phases (adsorbed water, corresponding approximately
to w/c ~ 0.1). Also, some water is present as capillary water in the voids of the
hardened cement paste. The higher the capillary water content (Ieaving capillary
"pores" after evaporation), the lower will Ье the strength, the resistance to
chemical attack and the frost resistance of the hardened paste or тоге particularly
the concrete ог mortar in which it forms the bonding medium. A/so, these pores
increase the permeability to water. Fig. 14 shows how the strength decreases with
increasing water-cement ratio.
The final strength of the hardened cement paste under normal conditions of
hardening (normal temperature, not under pressure) is at best about 200 N/mm 2 ,
as laboratory research has estabIished. The principal influencing factor is the
capillary porosity (which in turn is bound up with the water-cement ratio and with
the degree and progress of hydration), while the composition of the cement and
the conditions of hardening аге subsidiary factors in connection with strength
development. 11'1 actual practice, as distinct from the laboratory, the final strength
attained is generally less than the above mentioned value.
Under practical conditions the strength of mortar (aggregate particle size < 4 тт)
and concrete (aggregate particle size usually < 16 тт, < 32 тт ог < 63 тт) is
affected тоге particularly Ьу the following factors:
type and quality of the cement;
water-cement ratio (proportions Ьу weight),
147
С. Cement chemistry -

~m2 The hardening of cement сап Ье accelerated ог retarded Ьу the incorporation of

70 " admixtures ofvarious kinds in the mix. Hardened cement paste, and therefore the
mortar ог concrete in which it forms the bonding medium, is а stabIe substance,
\
......r--.. resistant to погmаl environmental conditions. Certain external influence mау,
\
however, have а harmful effect, causing concrete corrosion.
" \:
60 ~ '1.
~ Re1erences
......... \ \
'.\~. 1\
4,6,8,13,23,28,34,35,38,40,46,53,83,90.

50 '", .... \
\ \

" 1\.
\
1\ \
\
~
2 Hydration of the clinker phases
\ \ For а fuller explanation of the hydration process it will Ье necessary to take а look at
i'.. \ \ \ the four principal clinker phases: alite, belite, aluminate and ferrite. 'П general, the
"- r-.... 1\ \. hydration reactions сап Ье represented as follows in а simplified general way:
\ \ \
г\ \ 1\ clinker phases + water ~ hydrate phases + energy
1\. \ 1\. 1\. (high in energy; (Iow in energy; (heat of
30
1\. \ \ ~ contain по water) contain water) hydration)

" , '" r-... r".. i ' '-.

\ '\..
The progress of the reaction сап Ье measured with reference to newly formed
'" r'-.. .......... cement 55 compounds, heat of hydration evolved, chemically combined water, strength
20
" " '" r--.. ..........
1-
Z55
cement 45
ZL5
development.
Especially important аге the hydration reactions of aluminate and of alite. Belite
......... г'- reacts in the same mаппег as alite, while ferrite is of по great significance.
.....1'-.. cement 35
ZЗ5
.........r-
cement 25
Z25 2.1 Aluminate
10
0,30 0,40 0,50 0,60 0,70 0,80 0,90 1,00 In the absence of gypsum in the cement, tricalcium aluminate reacts very
w/c _ quickly:
W/Z
3 СаО' АI 2 О з + 6 H20~3 СаО' АI 2 О з ' 6 Н 2 О. (1)
Fig.14: Relation between 28-day compressive strength 01 concrete
It likewise reacts quickly when calcium hydroxide is present, а substance which is
(Pw2S)' water-cement ratio and cement strength class (from Graf)
split off in the hydration of the calcium silicates (alite and belite, see below) :
3 СаО . АI 2 О з + Са(ОН)2 + 12 Н 2 О ~4 СаО' А1 2 О з ·1 3 Н 2 О. (2)
aggregates (type, strength, particle shape, surface, quantity, grading);
admixtures and additives, if апу*); Both these reactions would cause excessively rapid setting of the cement paste.
compaction and curing; Sulphate, in the form of gypsum ог anhydrite-II, is therefore added as а retarder,
temperature and age. interground with the clinker in the finish grinding mill. The hydration reaction in the
presence of sulphate proceeds as follows:
*) In concrete technology, "admixtuгe" and "additive" аге often treated as synonymous terms,
but sometimes (as also in this translation) а distinction is drawn between substances such 3 СаО . АI 2 О з + 3 (CaS0 4 ' 2 Н 2 О) + 26 Н 2 О ~ 3 СаО . АI 2 О з . 3 CaS0 4 ' 32 Н 2 О
as plasticizers, retarders, etc. added in уегу small amounts ("admixtures") and substances СзА +3(CS'2H) +26Н ~СзА'3СS'32Н
such as trass, fly-ash, etc. which form а quantitatively тоге substantial component of the (3)
aluminate + gypsum + water ~ettringite/trisulphate
cement ("additives")
(1 volume) (8 volumes)
148 149
 С. Cement chemistry - cement
the phases

The coarsely crystalline tabular calcium aluminate hydrates formed in the reactions
(1) and (2) very quickly form а structure somewhat like а house of cards and
possessing а certain amount of strength (corresponding to the "initial set" of the
cement paste). Оп the other hand, reaction (3) - i. е., in the presence of sul-
phate - first produces finely crystalline ettringtite. This substance is deposited as а
thin film оп the surface of the cement particles in the first few hours of hydration.
This film does not prevent the particles from sliding in relation to опе another, i. е.,
the paste remains plastic. Only later, when the ettringite forms long needle-shaped
crystals which bridge the water-filled spaces between the cement particles
and enmesh the particles themselves, does the setting process begin (Fig.15).
The trisulphate (ettringite) subsequently undergoes transformation into топо­
sulphate.
2.2 Alite
Alite (tricalcium silicate) reacts with water to form calcium silicate hydrates (С5Н
phases) containing less lime, while calcium hydroxide is splitoff. Belite (dicalcium
silicate) shows similar behaviour. The hydration reaction is, for example:
6 (3 СаО· 5i0 2) + 18 Н 2 О-5 СаО· 6 5i0 2 · 5 Н 2 О + 13 Са(ОН)2.
6С з 5 + 18Н -С 5 5 6 Н 5 + 13СН (4)
alite + water _ С5Н phase + calcium hydroxide
The calcium silicate hydrates which are formed (Fig. 16) vary in the shape of their
crystals (film-like, roll-like, fibre-like, etc.) and in theircomposition, depending оп
the conditions of formation (water-cement ratio, temperature, etc.). They are,
however, always very fine-grained and are the principal strength-giving consti-
tuents of the hardened cement paste. 5ince the specific surface of the hardened
paste is extremely high, namely, ofthe orderof 3000000cm 2 jg (ascompared ~ith
only about 3000 cm 2 jg for cement), its strength is attributabIe to the со-ореrаtюп
of powerful adhesion forces (electrostatic forces of attraction acting between the
exceeding/y small hydrate phases) developed Ьу the hydration products and the

Fig. 15: Hardened cement paste with acicular ettringite crystals (scan-
ning electron micrograph)

The sulphate content of the cement should Ье only so high that it is consumed in
reaction (3) and not later than in the first 24 hours after mixing with water. Excess
sulphate тау, likewise in accordance with reaction (3), cause expansion
phenomena in hardened mortar or concrete. Maximum permissibIe values of the Fig.16: Calcium silicate hydrates (CSH phases) in hardened cement
50з content are specified in order to prevent this (ТаЫе 7).
paste (scanning electron micrograph)
150
151
 С. Cement chemistry - cement quality VII. Hydration of cement VIII. Relations between chemical reactions, phase content and strength

ТаЫе 10: Heat of hydration of clinker phases (in J/g) mechanical stabilization of the mass Ьу interlacing of the newly formed
compounds.
phase heat of hydration The calcium hydroxide which is formed in accordance with equation (4) produces
а strongly basic enviгonment (рН > 12) in the freshly hardened cement paste (and
for reaction for reaction therefore in mortar and concrete). This high рН value inhibits the corrosion of
of individual phase in clinker embedded steel and is indeed what makes reinforced concrete such а durabIe
material in which the reinforcing bars аге normally so well and lastingly pгotected
СзS 500 Ьу the concrete. However, as а result of carbonation and other influences, this
580
~-C2S 250 pгotective action тау diminish in course of time.
350
СзА 1350 1260 Some indication of the respectively contributions of the clinker phases to the
C2 (A,F) 420 160 strength development of cement is given in Fig. 9. However, these results obtained
MgO 850 for individual phases cannot Ье directly applied to the conditions actually
СаО 1160 occurring in cement paste, as is apparent also from the heat of hydration values
given in ТаЫе 10. Fig. 17 schematically shows the sequence of formation of the
hydrate phases and the structure development in the setting and hardening of
portland cement.

§
роге space
Porenraum
-- ..... " CSH short-fibr
" CSH kll'zfaseri
з Hydration of slag cements and pozzolanic cements
~ \
о
а. \ The hardening of cements consisting of portland cement clinker with bIastfurnace
~ \ slag ог а pozzolanic material as the second major ingredient comprises two
а. \
CI>_ \ -Са(ОН)2 reaction subsystems. The portland cement reacts in the таппег already described,
~:!
0<:
while the interground ingredient is activated to undergo hydraulic hardening Ьу
:~ g the calcium hydroxide which is formed as а pгoduct of hydration of the calcium
ё~ -с,,(А. F)Н lз
0<:
silicates alite and belite. The resulting reaction products of the hardening process
:::1" -monosulphate аге similar to those of portland cement, except that hardened slag cement contains
ст:::Е Мonosulfat
less calcium hydroxide. These slag and pozzolanic cements moreover harden at а
о 5 зо 1 2 6 slower rate than portland cement and their rate of heat evolution is lower.
'-----------v-- ~
minutes hours
Minuten Stunden
References
4,6,8,13,23,28,34,38,46,52, 53,56,61, 62,83,84,85,86,87,88,90, 91.
1---- 1. ----+о ....

VШ. Relations between chemical reactions, phase

Fig. 17: Schematic diagram of the formation of the hydrate phases
and the structure development in the hydration of cement (fгom
locher/Richartz/Sprung, 1976)
content and strength of portland cement
It сап reasonabIy Ье presumed that the chemical reaction pattern, the actual phase
content and the strength of portland cement аге at least loosely interassociated. For
опе thing, the new phases formed in the burning process (clinker phases) аге
dependent оп the chemical character of the raw material. Furthermore, the
strength-determining hydration products (hydration phases) аге formed Ьу
reaction with water from the clinker phases.

152 153
С. Cement chemistry - cement quality VIII. Relations between chemical reactions, phase content and strength

Exactly definabIe relationships between the above-mentioned three properties or

110
sets of properties - chemical reaction pattern, phase content, strength - сап,
however, at best Ье expected only if the following minimum conditions are fulfilled 28days ~:
Tage r
in the manufacture of the cement:
(1) adequate fineness and homogeneity of the raw meal;
100 7days.
T~ ---? _s:-:::-- - ---0- c!inker phases, actual (.,.
Кlinkerphasen akt (М - 0/.)
Ьу mass)
о o~
(2) as а result: complete reaction of the meal to form clinker phases in the burning 90 alumina modulus alite belite
process; r" тм A\it Belit Сзд CiA,F1
~ 18
(3) а clinker grinding process which produces equal reactive cement surface 80 2days 0,5 б8 14 О

areas (specific surface values) for constant amounts of interground added Tag e 1,0 б5 14 б 15
1,5 БЗ 15 10 12
sulphate. 17 9
70 2,0 58 Iб
The trends shown in Figs. 18, 19 and 20 are generally observed in industrial as well 2? 5б Iб 20 8
..
as in laboratory-made cements. The strength increase with increasing silica Knofe\ 1977
modulus is manifest, being more particularly due to the higher proportion of silicate 2,0 25 alumina modulus
in conjunction with lower proportions of aluminate and ferrite. The somewhat
0,5 1,0 1,5 , тм

more marked increase in early strengths is attributabIe to the increase in alite

(Fig.18). Increasing the iron modulus (alumina ratio) only affects the early Fig.19: Relative compressive strengths associated with variation ofthe
strength development as а result of the very considerabIe increase in aluminate iron modulus (Iaboratory cements; referred to cement with lime
accompanied Ьу а marked increase in heat of hydration which masks the decreas~ standard K5t 1= 95; silica modulus 2.0; alumina modulus 2.0; 2.8% 50з;
fineness З200сm2 /g Blaine)

150 х/ 2 days
/ Tage
140 /
/
/
130 / ' 7days 100
/ ,,' Tage
/ ,/ о 28days
120 90
7 ,,' о'"'' Tage /
/ , /
110 80
.
/ ,Q,'
,,' clinker phases, actual (·'.Ьу mass) , d / clinker phases, actua\ ("10 Ьу mass)
/ Кlinkerphasen akt (М -"/о) -о 7 ays /х Кlinkerphasen akt (М _., )

100 ISilica modulus alite belite 70 Tage lime standard alite beli1e
Сз А C-j.А F / Alit Belit Сзд C2(A,F1
SM АIit Вiolit KSt
2days
~5 50 19 21 10 / Tage 85 З9 37 15 9
90 1,7 54 17 20 9
60 2б 15 9
90 50
2р 58 Iб 17 9 17 9
95 58 Iб
2,3 бl 15 Iб 8
80 50 100 б9 4 17 10
I ~
б3
б5
14
14
Iб
15
7
б
40 L~ ~
105
...,...-
71 О
~
17 9/З Са(
..fr
----,К~П~О::..::fе:..:.\ ..::19:...:.7~б
70 Кпёfеl197б
1,5 1,7 2,0 2,3 2,5 2,8 silica modulus 85 90 95 100 ~~i standard
SM
Fig. 18: Relative compressive strengths associated with variation of the Fig. 20: Relative compressive strengths associated with variation of the
silica modulus (Iaboratory cements: referred to cement with lime lime standard (Iaboratory cements; referred to cement with lime
standard K5tl = 95: silica modulus 2.0: alumina modulus 2.0: 2.8% 50з: standard K5tl = 95: sШса modulus 2.0; alumina modulus 2.0; 2.8 50з;
fineness З200сm2 /g Blaine) fineness З200сm2 /g Blaine)
155
154
С. Cement chemistry - cement quality VIII. Relations between chemical reactions, phase content and strength

in alite (Fig. 19). With ап increase in the lime standard the compressive strength is
N
notabIy increased, especially the early strength, the cause being the very large mm 2
increase in alite content (Fig. 20).
50
From Figs. 18 to 20 it а Iso emerges that the 28-day compressive strengths i ncrease clinker phases, actual (О/о Ьу mass)
Ьу about 10% as а result of raising the lime standard (Ьу about 5 units) and the IOinker hasen akt. (М. - "/о) .
40 alite belite perlclase
silica modulus (Ьу about 0.3). Such ап effect оп strength cannot Ье obtained Ьу %MgO Alit 8еlit СзА C2(A,F ~riklas
varying the iron modulus. 'П general, it should Ье noted that the figures given аге
О 59 15 17 9 О
very approximate indications and аге likely to vary greatly from опе cement works зо 1 62 11 15 12 О
to another. 2 61. 9 IЗ 11. О
The relative compressive strengths (referred to the respective 2-day strengths З 67 6 11 16 <1
20
= 100) showthedifferentamountsof hardening. With low silica modulusand iron 1. 68 3 10 17 2
modulus, as also with low lime standard, the subsequent hydration reactions still 5 69 1 9 18 З
10 6j8 not determined nicht bestimmt
contribute а great deal to the strength attained. These diagrams, too, аге merely
approximate indications of trends. 8 %MgO
2 6
These fundamentally clear-cut trends are liabIe to Ье considerabIy modified Ьу the
incorporation of subsidiary elements. The effect of MgO is shown in Fig. 22, and Fig. 22: Effect of increasing MgO content оп compressive strength
thatof K2 S0 4 in Fig. 23, as examples. Theseeffects, which аге governed Ьу the raw development and clinker phase content (Iaboratory cements)
material characteristics, and also differences in the production conditions (raw
material fineness and homogeneity, burning and cooling conditions, clinker
grinding, cement storage) constitute а set of factors which make it impossibIe to
make exact and reliabIe predictions of the strength development of cement Ьу
means of relatively simple calculations (formulas) based оп the chemical reaction
pattern or the phase content of the clinker concerned.

lime sbndard silica modulus alumlna modulus

KSt SM тм

85
0,5
40
90
28 days
1,0 Tage
о

95
1,5 ЗО -----<>----- --- -- о' - ---

ЮО
2$J
2,5
------ - --о 7 days

20
dinke-;-;hаSеs, actual (% Ьу ~S) Tage
20 Klinkerphasen akt. (М. - 0101 1 day
Tag
О/ К О alite belite С А CJAF
О 2 Alit 8еlit 3 "Z',

0,0 51 21 18 10
10 0,1. 51 22 17 10
0,8 51 20 19 10
1,5 1.9 22 18 11
2 7 28 days 2 7 28days 2 7 28 days ~ 51 19 18 12 КпЫе\ 1971
Tage Tage Tage О
1,0 2р З,О "IoK 2O
Fig.21 : Relative compressive strengths as а function of lime standard,
silica modulus and iron modulus, referred to the respective 2-day Fig.23: Effect of K 2 S0 4 оп compressive strength development and
strengths (Iaboratory cements) clinker phase content (Iaboratory cements)
157
156
 'Х. Types, strength classes, designation and quality control
С. Cement chemistry - cement quality

However, if the content of subsidiary elements and the production conditions сап ~т2
Ье kept approximately constant, as сап usually Ье achieved in а particular cement .s:. 60
works at least over а certain length of time, much more straightforward ге­ 1
~ 50
lationships wi\l exist. In such cases the 28-day standard compressive strength of
cem~nt сап Ье predicted with sufficient ассшасу Ьу means of а simple formula, ~UI 40
(Ij';
/
'"
2
L.--'"~""" ------
v
provlded that the three above-mentioned "minimum conditions" аге complied 30 З
>~ /
with. One such formula is KnOfel's "strength index": '~g 20
F 28 = (3 х alite) + (2 х belite) + aluminate - fепitе.
~~ 10
V
8efore this formula сап Ье properly used, it is necessary to estabIish an appropriate Е" О
80 37 28 90 180 days
correlation curve, obtained Ьу plotting the strength index (F 28) against the Tage
tюгdепiпg time
compressive strength. For this purpose the phase contents should Ье determined ErhCirtungsdauer
quantitatively (Ьу microscopic ог Х-гау examination) in at least ten cements (ог
clinkers) differing from one another as much as possibIe; the сопеsропdiпg 28- Fig.24: Strength development of various cements (from Woods/
day standard compressive strengths of these cements should also Ье determined. Stагkе/Stеiпощ 1976): 1 = portland cement with 70% alite and 10%
Then, with the aid of this сопеlаtiоп curve, the strength сап Ье predicted Ьу belite, 2 = portland bIastfurnace cement with 60% slag, 3 = portland
calculating the strength index from the quantitatively determined phase content. cement with 30% alite and 50% belite
The validity of the сопеlаtiоп curves should Ье verified from time to time.
ТаЫе 11 : Classification and designation of cements (from Cembureau,
References 1968)

4,7,8,23,24,28,31,33,36,39,41,46,69,71,80,83,84. symbol special properties / designation

ОС
Ordinary Portland Cement / normaler Portlandzement

RHC Rapid-Hardening (ог High Early Strength or High Initial

Strength) Portland Cement/ Portlandzement mit hoher
IX. Types, strength classes, designation and quality Fruhfestigkeit / schnellerhartend
control of cements HSC High Strength Portland Cement/ Portlandzement mit
hoher Festigkeit/ hochfest
1 General
LHC Low Heat (ог Slow Hardening, Low Heat of Hydratation)
AII cements аге hydraulic binding agents, i. е., when mixed with water they will Portland Cement, Medium Low Heat Portland
harden both in air and under water. The product of the hardening process - the Cement/ Port\andzement mit niedriger Hydratationswarme
"hardened cement paste" - is а water-resistant stone-like material. Sulphate-Resisting Portland Cement/ Portlandzement mit
As а general rule, cements of equal composition are more reactive in proportion as SRC
hohem Sulfatwiderstand
they аге more finely ground and thus have а larger surface агеа at which the
r~action~ сап take place. Finer grinding tends to Ье associated with shorter setting АЕС Air-Entraining Portland Cement/ Portlandzement mit
tlmes, hlgher early strengths and higher early rates of heat evolution (heat of Luftporenbildner
hydration). It is in these respects that, for example, portland cement of class 35
differs from that of class 45. 8L 81astfurnace Cement/ Huttenzement
The opposite trend (slower reaction, longer setting times, lower early strengths,
POZ Pozzolanic Cement/ Puzzolanzement
lower heat of hydration) is associated with coarser grinding, higher belite content
of the cement, and the addition of bIastfurnace slag (slag cements) ог pozzolana
Note: The various types of cement сап Ье further subdivided into classes (e.g.:
(pozzolanic cements, е. g., trass cement).
ОС 1, ОС 11, 811, 8111). The above subdivision for portland cement (according to
The effect of the above-mentioned influencing factors оп the final strengths is
small, however (see also Fig.24). properties) сап a\so Ье applied to 81 and POZ.
159
158
С. Cement chemistry - cement quality IX. Types, strength classes, designation and quality control

Classification of cements сап Ье based оп various sets of criteria. Thus, the cements Z25, Z35 and Z45, and for this reason the cement manufactuгers aim at
principal distinctive characteristics тау Ье: achieving average strengths midway between the two specified limits for each
strength classes (minimum ог average strengths; usually 28-day compressive class.
Cements Z35 and Z45 аге furthermore subdivided according to their early
strengths) ;
types of cement (portland cement, slag cement, pozzolanic cement); hardening behaviouг denoted Ьу ап appended letter:
important special properties (Iow heat of hydration, resistance to aggressive cements with slow early hardening L
media, rapid strength development, etc.). cements with high early strength (rapid-hardening) F.
The main criterion of "strength class" is the basis of classification adopted in The cements аге produced Ьу the intergrinding of portland cement clinker with а
Standard DIN 1164 for cements in the Federal RepubIic of Germany (West proportion of calcium sulphate (gypsum) to control the setting behaviour. In
Germany). The German Democratic RepubIic (East Germany) bases its addition, the two German types of slag cement contain а su bstantial propo~ti<:,n of
TGL281 01 /02 оп "types of сетепС, while the American (USA) Standard bIastfurnace slag interground with the clinker, while trass cement slmllarly
ASTM С150-76а and the classification of CEMBUREAU, Paris, аге based оп contains а substantial proportion of interground trass:
"important special properties" as the criterion. In each of these systems, the other portland cement (made from portland cement clinker) PZ
criteria аге employed for fuгther subdividing the cements. The DIN 1164 classifi- Eisenportland cement (containing at least 65% of portland cement
cation will тоге particularly Ье considered here. clinker and not тоге than 35% of bIastfuгnace slag) EPZ
Hochofen cement (containing 15 to 64% of portland cement clinker
2 Classification and designation of cements and 85 to 36% of bIastfuгnace slag) HOZ
Trass cement (containing 60 to 80% of portland cement clinker and 40
The strength classes listed in ТаЫе 12 аге specified in DIN 1164. Моге particularly, to 20% of trass) TrZ
the classification is based оп the required minimum 28-day compressive strengths (percentages Ьу weight).
(determined Ьу testing in accordance with DIN1164, Part7, see SectionX). Furthermore, distinctions аге based оп special properties:
Besides, maximum permissibIe compressive strengths аге laid down for the
cements with low heat of hydration I\JW
(maximum heat of hydration after 7 days: 270 J/g)
cements with high sulphate resistance (то types: HS
ТаЫе 12: Strength classes (DIN 1164) PZ with ~ 3% СзА, potential according to Bogue, and ~ 5% АI 2 О з
HOZ with ~ 70% bIastfuгnace slag)
strength class compressive strength in N/mm 2 at cements with low effective alkali content (not standardized) NA
2 days 7 days 28 days (maximum total alkali content in Na 2 0 equivalent:
min. min. min. тах.
~ 0.60% in PZ
~ 0.90% in HOZ with > 50% slag ~ 1.10)
25' 10 25 45 (percentages Ьу weight).
2
The complete standard designation of а cement comprises its indication of
35 L 18 35 55 strength class, cement type and special properties (if апу). Examples:
F2 10 (1) А portland cement (PZ) with а 28-day minimum compressive strength of
35 N/mm 2 (35) and 2-day minimum compressive strength of 1 О N/mm
2

45 L2 10 45 65 (F) :
F2 20 45 65 designation according to DIN1164: PZ35 F. .
(2) А Hochofen cement (HOZ) with а 28-day minimum compresslve strength of
35 N/mm 2 (35), а 7 -day minimum compressive strength of 18 N/mm (L), and
2
55 30 55
high sulphate resistance (HS):
Only for cements with low heat of hydration and/or high sulphate resistance designation according to DIN 1164: HOZ35 L-HS.
Portland cement, Eisen portland cement, Hochofen cement and trass cement Other standard cements complying with 01 N 1164 аге special cements such as
with slow early hardening behaviouг аге additionally given the symbol L, while white cement, water-repellent (hydrophobic) cement and highway engineering
the symbol F is added to cements with high early strength cement.

160 161
 С. Cement chemistry - cement quality 'Х. Types, strength classes, designation and quality control

Oil shale cement and trass bIastfuгnace slag cement аге permitted under special
certificate of approval in the Federal RepubIic of Germany, but аге not
standardized.
~­
ct1 с: ..... MCO-=tN-=t
.с:
(J)
ф
Е 'f ~ I I V I
3 Constituents 01 cements
-=tСОФМ N
'0 8 L!) .....
The principal constituents of the above-mentioned cements аге portland cement

(J)
-
с:
Ф
Е
OCOO-=tМ-=t

'f~IIVI
clinker, bIastfuгnace slag and trass (see 5ections IV and V).
The content of magnesium oxide (MgO), referred to the ignited portland cement
clinker, is not allowed to exceed 5% Ьу weight, while the sulphate content (as
...
.с: ~ ~
(J)
I'OL!)N
~N
N 50з) must comply with the values given in ТаЫе 7. Other admixtuгes in amounts
D) up to 1% Ьу weight аге permitted, provided that they do not promote corrosion of
'ф
reinforcing steel. Chlorides (CI-) аге not allowed to Ье added to cement; the
s сЕ
с:
Ф
..... 0 L!)M I'-=t inherent CI- content from the raw materials must not exceed 0.10% Ьу weight.
> VI Determination of the chemical composition of cements should Ье done in
.с

'#.
.с:
(.)
о Ф
Ф
Е 'f'7II
-=t ..... ф
..... N accordance with DIN 1164, Part3. ТаЫе 13 gives some approximate guiding
I (.) ~N
с: values for the chemical composition.
rii
ф
:::::1 ФСОN-=tф-=t 4 Supply and identi1ication 01 cements
са
::- 'f~IIVI "Cement is allowed to Ье put only in transport containers which аге clean and free
ф 00)-=t ..... N
L!) .....
(,)
с:
from residues of earlier deliveries. It must not become contaminated in transit"
~ (О IN 11 64, Part 1).
....
ф
Delivery notes for bulk cement ог labels оп sacks should give the following
~ .~ information: type of cement, strength class, designation of special properties (if
.с:
апу), name of supplying works, gross weight of sack ог net weight of bulk cement,
...
(/)

с:
S
quality control indication. Delivery notes for cement supplied in bulk should
ф
Ф fuгthermore state: date and time of delivery, vehicle registration number, name of
Е Ф (.)
ф -ct1 с:
ct1
customer, order number and consignee.
(,)
.... .с:.с:
.с:-
a..~ 'П addition, distinctive colouг identification for strength class should Ье displayed
о
с:
·~Ж~ ~ оп the cement sacks (ТаЫе 14). 'П the case of bulk cement delivery а distinctively
о
colouгed weatherproof sheet (size DII\J А5, colour and lettering conforming to
'~
OJ
'и; с:
о I 'ё ТаЫе 14: Distinctive colours for the strength classes (DIN 1164)
а.
'о ф
Е Е ._
а.
'о
...
о Ф
ct1 ct1 strength class distinctive colour colouг of lettering
(,) Е ... .с:
Ф
(.)
са
(,) 'о
25 violet bIack
O)-=tСОСОL!)-=t
'Е
с:

ф
.с:
ct1
-;:;
<5
'f ~ I
..... CO-=t .....
I V I
N
35 L light brown bIack
U а. ф ..... F red
45 L green black
Ф
'о
F red
'х 55 red bIack
О

162 163
 С. Cement chemistry - cement quality
ТаЫе 14) for affixing to the storage Ып should accompany the delivery note. The
information printed оп this colouгed sheet should comprise: type of cement,
strength class, designation of special properties (if апу), name of supplying
works, quality control mark and delivery date stamp.
5 Quality control
Due conformity to the cement quality requirements of DIN 1164 (composition and
properties) should Ье verified and monitored Ьу quality control ("internal" control
Ьу the cement manufactuгer and "external" control Ьу ап authorized independent
supervisory organization, DIN 1164, Part2).
5.1 Internal quality control
"$0 long as а cement is being manufactuгed and in so far as а limiting value is
specified in DIN 1164, Part 1, the cement manufactuгer must test the composition
and the properties of each type of cement and strength class in the cement works.
The followi ng аге to Ье tested at least опсе а day:
setting
soundness.
At least twice а week:
loss оп ignition
content of сагЬоп dioxide С0 2
insolubIe residue
content of sulphate $0з
fineness of grinding
compressive strength at each specified age (see DIN 1164, Part 1).
At least опсе а month:
principal constituents of the cement
heat of hydration
the composition required to ensure high sulphate resistance.
The resufts of the internal quality control should Ье recorded in writing and, if
possibIe, statistically analysed. The recordsshould Ье kept for at leastfive years and
Ье made availabIe to the supervisory organization (external quality control) оп
reques(' (DIN 1164, Part 2).
5.2 External quality control
External quality control is as а rule performed Ьу ап officially recognized quality
control organization; at present this is the German Cement Works Association
(Verein Deutscher Zementwerke), Dusseldorf.
The supervisory (external quality control) organization shou Id monitor the cement
works' own internal quality control, primarily Ьу inspection of the relevant records
and documents. In addition, the supervisory organization should, in order to verify
164
'Х. Types, strength classes, designation and quality control
compliance with the conditions laid down in DIN 1164, Part 1, сапу out the
following tests for each cement type and strength class in сuпепt production:
At least опсе in every two months:
loss оп ignition, content of сагЬоп dioxide С0 2 , insolubIe residue, content of
chloride, fineness of grinding, setting, soundness, compressive strength at
each specified standard age, principal constituents of the cements.
At least опсе every six months:
heat of hydration, the composition required to ensure high sulphate
resistance.
А test report should Ье made. If the cement is found to fulfil the requi~eme~t~ of
DIN 1164, the packaging and delivery note is allowed to сапу the /ПSСГlрtюп
"Quality controlled in conformity with DIN 1164" and the sign ог mark of the
quality control organization (е. g., "VDZ") (Fig.25).
Fig.25: Quality mark (Ieft) and mark of the quality control institution
(Verein Deutscher Zementwerke, Dusseldorf, right) (DIN 1164)
According to the "Technical guarantee conditions for standard cements" the user
of the cement does not have to саггу out апу checking ог monitoring of the
standard values. However, as а precaution against апу guarantee claims, it is
essential that а sample of each cement consignment Ье kept for possibIe future
reference. This sample should Ье properly representative of the consig~~ent
(average sample), have а weight of at least 5 kg, Ье stored dry ап~ under alrtlght
conditions, and Ье unmistakabIy labelled (time and date of dellvery, name of
supplying works, type and strength class of the cement, No. of delivery note).
6 Suggestions for the use of cements with reference to
their general and special properties (from: Zement-
MerkbIatt, issued Ьу Bundesverband der Deutschen
Zementindustrie)
Portland cements, Eisen portland cements, Hochofen cements and trass cements
аге so classified in DIN 1164 that their properties аге, in the main, characterized Ьу
their standard designations.
Z 25 : Cement with very slow strength development and heat evolution, des-
ignated Ьу NW (Iow heat). If this cement has а high resistance to sulphate
165
 Х. Cement testing
С. Cement chemistry - cement quality

It would Ье outside the present scope to deal with the determination of the
attack, it is additionally given the designation HS. 'П genera/, this class of
cement is used in mass concrete. composition of cements, more particu\arly the chemical analysis. Д:s for the other
properties, the procedures will Ье briefly outlined. For further detalls the relevant
Z 35 L: Cements with the same 28-day strength as Z 35 F, but slower early
harden ing and therefore correspondingly longer formwork stripping times, parts of the Standard will have to Ье consulted.
good subsequent strength development. Because of low heat evolution
this cement is especially suitabIe for massive structural members.
Z 35 F: Cements with normal early hardening and medium heat evolution.
Z45 L: Cements with the same 28-day strength as Z45 F, but with lower 2-day 1 Fineness (DIN 1164, Part4)
strengths. As specified in Part 1 of DIN 1164, а cement conforming to this S~andard must not
Z45 F: Cements with high early strength (rapid-hardening), so that early form- leave а residue of more than 3% Ьу weight оп the 0.2 mm test sleve (DIN 4188).
work stripping is possibIe. Because of rapid strength development and rate The specific surface determined Ьу the air permeability method should Ье not less
2
of heat evolution, suitabIe for precast concrete and for winter than 2200cm 2 /g (in special cases not less than 2000cm /g).
construction.
Z 55: Cements with very high 2-day and 28-day strengths, for cases where high
early concrete strength is needed and for very high-strength concrete 1.1 Sieve residue
construction. These cements аге especially suitabIe for concrete to Ье The content of coarse particles is determined as the residue retained оп the ~est
placed at low temperatures, so that resistance to freezing is attained as sieve with 0.2mm aperture size (DIN4188, Sheet1) Ьу manual ог mechanlcal
quickly as possibIe. sieving. The sample for the sieve test .should consist of 100 ± 0.100 9 of d~y
The special additional properties of low heat evolution (NW) and high sulphate cement. Sieving is stopped when the resldue does not decrease Ьу. more than О: 1 }6
resistance (HS) have already Ьееп mentioned above (see 'Х.2 and IV.2), as have оп continuation of sieving for а fuгther 2 minutes. The amount геtаlПеd оп the sleve
also certain special cements, more particularly: white cement (PZ45 F with low is stated in % Ьу weight, referred to the initial sample.
iron oxide content) and water-repellent (hydrophobic) cement (insensitive to
moisture; reacts with water only after intensive mixing; availabIe in strength
classes Z35 F and Z45 F). 1.2 Specific surface
Different cements should not Ье mixed with опе another, certainly not оп the "The specific surface of cement in cm 2 /g is calculated from the a~г per~eabili.ty of а
construction slte, as the facilities for uniform bIending аге not availabIe there. bed of cement, its porosity, the density of the cement and. the VIS~OSlty o.f alr. The
Otherwise, for example, variations in colour аге liabIe to оссш, "special" properties measure of the permeability is the time it takes for а certaln quantlty of alr to flow
of the cements may Ье impaired, etc. If mixing of different cements is unavoidabIe, through the bed under specified conditions" (DIN 1164, Part4).. .
however, then only the properties and values of the cement with the lower cement For performing the test а predetermined quantity of ceme~t IS put Into the
class should Ье adopted for the resulting mixture. Quick setting will occur when а standardized apparatus and is gently compacted to а predetermlned ~olume. Then
mixture of high-alumina cement with а standard cement conforming to DIN 1164 air is drawn through the bed of cement Ьу suction produced Ьу а falllng column of
(PZ, EPZ, HOZ, TrZ) is used for making mortar ог concrete. liquid. The time it takes for the level of the liq~id. in t~e U-tube of the ap~aratus to
fall а certain marked distance is measured. Thls tlme IS а measure of the flПепеss of
the cement: the finer it is, the longer will it take for the air to flow through the bed,
References
and vice versa. The specific surface is calculated from:
4,8,11,13,14,16,21,23,28,83.
К· уез. vt
OSP = - - - - - - ]~-;==
р (1 -е) . V 1011
Х. Cement testi ng OSP
2
specific surface in cm /g
where:
е porosity in parts Ьу volume
The standard test requirements for cements used in the Federa\ RepubIic of
Germany аге specified in DIN 1164, Parts 3 to 8. The tests relate to the t time of air flow in seconds
р specific gravity of the cement
determination of the following: composition (Part3), fineness (Part4), setting
times (Part5), soundness (Part6), strength (Part7) and heat of hydration 11 dynamic viscosity of the air in Ра' s
К apparatus constant.
(Part8).
167
166

С. Cement chemistry - cement quality
2 Setting times (DIN 1164, Part 5)
Obviously, in order to allow sufficient time for applying the mortar or placing the
concrete, cement must not set too quickly. According to ОI N 1164, Part 1,
standard cements must not begin to set earlier than 1 hour after mixing, and setting
must Ье completed not more than 12 hours after mixing.
The setting times (initial and final set) are determined with Vicat's needle
apparatus оп а neat cement paste: The cement is passed through а 1 тт test sieve
and а quantity of 500 9 is mixed with 25-30% (Ьу weight) of water - depending
оп the type of cement concerned - in а standard two-speed mixer for а total of
3 minutes. А certain "standard" consistency of the cement paste must Ье attained
Ьу variation of the amount of mixing water to suit the cement under investigation.
This consistency is ascertained Ьу putting the cement paste in а mould consisting
of ап ebonite ring оп а sheet of glass and Ьу determining the penetration depth of а
"plunger" applied to the top surface of the cement paste specimen. When the latter
has attained the standard consistency (ascertainabIe Ьу trial and error with varying
amounts of mixing water, if necessary), the initial and the final setting time сап Ье
determined with the "needle" of the Vicat apparatus. The initial set is considered to
occur when the needle penetrates to а distance of 3 to 5 ст from the bottom of the
mould, i. е., remains stuck in the paste at this distance above the glass sheet. For
determining the final set, the mould with the sample is removed from the glass and
replaced in the reversed position. The final set is considered to occur when the
needle penetrates not more than 1 тт into the sample. 'П both tests, i. е., for initial
and for final setting time, the penetration of the needle should Ье measured at 10-
minute intervals.
з Soundness (DIN1164, Part6)
Ву "soundness" is understood the ability of the cement to maintain а constant
volume. Thus, а cement is to Ье rated as sound if, after it has hardened, it remains
free from expansion effects which тау crack, loosen and destroy the hardened
paste.
Unsoundness, i. е., lack of volume stability, is caused Ьу а high content of free
MgO, causing magnesia expansion (for this reason DIN 1164 specifies that the
MgO content must not exceed 5.0% Ьу weight), Ьу excess sulphate, causing
sulphate expansion (DIN 1164 specifies ап upper limit for the SОз content: see
ТаЫе 7), and Ьу substantial amounts of free СаО (uncombined lime, causing lime
expansion; this is monitored Ьу the boiling test). For reactions see SectionVII.2.
The test for soundness specified in DIN 1164, Part 6, is the boiling test and is
performed at the same time as the setting test, using surplus cement paste (or
otherwise paste of the same consistency prepared for the purpose). Half this
sample is formed into а lump, placed оп the centre of а sheet of glass, and gently
vibrated, so that it spreads into а "pat" about 1 О ст in diameter and 1 ст thick,
which is allowed to set and harden at ~ 90% relative humidity for 24 hours. The
sample is then boiled for 2 hours.lfcracking orwarping occurs, the cement must Ье
rated as having failed the test. But if the sample remains sharp-edged, free from
168
Х. Cement testing
cracks and not greatly distorted (> 2 тт), it has satisfi~d the test, i. е., is "sou~d".
The more stringent autoclave test in accordance wlt.h ASTM С 151 -76а IS а
criterion for magnesia expansion as well as the ехрапsюп due to too much free
lime.
4 Strength (ОI N 1164, Part 7)
Depending оп its strength class, а cement should attain the compressi~e streng.ths
listed in ТаЫе 12. These values are averages obtained from tests оп SIX test prlsm
halves. The test procedure is known as the ISO-RILEM-CEM method.
It is performed оп mortar prisms with dimensions of 4 ст х 4 ст :.16 ст. ~he
mortar consists of а mixture of cement, standard sand (~omprlslng partlcle
fractions of О.О8-0.5тт, О.5-1.0тт and 1.0-2:0тт, ,п e.qual parts) and
water in the proportionsof 1 :3:0.5 (quantities for maklng three prlsms are450.g of
t 1350 9 of sand 225 9 of water). It is mixed in а two-speed standardlzed
~i~e~~ ~ut into steel m~ulds and compacted оп а vi.brating .t~bIe. The moulds
containing the mortar prisms are stored at ~ 90% relatlve humldlty for 1 day: then
the prisms are carefully demoulded and kept in water at 20' ± 1 о С up to the tlme of
~~~i~?~xural strength should Ье determined Ьу fracturi~~ a~ least three prism
specimens in the middle Ьу means of ап apparatus speclfled In the Sta~dard.
The compressive strength is determined immediately afterwa.rds оп t~e SIX hal~es
of the prisms fractured in the flexural .test. T~e соmргеssюп tеst!П.g mасhlПе
conforming to DIN 1164 has to satisfy strlct reqUlrements. То c~mply wlth Part 1 of
this Standard, only the compressive strength need Ье determlned.
5 Heat of hydration (DIN1164, Part8)
Cements with the special property "Iow heat of hydration" (designatio~ NW) ~гe
not allowed to evolve more than 270 J of heat per gramme of cement In the flrst
7 days after mixing with water. They are used тo~e particularly for mass .con~re~e
structures which, if made with ordinary cement, mlght undergo ап ex~esslve Гlse In
temperature causing stresses and crac~ing ..~ow-heat cements are chlefly ~ortl~nd
cements with а high content of dicalclum slllcate (and lower content of trlcalclum
ТаЫе 15: Heat of hydration of cements (reference values)
cement heat of hydration (J/g)
at 7 days оп complete hydration
380-525
portland cement
360-440
Eisen/ Hochofen cement
340-420
trass cement
low-heat cement <270
169
 References
С. Cement chemistry - cement quality

silicate and/or tricalcium aluminate) and slag cements with а high content of Standard Issuing authority
Туре of cement
bIastfuгnace slag. Values for the heat of hydration of cements аге given in
ТаЫе 15.
France
In accordance with D 1N 1164, Part 8, the heat of hydration is determined with а NF Р 15-300 Association Fгащ:аisе
all cements
heat-of-solution calorimeter. As stated there, " ... this method is intended for the NF Р 15-301 de Normalisation,
determination ofthe specific heat in J/g that is released when а cement undergoes 1978 edition Touг Euгope,
hydration under isothermal conditions. The heat of solution of the unhydrated Cedex 7,
cement sample as well as that of the sample hydrated at 200 С (water-cement ratio F-92080 Paris la Detense
w/c = 0.4) in а specified acid mixtuгe is measuгed. The difference between thetwo
heats of solution is the heat of hydration." Great Britain
The test apparatus comprises а heat-of-solution calorimeter with accessories BS 12: 1978 British Standards
ОС, RHC
(Dewarflask, stirrer, funnel, etc.), an officially calibrated Beckmann thermometer I nstitution
and an appropriate acid mixtuгe (nitric acid + hydrofluoric acid). The cement paste BS 12: Part 2: British Standards
LHC
samples (their mix proportions, mixing proceduгe and temperatuгe аге specified) 1974 House,
аге stored in а water bath at 200 ± 0.50 С. The heats of solution of the unhydrated BS 4027. Part 2' 2 Park Street,
SRC
and of the hydrated cement аге determined from the rise in temperatuгe occurring 1972 London W.1
when the samples dissolve (the test should Ье performed in constant-temperatuгe
surroundings) and from the determinations of the СаО content (ог the losses оп United States of America
ОС, SRC, LHC, RHC ASTM С 150-78а American Society for
ignition, if applicabIe). Formulas for calculating the heat of solution from the test
Testing and Materials,
data аге given in the Standard. It is an elaborate proceduгe. АЕС
BL, POZ ASTM С 595-76 1916 Race Street,
Philadelphia, Ра. 19103
References
3,4,8,10,11,13,14,15,28,46,75,83.

Cement Standards of various countries References

(For symbols and designations see ТаЫе 11)
1, Alsted N ielsen, Н. С.' Falsches Erstarren von Portlandzement und IOumpen-
Туре of cement Standard Issuing authority bildung im Silo. - In: ZKG 26/1973/380.-384. .' .
2, Alsted Nielsen, Н. С.: How to avoid lumplng of cement tn sllos. - In. Rock
Federal RepubIic of Germany Prod.77/1974/72-80. ..
3 Arbeitskreis "Analytische Chemie" (Hrsg.). Analysengang fuг Ze':lente..
ОС, HSC, SRC/LHC DIN 1164 DIN Deutsches Insti- . Dusseldorf' Betonverlag GmbH 1970 (Schriftenreihe der Zеmеntlndustпе,
BI, POZ Nov 1978 tut fur Normung,
В uгgg rafenstrasse 4 - 7, Heft 37). 1 Е' h ft
4, Autorenkol\ektiv: Technologie der Bindebaust~ffe, Band : Igensc а e~,
О-1 000 Berlin 30 Rohstoffe, Erhartung, 1976, Band 2. Aufbereltungsprozer.. und Aufberel-
German Democratic RepubIic tungsanlagen (in Vorbereitung); Band 3: B~ennprozer.. und ,.Brennanlagen,
1978; Band 4 Gesamtprozer.., 1979. - Berltn· VEB Verlag fuг Bau",,:,esen.
ОС, HSC, SRC/LHC TGL 28101/01 Amt fur Standardi-
5. Bentz, А.: Lehrbuch der Angewandten Geologie, Bd. 11, Кар. 5.2 .. Stelne und
BI, POZ TG L 28101/02 sierung,
Abt. Dokumentation, Erden von А. Graupner. - Stuttgart: Enke Verlag 1968., '
6. Bicz6k, 1.. Betonkorrosion-Betonschutz, 2. Auflage. - Wlesbaden und Berlln
Mohrenstrasse 37а,
DDR-1026 Berlin Bauverlag GmbH 1968.
171
170

С. Cement chemistry - cement quality
7. Billhardt, Н. W.: ОЬег den EinfluBder Alkalien und des Sulfats aufdas Erharten
von Zement. - I п: ZKG 24/1971/91
8. Bogue, R. Н.: The Chemistry of Portland Cement. - New York: Уап Nostrand
Reinhold Сотрапу 1955.
9. Butt, У. М. /Timashev, У. У.: The mechanism of clinker formation process and
ways of modification of clinker structure. - VI. Intern. Congr. Chem. Сет.,
Moskau (1974), Sect. 1-4, Principal Рарег.
10. Cembureau (Hrsg.): The Testing of Cement. - Paris 1967.
11. Cembureau (Hrsg.) : Cement Standards of the world (portland cement and its
derivatives). - Paris 1968.
12. Chatterji, S. / Jeffery, J. W.: The effect of various heat treatments of the clinker
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No.46, 3-10.
13. Czernin, W.: Zementchemie fur Bauingenieure, 3. Auflage. - Wiesbaden und
Berlin: Bauverlag GmbH 1977
14. DIN 1164: Portland-, Eisenportland-, Hochofen- und TraBzement, Т. 1 -Т. 8,
November 1978. - Berlin und К61п Beuth-Verlag GmbH.
15. 01 N 4188: SiebbOden, Oktober 1977. Т. 1 - DrahtsiebbOden fur Analysensie-
Ье, МаВе. Т. 2 - DrahtsiebbOden fur Analysensiebe, Anforderungen und
PrUfung. - Berlin und КБIп. Beuth Verlag GmbH.
16. DIN 51043: ТгаВ; Anforderungen, PrUfung, Januar 1972 (Entwurf' August
1977). - Berlin und К61п: Beuth Verlag GmbH.
17. Engelhardt, W. v. / Fuchtbauer, Н. / Muller, G.. Sediment- Petrologie, TI. 11:
Fuchtbauer / Muller: Sedimente und Sedimentgesteine, 3. Auflage. Stuttgart:
Schweizerbart'sche Verlagsbuchhandlung 1977.
18. Frigione, G. / Di leva, R.: Size distribution of granular components in portland
and bIastfurnace cement. - 'п' il cemento 72/1975/13 - 24.
19. Gille, F (Hrsg.). Mikroskopie des Zementklinkers. (Bilderatlas) - Dussel-
dorf: Betonverlag GmbH 1965.
20. Goes, С.: Oberdas Verhalten der Alkalien beim Zementbrennen. - Dusseldorf:
Betonverlag GmbH 1969. (Schriftenreihe der Zementindustrie, Heft 24)
21. Graf, О.: Die Eigenschaften des Betons, 2. Aufl. - Berlin, Heidelberg, New
York: Springer Verlag 1960.
22. Henkel, F.: Anwendung der R6ntgenfluoreszenzanalyse im Schichtlabora-
torium. - I п. ZKG 18/1965/253 - 258.
23. Henning, О. / KnOfel, О .. Baustoffchemie, 2. Auflage. - Wiesbaden und
Berlin: Bauverlag GmbH 1980.
24. Hinz, W.: Silikate. Grundlagen der Silikatwissenschaft und Silikattechnik
Bd. 1 und 2. - Berlin УЕВ Verlag Юг Bauwesen 1970 und 1971.
25. Hoffmanner, F.: Portlandzement-Кlinker, Kleine Gefugekunde. Holderbank
l\I1anagement und Beratung AG, 1973. - Holderbank Management und
Beratung AG (НМВ), Technische Stelle, СН-5113 Holderbank (AG).
26. Kalousek, G. l.: АЬпогтаl set of portland cement, causes and correctives. -
US Department of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation, General Report No. 45,
Denver, Со/о. 1969.
172
References
27. Keienburg, R.-R.: Kornverteilung und Normfestigkeit von Portlandzement. -
Dusseldorf: Betonverlag GmbH 1977 (Schriftenreihe der Zementindustrie,
Heft 42).
28. Keil, F.: Zement. Herste"ung und Eigenschaften. - Berlin: Springer-Verlag
1971.
29. KnOfel, О.: Erfahrungen mit dem Mehrkanal- R6ntgenspektrometer in der
Zementindustrie. - In: Siemens-Zeitschrift 42/1968/30-35.
30. KnOfel, О.: Quantitative r6ntgenographische Freikalkbestimmung zur Produk-
tionskontrolle im Zementwerk. - In: ZKG 23/1970/378-379.
31. KnOfel, О.: Beeinflussung der Eigenschaften von Portlandzementklinker und
Portlandzement durch Alkalien. - In: Silikattechnik 22/1971/262-266.
32. Кпбfе\, О.: Rasches Erstarren gelagerter Zemente. - Schriften der Hochschule
fur Architektur und Bauwesen Weimar 18/1975/99-108 (Vortrag auf der У.
ibausil, Weimar 1973).
33. KnOfel, О.: Dег EinfluB von TiG auf die Eigenschaften des Portlandzement-
klinkers und des Portlandzementes. - In: ZKG 30/1977/191 -196.
34. KnOfel, О.: Corrosion of Building Materials. - New York: Уап Nostrand
Reinhold Сотрапу 1978. Obersetzung von KnOfel, О .. Stichwort: Baustoff-
korrosion. Wiesbaden und Berlin: Bauverlag GmbH 1975.
35. KnOfel, О.: Betonkorrosion - eine Obersicht. - 'п: Bautenschutz und
Bausanierung 1/1978/50- 52, 68- 72.
36. KnOfel, О.: Beeinflussung einiger Eigenschaften des Portlandzementklinkers
und des Portlandzementes durch ZnO und ZnS. - In: ZKG 31/1978/157-
161.
37 Кпбfе\, О.' Der optimale Sulfatgehalt in Portlandzementen. - Schriften der
Hochschule fur Architektur und Bauwesen Weimar 1978 (Vortrag auf der VI.
ibausil, Weimar 1976).
38. KnOfel, О.: Bautenschutz mineralischer Baustoffe. - Wiesbaden und Berlin.
Bauverlag GmbH 1979.
39. KnOfel, О.: Beziehungen zwischen Chemismus, Phasengehalt und Festigkeit
bei Portlandzementen. - 'п: ZKG 32/1979/448-454.
40. KnOfel, О.: EinfluB von Frost und Taumittel auf Zementstein und Zuschlag. -
In: Betonwerk + Fertigteil-Technik 45/1979/221-227,315-320.
41. KnOfel, О.: Beitrag zum EinfluB von MgO auf die Кlinkerphasen und auf
Eigenschaften von Portlandzement. - 'п: tiz Tonindustriezeitung 103/
1979/740- 746.
42. KnOfel, D. / Spohn, Е.: Der quantitative Phasengehalt in Portlandzementklin-
kern. - In' ZKG 22/1969/471-476.
43. Kodama, Т. / Nieda, Т . The deterioration of quality and the aeration phenome-
' поп of sacked cement left in the air for а long time. - 'п. Rev. 29th Gen. Meet.
Сет. Ass. Jap., Tokyo 1975/62.
44. Kokubu, M./Yamanda, J.: Fly-ash cements. - VI. Internat. Congr. chem.
Сет., Moskau 1974, Sect. 111 - 3, Principal-Paper.
45. Kristmann, М.: Portlandzement-Klinker, mineralogische und mineralchemi-
sche Untersuchungen. Holderbank Management und Beratung AG, 1977. -
НМВ, Techn. Stelle, СН-5113 Holderbank (AG).
173
 С. Cement chemistry - cement quality
46. Ki.ihl, Н.: Der Baustoff Zement. - Berlin: VEB Verlag fi.ir Bauwesen 1963.
47. Kuhs, R.: EinfluB des Gipses auf Klinker mit verschiedenem Aluminatgehalt. _
DLisse/dorf: Betonverlag GmbH 1958 (Schriftenreihe der Zementindustrie,
Heft 22).
48. Labahn, 0./ Kaminsky, W. А: Ratgeber fi.ir Zement-Ingenieure, 5. Aufl. _
Berlin und Wiesbaden: Bauver/ag GmbH 1974.
49. Lehmann, Н. / Locher, F. W. / Thormann, Р.: Der EinfluB der Kalksteinkorn-
grbBe auf die Klinkermineralbildung im Temperaturbereich 850 -14500 С. _
In: tiz Tonindustrie Zeitung 88/1964/489-498, 537-547.
50. Lieber, W. / Richartz, W. EinfluB von Triathanolamin, Zucker und Borsaure auf
das Erstarren und Erharten von Zementen. - In. ZKG 25/1972/403-
409.
51. Locher, F. W. EinfluB der Кlinkerherstellung auf die Eigenschaften des
Zements. - In. ZKG 28/1975/265-272.
52. Locher, F. W.: Die Festigkeit des Zements. - 'п: ZKG 29/1976/247 - 249,
283-286.
53. Locher, F. W./Dreizler, 1.: Zement. - In. Ullmanns Encyklopadie der
technischen Chemie, 19. Band. - MLinchen: Verlag Urban und Schwarzen-
berg 1969.
54. Locher, F. W. / Spru ng, S. / Opitz, D.: Reaktionen im Bereich der Ofengase. _
In: ZKG 25/1972/1 -12.
55. Locher, F. W. / Sprung, S. / Korf, Р .. Der EinfluB der KorngrbBenverteilung auf
die Festigkeit von Portlandzement. - In: ZKG 26/1973/349-355.
56. Locher, F. W. / Richartz, W. / Sprung, S.: Erstarren von Zement, Teil 1:
Reaktion und GefLigeentwicklung. - In. ZKG 29/1976/435-442.
57. Locher, F. W./ Smolczyk, H.-G./Woermann, Е./ Kramer, Н./ Grade, К.: Ве­
stimmung der Phasenzusammensetzung von Zementen. - DLisseldorf
Betonverlag GmbH 1962 (Schriftenreihe der Zementindustrie, Heft 29).
58. Ludwig, U.: Uber die EinfluBnahme verschiedener Sulfate auf das Erstarren
und Erharten von Zementen. - In. ZKG 21/1968/81-90, 109-119, 175-
180.
59. Ludwig, U./Darr, G.-M .. Uber die Brennbarkeit von Zementrohmeh/. - In:
ZKG 28/1975/421 -423.
60. Ludwig, R. / Richartz, W.: AufschluBmittel fLir die Rbntgenfluoreszenzanalyse
von Stoffen der Zementindustrie. - 'п: ZKG 31/1978/550-557.
61. LLihr, Н Р. / Efes, У : Influence of granulometry of fly-ash with low ignition
losses оп the strength development of motar prisms. - VI Internat. Congr.
Chem. Сет., Moskau 1974, Sect. 111 - 3, Suppl. Paper 153.
62. Massazza, F.: Chemistry of pozzolanic additions and mixed Cements. - VI.
Internat. Congr. Chem. Сет., Moskau 1974, Sect. 111 - 6, Principal Paper. 'п.
il cemento 73/1976/3- 38.
63. Matouschek, F.: Beitrag zur Erkarung der Knollenbildung im Zement. - In:
ZKG 25/1972/395 - 396.
64. MerkbIatt Liber die Praparationsverfahren fLir die Rbntgenfluoreszenzanalyse
von Stoffen der Zementindustrie (Fassung Mai 1978). - In. ZKG
31 /1 978/558 - 564.
174
References
65. Plesch, R.. Energie- oder wellenlangendispersive Rbntgenanalyse in der
Zementindustrie. - In: ZKG 30/1977/279- 281.
66. Quervain, F. de. Technische Gesteinskunde, 2. Auflage. - Basel und
Stuttgart: Birkhauser Verlag 1967.
67. Regourd, М. / Gunier, А.: The crystal chemistry of the constituents of portland
cement clinker. - VI. Int. Congr. Chem. Сет., Moskau 1974, Sect. I - 2,
Principal- Paper.
68. Richartz, W.: EinfluB der Lagerung auf die Eigenschaften des Zementes. - 'п:
ZKG 26/1973/67 - 74.
69. Salge, Н. /Thormann, Р.: Llber den EinfluB von Ре auf die Konstitution von
Zementklinker. - In: ZKG 26/1973/532-539.
70. Schmidt, D.: Erfahrungen mit der rbntgenographischen Freikalkbestimmung.
- In: ZKG 31/1978/502-506.
71. Schmidt- Непсо, С.: EinfluB der Zusammensetzung des Klinkers auf Erstarren
und Anfangsfestigkeit von Zement. - 1n ZKG 26/1973/63 - 66.
72. Schneider, Н.: Feinmahlen von Zementklinker mit Mahlhilfsmitteln - 'п: ZKG
22/1969/193-201.
73. Schwiete, Н. Е. / Otto, Р : EinfluB der Granulationstemperatur und der chemi-
schen Zusammensetzung von Hochofenschlacke auf die Festigkeit von
HLittenzementen. - Forschungsbericht NRW I\Ir. 2055 (1969).
74. Seebach, Н. М. v.· Die Wirkung von Dampfen organischer FlUssigkeiten bei
der Zerkleinerung von Zementklinker in TrommelmLihlen. - Di.isseldorf:
Betonverlag GmbH 1969 (Schriftenreihe der Zementindustrie, Heft 35)
75. Seidel, К.: Handbuch fLir das Zementlabor. - Wiesbaden und Berlin:
Bauverlag GmbH 1964.
76. Seidel/Huckauf/Stark. Technologie der Bindebaustoffe; Bd. 3 Der Brenn-
prozeB und die Brennanlagen. - Berlin VEB Verlag fLir Bauwesen 1978.
77. Spohn, Е. / Woermann, Е. / Knbfel, D. Eine verfeinerte Kalkstandardformel. -
In ZKG 22/1969/55-60.
78. Sprung, S.: EinfluB der MLihlenatmosphare auf das Erstarren und die Festigkeit
von Zement. - In: ZKG 27/1974/259-267
79. Steinour, Н. Н.: The setting of portland cement. А review of theory,
performance and control - РСА res. Dep. Bull. 98, Chicago, 111, 1958.
80. Sutej, В. / Vrgoc, К .. Zur Abhangigkeit der Zementfestigkeit von der chemi-
schen Zusammensetzung des Klinkers. - In' ZKG 26/1973/497 - 500.
81. Sycev, М.: Technologiceskie svojstva syr' -evych cementnych sicht. -
Leningrad/Moskau. Strojizdat 1962.
82. Sylla, Н.-М.: EinfluB der Klinkerki.Jhlung auf Erstarren und Festigkeit von
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83. Taylor, Н. F. W.: The Chemistry of Cements, Vol. 1und 11. - London: Academic
Press 1964.
84. Teramoto, Н. / Koie, S. Phasenzusammensetzung und Hydratation eines
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28/1975/370 - 376.
175
 С. Cement chemistry - cement quality D. Мапufасturе of cement

85. Vavrin, F.: Effect of chemical additions оп hydratation process and hardening D. Manufacture of cement
of cement. - VI. Internat. Congr. Chem. Сет., Moskau 1974, Sect. 11-6,
Principal Рарег.
86. Verbeck, G. J. / Helmuth, А. Н.: Structures and physical properties of cement 1. Materials preparation technology
pastes. - V. Internat. Sympos. Chem. Сет., Tokio 1968, Bd. 3, S. 1 -32.
87. Verein Deutscher Zementwerke е. V. (Hrsg.): Verfahrenstechnik der Zement- Ву Н. Schneider and U. Binder
herstellung (Generalbericht zum VDZ-КопgгеВ 1977); darin insbesondere
Fachbereich 7 (Generalberichter F. W. Locher), Vегfаhгепstесhпik uпd 1 Primary reduction . . 179
Zеmепtеigепsсhаftеп (S. 625- 707). - WiеsЬаdеп uпd Вегliп: Bauverlag 1.1 Dеfiп itiопs
and characteristics 180
GmbH 1979. 1 .2 Types of crusher . 184
88. Walz, К.: Негstеlluпg vоп Веtоп nach DIN 1045. Веtопtесhпоlоgisсhе 1.2.1 Jaw crushers . . 184
АгЬеitsuпtегlаgеп, 2. Auflage. - Dusseldorf: Веtопvегlаg GmbH 1972. 1.2.2 Gyratory crushers 185
89. Weber, Р.: WагmеuЬегgапg im Dгеhоfеп uпtег Вегuсksiсhtiguпg der Kreis- 1.2.3 Roll crushers . . 187
lаufvогgапgе uпd РhаsепЫlduпg. - Iп ZKG Sопdегhеft 9/1960. 1.2.4 Impact crushers . 187
90. Wesche, К.: Baustoffe fur tгаgепdе Bauteile, Bd. 2: Niсhtmеtаllisсhапогgапi­ 1.2.5 Наттег crushers 189
sche Stoffe: Веtоп, Mauerwerk, 2. Auflage. - WiеsЬаdеп uпd Вег/iп: 1.3 Crushing рlапts . 196
Bauverlag GmbH 1980. 1.3.1 Stationary crushing plants 197
91. Wischers, G.: ЕiпfluВ еiпег Теmрегаturапdегuпg auf die Festigkeit vоп 1.3.2 Mobile crushing plants . 208
Zеmепtstеiп uпd ZеmепtmЬгtеl mit Zuschlagstoffen verschiedener Warme- References. . . . . . . . . . . . 213
dеhпuпg. - Dusse/dorf: Betonverlag GmbH 1961 (Schrihenreihe der
Zеmепtiпdustгiе, Heft 28).
92. Wоегmапп, Е.' Dесоmроsitiоп of alite iп tесhпiсаl рогtlапd сеmепt сliпkег. _ 2 Size classification . . 214
Ргос. IV. Iпtегп. Sympos. Chem. Сет., Wаshiпgtоп 1960, Bd. 1, S. 119. 2.1 Sсгеепiпg . 215
93 Wоегmапп, E./Eysel, W./Hahn, Th.: Chemische uпd strukturelle Uпtег­ 2.2 Сlаssifiсаtiоп associated with dry grinding processes 216
suсhuпgеп zur МisсhkгistаllЫlduпg vоп Tricalciumsilicat. - Iп: ZKG 16/ 2.2.1 Static air separator . . . . 217
1963/370-375; 20/1967/385-391; 21/1968/241-251; 22/1969/235- 2.2.2 Bladed rotor separator . . 219
241 uпd 414-422. 2.2.3 Circulating air separators . 220
94. Wооds/Stагkе/Stеiпоur: Iп: Неппiпg, О. u.a.: Тесhпоlоgiе der ВiпdеЬаu­ 2.2.4 Channel wheel separator . 225
stoffe; Bd. 1 . Еigепsсhаftеп - Rohstoffe - Егhагtuпg. - Вегliп: VEB Verlag 2.3 Classification in wet gгiпdiпg . 226
fur Bauwesen 1976. 2.3.1 Нуdгосусlопеs....... 227
2.3.2 Curved screens . . . . . . . 229
2.4 Criteria for the assessment of сlаssifiсаtiоп processes 232
Rеfегепсеs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238

3 Gгiпdiпg . 239
3.1 General Iпtгоduсtiоп. . . 239
3.2 Forms of comminuting асtiоп . 241
3.3 Types of grinding mill . . . . 241
3.3.1 TumbIing mills . . . . . . . 241
3.3.2 TumbIing mills with grinding media (tube mills) 242
3.3.3 Various forms of construction for tube mills 242
3.4 Motion of grinding media in tube mills 243
3.4.1 Моtiоп of the material being ground 246
3.4.2 Effect of volume iпсгеаsе оп gгiпdiпg 246
3.5 Calculating the mill drive power. . . 248
176
177
 D. Manufacture of cement 1. Materials preparation technology
Primary reduction

3.6 TumbIing mills without grinding media (autogenous mills)

3.7 Monitoring of wear
250 1. Materials preparation technology
252
3.7.1 Mechanical checks . . . . . . . . . 252 The purpose of the preparatory processing of the raw materials is to convert these
3.7.2 Mill lining . 253 chemically and minera/ogically different materials. usually supplied to the plant
3.7.3 Intermediate and discharge diaphragms 253 in coarse lumps. into raw meal or slurry of homogeneous composition. This has to
3.7.4 Feed and discharge equipment 254 Ье accomplished with suitabIy chosen machinery and methods, ап? at low.est
3.7.5 Other checks . 254 possibIe cost, in order thus to fulfil the basic conditions for ап economlcal ЬurПlПg
3.8 Process engineering checks. . . . . 256
3.8.1 Determining the loading percentage . process. . .
256 Primary crushing, pre-bIепdiпg, drying, grinding, combined griпdlПg and drYlng,
3.8.2 Grinding media classification . . . .
257 and homogenizing are the principal processing stages in the preparation of the raw
3.8.3 Determining the number of fractured grinding media 258 materials for cement manufacture. Screening and classifying are separating
3.8.4 Checking the lining . . . . . .
258 methods which are used in the cement industry in order to сапу out the size
3.8.5 Checking the diaphragms. . . .
258 reduction operations with greater economy. ОП the other hand, beneficiation of
3.8.6 Checks ;п the interior of the mill
259 raw materials Ьу separation of unutilizabIe constituents and concentration of the
3.9 Size reduction. . . . . . . . .
259 utilizabIe ones Ьу screening or classifying is only exceptionally applied in cement
3.9.1 Height and condition of the material bed 261 mапufасtше. Limestone and clay - the two principal raw materials for cement
3.9.2 Build-up of material оп liners and grinding media. 261 clinker production - as well as secondary raw materials containing aluminium
3.9.3 Determination of wear
262 oxide, silicon oxide and iron oxide, which are used as admixtures in the process,
3.9.3.1 Grinding media wear . .
262 are almost everywhere availabIe in adequate quantities and suitabIe chemical
3.9.3.2 Lining wear. . . . . .
265 composition.
3.9.3.3 Wear of the diaphragms
266 Elaborate beneficiation treatments such as are widely employed in ore and coal
References. . . . . . . . . .
266 preparation are therefore generally not required in the cement industry and, apart
from certain individual cases, not economically viabIe either.
4 Roller mills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
4.1 Roller mill design fеаtшеs . 267 1 Primary reduction
4.1.1 Mills with truncated-conical rollers (Loesche mills) . . 268 Reducing the raw materials to а fine powder - conventionally called "meal" - is
4.1.2 Mills with convex-surfaced rollers (Pfeiffer MPS mills) 269 necessary in order to produce а homogeneous mixture which will quickly Ье
4.1.3 Mills with spherical grinding elements (Peters mills) 270 converted in the kiln into а homogeneous clinker containing по free lime.
4.2 Grinding action developed in roller mills . 271 As а rule, size reduction (comminution) of the raw materials is effected in at least
4.2.1 Draw-in action of the grinding elements . 272 two main stages: crushing (primary reduction) and grinding (fine reduction). In
4.2.2 Grinding action . . . 273 the cement industry it is not usual to make а sharp distinction between these
4.2.3 Control of roller mills 276 stages in terms of particular product sizes of the crushing machinery. Indeed, the
References. . . . . . . . . .
276 borderline is variabIe, depending оп the performance and attainabIe reduction ratio
of the crushers and grinding mills and thus depending a/so оп the technical
development of these machines.
5 Grinding and drying of coal . 277 Generally speaking. crushing denotes the size reduction process that breaks down
5.1 Preparation of the coal. general considerations . 277 the material to а particle size suitabIe as feed for the next main stage, i.e., grinding.
5.2 Storage......
278 In applying the distinction between crushing and grinding it is of по consequence
5.3 Grinding and drying .
278 whether either or both of these main stages are accomplished in опе or more
5.4 Grinding process . .
279 individual stages.
5.5 Types of coal grinding 285 In present-day cement manufacture, with due regard to the possibi/ities of the
5.5.1 TumbIing mills . .
285 reduction machinery employed, crushing is taken to mean reducing the particle
5.5.2 Roller mills . . . .
286 size to between about 80 and 20 mm. This crushed product is further reduced Ьу
5.6 Safety requirements 291
References. . grinding to а fineness below about 0.2 mm size, in which condition it is called
293 raw meal and is ready for feeding to the kiln.
178
179
 О. Manufactuгe of cement '. Materials preparation technology Primary reduction: Definitions and characteristics

1.1 Definitions and characteristics
Before describing the actual size reduction processes it is necessary to define some
соттоп/у used concepts associated with them:
Single-stage reduction means that the material is reduced to the desired
product fineness Ьу the action of just опе machine, which тау operate either оп
the open-circuit (sing/e-pass) ог the closed-circuit principle (Fig.1). Multi-
stage reduction is effected in two ог тоге machines in series, each of which
constitutes опе stage of the reduction process and which operates either in ореп ог
in closed circuit.
(п open-circuit reduction the material passes only опсе through the machine,
whereas in closed-circuit reduction the material discharged from the machine
is separated Ьу screening ог classifying (the latter usually Ьу air separation) into
fine and coarse particles, the latter being retuгned to the machine for fuгther
reduction (Fig.1 а).
The so-called reduction ratio is frequently applied as а criterion for judging the
operating range of crushers. It is the ratio of the size (Iinear edge dimension) of the
largest piece in the feed material to the size of the largest piece in the crushed
product. As it is difficult actually to determine the largest sizes in the feed and in the
product, these respective particle sizes аге instead defined in terms of а certain
percentage (Ьу weight) passing а screen, e.g., 95% ог 80% ог 63.2% (Fig. 2).

particle size d in mm
0.110" 2 3 4 5 10 1 2 3 4 5 102 2 3 4 5 10.] 2 3 4 5
99.9
1
/ 99
1. ,/
5 95
10
111
9О
20 t/ I! 80
:ю
1/1 J1 70
;;-- 40 60
.!; 50 ./

fine product Fig.1 : Open-circuit size reduction

о'

~ 70
60

B/ V
/
I
:~ J
20 ~!:
~ ВО V V
,§ 90
V A"у
1О
Q
g'
fresh feed
i ......V V 'и
95
е 96 " ~ 8-
actual feed
(fresh feed+oversize)
((----- 1:в 7

99
,/
V
1./
з

1
§
'i
к
0.5
reduction

oversize
Fig. 2: Reduction ratio "z"
1200 800 600
Z95 = - - = 48; ZBO =- = 57 , Z63 2 = -8
6 = 70
25 14 '.
А = crusher feed (fragmented rock obtained Ьу bIasting)
В = crusher product (discharged from а single-rotoг hammer crusher)
classification

The granulometric composition of the feed ог the product of а size reduction

machine is determined Ьу screening ог sieving in the coarse particle size range
(above about 50 microns).
The resu It Qf the particle size analysis (screen ог sieve analysis) сап Ье represented
Fig.1 а: Closed-circuit size reduction in а numerical tabIe and/or as а particle size cumulative distribution curve
180
181
О. Manufacture of cement 1. Materials preparation technology Primary reduction: Definitions and characteristics

V
v v - ~~
100

90

80

1/
V
v 70

60

50

IIJ~
;f.
~
<:>
'"
~
-'
\
,
~~~~~~ ~
- - ·/.UI а 5U!SSDd UO!lJodoJd
~ Ln--t~ ~ '"
с)

/ 308-
.~ ~
"
/ с ;:!

/V
20 .2
ю 8- ~
'/ О
е
а.
200 БОа '" '"
.~ ~ml$m~~~~m~~~~
800 1000 1200 1600 1800 2000 ~.
particle si1;e d in тт ~

Fig. З: Cumulative distribution сигуе for rock pile produced Ьу large- "о

hole bIasting (Iinear scales оп both axes) ~

с;"'ц-/--1--Ц.1.-\--I-I-J+-\--\-----!-++-f--++-+--+----t----I
~ Е
~ '" j!.;.IJ...I'\-+++t-+--+--+-f+-+-+-+-~t_-+----t-+--+-t_-_t_-_t
from which the percentage retained оп ог passing апу particular aperture size сап
Ье read (Fig. 3). 'П the diagram the particle sizes аге shown оп the horizontal axis,
:в ~I~~В_~~~~<:>
со
....'
while the percentages (Ьу weight) аге marked оп the vertical axis. А linear scale ci
а.

may Ье adopted for both axes ог, alternatively, only for the vertical axis, while the
particles аге plotted to а logarithmic scale. ~I I--Н-fж-+I \'''.:-If-~-н-.-t-+---tГ----t--. г---- г-----~ - f-... +-_.I-'~-I----- ..
Е 'ю \
Quite often the well-known Rosin-Rammler-Bennett (RRB) particle size distri- Е
bution is a(ssum~g6o)r comminuted materials, which uses log d for the horizontal ~
~
с
and log log -R- for the vertical axis (d = particle size, R = percentage
~ S
"
retained).
If the exponential relationship estabIished Ьу Rosin, Rammler and Sperling is
'1 ..
1::
с

о
strictly conformed to, the distribution curve appears as а straight line which is ~
Q;
characterized Ьу two values. the equivalent particle size d' and the uniformity :..;, 8
coefficient n (Fig. 4), where d' is the size corresponding to 36.8% (Ьу weight) ~
retained as residue оп the sieve (oversize) and n is the tangent of the slope of the
line. Particle size distribution diagrams аге commercially availabIe which аге
provided with scales оп the vertical and horizontal axes enabIing the values of n
il
е
g.
'ё
.2
'ё
:::J

and of the specific surface of comminuted materials to Ье read.

The actual values determined in tests generally deviate more ог less from the
theoretical straight lines. Even so, the exponential relationship is а useful
approximate equation.

Fig.4: Сигуе for oversize particles in hammer тill product (RRB

diagram). Material' limestone

182 183
 О. Manufacture of cement 1. Materials preparation technology Types of crushers

The logarithmic division of the horizontal axis of а particle size distribution diagram
offers the advantage that the finer sizes аге characterized тоге prominently, which
is appropriate because of their greater importance than the coarser ones in
determining the overall surface агеа of the comminuted material concerned.
Ву differentiation the particle size distribution diagram сап Ье derived from
the cumulative distribution curve (Fig. 5): The horizontal axis is divided into equal
portions, each representing а particle size class ог fraction, and for each portion the
corresponding ordinate is determined, indicating the percentage (Ьу weight) of
this size class in the comminuted material as а whole.
lumps of clinker ог kiln coating (as discharged from rotary coolers ог shaft kilns, for
example). ОП the other hand, they аге seldom used for the crushing of limestone in
cement works.
The reciprocating motion of the crushing jaw of the doubIe-tоgglе (аг Blake type)
jaw crusher subjects the material to а mainly compressive action. This machine is
especially suitabIe for crushing very hard material fed in coarse lumps (Fig. 6а)
In the single-toggle jaw crusher the jaw moves not only backwards and forwards
but also up and down, so that there is attrition as well as compressive crushing
action. Crushers of this type аге тоге suitabIefor the reduction of hard to medium-
hard material fed in smaller lumps (Fig. 6Ь)
Jaw crushers аге sensitive to moist and plastic feed material and tend to choke if

--
о

J,...-- 1-- there is а substantial proportion of fine particles in the feed. The attainabIe
V/ 1//V/ V/
v reduction ratio is between about 6:1 and 8:1. For obtaining а product of
~ ~~ ~ v favourabIe size for feeding to grinding mills it is generally necessary to apply
t% ~ ~ ~ v secondary crushing in another type of crusher.

.Е 15
t/; v: ~vj ~I/j The particle size distribution of the jaw crusher product is considerabIy affected Ьу
the loading of the machine; а crusher operating substantially below capacity will
~~ t% ~ ~~ ~ v:;
~
yield а coarse product with а high proportion of oversize.
,g1O ~ ~ ~~ ~~ ~ ~
~ ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ ~
v::
CII

~ /j ~ :/; l/j ~ t/j l/j ~

О.

~
о
о.
е
5
v::
~~ t% v; v:; ~ l/j ~ l/j v; f/;
~ ~ ~ ~ :/j ~ ~ fjj ~~ ~~~~ >-..- >-..-
0.0 100
О 200 600 800 1(w 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
particle size d in тт -_
Fig. 5: Particle size distribution diagram for rock pile produced Ьу large-
hole bIasting

(а) doubIe-tоgglе crusher (Ь) single-toggle crusher

1.2 Types of crusher
Solid rock which has Ьееп dis/odged from its natural deposit Ьу bIasting ог ripping
forms а coarsely fragmented rock pile, initially with its natura! inherent moisture.
The hardness, fragment size, moisture content, plasticity and abrasiveness of the
material аге important factors affecting the choice of the size reduction machines
and methods for dealing with it. Hard materials causing severe abrasive wear аге
reduced with slow-running machines such as jaw crushers and gyratory crushers,
which function Ьу developing mainly а compressive action. For medium-hard to
hard materials impact crushers and hammer crushers аге тоге suitabIe, they
achieve size reduction mainly Ьу impact.
1.2.1 Jaw crushers
Jaw crushers аге used for the primary reduction of very hard and abrasive
admixtures for cement manufacture, such as quartzite ог iron аге, and of large
Fig. 6: Jaw crushers
1.2.2 Gyratory crushers
The gyratory crusher is seldom found in the Ешореап cement industry, which uses
mainly medium-hard to hard and not very abrasive limestone. In other parts of the
world, however, it is тоге commonly employed in the industry. Its size reduction is
achieved mainly Ьу compressive action between the fixed conical bowl and the
oscillating cone-shaped crushing head, which functions somewhat like а pestle in
а mortar. The lower end of the shaft carrying the crushing head is mounted in ап
eccentric which performs а horizontal rotary motion, while the upper end is
mounted in а fixed ball-and-socket type bearing. As in the jaw crusher, the width
of the crushing gap continually varies between а maximum and а minimum.
The width of the gap сап Ье altered Ьу raising ог lowering the crushing head, ап
adjustment that takes only а few minutes to perform and is effected mechanically ог

184 185
О. Manufactuгe of cement 1. Materials preparation technology
(in machines of more modern design) hydraulically. Increase in gap width due to
wear of the bowl and crushing head сап thus Ье compensated, so that the service
life of these parts сап Ье extended Ьу some 50 to 60% without having to
recondition or replace them, while the product size remains approximately
unchanged throughout their lifetime. Vertical adjustment of the head in relation to
the bowl enabIes the gap width to Ье varied within а range of 15-20% from the
average setting (Fig.7).
The ratio between the radial width А of the feed opening and the maximum
discharge gap width С in large primary crushers is between 6: 1 and 9: 1, which
corresponds to the attainabIe reduction ratio for predominantly cubic material. If
the machine is fed with material of а more irregular shape, this ratio, referred to the
maximum dimensions of the pieces, тау Ье as high as 12: 1 to 15: 1.
The largest gyratory crushers in current use attain throughputs of over 6000 t/houг
and have feed openings 1500 тт х 4400 тт in size (А х В), while the discharge
gaps range in width from 150 to 250 тт.
А jaw crusher designed for а certain throughput rate сап accept larger pieces of
rock than the normal gyratory crusher. In order to соре with equally large-sized
feed, the gyratory crusher has to Ье over-designed in terms of capacity.
In а special form of the machine, called the unifeed gyratory crusher (Krupp-Esch;
Morgardshammar), this drawback has Ьееп eliminated. It is substantially similar to
ап ordinary gyratory crusher, except that the feed opening is provided with ап
enlarged receiving space оп опе side, which functions as а pre-crushing chamber
(Fig. 8). The oscillating motion of the crushing head is similar to that in ап ordinary
gyratory crusher.
А general advantage of the gyratory crusher is that it is unaffected Ьу overloading.
It requires по special feedif1g device. the fragmented rock coming from the quarry
Fig. 7: Gyratory crusher
Fig.8: Unifeed gyratory crusher (Krupp-Esch)
186
Types of crushers
or stockpile in heavy trucks сап Ье tipped straight into the feed opening. Uniform
size distribution in the crushed product сап, however, Ье obtained only if а
controlled rate of feed is maintained.
Like the jaw crusher, the gyratory crusher is sensitive to moist and plastic feed
material and it tends to choke if the material has а high fines content.
1.2.3 Roll crushers
Roll crushers are used for the primary reduction of medium-hard moist and
abrasive materials such as marl, shale and clay (Fig. 9). The feed is subjected to
compressive and shearing action between а pair of counter-rotating rolls, which
тау Ье either smooth or corrugated or provided with tooth-like projections. The
teeth give better bite to the feed and concentrate the action of the crushing force,
enabIing large and compact pieces of rock to Ье split.
Fig. 9: DoubIe-гоll crusher
For primary reduction the width of the rolls is approximately equal totheir diameter,
the ratio of these dimensions usually being within the range of 0.8 to 1.2. The
attainabIe size reduction ratio IS fairly low, only from about 3: 1 to 5: 1.
Circumferential velocities of the rolls are 5-9 m/second.
DoubIe-гоll (ortwin-roll) crushers with 1800 тт roll diameter and approximately
equal effective roll width attain throughputs of 1000-1200 t/hour for а gap width
of about 250 тт between the rolls and сап accept feed material up to 1000 тт in
size.
'П some machinesthe two bearings of опе crushing roll arefixed totheframe ofthe
crusher, while those of the other roll are mounted оп slide rails. This movabIe roll is
held in its predetermined working position with the aid of pull-rods and springs.
The movabIe mounting enabIes the crushing gap width to Ье varied, while the
springs provide some "give" to allow uncrushabIe foreign bodies in the feed to
pass. DoubIe-гоll crushers in which both rolls are movabIy mounted are also
availabIe.
As а rule, the two rolls are driven separately, each through а V-belt drive. The
specific power consumption is in the range of 0.2 to 0.3 kWh/t.
1.2.4 Impact crushers
1n its
mode of operation and desig n featu res the impact crusher differs considerabIy
from the slow-running jaw, gyratory and roll crushers, which reduce фе material
Ьу а predominantly compressive (and therefore truly "crushing") action. The
187
О. Manufacture of cement 1. Materials preparation technology Types of crushers

alternative terms to "crushing" and "crusher" аге "breaking" and "breaker", and it Fig.11: Compound impact crusher (Hazemag)
would perhaps Ье more accurate to speak only of "impact breaker", but in practice
the distinction is seldom consistently made.
'П the impact crusher the feed material entering the crushing chamber encounters
the impactor bars immovabIy mounted оп the rotor and revolving with it at а
circumferential velocity of 30-45 m/second. The fragments are flung against the
upper breaker plate, rebound into the crushing chamber, are again subjected to the
action of the impactor bars, and so оп until they have Ьееп sufficiently reduced to
pass through the upper gap into the space between the two breaker plates. Неге
the process is repeated until the material is fine enough to pass through the second
gap. Besides the impact of the rock fragments with the bars and plates there is also
ап "autogenous" reduction effect due to the rock fragments colliding with опе
another (Fig. 1 О).

energy is greater and the material is broken up into correspondingly smaller

fragments, but the rate of wear оп the bars and plates is of course higher (it
increases proportionally to the square of the velocity). The optimum feed material
size range of 0- 25 mm for raw mills cannot Ье achieved in а single pass through
the coarse impact crusher. Applying the closed-circuit principle in this case does
not achieve апу worthwhile improvement in reducing the product size. А more
efficient method is to use а secondary crushing stage, e.g., in the form of а second
impact crusher operating with higher rotor circumferential velocity.
'П the compound impact crusher the two stages - primary and secondary - аге
combined in а single machine (Fig. 11). This is а dual-rotor crusher in which the
primary rotor runs at about 35 m/second and the secondary rotor (mounted below
and to опе side ofthe primary) runs at about 45 m/second circumferential velocity.
The maximum product particle size is determined Ьу the bottom gap formed Ьу ап
additional ridged comminuting anvil plate. Compound crushers сап accept feed
lumps up to about 1.5 m size, reducing it to а product in which 95% is smaller than
_ _----"IIIiIL. ..s- Fig.10: Single-rotor impact crusher 25 mm, corresponding to а reduction ratio of 60: 1, achieved in а single pass:
The upper rotor is fitted with fixed impactor bars, while the lower rotor has Im-
pactor bars ог movabIy mounted hammers, depending оп the nature of the feed
The impact crusher is best suited for dealing with brittle hard to medium-hard material and the required product fineness.
material with natural cleavage planes. It cannot соре very well with soft, plastic
and moist material. 1.2.5 Hammer crushers
The shape and arrangement of the breaker plates, the circumferential velocity of the
rotor and the number and design of the impactor bars should Ье chosen with due The hammer crusher is the most widely used machine for the primary reduction of
regard to the nature of the feed material (type of rock) and the maximum feed medium-hard to hard limestone and marl in the cement industry.
size. The main feature is the rotor which carries а series of pivoted hammers. When the
Depending оп the hardness and size of the feed, coarse impact crushers reduce the rotor is running, the centrifugal forces cause the hammers to point radially
material to а product size of between 150 and 200 mm and attain reduction ratios outwards. 'П the upper crushing chamber the feed material is subjected to а
of between 6: 1 and 20: 1. The circumferential velocity of the rotor is а major factor: combination of impact and percussive action Ьу the hammers and Ьу repeated
low velocity results in а coarse product; with higher velocity the size reduction collision with the breaker plate, together with "autogenous" action Ьу fragments

188 189
-------------------------------------~%Yi,'~>-----------------------~~~~~-

О. Manufacture of cement 1. Materials preparation technology Types of crushers

of rock colliding with опе another. The finer reduction is accomplished in the gap
between the hammers and the breaker plate in the single-rotor hammer crusher.
The width of the product outlets between the bottom grid bars determines the
maximum product particle size. As а rule, the process engineering requirement of
obtaining the finest possibIe mill feed in а single crushing pass is fulfilled Ьу the
hammer crusher.
Наттег crushers аге built as single-rotor (Fig.12) and twin-rotor machines
(Fig. 13). The rotors тау consist of а series of discs mounted оп а square shaft ог
тау alternatively take the form of rollers. If hammers with forged-on individual
pivot stubs аге employed, the rotor discs must Ье axially movabIe for changing the
hammers when they have Ьесоте worn. It is, however, better to key the discs
securely to the rotor shaft and to mount the hammers оп continuous spindles
extending the full width of the rotor. Оп disc-type rotors with recesses and оп
roller-type rotors the hammers аге installed in а staggered arrangement so as to
give complete coverage across the rotor. Rotors аге mounted in plain ог in anti-
friction bearings.
The forged ог cast hammers range from about 30 kg to 200 kg in weight, according
to the size of the crusher. The discharge grids enclose the rotors through ап angle
of between 1200 and 1800 and аге, тоге particularly in large crushers, axially ог
Fig.1З: Twin-rotor hammer crusher. type Titan (О.&К.)
radially divided for convenience of handling in terms ofweight and size. The forged
grid bars аге of triangular ог trapezoidal cross-section (Fig.14). Triangular bars
form wider entry apertures to the product discharge openings and thus offer less
resistance to the passage of the material, but wear away тоге rapidly so that the
openings Ьесоте too wide. This effect is less pronounced with trapezoidal bars,
which moreover, for equal structural strength and equal width of the openings,
have а larger ореп grid surface агеа than triangular ones.

Fig.14: Grid bar cross-sections. Effective ореп grid surface area Fo for
Fig.12: Single-rotor hammer crusher (О.&К.) equal section modulus of bars: FoA = 1.5 Fo•

190 191
О. Manufacture of cement 1. Materials preparation technology
The grid openings of primary crushers operating as single-stage machines which
supply feed for tube mills are usually 25 mm in width, thus attaining а product with
only 3-5% oversize in the 25-30mm fraction. However, widths of 40-50mm
are employed in crushers which are fed with raw materials containing plastic
components and above 6-8% moisture, the greater width being necessary to
avoid choking of the grids.
Single-rotor hammer crushers are built for throughputs of up to about 2000 t/hour.
For example, а well known machine of this capacity has а rotor of 3300 mm width
and а hammer circle diameter of 3350 mm, equipped with 112 hammers weighing
150 kg each.
The circumferential velocity of the rotors is between about 28 and 33 m/second.
Fig.15: Hammer crusher with feed rollers (F.L.S.). 1 feeder, 2 chain curtain,
3 feed rollers, 4 hammer rotor, 5 adjustabIe impact wall
192
Types of crushers
The hammer crusher shown in Fig. 15 is а special form of construction, equipped
with two rollers wh ich rotate in the same direction, but at different speeds, and feed
the material to the rotor equipped with freely movabIe hammers. Undersize
particles already present in the feed are discharged through the gap between the
rollers. The impact wall and bottom discharge grid, which encloses the rotor
through ап angle of about 1200, are adjustabIe in relation to the rotor, so that the
wear of фе hammers, breaker elements and grid bars сап Ье compensated to some
extent.
'П another version of the hammer crusher there are likewise two feed rollers, but
this machine has two rotors, rotating both in the same direction.
Crusher drive systems
Single-rotor and twin-rotor hammer crushers are usually driven Ьу slip-ring motors
via а V-belt transmission system. As а rule, slip resistors are provided in order to
ensureflexibIe behaviour of the drive motor. In the event of а drop in rotation speed
due to impact loading of the rotor, the motor will still develop а high torque and the
V-belt drive will Ье less severely strained. The drive pulley, which serves as а
flywheel, is overhung-mounted оп the rotor shaft - even оп the largest crushers
hitherto built - and is fixed Ьу means of locking sleeves or similar devices.
The motor shaft is connected to the intermediate drive shaft Ьу means of а flexibIe
coupling. If а squirrel-cage motor is used, а fluid clutch is additionally provided, in
order to facilitate motor starting and prevent surges in the supply system.
Some twin-rotor hammer crushers are equ ipped with rotors directly driven through
reduction gear units.
А new type of drive - direct drive with а travelling-wave (Iinear) motor of
segmental design - has Ьееп used for sing le- rotor hammer crushers. In th is type of
motor the torque is transmitted to the rotating element, which is designed to
function also as а flywheel and is mounted direct оп the rotor shaft of the crusher
thus dispensing with the V-belt transmission. The travelling-wave motor has ~
favourabIe torque characteristic and takes up less space than conventional motors.
Its slightly lower efficiency is hardly ап important drawback, but а more serious
objection is its high cost.
Auxiliary equipment
With the evolution of crushers to larger and larger throughput ratings the
dimensions and weights of their wearing parts are correspondingly increasing.
Removal and renewal of worn parts without the aid of suitabIe lifting appliances is
awkward and time-consuming. The solutions adopted Ьу some manufacturers to
ease these probIems will Ье briefly described Ьу way of example.
Several of them have developed special auxiliary equipment to facilitate the
operations of changing the wearing parts of their machines and thus substantially
reduce the repair downtime periods.
193
О. Manufactuгe of cement 1. Materials preparation technology
Thus, hydraulic pull-out systems for extracting the breaker plates or bars are
provided. Fuгthermore, hydraulic rams mounted оп the crusher casing епаЫе the
breaker wall and certain parts of the casing to Ье swung ореп оп impact crushers
and hammer crushers, without the aid of other auxiliary devices. Also, various
solutions for changing the bottom discharge grids of hammer crushers have Ьееп
devised. Polysius, for instance, releases the bottom part of the casing and pulls out
the two halves of the cuгved grid, which сап then Ье lifted out Ьу а crane. In the
М iag Titan crusher the rear walls сап Ье swung ореп Ьу hydraulic rams, while the
grids are connected Ьу swivel mountings to the walls of the casing and сап Ье
moved Ьу means of the rams for maintenance and also for adjustment while the
crusher is running.
Design featuгes оп the upper part of the machine епаЫе sections of casing which
are situated beside the rotor shaft to Ье removed, without having to dismantle the
upper casing, for taking out and refitting the rotors (Fig.16). The twin-rotor
crushers of Krupp are likewise equipped with hydraulic rams with which the геаг
walls сап Ье swung ореп, so that the lining and rotors Ьесоте accessibIe for
Fig.16: Auxiliary equipment for changing worn parts (О.&К. Mammut
crusher), а hammer lifting device, Ь hammer spindle extracting device, с discharge
grid extracting device
194
Types of crushers
/ '\
( .. J
'- . ../
/Г~~
,!::-.__ .1==
Fig.17: Various systems for removing and refitting the discharge grids
of twin-rotor crushers
inspection. Polysius has combined the grids and casing rear walls into carriages
which сап Ье moved with the aid of hydraulic rams. The Mammut (Mammoth)
crusher has discharge grid carriages which travel into the crusher casing and are
positioned under the grid halves to Ье removed (Fig. 17). After release ofthe lateral
connections the grid is lowered hydraulically onto the carriage, so that it сап then
travel out of the casing.
The continuous spindles оп which the hammers are mounted аге extracted and
refitted with hydraulic devices. Ап electric chain hoist сап Ье introduced through
ап access door in the upper casing into the interior. In this way each hammer to Ье
dismantled сап Ье lifted out of the crushing chamber.
Auxiliary equipment in а wider sense comprises hammer drills - hydraulically
powered, as а rule - which аге installed оп telescopic mountings пеаг the feed
hopper and аргоп conveyor and сап Ье used to break up апу oversize pieces of
rock that get into the hopper. The same method is used also for dealing with such
pieces that inadvertently reach the hoppers оп jaw crushers ог gyratory crushers.
Wear
The throughput rate and fineness of the product аге affected Ьу the state of wear of
the comminuting components of the crusher. Hammers have to Ье reversed,
resurfaced with hard steel (Ьу welding), ог entirely renewed, before their size
reduction effec! decreases too much. The bottom grid bars, too, must Ье resuгfaced
ог renewed before they let through ап unacceptabIy high proportion of oversize
partic!es in the crushed product.
The hammers and grid bars are made of forged, cast ог rolled steel. The choice of
construction material depends оп the size, hardness and abrasiveness of the
crusher feed and also оп the shapes that the designer adopts as being most
appropriate for these parts to meet the requirements. Generally speaking, а higher
factor of safety against fractuгe will Ье obtained at the expense of wear
resistance.
195
О. Manufacture of cement 1. Materials preparation technology Stationary crushing plants

It is advantageous to use steel having а constant tensile strength over the whole
length of the hammer, with а high degree of hardness at the head and with
adequate toughness and wear resistance at the pivot hole. The hardness of the
metal around the hole is of major influence оп the service life of the hammer spindle
and is а factor that deserves careful attention in choosing the material for the
hammer to Ье suitabIy compatibIe with that of the spindle.
If the discharge openings in the bottom grids аге narrow and the feed material has а
high moisture content, the striking faces of the hammers should have sharp edges.
When the hammers have Ьееп worn away Ьу ап amount corresponding to about
10% weight loss, they should Ье resurfaced in order to preserve their comminuting
effectiveness and to prevent the throughput rate of the crusher from declining. The
materials of which the hammers аге made should therefore also Ье suitabIy
weldabIe, а property which is only to а limited extent compatibIe with the
requirements of а high degree of hardness and а long service life. Austenitic
manganese steels, possessing good weldability, аге best suited for the purpose.
'П the development of composite cast hammers (Magotteaux) with the comminut-
ing head made of high-carbon cast steel with over 3% С and 16% Сг the possibility
of resurfacing was relinquished from the outset. The head preserves its effective
shape and, under appropriate conditions, the working life is тоге than doubIed in
comparison with that of the usual hammers. Lifetime is limited Ьу the low tensile
strength in the region of the pivot hole and Ьу the restricted height of the high-
сагЬоп cast steel head, which gives rise to cavitation phenomena at the transition
to the parent material.
The net rate of wear оп hammers for the reduction of limestone and таг' is in the
range of about 0.5 to 6 g/t. Grid bars usually last at least as long, and anything up to
about twice as long, as the hammers.
Considerations of есопоту must decide whether to use hammers of high-carbon
cast steel which is unsuitabIe for resurfacing ог instead to make use of а less
resistant material which сап Ье resurfaced. The operational availability of the
crusher, wage costs and material consumption аге factors to Ье taken into account
in connection with this. The general trend is towards the use of high-strength
materials offering long service life.
1.3.1 Stationary crushing plants
'П the Ешореап cement industry, which uses chiefly таг' and medium-hard to
hard limestone as its principal raw materials, single-stage crushing plants
equipped with hammer crushers аге the commonly preferred type.
The feed hopper, feeding equipment, crusher and product removal conveyors аге
the main component units of the plant. The feed hopper should have а capacity
equal to at least twice that of the largest vehicles supplying rock to the crusher
(Fig. 18). Caking ofmoist andstickyfeed material сап Ье minimized Ьу using а well
designed hopper, with rounded transitions from the end walls to the side walls. If
the hopper is of concrete, it should Ье lined with steel plates ог, preferabIy, with
steel rails, which give much better protection against wear.
Robustly constructed аргоп conveyors have proved most suitabIe for feeding.
They fulfil all requirements applicabIe to а feeding system in order to obtain
optimum utilization of the crusher: control of the handling rate within а certain
range, controllability in response to the loading condition of the crusher, feed over
the full working width of the crusher, ability to start under load, feed сап Ье
stopped instantly (по after-trickle of material that could choke the slowing- down
ог stopped crusher).
Particularly with moist feed material it is important that the аргоп conveyor should
have the same width as the crusher rotor, so as to ensure that the rotor is fed

1.3 Crushing plants

А distinction is made between single-stage and multi-stage plants, according to

whether the desired product size is attainabIe with just опе crusher ог requires two
ог тоге crushers operating in series. Each of these crushing stages тау in principle
Ье operated in ореп circuit (with ог without preliminary screening) ог in closed
circuit (with screens ог grizzlies as the classifying devices).
Stationary crushing plants, i.e., installed in а fixed location, аге predominant in the
cement industry, but for new installations, especially when large throughputs аге
required, mobile plants - self-propelled ог easily relocatabIe - have Ьесоте
much тоге numerous since the early 1960s, now that the various systems for
moving them from опе working position to the next have proved reliabIe. Fig.18: Stationary crushing plant (О.&К.) with hopper and apron feeder

196 197
О. Manufacture of cement 1. Materials preparation technology Stationary crushing plants

uniformly over its full width and undergoes uniformly distributed wear. Optimum
utilization of the crusher is obtained Ьу means of ап infinitely variabIe аргоп
conveyor drive interlocked with the crusher drive. А frequently employed method
of control is to vary the аргоп conveyor speed in response to the rotor speed. А
more suitabIe solution, quicker and more sensitive, is obtained Ьу basing the
control action оп the power consumption of the crusher drive motor.
Rubber belt conveyors аге usually employed for carrying away the product
discharged from crushers equipped with bottom grids. 'П order to prevent caking
and build-ups of adhering material, the belt should preferabIy Ье so wide as to
comprise the whole width of the crusher discharge opening, so that the side walls
of the connecting chute between the crusher and the belt conveyor сап Ье made
vertical.
Steel арroп conveyors ог chain conveyors, though mechanically more elaborate
and expensive than belt conveyors, аге preferabIe for product removal from impact
crushers and from hammer crushers not equipped with bottom grids. The reason is
that the material discharged from the crusher falls with greater impact force оп the
conveyor than when а bottom grid limits the size and impact velocity of the pieces
discharged.
Оп the feed side of the crusher, fine material sticking to the аргоп conveyor and
falling off it оп the return run is removed Ьу а scraper conveyor installed in а
concrete trough in the foundation slab ог otherwise, if accessibIe space is required Fig.19: Stationary crushing plant with direct feed dump trucks
under the аргоп conveyor, in а steel trough mounted directly underthe latter. As ап
alternative solution the product removal conveyor оп the discharge side of the
crusher may Ье extended rearwards to underneath the throw-off end of the feed
аргоп conveyor and thus catch the material falling off. 'П that case а separate
crushers of gyratory crushers, which аге relatively immlJne from overloading and
scraper conveyor сап Ье dispensed with.
сап therefore Ье fed direct from the trucks, the product should Ье intermediately
Multi-stage crushing is employed mainly in older plants whose equipment
stockpiled to allow а uniform rate of feed to the second crushing stage. Ап
dates from а time when high-capacity crushers with high reduction ratios were not
intermediate bunker with ап extracting conveyor controlled in response to the
yet availabIe. 'П general, crushing in two ог more stages will Ье applied in cases
power consumption of the secondary crusher drive motor ensures that this crusher
where the hardness ог abrasiveness of the feed material is likely to cause
сап operate under optimum conditions. From the point of view of the overall
considerabIe crusher downtime and attendant cost.
performance of the primary size reduction system it is generally more advantageous
Gyratory crushers, which аге used as first-stage machines when very hard and
also to apply such controlled feed to the first-stage crusher - of whatever type -
coarse feed material has to Ье reduced, сап receive the material direct from the
through а feed conveyor and hopper, in which case the second-stage crusher,
truck, without the interposition of а feed hopper (Fig.19). As the preliminary
designed with ап appropriate safety margin of capacity, сап Ье fed direct with the
crusher delivers а product in the 300- 500 min size range, the second-stage
product of the first stage of crushing.
crusher сап function under less severe operating conditions than if the size
reduction had to Ье performed all in опе stage.
While gyratory crushers сап often Ье employed also as second-stage machines,
Preliminary screening
high-speed machines such as impact crushers ог hammer crushers аге more
advantageous for obtaining а finer product which is suitabIe as feed for the Separation of the finer particles from the raw stone before it is fed to the crusher is
grinding mills. If it is essential to feed the mills with а finely crushed product from not standard practice in the cement industry. 'П exceptional cases, however, the
which oversize pieces аге strictly excluded, it is necessary to classify the second- material may first Ье passed over а grizzly ог а reciprocating grid screen. Preliminary
stage crusher product Ьу screen ing and retu гп the oversize to the crusher for fu rther separation ofthe coarserfrom the finer material сап serve to relieve the crusher orto
reduction (closed-circuit operation). However, if the second stage of crushing is improve the quality of the raw material Ьу raising the concentration of certain
performed Ьу а hammer crusher with bottom discharge grid, such classification desirabIe constituents. As а rule. it makes for better performance of the crusher,
will not Ье necessary. If the first stage of size reduction is performed Ьу jaw too.

198 199
О. Manufacture of cement 1. Materials preparation technology
Relieving the crusher
The decision as to applying preliminary screening of the raw stone is governed Ьу
the proportion of fine particles in it, the physical properties of those particles, and
th~ t~chnical design features of the crusher employed. The possibility of thus
rеllеVlПg the crusher may, in new plant design, result in deciding to use а smaller
machine than would otherwise Ье required. Also, the subsequent installation of
preliminary screening in ап existing plant сап bring about ап improvement in
crusher performance - higher throughput rate - without involving major capital
expenditure (Fig.20).
Removal of the fines from the crusher feed reduces wear of the crushing elements,
besides cutting down the hazard of clogging and caking in the crusher.
Comparisons of capital expenditure and operating experience show that the
additional installation of mechanical equipment for preliminary screening is
profitabIe only if about one-third ofthe material flow supplied to the crusher сап Ье
separated in this way. For а given feed material а crusher сап Ье relieved to а greater
extent according as the reduction ratio that it сап attain is lower. This is particularly
true of jaw, gyratory and roll crushers as compared with hammer and impact
Fig.20: Static primary crushing plant with preliminary screening оп
stepped (multi-stage) grizzlies (Babbitless)
200
Stationary crushing plants
crushers. The preliminary removal of fine, sticky and moist material may Ье
advantageous in reducing the risk of clogging and diminished performance,
particularly with jaw and gyratory crushers, but also with hammer crushers.
In general, however, preliminary screening offers по advantage when primary size
reduction is done in а single stage in hammer crushers, which attain high reduction
ratios and сап deliver а product below 25 mm particle size, commonly considered
to Ье the maximum acceptabIe as ball mill feed. As а rule, the raw stone seldom
contains more than 15-20% of fine particles, so that their preliminary removal
from the crusher feed is hardly worth-while. The separation of moist sticky material
below about 25 mm size in the crusher feed сап moreover Ье probIematical and сап
only Ье accomplished with poor efficiency.
The preliminary screening devices used before primary crushers are various types
of stationary grizzlies or moving grid-type screens (with bars or with rollers, either
round or elliptical), reciprocating separators, vibrating grates or heavy eccentric-
weight-driven shaking screens (Fig. 21). А relatively recent development is the
Mogensen sizer, which is especially suitabIe for the separation of moist fine
material that is difficu It to remove Ьу screening from the crusher feed (Fig. 22). This
Fig.21 : Grizzly with elliptical rotating rollers
Fig. 22: Mogensen sizer (illustration of its principle)
201
 Stationary crushing plants
D. Manufacture of cement 1. Materials preparation technology

machine comprises а number of round steel bars individually attached to а

transverse tubular member. The bars аге not all in the same plane, but аге set in а
staggered arrangement. This ensures that the effective size of the apertures
increases in the direction of flow. The bars, up to 2 m in length, oscillate in response
to the weight of the material moving over them; this oscillatory motion helps to
prevent choking. The range of performance of Mogensen sizers is stated to Ье
characterized Ьу cutsizes from 300 mm down to 25 mm. If sharpness of separation
is of major importance, two ог more sizers may Ье operated in series.
The design principle is simple, по drive power is required, and renewal of worn bars
сап Ье accomplished with relatively little effort.

Intermediate screening
With multi-stage crushing, removal of the fine particles from the first-stage product
сап result in notabIy relieving the second stage. Screening applied after the final
crushing stage, i.e., directly before the grinding mill, is advantageous if the
crushers yield а product with а high proportion of oversize which is liabIe to cause
troubIe in mill operation.

Feeding of two components

Moist and plastic clays аге difficult to comminute with their natural pit moisture
content. They сап Ье crushed, without simultaneous drying, in гoll crushers,
operated multi-stage because oftheir low individual reduction ratios. There may Ье
diffi~ulties not only with comminution, but also with storage, reclaiming and
fееdlПg to the grinding mill if such plastic material is handled alone. Combined Fig. 23: Simultaneous feeding and crushing of two components with
crushing of limestone and clay in the limestone crusher is more favourabIe. For this two apron feeders (О.&К.)
purpose the two materials, in their correct quantitative pгoportions, аге tipped into
the feed hopper. This procedure does not, however, achieve sufficiently homo-
geneous bIending of the materials. Ргорег design of the clay hopper is very important. Its walls should Ье as steep
А solution which is both favourabIe from the process engineering standpoint and
as possibIe, and preferabIy Ье plastic-lined, in order to prevent the clay from
relatively simple in terms of mechanical equipment consists in feeding the two sticking to it. The handling appliance - аргоп conveyor, chain conveyor ог belt
components, at controlled rates, from separate feed hoppers, each delivering its conveyor - should not Ье too narrowly dimensioned, even if only quite small
material Ьу its own feeder (Fig. 23). Thus, Ьу means of two аргоп feeders with quantities of clay have to Ье handled, because otherwise arching of the material
speed control, the crusher сап Ье fed with а correctly proportioned mixture of raw between the side guide plates of the conveyor is liabIe to occur, giving rise to
materials which conforms quite closely to the specified chemical composition. The
troubIe with feeding the clay.
limestone-clay mixture сап usually Ье handled without difficulty Ьу the hammer
crusher even if the clay has very unfavourabIe physical properties.
Co~rse.hard limestone as the main component of the mixture performs а cleaning Protection against foreign bodies
асtюп IП the crusher and facilitates the combined reduction of this material with
the plastic clay tending to clog the machine. 'П proportioning the two components In the quarrying and loading of raw materials it inevitabIy occurs that metallic
the clay is deposited onto the limestone. The speeds of the two аргоп feeders аге so foreign bodies - excavator bucket teeth, bгoken drill rods, drill bits, pieces of rail,
interadjusted that the desired mixture is supplied to the crusher. The two feeder chains, etc. - turn up in the feed material supplied to the primary crusher. If the
drives аге coupled together in such а way that апу change in the speed of the main crusher is fed direct Ьу excavators or dump trucks, there is по opportunity of
аргоп feeder in response to the power consumption of the crusher drive motor is
intercepting and removing such pieces of meta\. Nor is it possibIe to remove them
immediately followed Ьу а corresponding change in the speed of the secondary from the feed material flow: the size of the rock fragments and the very
аргоп feeder (which handles the clay component) so as to ensure that the
considerabIe depth of the moving material (sometimes more than 1 m) ru le out the
predetermined mix proportions аге maintained. use of tramp iron separators.
203
202
 Stationary crushing plants
О. Manufactuгe of cement 1. Materials preparation technology

'П primary size reduction, тоге particularly with big single-stage coarse crushers, off. Powerful electromagnet systems аге necessary for dealing with coarse material
operational reliability is best achieved Ьу very heavy and robust design of these moving in а stream of great depth. For effective action of the separator it is essential
machines, equipped with mechanically ог hydraulically operated overload рro­ to distribute the material evenly across the full width of the drum. Drum separators
tection devices to prevent damage being caused Ьу foreign bodies that cannot Ье equipped with permanent magnets тау Ье used for iron removal from fine-
crushed. Оп the other hand, secondary crushers which аге fed with pre-crushed grained material of limited depth оп the conveyor.
rock below about 300 тт particle size сап Ье effectively protected Ьу magnetic Electromagnetic belt pulleys, used at the discharge ends of rubber belt
separators Ьу metal detectors. conveyors, are equipped with а rotating set of magnets acting around the full
circumference of the pulley. Pieces of iron аге carried round to the underside and
Overload protection fall off the return run of the belt опсе they have moved out the magnetic field.
The toggle plates in jaw crushers тау Ье designed as "predetermined fractuгing Magnetic pulleys аге availabIe for belt conveyors of all the normally employed
components", i.e., designed to fail first in the event of overloading of the machine, widths and speeds (and for the depths of material which аге determined Ьу these
thus foresta Iling тоге serious damage to other parts. Hydrau lic overload protection operating parameters).
systems аге тоге expensive, but they avoid having to stop the plant for Suspended magnets are installed over belt conveyors, chutes or ducts and lift
replacement of а fractured toggle plate. The stationary crushing plate сап swivel the tramp iron out of the flow of material. From time to time the magnet is swung
about а top pivot, while lower down it is held in its normal working position Ьу aside, and the excitation cuгrent switched off, to allow cleaning of the magnet. For
hydraulic rams. When а large piece of uncrushabIe material enters the crushing dealing with material containing а substantial amount of tramp iron, belt-type
chamber, ап overpressuгe develops in the hydraulic system, causing the crushing suspended magnetic separators (Fig. 24) тау Ье used. А device ofthis kind is
plate to swing aside. As а result, the foreign body drops through the discharge equipped with а continuous rubber belt which carries the pieces of iron out of the
opening, the rams move the crushing plate back to the working position, and the magnetic field, so that the magnet pole face itself remains clear. For reasons of
feeder - which was automatically stopped when the hydraulic overpressure space such separators are usually mounted transversely to the direction of flow of
developed - is restarted. With this protective system the standstill periods due to the material оп the conveyor. FavourabIe mounting positions аге the points of feed
overloads аге substantially shortened. onto, or discharge from, the conveyor, because at these points the material is
The same principle of hydraulically controlled "give" has Ьееп applied to gyratory loosened up and the extraction of tramp iron thus made easier.
crushers: if а large piece of metal becomes lodged in the crushing chamber, the For all types of magnetic separator the rule is that апу equipment and parts within
discharge opening widens to let it pass. А similar purpose is served Ьу the movabIe range of the magnetic field should Ье made of non-magnetic materials, otheгwise
roiis, held in the working position Ьу springs or hydraulically, оп doubIe-гоll
crushers. 'П impact crushers the breaker elements are similarly designed to move
aside and thus prevent overload damage to the impactor bars or plates.
Crushers with bottom discharge grids, especially twin-rotor machines, which pull
the feed material and апу foreign bodies it contains into the crushing chamber, аге
тоге seriously at risk. Single-rotor hammer crushers are less рroпе to overload
hazard if - as, for example, in the Mammut crusher (Fig. 16) - апу pieces of metal
entering the crusher are hurled against the breaker plate and rebound back out of
the crushing chamber onto the feed conveyor. However, the feeding system will
then have to Ье stopped and the metal removed Ьу hand. Ап advantageous feature
is the use of hammers which сап rotate freely through 3600 оп their pivots and сап
thus swing aside if they encounter uncrushabIe foreign bodies.
As а rule, foreign bodies сап Ье more effectively removed from the material after it
has Ьееп pre-crushed (first-stage crushing). Magnetic separators and metal
detectors are used for the purpose and help тоге particularly to protect the high-
speed second-stage crushers.
Drum-type electromagnetic separators comprise а stationary set of magnets
surrounded Ьу а horizontaily mounted rotating drum or cylinder made of а поп­
magnetic material. The crushed material is passed over the drum, and апу tramp
iron contained in it remains clinging to the drum and is carried round to the Fig. 24: Belt-type suspended magnetic separator, mounted transversely
underside thereof, where there is по magnetic field, so that the pieces of iron fall over а horizontal (1) ог ап inclined ascending belt conveyor (2) (Steinert)

205
204
 О. Manufactuгe of cement 1. Materials preparation technology Stationary crushing plants

these would Ье magnetized and undesirabIy attract iron or steel objects. The lateral
clearance from tramp а iron magnet should Ье about 0.3 times the width of the
magnet. Under the magnet а clear headroom equal to 0.7 times its width should Ье
provided.
Metal detectors are used for revealing the presence of tramp metal which is not
magnetically responsive. The equipment generally comprises опе or two detecting
coils installed over and/or under the belt conveyor or enclosing it. The presence of
а piece of metal in the otherwise constant magnetic field of а coil causes ап electric
pulse which сап Ье utilized for switching off the conveyor or causing а certain
at some considerabIe distance from the actual cement works. Besides, the low
specific surface of the coarse material and its short time of sojouгn in the crusher
make effective drying impracticabIe.
The only heating systems applied to primary crushers are intended, not for drying
the material, but preventing the caking of moist sticky materials which might
otherwise cause clogging.
Heating the bottom plate of the feed chute, the side walls and the breaker plates in
0
impact crushers to surface temperatures of 1800 - 200 С is done with the aid of
heat transfer oil circulated at approximately ЗОО С through а system of pipes.
О

length of the layer of material оп the belt, conta;ning the metal, to Ье diverted from
the main conveying path. Obviously, there should Ье по moving metal parts in the
vicinity of the detecting coil. Static metal parts do not distuгb the detection, but are
liabIe to weaken its sensitivity.
Hygroscopic materials which, when moist, Ьесоте electrically conductive тау
cause false alarms due to variations in moistuгe content (and therefore in
conductivity) оп passing the metal detector. The most reliabIe protection against
tramp metal is provided Ьу the combination: metal detector-magnetic drum-
metal detector (Fig. 25). 'П this arrangement the first metal detector operates the
switch-on/switch-off of the drum separator, whose magnetic field therefore is
activated only when metal is detected оп the conveyor. Апу non-magnetic metal
that passes the drum will produce а response from the second metal detector.
Heat input ratings are in the region of 20000 kcal per houг and per square metre of
heated suгface.
Indirect heating of certain areas of the inlet and outlet casing and crushing
chamber where moist material tends to adhere has Ьееп tried out in some hammer
crushers. These critical suгfaces are heated with externally applied electric heating
elements, with the results that caked materiai spalls off. Insulated hoods protect
these radiant heaters and improve the efficiency of this simple and relatively
inexpensive heating system, which requires little maintenance.
Determining the crusher capacity
The nominal capacity, or rating, ofthe crusher will Ье governed bythe required raw
material throughput and the possibIe working time of the crushing plant. The
quarrying operations, of which the crushing plant usually forms part, are in most
cases conducted оп а si ngle-srlift basis with five or six working days per week. For
ап 8-houг shift the effective crushing time per shift сап Ье put at 7 or at most
7.5 houгs. The crusher should therefore, in ап effective time of 35 to 45 houгs, Ье
аЫе to produce sufficient raw material to feed the kiln plant for а whole (7 -day)
week.
The requisite crusher throughput capacity сап Ье calculated from the following
formula:

Dl<iln Х v R / C Х tкiln
Dcrusher = 24 Х terusher Х (1 -f/1 00)
Fig. 25: Protection against foreign bodies Ьу а combination of metal
detectors and magnetic drum separator where:

example:
Heating of crushers Dcrusher capacity of crushing plant (t/houг)
Dl<iln capacity of kiln plant (t/day) 3000
The pre-drying of raw materials prior to primary size reduction is employed only in vR / C raw material/clinker ratio (kg/kg) 1.6
exceptional circumstances. Elaborate arrangements to prevent "false" air in- f natuгal moistuгe content of (%) 4
leakage into the heated crushers are required in such cases. As а rule, по utilizabIe raw material
waste heat is availabIe at primary crushing plants which have to deal with raw working time of kiln per week (hours) 168
materials with а high natuгal moisture content, especially as such plants are often working time of crusher per week (hours) 35
206 207
 Mobile crushing plants
D. Manufacture of cement 1. Materials preparation technology

For the example values listed above the requisite crusher capacity is thus:

3000 х 1.6 х 168

Dcrusher = 24 х 35 х 0.96
= 1000 (t/hour).

If the crusher is designed for single-shift working, it will have sufficient capacity
even if the kiln plant capacity is subsequently doubIed: in that case the quarry and
crusher will have to work doubIe shifts, leaving the week-ends availabIe for repairs
and maintenance.

1.3.2 Moblle crushing plants Fig. 26а: Wheel-mounted (rubber-tyred) moblle crushing plant (О.&К.)
Because of the coarse grading of the fragmented rock pile produced Ьу bIasting in
the quarry, this material cannot, as а rule, Ье directly handled Ьу belt conveyors. 'П
order to Ье аЫе to use belt conveying - generally less expensive than long-
distance road haulage - from а point as close to the quarry face as possibIe, the
rock pile will at least have to Ье crushed to "belt conveyabIe" size, which generally
means that it should not contain pieces above about 200-400 тт. The need for
crushing at the quarry face and for moving the crusher along with the site of
quarrying operations has led to the development of various mobile installations in
capacities ranging up to the highest throughputs required.
Depending оп the method of moving the crushing plant from опе working position Fig. 26Ь: Crawler-mounted moblle crushing plant
to another, а distinction сап Ье made between truly mobile (self-propelled) plants
and semi-mobile ones (not self-propelled).
Moblie plants ,п the тоге specific sense of the term have their own integral
travelling machinery, enabIing them to proceed from опе location to the next
unaided.
Wheel-mounted (rubber-tyred) crushers аге employed in cases where they have
to travel over relatively long distances and have to Ье highly manoeuvrabIe. Such
machines сап move at speeds of up to about 6 km/hour. Under suitabIe conditions
the running resistance of the tyred wheels is relatively low, so that drive power
requirements аге correspondingly modest. When the crusher is in operation, the
wheels аге relieved of load, either Ьу being lifted off the ground to that the crusher
is directly supported ог Ьу the lowering of strut legs producing the same effect. А
drawback associated with wheel-mounted crushers is the high bearing pressure Fig. 26с: Rail-mounted moblle crushing plant comprising two sections
exerted оп the ground (4.5-9 kg/cm 2 ). They сап travel оп gradients of up to (О.&К.)
about 1 in 1 О. ОП heavy plants, hydraulic axle load adjustment compensates for the Section 1: feed hopper, аргоп conveyor, crusher, product conveyor
effects of irregularities оп rough ground. Sprung wheel suspension systems Section 11: belt conveyor, dust collector, power supply system
serving the same purpose аге used оп smaller and lighter ones (Fig. 26а).
Crawler-mounted mobile crushers сап likewise ascend 1 in 1О gradients and
travel over ground which need only Ье roughly cleared of obstacles. Besides, the Rail-mounted mobile crushers сап suitabIy Ье used in cases where the direction
bearing pressure is low (1 -1.5 kg/cm 2 ). Travel speeds аге between 5 and of travel is well defined in advance (Fig. 26с). Thanks to the low rolling resistance,
8 m/minute. The crawler tracks аге not relieved of load when the crusher is in drive power requirements for travel аге low, and wear оп the travel machinery is
operation and they аге therefore subjected to severer service conditions than other light. Against this there is the disadvantage that gradients of only about 1 in 40 сап
travel systems (Fig. 26Ь). Ье overcome, while maneouvrabllity is limited and moving the plant to а fresh

209
208
О. Manufacture of cement 1. Materials preparation technology Mobile crushing plants

working location requires preparation of the quarry floor and, of course, track- operating from а hau\age level at the appropriate height above the floor оп which
laying. The ground should have а fairly high bearing capacity. As а rule, по load- the crusher is standing. In that case it is advantageous to build а suitabIy paved
relief of the travel wheels during crusher operation is provided. гатр that сап safely and reliabIy Ье used Ьу the vehicles. With such arrangements
In terms of cost the most favourabIe travel system is the hydraulically powered the hopper capacity сап Ье as large as that for а stationary crushing plant.
walking mechanism, usually comprising а walking pad with three lifting rams
with which the whole pontoon-like platform with the crusher and other equipment
сап Ье lifted. Horizontal hydraulic walking rams installed between the platform and
the walking pad епаЫе the plant to Ье moved orturned in апу direction (Fig. 26d).
Speeds of about 0.7 to 1.5 m/minute аге commonly adopted for walking crushers.
While the crusher is in operation the walking pad is kept raised оН the ground, the
whole plant then being supported оп strut legs.
Semi-moblle crushing plants аге wheel-mounted (оп rails ог оп rubber tyres)
and аге moved to fresh working locations Ьу towing ог pushing, i.e., they аге not
self-propelled. In recentyears ап alternative system has Ьееп to use special rubber-
tyred ог crawler-tracked lifting vehicles which bodily convey the whole plant to
Fig. 26d: Mobile crushing plant with hydraulic walking mechanism
а fresh position. The advantage is that опе and the same lifting vehicle сап serve
(О.&К.)
the needs of several plants and that, when not in use, the vehicle сап Ье stored
under protection from the weather and other adverse influences (Fig. 26е).
Feed material limestone
Besides mobile and semi-mobile crushing plants there аге what сап best Ье
тах. feed size 1900 тт х 1200 тт х 1000 тт
described as relocatabIe ones, being skid-mounted, so that moving them
product fineness 98% < 25тт
requires powerful tractors. Even so, such plants аге restricted to relatively low
throughput 1000t/hour
service weights and low throughput capacities.
Which system of moving the crusher should Ье chosen will depend to а great Туре of crusher single-rotor hammer crusher
extent оп the technical features of the quarrying operations and оп the condition with discharge grate
(evenness, roughness) of the quarry floor. Feeding system
As with stationary crushers, mobile crushers located close to the working face in feed hopper 30 m З capacity
the quarry сап Ье fed directly Ьу loading shovels ог Ьу dump trucks if they аге, for аргоп conveyor

example, gyratory crushers which аге substantially unaffected Ьу irregular loading. width 2500тт
As the crusher will generally Ье standing оп the quarry floor, the vehicles delivering length 22т
the fragmented rock to it should Ье аЫе to travel up а гатр to the requisite drive infinitely variabIe, controlled in
dumping height ог the crusher тау alternatively Ье fed from а higher floor level (ог response to crusher drive load
bench) than that оп which the crusher is standing. Direct feeding of а crushing
Product handling
plant without the interposition of а haulage vehicle was practised in а West
extractor belt rubber belt conveyor (flat)
German cementworks quarry in the 1960s.ln thatsystem the rock pile obtained Ьу
transfer belt rubber belt conveyor (troughed),
bIasting was fed, with the aid of а scraper, via ап inclined plane to the gyratory
slewabIe through 1200
crusher. The crushing plant was equipped with а hydraulic walking system.
Optimum utilization of the crushing plant - whatever the type of crusher used for Travel system hydraulic walking mechanism
reducing the coarsely fragmented rock pile - сап Ье obtained only Ьу feeding it as walking speed 0.7 m/minute
uniformly as possibIe. As in the case of а static plant, the mobile crusher must Ье тах. gradient 1 in 1 О тах.
fed at а steady rate via а feed hopper. For direct loading Ьу excavators ог loadersthe specific ground pressure 1.5 kg/cm 2
hopper is restricted to а height that enabIes these machines to discharge into it, so
Dimensions
that its capacity is correspondingly limited. If larger hoppers аге used, it will Ье
length overall 52.5т
necessary to build earth ramps to them ог otherwise to use relocatabIe steel гатр
width 10.6т
structu res.
height 16.0т
If the quarrying operations require moving the crusher to а fresh position only at
infrequent intervals, it will Ье advantageous to feed it Ьу using heavy dump trucks Weight 920tonnes

210 211
О. Manufactuгe of cement 1. Materials preparation technology
о
Fig. 26е: Crushing plant moved with the aid of lifting vehicles
For plants comprising а feed hopper, feeder and crusher the type of conveyor most
commonly employed is the robust аргоп conveyor. For feeding the rock to mobile
crushers, however, heavy-duty belt conveyors аге occasionally used, these having
the advantage of lower weight than аргоп conveyors, so that the overall weight of
the mobile equipment is correspondingly less. То reduce the severity of the service
conditions to which the belt is subjected, а special belt loading hopper with ап
automatically opening and closing bottom. functioning in the таппег of а slide
gate, тау Ье employed (Fig. 27). Loading this hopper with rock is done with its
bottom closed. With the belt conveyor temporarily stopped, the bottom gate
opens, allowing the rock to fall gently onto the belt, which is then restarted and
delivers the rock to the crusher. Continuous feeding of the crusher is not achieved,
however.
(а) gate closed
(Ь) gate ореп
Fig. 27: Belt conveyor feed hopper with bottom slide gate (Esch)
212
Primary reduction - References
As with static systems, the conveying equipment for removing the crushed stone
from mobile plants тау Ье belt, арroп ог chain conveyors. As а rule these handling
appliances deliver the stone to belt conveyors which аге adjustabIe for height, сап
slew through ап angle of about 1200 and аге connected to the frame of the crusher
supporting platform. These belt conveyors in tuгn discharge the stone onto а
mobile intermediate conveyor ог direct onto the extendabIe ог retractabIe end of
the main belt conveyor that carries the material out of the quarry.
Again as with static crushing plants, the choice of crusher will Ье governed Ьу the
properties of the raw material. Single-stage size reduction of the rock pile to
suitabIe mill feed size - i. е., to 25-80 maximum particle size, depending оп the
mill system - is the preferred technique. Апу other proceduгe such as multi-stage
reduction, preliminary screening before the crusher ог closed-circuit operation
must always involve expensive additions to the mechanical equipment as
compared with single-stage crushing.
Very large crush ing pla nts аге subd ivided into two ог тоге pla nt sections. Thus, the
feed hopper and feeding equipment form а structural unit. The crusher and product
discharge conveyor form another unit. These two units аге separately moved from
опе working location tothe next. Mobile lifting units, mounted оп crawlertracks ог
оп wheels, сап suitabIy Ье used as the vehicular base for giving mobility to such
systems.
The technical data for а single-stage crushing plant for а throughput of
1000 t/houг, equipped with а hydraulically powered walking system. give some
guidance оп the mechanical sophistication, the dimensions and the weights of а
modern mobile installation (see Fig.26d).
References
1. Althoff, Н.: Die Weiterentwicklung der Schreitwerke fur schwere ortsbeweg-
liche Brechanlagen. - In: ZKG 21/1968/512.
2. Altmann, Н. F./Liebmann, R.: Wanderfeldmotor als Antrieb eines Schreit-
brechers. - I п: ZKG 28/1975/53.
3. Andreas, А.: Prinzip und M6glichkeiten der Prallzerkleinerung. - In: ZKG
18/1965/580.
4. Andreas, A./J6bkes, J.: Die Anpassungsfahigkeit von Prallmuhlen bei der
Aufbereitung von Rohmaterialien Юг verschiedene Mahlsysteme. - 1{1: ZKG
30/1977 /558 - 560.
5. Baumbach, F.: Оег Mogensen-Stangensizer - eine neuartige L6sung fur
grobe Trennungen. - 'п: Aufbereitungs- Technik 18/1977/64.
6. Erni, Н.: Rohmaterialaufbereitung und Homogenisierung. - In: ZKG
24/1971/487.
7. Esken, Н.: Erfahrungen mit dem Einsatz eines fahrbaren Brechers im Stein-
bruchbetrieb eines Zementwerkes. - 'п: Aufbereitungs- Technik 2/1961/1.
8. Fabian, Н.' Einsatzm6glichkeiten von mobilen Brechanlagen. - 'п: Aufberei-
tungs- Technik 21/1980/277.
9. Grosse, О.: Wanderbrecher im Steinbruch eines Zementwerkes. - 'п: ZKG
23/1970/141.
213
о. Manufacture of cement 1. Materials preparation technology
10. Gruschka, 1.: Rationalisierung in Bruchen und Gruben durch sich selbst
bewegende Lade- und Brecheranlagen. - 'п: ZKG 20/1967/1.
11. Ноогтапп, W.: Zuteiler fur Zerkleinerungsmaschinen. - 'п: Aufbereitungs-
Technik 7/1966/510.
12. Kirste, R.: Erfahrungen mit Fahrbrechern und Bandtransport in Zementwer-
ken. - In·ZKG 24/1971/456.
13. Kochanowsky, В. 1.: Erfahrungen mit fahrbaren Brechern in den USA und
Ешора. - In: Aufbereitungs-Technik 11/1970/466.
14. Motek, Н.: Оег Compound-Brecher (System Andreas Oznobichine), ein
neuartiger Brecher fur die Zerkleinerung von Zementrohmaterial. - In: ZKG
24/1971/497.
15. Pietsch, Н. J.: Verfahren zur Nachzerkleinerung in Steinbruchen. - Aufbe-
reitungs- Technik 11/1970/61.
16. Ruppert, Р.: Betriebsversuche mit zweistufigem Brechen von Kalkstein. -
In: ZKG 25/1972/222.
17. Schneider, Н.: Rohmaterial- und Zementmahlung. - In: ZKG 21/1968/63.
18. Sillem, Н.: Rohstoffgewinnung: Tiefreir..er, Fahrbrecher, Mischbetten. - In:
ZKG 21/1968/56.
19. Sillem, Н.: Zerkleinerungstechnik. - In: ZKG 30/1977/549.
20. Sydow, W.: Mobile Brechanlagen mit Querraupenfahrwerk. - In. ZKG
25/1972/211.
21. Taupitz, К.-С.· РгоЫете beim Absieben von grobstLickigem Roh-Haufwerk.
- In: Aufbereitungs- Technik 7/1966/149.
22. Weirich, К. Die verfahrbare Brecheranlage im Zementwerk Kirchdorf. - In:
ZKG 24/1971/54.
23. Weir.., Н.· Fahrbare Gror..brechanlage. - In: Aufbereitungs-Technik 6/
1965/631.
24. Weir.., Н.: Fahrbare Gror..brecheranlagen, Einsatz und Епtwiсkluпgsmбgliсh­
keiten. - In: Aufbereitungs- Technik 7/1966/501.
25. Weir..lehner, G.: Einsatz eines Backenkreiselbrechers mit geschlossenem
Kreislauf fur Kalk-Mergel. - 'п: Aufbereitungs- Technik 7/1966/129.
26. Wilmanns, F./Wolf: Grobzerkleinerung mit Backenbrecher, Kreiselbrecher und
Backenkreiselbrecher. - In. Aufbereitungs- Technik 5/1964/234.
27. Wilmanns, F Gror..brecheranlagen mit Hydroschreiter in Steinbruchen. - In:
Aufbereitungs- Technik 9/1968/235.
2 Size classification
In the context of crushing and grinding the term classification means the
separating ог dividing of particulate bulk materials consisting of а mixture of
different particle sizes into two ог тоге size ranges ог fractions. In general,
separation тау Ье effected оп the basis of volume, i. е., the geometric dimensions
of the particles, ог оп the basis of mass, i. е., differences in material properties.
214
Size classification - Screening
Separation according to particle size is done Ьу screening ог sieving. Inertia forces
аге utilized in cyclone separators and in various тоге sophisticated devices
collectively called air separators ог classifiers.
2.1 Screening
In the cement industry, particle size classification Ьу screening as part of the
production operations is of less importance than, say, in the lime industry ог in coal
and оге preparation. Indeed, true classification procedures in the primary size
reduction stage do not оссш in cement manufacture, sincethe aim of the crushing
treatment is to produce а feed material suitabIe for grinding to а fine powder, not
the production of size fractions as required for crushed stone used in road
construction, concrete production, etc.
For particle size separation in the finely pulverized products of the grinding
processes in the cement industry - raw meal and cement - there is по economic
possibility of classifying large quantities Ьу screening ог sieving, which has to rely
solely оп gravity. ОП the other hand, screening ог sieving is of importance as а test
procedure for assessing the effectiveness of crushing and grinding treatments,
тоге particu larly Ьу determining the particle size distribution ог the percentages
retained ог passing certain screen ог sieve sizes and thereby monitoring the
granulometric composition of intermediate and final products.
In crushing plants, screens with surfaces comprising usually square apertures
(formed Ьу а series of wires extending in two directions) ог slots (formed Ьу
parallel bars; these аге known as grizzlies) аге used for the following purposes:
(1) relieving the operating conditions of primary cГlJshers Ьу preliminary sepa-
ration of fine particles from the feed;
(2) removal of unsuitabIe constituents such as sand ог loam, in order to enrich ог
concentrate the lime component;
(3) separation of the product of а primary crusher into fine and coarse fractions;
the latter тау Ье returned to the crusher for further size reduction ог Ье fed to
а secondary crushing stage.
In general, obtaining а sufficiently finely comminuted product, i. е., with particles
not exceeding а specified upper size limit, тау Ье important for the protection of
subsequent size reduction machinery (secondary crushers, grinding mills) ог for
ensuring favourabIe operating conditions in subsequent processing stages (grind-
ing, рге-bIепdiпg).
'П the further stages of cement manufacture, screening is used for the following
purposes:
(4) screens аге interposed into the product flow from clinker plants in order to
remove апу oversize clinker particles ог fragments of fractured grind ing media;
(5) screens installed before packing plants and bulk cement dispatch facilities
serve to protect the machines and equipment from troubIe that could Ье caused
Ьу foreign bodies ог lumps of material;
(6) in clinker dispatch installations, screens аге used for the removal of fine
particles caused Ьу abrasion ог shattering, thus reducing dust nuisance in the
handling of the material.
215
 Classification associated with dry grinding processes
О. Manufactuгe of cement 1. Materials preparation technology

material and the separating air, the magnitude of the centrifugal acceleration, and
2.2 Classification associated with dry grinding processes
the method of separating the finished product (the fine particles) from the air
Types and operating principles: stream. In some air separators the material сап moreover Ье given а drying or а
For very fine size reduction using closed-circuit operation it is necessary to cooling treatment.
separate the particles fine enough to qualify as "finished produc(' from the coarser
particles (oversize) in the product discharged from the grinding mill. The
2.2.1 Static air separator (Fig. 29)
requirements that the separator, or classifier, must fulfil are; good selectivity
(sharpness of separation) to епаЫе economical grinding plant operation, and The static air separator or classifier is so called because it has по moving
highest possibIe uniformity of the granulometric composition of the finished mechanical parts. It is used chiefly in conjunction with air-swept grinding plants
product. (operating with tube mills or roller mills). The material to Ье classified is сапiеd
In the dry system of closed-circuit grinding the separation is effected in various along in а stream of air from the mill and enters the separator from below. It flows
types of air-swept devices called air separators or air classifiers and often between the conical outer casing and the inner separating сопе. As а result of the
comprising power-driven rotating elements (in which case they are called
mechan ical а ir separators). 1n the wet system, the classifyi ng devices are screens or
hydrocyclones. fines
Various types of air separator employed in connection with cement manufactuгe
will now Ье described. They all function оп the same principles. А particle in а
rotating cuгrent of air is subjected to the interaction of three sets of forces: the force
exerted Ьу the air (proportional to the square of the теап particle diameter), the
force of gravity, and the centrifugal force (the two last-mentioned forces are outlet duct
governed not Ьу the size, but Ьу the mass, of the particle). If the effective force
exerted оп the particle Ьу the air exceeds the resultant of gravity and centrifugal ring of guide vanes
force, the particie will remain airborne and Ье сапiеd along with the air. If the force (angle setting adjustabIe)
of gravity prevails, the particle will sink, and if the centrifugal forces prevails over
the other forces acting оп the particle, the latter is flung outwards against the wall
of the separator, where its motion is апеstеd so tt1at it is then precipitated as in ап
ordinary cyclone separator (Fig. 28).
Although the separators used in the cement industry are broadly similar in
principle, they differ considerabIy from опе another in matters of design Щld range
of application. The differences consist mainly in the method of introducing the

feed
fines
tailings

F d faree exerted Ьу the air (air drag)

Fc eentrifuga/ faree
Fg faree af gravity tailings
Fig. 29: Static air separator (schematic)
Fig. 28: Forces acting оп а material particle in а rotating current of air
217
216

О. Manufactuгe of cement 1. Materials preparation technology
increasing cross-section the air flow velocity is reduced here, and coarse particles
аге precipitated. At the same time, the tangential admission of the air brings about
а rotational motion in this outer separating chamber, so that а certain amount of
centrifugal precipitation also occurs in it. The material collected here is discharged
through the tailings (oversize particles) outlet of the separator.
'П the upper part of the separator the material-Iaden air enters the inner сопе
through а ring of adjustabIe guide vanes. The material particles will Ье subj~cted to
а centrifugal acceleration whose magnitude depends оп the setting of the vanes.
Just as in а cyclone separator, the air carrying the material spirals downwards in the
inner сопе and is accelerated in doing so. The result of the force of gravity and the
centrifugal force thus prevails over the force that the air exerts оп the larger and
heavier particles, which аге flung against the wall of the сопе, where they lose their
velocity and slide down the wall into the tailings outlet of the separator. The
tailings аге retuгned to the mill for fuгther grinding. ОП the other hand, the smaller
particles (the fines) remain entrained in the air, which carries them upwards in its
spiralling motion and out of the separator. This discharged air laden with fines (the
finished product of the grinding process) is passed into а product collector
- usually а cyclone ог а filter - in which these particles аге finally separated from
the air.
Control possibilities:
The separation characteristic of the static air separator сап Ье varied in several
ways:
Ьу varying the air flow rate and therefore the velocity of the air, which in tuгn
alters the force exerted Ьу the air оп the particles and indirect/y also the
centrifugal force to which they аге subjected.
Ьу adjusting the deflector over the bottom inlet duct through which the
material-Iaden air enters the separator
\п some separators of th is general type the position of the deflector сап Ье adjusted
in the vertical direction. Reduction of the distance between deflector and the
mouth of the inlet duct causes intensified acceleration and change of direction of
the air stream. The material particles impinge оп the wall of the casing and fall into
the tailings outlet. This classification Ьу deflection and impingement is rather
unselective, and for this reason small distances between inlet duct and deflector
аге used mainly in cases where the static separator has to act as а dust precipitator,
е. g., as а pre-collector, and not for the sharp separation of particle sizes. Besides,
this classsification involves excessive pressure loss in the system. Iп тоге
sophisticated forms of construction the deflector, which in its simplest form тау Ье
а mere baffle plate, is given а streamlined conical shape and тау Ье fitted with
attached guide vanes Ьу means of which а laminar spiral flow pattern of the air
entering the separator сап Ье obtained. With this arrangement the precipitation of
the particles in the outer chamber is accomplished chiefly Ьу the cyclone wall effect
already mentioned.
- Ьу adjusting the top outlet duct
As in ordinary cyclones, the cut size - the particle size at which separation
between fines and oversize is effected - сап Ье varied Ьу vertical ac\justment of the
218
Classification associated with dry grinding processes
air outlet duct at the top of the separator. For а constant air flow rate, ап increase in
length of this duct will, within limits, shift the cut size so a~ to give а finer product,
and vice versa. Although most static separators have ап adJustabIe top outlet duct,
this does not constitute а suitabIe method of routine product fineness control, but
serves as а means of basic adjustment to suit the given operating conditions.
2.2.2 Bladed rotor separator
The characteristic featuгe of this type of air separator is а rotor comprising а set of
bIades in а conically tapered arrangement and rotating оп а vertical shaft in а
casing of truncated -conical shape (Figs. 30а and 30Ь). The material- \а~еп stream
of air is admitted from below and is distributed sideways Ьу dеflесtюп at the
underside of the assembIy. The rotating bIades accelerate the rotational flow ~f the
air which already has а spiral motion as it enters the separator casin.g. The rоtаtюпаl
and accelerational effects are intensified Ьу the upward паГГОWlПg of the sp~ce
between the rotor and the outer casing. The air is drawn inwards Ьу suсtюп
through the gaps between the rotor bIades. The heavier particles, i. е., those for
which the resultant of gravity and centrifugal force prevails over the force .exerted
оп them Ьу the air stream, аге flung outwards against the wall ~f the саSlПg a.nd
then fall back into the mill (Fig. 30а) or into the tailings outlet (F~g: 30Ь). The !I~e
particles are carried out of the separator with the air and аге preclpltated from It In
cyc\ones or in filters.
Control possibilities: ..
For constant air flow rate the performance of the separator сап Ье modlf~ed. Ьу
varying the rotor speed. Because of the effect on.th~ p~rformance of the gГlПdlпg
mill, variation of air flow rate is possibIe only wlthln Ilmlts.
а material-Iaden air from grinding chamber
and tailings retuгn
Ь fines discharged from separator (product)
с rotor with bIades,
d variabIe drive
t а'
Fig. ЗОа: Bladed rotorseparator. withdrive. as mounted over rollermills
(Loesche GmbH)
219