Foundation of Planning PDF

FOUNDATION OF PLANNING
PRESENTED BY:
ARCH. GLORIA B. TEODORO, Fuap,Piep,
INTRODUCING TOWN PLANNING
TRADITIONAL DEFINITION OF TOWN PLANNING
Town planning is the art and the science of

ordering the land uses and siting the bldgs and
communication routes so as to secure the
maximum level of economy convenience and
beauty.
(KEEBLE)
SCOPE OF TOWN PLANNING
Planning law and its enforcement through what

is known as development control are major
aspects of town planning.
One of the main aspects of town planner‘s

work is the production of city development
plans that determine which sites can be built in
the first place.
DEVELOPMENT PLANS
cover all types and aspect of land use and development both rural and
urban.
Not only includes policies for all the main land uses and types of
development but will also take into acct. in the policy making process,
broader, social, economic and environmental trends in the area.
developing community relations and understanding public participation

and consultation are important aspects of good town planning and
practice
Town planning today is still influenced by its

antecedents in architecture, civil engineering,
surveying and estate mgt.: all straight forward
physical disciplines. Concerned with ―ordering the
land uses‖ in a logical and scientific manner.
(Ratcliffe 1981)
THE ROLE OF THE PLANNER
a. UMPIRE
b. TECHNOCRAT
c. ECONOMIC PLANNER
d. ENVIRONMENTAL WATCHDOG
e. SOCIAL ENGINEER
f. CORPORATE MANAGER
UMPIRE
- Ensure that towns and cities developed logically and
conveniently with the emphasis in zoning*.
- PLANNING CONTROL- ensured that space was

available for the non- profit social uses, which were
essential to the urban population but were not attractive to
private sector as an investment.
PLANNERS as ―oiling the wheels* of capitalism‖ criticized

by the left.
TECHNOCRAT
- Planners are perceived as powerful technocrats who could offer
society answers to all its problems on the basis of what they saw as
their advanced knowledge of the science of town planning.
- The ―white heat of technology squeaky clean uncomplicated

approach to planning ignored the variety of untidiness of existence.‖
ECONOMIC PLANNER
(by Balchin and Bull)
- economic planning has always been seen particularly by

Labor gov‘t, which favor a high level of state intervention
as essential comparison to realistic town planning. (Hall)
- town planning involves the allocation of scarce resources

that is urban land, goods & services and is therefore seen
as an aspect of economic planning.
ENVIRONMENTAL WATCHDOG
- green MOVEMENT- concern about the natural environment depletion
of the planets‘ resources and the greenhouse effect.
- PRINCE CHARLES
Concern about civic design and appearance of the built environment,
accompanied by much criticism of modern architecture.
- in drawing up STATUTORY PLANS, the planners have to analyze the

physical: economic & social factors which create and shape the
demand for the different types of land uses and development, taking
into acct such issues as population, employment, industry,
transportation and housing demand.

SOCIAL ENGINEER
- planners as social engineers
- Environmental determinism- seeking to influence and determine the people‘s

behavior through the design and planning of environment.
- planners have often been criticized by the left for seeming naively to often
―salvation by bucks‖ seeking to solve deep social problems through physical
use planning.
- achieve only superficial change as ―tinkering with the superstructure‖

(BAILEY)
- IDEAL PLANNING SYSTEM- which can solve urgent problems here and how
setting policies and goals for long term change, in cooperation with other
policy making bodies responsible for the wider social and economic aspects of
urban life.
CORPORATE MANAGER
- the view of the planners as coordinator with a generalized overview of
a complex urban system. (1960‘s MACLOUGHLIN)
- in the private sector, planners have emerged as team leaders

coordinating specialist experts such as ecologists, high ways
engineers and landscape architects.
- AUSTRALIA- there is a stronger look between the town planning and

landscape architecture profession.
- in eastern Europe- the planner has had a traditional socialist role as a

decision maker and city manager particularly in countries where there
was no private property market to speak of.
URBAN & REGIONAL PLANNING
THE ANGLO AMERICAN TRADITION
1.0 HOWARD, EBENEZZER (1850-1928)
1.1 ―Garden City of tomorrow‖- one of the most

important books in the history of urban planning. (From
it stems- garden cities or new towns) movement, which
has been so influential in British urban planning
theory& practice.
1.2 ROBERT OWEN- experimental settlement* at New

Lanark in Scotland. Built factories in rural lands and
House the labour force outside the city.
Ebenezer Howard
 Shorthand writer in the
law courts
 Liked to speculate,
write and organize
 Well travelled
Ebenezer Howard (1850-1928)

Ebenezer Howard
 Wrote To-Morrow: A
Peaceful Path to Real
Reform (1898), renamed
Garden Cities of
Tommorow (1902)
 Proposed Garden
Cities
 Proposed the Three
Magnets
Ebenezer Howard (1850-1928)

Garden Cities of Tomorrow (1902)
 describes a utopian city in which people live
harmoniously together with nature.
 The publication resulted in the founding of th

e garden city movement, that realized several
Garden Cities in Great Britain at the beginning
of the twentieth century. Billerica Garden
Suburb,Inc.(1914), was the first housing in the
United States on the Howard plan.
Diagram of 3 magnets
 Extremely compressed and brilliant statement
of planning objectives
 Existing cities and countryside have an
indivisible mixture of advantages and
disadvantages
Advantages of Town
(urban)
 Opportunities it
offered in the form
of accessibility to
jobs and to urban
services
Disadvantages
Town (urban)
 Poor natural
environment
 Crowding
Advantage of
Country (rural)
 Good natural
environment
Disadvantage of
Country (rural)
 Virtually no
opportunities
 Less services
HOWARDS THREE MAGNETS- diagram setting out the advantages

&disadvantages of town and country life. A hybrid form for the future,
the planned TOWN COUNTRY OR GARDEN CITY- combined the
advantages of both with none of the disadvantages.
(TOWN, COUNTRY, TOWN & COUNTRY)

- Combine all the advantages of the town by way of accessibility.
- All the advantages of the country by way of environment
- Without any advantages of either.
This could be achieved by planned decentralization of workers and

then places of employment thus transferring the advantages of urban
agglomeration en-bloc to the new settlement.
Town-Country (Garden
Cities)
 Could uniquely
combine all the
advantages of the city
by way of accessibility
 All the advantages of
the country (rural) by
way of the environment
 Without any of the
disadvantages of either
 Planned
decentralization of
workers
 Outside commuter
range
 Self-contained
Garden Cities
 30,000 – 250,000 population
 Surrounded by greenbelts
 6,000 acres (5,000 greenbelt and 1,000 for the

town or city)
Garden Cities
 When a town reached a certain size, it should
stop growing and the excess should be
accommodated in another town close by
 Settlements would grow by cellular addition
.GARDEN CITY MODEL OF HOWARD

Garden Cities
 Private enterprise can do it
 Borrowed money could buy land cheaply in

the country, the subsequent increase in land
values would allow to pay for the loan, pay for
improvements or create new towns
Lethchworth Garden City
 First garden city
 Socially mixed community
 Every type of house from big mansion to small

cottage
 Skillfully designed, all varied yet all
compatible
Architects of
Letchworth
 Raymond
Unwin
(1863- 1940)
 Barry Parker
(1867-1947)
1.3 EXAMPLES OF GARDEN CITIES PLANs
a. BOURNVILLE, outside Birmingham built by chocolate

manufacturer George Cadbury.
b. Port Sunlight in the Mersey built by William Lever.
1.3 IDEA OF HOWARD:
a. all of the industry was decentralized deliberately from

the city or at least from its inner sectors.
b. new town was built around the decentralized plant
c. Combining working and living in a healthy environment.
d. the first garden cities.
HOWARD INFLUENCES ON OTHER PLANNERS
EDWARD Gibbon Wakefield- had advocated the planned

movement of population.
JAMES SICK BUCKINGHAM- developed the idea of a

model city.
ALFRED MARSHALL- invented the idea of the new town

as an answer to the problems of the city.
FOLLOWERS OF HOWARD
1. SIR FREDERICK OSBORN

2. LETCHWORTH
3. RAYMON UNWIN
Barry Parker (assistant*)
Built Hampstead garden suburb
3.1 a dormitory suburb owning its existence to the new underground

opened in 1907.
3.2 creation of socially mixed community with every type of house from the big
mansion to small cottage & its creation of a range of houses which are skillfully
designed all varied ye all quietly…
4. WYTHENSHAWE-(by Parker) called the 3rd garden city, with surrounding

green belt, mixture of industrial & residential areas, emphasis on single family
housing of good design.
PARKER-modifications on Howard‟s Principles
1. background of open space instead of greenbelts

Adaptation of enter- urban railway as motor age.
2. dividing the town into clearly articulated neighborhood units.
PERRY/ STEIN & TRIP
1. Howard divided towns into wards of 5,000 people each of which would contain
local shops, schools & other services.
2. This is the embryo of NEIGHBORHOOD- UNIT AREA- certain services which are
provided everyday for groups of population who can‘t or do not travel far, should be
provided at an accessible central place for a small community w/in walking
distance.
NEW YORK REGIONAL PLAN (1920) great multi- volume plan, prepared wholly by
a voluntary organization is one of the milestone of 20th century planning)
CHRISTOPHER ALEXANDER-
―a city is not a tree‖- suggested that sociologically, different
people had varied needs for local services & the privilege*
of choice was paramount.
CLARENCE STEIN- architect planner working in NY

region.
a. faced fully the implications of the age of mass ownership
of the private car.
b. the principle that in local residential areas the need
above all was to segregate the pedestrian ways used for
local journeys- especially by the routes used by car traffic.
(RADBURN, NJ)
Clarence Arthur Perry
• American planner,
sociologist, author, and
educator
• The Neighborhood
Unit,” Monograph One.
Vol. 7, Regional Survey
of New York and Its
Environs, Neighborhood
and Community
Planning. New York:
New York Regional
Plan, 1929.
• Housing for the
Machine Age New
York, NY: Russell Sage Clarence Arthur Perry (1872-1944)
Foundation 1939.
Clarence Perry
(1872-1944)
 Developed the
idea of
Neighbourhood
unit
 Helped people
achieve a sense
of identity with
the community
and with the
place
Clarence Perry
(1872-1944)
 Consisting of a
catchment area
 Pimary school
Clarence Perry
(1872-1944)
 1,000 families or
5,000 people
 Bounded by
main traffic
roads, which
children are not
expected to
cross
 Shops at the
corners at the
junctions of
traffic roads
A diagram of Clarence
Perry's neighbourhood
unit, illustrating the
spatiality of the core
principles of the
concept, from the New
York Regional Survey,
Vol 7. 1929
ALKER TRIPP- assistant commissioner of police a London‘s

Scotland Yard.
- published a book called TOWN PLANNING & TRAFFIC.

-idea that after the war, cities should be reconstructed in the
basis of PRECINTS.
- hierarchy of roads in which main arterial or sub arterial roads

were sharply segregated from the local streets with only
occasional access and also were free of direct frontage
development.
- influenced Patrick Abercrombie and Forshaw(called
application of the PRECINTUAL PRINCIPLE to London.)
…
GEDDES & ABERCROMBIE
1. ABERCROMBIE- most notable professional planner in Britain in the Anglo

American period.
- most notable contribution to planning to a wider scale: the scale which region
around it is a single planning exercise.
- did the Greater London Plan 1944
2. PATRICK GEDDES- Scottish biologist.
a. recognized human ecology- the relationship between man and his

environment.
b. CITIES IN EVOLUTION- (a book) systematic study of the forces that were
shaping growth and change in modern cities.
c. base on the study of reality. The close analysis of settlement patterns and
local economic environment.
Sir Patrick Geddes
• Scottish biologist,
sociologist,
philanthropist
• Pioneering town
planner
Patrick Geddes (1854-1932)

Sir Patrick Geddes
• He studied at the
Royal College of
Mines in London
• Taught at the
University of
Dundee and
Edinburgh
University Patrick Geddes (1854-1932)
Sir Patrick Geddes
• Made plans for

Great Britain, Israel
and India
• He was knighted in
1932

Sir Patrick Geddes
• Wrote Cities in
Evolution (1915)
• Formulated the
classic process of
planning

Sir Patrick Geddes
• He was
responsible for
introducing the
concept of "region"
to architecture and
planning
• known to have
coined the term
“conurbation"

Sir Patrick Geddes
• He believed that
social processes
and spatial form
are related.
Therefore, by
changing the
spatial form it was
possible to change
the social
structure as well. Patrick Geddes (1854-1932)
Sir Patrick Geddes
• Was keenly
interested in the
science of ecology,
an advocate of
nature
conservation and
strongly opposed
to pollution
Geddes Principles for Town Planning
 Preservation of human life and energy, rather

than superficial beautification.
 Conformity to an orderly development plan

carried out in stages.
 Purchasing land suitable for building.
 Promoting trade and commerce.

 Preserving historic buildings and buildings of

religious significance.
 Developing a city worthy of civic pride, not an

imitation of European cities.
 Control over future growth with adequate

provision for future requirements.
 Promoting the happiness, health and comfort

of all residents, rather than focusing on roads
and parks available only to the rich.
Classic Process of Planning (Geddes)
Survey
 Of the region, its characteristics and trends
Analysis
 Analyzing data gathered from the survey
Plan
 Formulation of strategies, making plan
WORKING METHODS (basis of plans)

1. survey of the region
its character and trends.
2. analysis of the survey
3. actual plan
• he demonstrated that these suburban growth was causing a tendency for the towns
to form into grant urban agglomerations or CONURBATIONS
• town planning must be subsumed* under town and country planning, or planning of
whole urban regions encompassing a number of town and the* surrounding spheres
of influence.
LEWIS MUMFORD
- Geddes Follower
- wrote CULTURE OF CITIES
- the Bible of regional planning movement-
He & PGF Le Play stressed the intimate and subtle relationship
between human settlement and the land through the nature of
local economy.
PLACE-WORK-FOLK
Le Play‘s famous triad- was the fundamental study of men living
and working on their land.
• he gave planning a logical structure.
• regional idea
• human geography to provide the basis of planning.
WRIGHT, FRANK LLOYD
- it was desirable to preserve the sort
of codependent rural life of the
homesteaders.
- that mass car would allow cities to
spread widely into countryside.
- developing a completely dispersed
through planned low density urban
spread called BROADACRE CITY-
where each home would be
surrounded by an acre of land enough
to grow crops.
- homes would be connected by super
highways.
Easy and fast travel by car to any
direction.
- he anticipated ―out- of-town shopping
THE EUROPEAN TRADITION
1. Reconstruction of Paris under GEORGE EUGENE HAUSMANN- which

imposed a new pattern of broad boulevards and great parks on the
previous labyrinth* street pattern
2. GARNER & MAY

- the garden city was soon exported across the Channel. But, curiously, in
France its best known expression seems to have occurred spontaneously.
3. SORIA Y MATA (Arturo)
• Proposed to develop along an axis of high speed, high intensity

transportation from an existing city.
• His argument was that under the new influence of new mass forms of mass
transportation, cities were to assume such a form as they grew.
• - it can respond automatically to the need for further growth by simple
addition at far end.
Arturo Soria Y Mata
(1844-1920)
• Spanish engineer
• Linear City (La
Ciudad Lineal)
Arturo Soria y Mata (1844-1920)

Linear City (La Ciudad Lineal)
 To be developed along an axis of high speed, high
intensity transportation from an existing city
Le Corbusier
the Swiss- born architect Charles Edouard Jeanneret, who early in his
professional career adopted the pseudonym Le Corbusier (1877-1965)
one of the creators of the modern movement in architecture.

His most outstanding contribution as a thinker and writer was an urban
planner on the grand scale.
- the most notable are his Unite‟ d‟ Habitation (1946-52) at

Marseilles in France, and his grand project for the capital city of
Punjab at Chandigarh (1950-7), which was finished only long after
his death.
Two important books- The City of Tomorrow (1922) and The Radiant
City;
Le Corbusier
 a Swiss-born
French architect,
designer, ubanist, writer and
painter
 famous for being one of the

pioneers of what now is
called modern architecture
 He was a pioneer in studies

of modern high design and
was dedicated to providing Charles-Édouard Jeanneret
better living conditions for Le Corbusier (1887-1965)
the residents of crowded
cities.
Propositions of Le Corbusier
1. The first was that the traditional city has become functionally obsolete,
due to increasing size and increasing congestion at the centre. As the urban
mass grew through concentric additions, more and more strain was placed on
the communications of the innermost areas, above all the central business
district, which had the greatest accessibility and where all business wanted to
be.
2. The second was the paradox that the congestion could be cured by
increasing the density. There was a key to this, of course: the density was to
be increased at one scale of analysis, but decreased at another. Locally, there
would be very high densities in the form of massive, tall structures; but around
each of these a very high proportion of the available ground space- Corbusier
advocated 95%- could and should be left open.
:
Propositions of Le Corbusier
The Radiant City (La Ville radieuse) was developed during the 1920s and
1930s the idea of a city with very high local concentrations of populations in
tall buildings, which would allow most of the ground space to be left open. His
ideas proved very influential for a whole generation of planners after the
Second World War.
3. The third proposition concerned the distribution of densities within the city.
fourthly and lastly, Corbusier argued that this new urban form could be
accommodate a new and highly efficient urban transportation system,
incorporating both rail lines and completely segregated elevated motorways,
running above the ground level, though, of course, below the levels at which
most people lived.
:
Le Corbusier
Nevertheless, in planning cities after the Second World
War, Corbusier‘s general influence has been incalculable.
Corbusier however had another, more subtle, influence.

Though many of his ideas were intuitive rather than
scientifically exact, he did teach planners in general the
importance of scale in analysis.
Equally important was his insistence on the elementary

truth that dense local concentrations of people helped
support a viable, frequent mass-transportations system.
Le Corbushier (Charled Edouard Jeanneret,
1887-1965)
 City reconstructions
 New settlements few materialized
 Unite d’Habitation
 Congestion could be cured by increasing the

density
 Skycrapers separated by very large areas of
intervening open space
1920’s
 Le Corbushier
advocated high-rise
apartment blocks
surrounded by open
space or “tower-in-
the-park design”
Charles-Édouard Jeanneret
Le Corbusier (1887-1965)
Contemporary City
 Conceptions of a modernist city of high-rises
 Monumental structures
 High-speed automobile highways
 Lush parks lands below

 La Ville Radieuse

:

:

:
Roehampton
PLANNING, PLANNERS AND PLANS
Planning- the noun can either mean ‗a physical

representation of something‘- as for instance a drawing or
a map; or a ‗method of doing something; or an ‗orderly
arrangement of parts of an objective‘.
planning as a general activity is the making of an

orderly sequence of action that will lead to the
achievement of a stated goal or goals.
THE APPLICATION TO URBAN AND REGIONAL PLANNING
1.-urban and regional planning (or, as it is often still called, a town and
country planning)
2-‗town planning‘ seems simply to mean any sort of planning
3- ‗urban‘ planning conventionally means something more limited and

precise: it refers to planning with a spatial, or geographical,
component, in which in some way is better than the pattern of existing
without planning.
4.Such planning is aka ‗physical‘ planning (or regional planning) is a

special case of general planning, which does include the plan-making,
or representational, component.
„PLANNING‟ AS AN ACTIVITY
The classic sequence taught to all planning students was survey-

analysis-plan.
1. The planner made a survey, in which s/he collected all the relevant
information about the development of their city or region
2. then s/he analysed these data, seeking to project them as far as

possible into the future to discover how the area was changing and
developing.
3. thirdly, s/he make a plan which took into account the facts and
interpretations revealed in the survey and analysis, and which sought
to harness and control the trends according to principles of sound
planning.
The new planning sequence:

1. Start with the formulation of goals and objectives for the development the
area concerned.
2. It will be used to produce various alternative projections, or simulations, of

the state of the region at various future dates, assuming the application of
various policies.
3.Then the alternatives are compared or evaluated against yardsticks derived

from the goals and objectives, to produce a recommended system of policy
controls.
---to sum up: urban and regional planning is a spatial or physical: it uses the
general methods of planning to produce a physical design. Because of the
increasing influence of these general methods, it is oriented towards process
rather than towards the production of one shot (or end-state) plans. Its subject
matter is really that part of geography which is concerned with urban and
regional systems; but the planning itself is a type of management for every
complex systems.
The Region in Regional Planning
Planning has been defined as a future- oriented problem-solving process,

which may be classified in a variety of ways.
The concept of the region
The Region: Fact or Fallacy?
There are two divergent views- one objective, the other subjective view sees a
region as a means to an end, simply an idea, a model, to help in the study of
the world. It is a method of classification, a device to segregate arcal, areal*
features, with the only ‗natural‘ region being the surface of the earth on which
man finds his home. The objective view adopts an opposite stance, seeing the
region as an end itself a real entity, an organism, that can be identified and
mapped.
The concept of the region
The Region: Fact or Fallacy?
The famous Oxford geographer, A.J Herbertson, adopting an analytical

approach, divided the world into ‗natural regions‘ on the basis of four criteria-
land configuration, climate, vegetation and population density, but with climate
as the dominant factor.
He adopted a synthetic approach building up a series of British regions based

on physical factors, extending outwards from the centre. Vidal de la Blache
adopted a similar approach in France, although he used population as the
basic criteria and starting point for his identification of pays.
De la Blache‘ man and nature have become moulded to one another over the
years rather like a snail and its shell.‘
Regions R.E Dickinson, a constant advocate of the city region sees it as a

‗natural social unit‘
THE REGION: FORMAL OR FUNCTIONAL
The concept of the region as a method of classification has evolved through two distinct
phases reflecting the economic advance from a simple agrarian economy to a complex
industrial system.
1. The first phase saw the ‗formal region‘- concerned with uniformity, and defined
according to homogeneity.
2. the second phase saw the development of the ‗functional region‘- concerned with
interdependence, the interrelationship of the parts, and defined on the basis of
functional coherence.
- formal region, is a geographical area, which is uniform or homogeneous in terms

of selected criteria.
- The ‗natural region‘ was a physical formal region. Interest in this form of region
stemmed partly from the fact that the physical factors are more stable than
dynamic economic factors and hence much easier to study.
- Economical formal regions are generally based on types of industry or agriculture,
although there are obvious physical undertones.
Functional region- is a geographical area which displays

a certain functional coherence, an interdependence of
parts, when defined on the basis of certain criteria.
- it is sometimes referred to as a nodal, or polarized region
- is composed of heterogenial units, such as cities, towns,

and villages, which are functionally interrelated. The
functional relationships are usually revealed in the form of
flows, using socio-economic criteria such as journey to-
work trips or shopping trips linking the employment or
shopping centres.
Ebeneezer Howard- was one of the early pioneers of the concept of the nodal
region. He suggested that the early solution to the problems of a large urban
area such as London lay in developing a cluster of new towns linked to the
central city in a functional relationship.
Patrick Geddes- also stressed the interdependence and interrelationships of

factors in region, using his famous ‗place-work-folk‘ diagram. It was Geddes
also who coined the term‘city-region‘ which has come to be the most widely
used form of nodal region.
Dickinson, Smailes, Green & others- have pioneered research into nodal
regions, attempting to identify the region by deductive processes.
Dickinson attempted to determine the nodal region of Leeds by analyzing the

distribution of the Leeds based Yorkshire Evening Post.
Green used the frequency of bus services to determine the hinterland of urban
centers.
This brief analysis of the concept of the region suggests that regions are a
means to an end. Rather than ends in themselves.
Formal or functional regions, or a combination of both, may provide a

useful framework for a third type of regional classification into planning
regions.
Boudeville defines planning regions (or programming regions) as areas

displaying some coherence of unity of economic decisions.
Keeble sees a planning region as an area which is large enough to enable

substantial changes in distribution of population and employment to take place
within its boundaries, yet which is small enough for its planning problems to be
seen as a whole.
Klaassen- believes that amongst other things, a planning region must be large
enough to take investment decisions of an economic size, must be able to
supply its own industry with the necessary labour, should have a
homogeneous economic structure, contain at least one growth point and have
a common approach to and awareness of its problems.
Regionalization- is the –process of delineating regions.
1. This process may take several forms depending on the

purpose of regionalization.
2. the criteria to be used and data availability.

METHOD OF REGIONAL ANALYSIS.
THE SPATIAL DIMENSIONS OF DEVELOPMENT POLICY
Spatial Planning and Regional Development

`
1. An approach to spatial analysis and regional planning that focuses on
building the productive and functional characteristics
rural service centers
market towns
intermediate-sized cities
regional centers- to provide the services, facilities and economic activities
that can promote rural and regional development.
2. This approach to regional development planning is based on a fundamental

assumption: that if gov‘t in developing countries wants to achieve
geographically widespread of development, they must invest in a
geographically dispersed pattern.
3. the concentration of investments in one or a few large cities will not result to
automatically in the spread of development through trickle- down processes.
3.1 Essential services and facilities must be located in places that have a
sufficiently large concentration of population or a broad enough market area to support
them economically. Thus, if economic development is to be achieved with greater social
and geographical equity, investments must be made in a pattern of ―decentralized
concentration‖. Must be strategically located in settlements that can serve a large
population living in and around them, and to which people living at relatively low
densities in rural areas have easy access.
an approach to spatial analysis that can help policy-makers at national,

regional and local levels to allocate investments in services, facilities and infrastructure
in ways that build up the capacity of settlements to serve residents more effectively and
to stimulate dev‘t throughout a region.
Variety of labels; block-level planning in India, settlement systems analysis in

Indonesia, market center analysis in Ghana, Malawi and Thailand, urban functions in
rural development― planning in the Philippines, Bolivia and Upper Volta, and central
places analysis in their countries.
The general approach to settlement system analysis described,

seeks to provide a spatial and locational dimension to regional
planning by:
1. identifying settlements that can most effectively act as service ,

production and trade centers for their own populations and those of
surrounding areas;
2. determining the strength of linkages among these settlements and

between them and their rural hinter-lands
3. delineating those areas in which people have little or no access to

town-based services and facilities.
Thus it provides a spatial dimension to locational framework for

incrementally increasing the capacity of a larger number of
communities to serve their residents more effectively.
Urban functions in Rural Development (UFRD) –

dimensions of regional planning but also anchored on
strategies for integrating urban and rural communities
UFRD is a place-oriented approach to regional analysis

that can be used to supplement sectoral and technical
planning, as well as ‗people-oriented‘ approaches to social
services planning.
CONCEPTS OF SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT
Growth Pole concept
The Growth Pole concept of spatial development suggests that by investing

heavily in capital-intensive industries in the largest urban centers, gov‘t in
developing countries can stimulate economic growth that will spread outward
to generate regional dev‘t. the economies of scale found in the largest cities,
would provide high rates of return on investment, support the commercial,
administrative and infrastructural services needed by industries to operate
efficiently, and bring about diversification of the growth pole‘s economy. The
goods produced in the growth pole would be exported to the country‘s
metropolitan center and abroad. And that the free operation of market forces
would create ―ripple‖ or ―trickle down‖ effects that would stimulate economic
growth throughout the region. Investment in industry at the growth pole would
be the ―engine of dev‘t‖ for agricultural and commercial activities.
. Functional- Spatial Integration

an alternative approach is based on the concept that a well
articulated and integrated system of growth centers of different sizes and
functional characteristics can play an important role in facilitating more
widespread regional dev‘t. It assumes that in regional dev‘t, must be through
agricultural rather than industrial dev‘t. the goals of this strategy:
are to achieve higher levels of food production.
achieve higher levels of income for larger numbers of people, especially those
living at or below subsistence levels. The primary beneficiaries of investments
must be:
small-scale farmers
landless laborers
Those engaged in small- scale commercial enterprises---that is people
usually living in the margin of organized economy.
Building the institutional facilities for rural development is

essential to promote regional growth and to transform
subsistence farming into commercial agriculture. Rural
residents must have access to self-sustaining
organizations capable of identifying and solving rural dev‘t
problems and of delivering needed services.
A crucial element in providing the basic preconditions for

the commercialization of agriculture is a well-articulated
and integrated system of settlements in which services and
facilities can be efficiently located and to which rural
people have easy access.
E.A.A. Johnson argues that the ―varied hierarchy of central places

has not only made possible an almost complete commercialization of
agriculture but facilitated a wider spatial diffusion of light
manufacturing, processing and service industries…‖
Brian Berry have long insisted that in market or mixed economies a

diffused and integrated system of central places usually emerges with
economic growth and is necessary but not sufficient condition.
A network of central places--settlements that serve populations from

a surrounding hinterland-- is necessary to distribute goods produced in
specialized locations to consumers in other places.
Fisher and Rushton point out from their experience with area dev‘t planning in
India and Indonesia, integrated hierarchy of service centers:
1. is convenient and efficient for the consumer
2. it reduces the amount of transportation requires to connect villages to

facilities
3. it reduces the length of roads that require improvement.
4. it economizes on the cost of providing services to the facilities themselves.
5. it enables a more economical and effective monitoring.
6. it facilitates the exchange of information and qualified personnel between

related activities.
7. it focuses on the dev‘t efforts for a region, on a few places with superior
locations and resources.
Bromley contends that ―such central places are indispensable

elements in the functioning of rural and regional economies,
articulating the diverse specialized forms of production and
consumption, and facilitating numerous forms of interaction and
exchange.‖
Roy and Patil analysis of central places in India that ―there is a

symbiotic relationship between the dev‘t of service centers and the
dev‘t of services areas around them‖.
―All of these concepts‖ Roy and Patil point out,‖ convey the idea of
locating at different levels primary and secondary goods and service
that are functionally interlinked, mutually complementary and
supplementary, well-integrated vertically and inter-sectorally, to
maximize the benefits to users and minimize the costs.‖
Decentralized concentration of investment through settlements of

different sizes and functional characteristics, Rondinelli and Ruddle
point out, can:
1. create economies of scale, spillover and spread effects that are

beneficial to both residents of those centers and people living in
surrounding rural areas.
2. help organize the economies of rural hinterlands
3. aid in attracting creative and innovative personalities and
entrepreneurs with values
4. provide returns from previous investment that can be used for future
dev‘t.\
5. create pressure and demand for extending new services
6. create physical and economic linkages among settlements and
between them
7. attract related economic and social activities that create-- through
economies of proximity—new markets for raw materials, semi-
finished goods and new commodities
Decentralized investment in strategically located settlements can

create the minimal conditions that enable rural people to develop their
own communities through‖ bottom-up‖ and autonomous processes.
Decentralized Territorial Approach

A third concept of spatial dev‘t is sometimes called a decentralized
territorial, agropolitan, or selective regional closure approach. It is
usually based on the argument that urban growth centers—even
market towns and intermediate—sized cities –are parasitic; that they
allow town-based elites, large corporations and central gov‘t agencies
to exploit the rural population and to drain rural areas of their
resources. The implication is that investments should not be located in
these places, but dispersed in rural areas where people have direct
access to them.
Schatzburg, for example, insists that the structures and organizations of these small
towns usually benefit the already wealthy elements of local society who have the means
and skill to co-opt most developmental resources and initiatives that originate with the
national gov‘ts
Friedmann and Douglas suggest an ―agropolitan‖ approach of concentrating

development activities in rural districts with from about 50,000 to 150,000 people.
Stohr and Todtling have suggested a strategy of ―selective spatial closure‖ as a way of
protecting small towns and rural populations from potentially adverse effects of
interaction between rural areas and larger cities.
Leeds argues that no nucleated settlement can be closed because its very existence is
based on some degree of specialization.
Other studies of market towns indicate that rural people can compete fairly with
townspeople and that the linkages between the towns and rural areas are the primary
channels through which rural people derive income.
Richardson comes closer to the truth in pointing out that neither the ‗diffusion pole‘ not
the ‗parasitic ‘ views of the role of the small cities are correct.
CATEGORIES AND CONCEPTS OF PLANNING
Physical planning- concerned with the spatial

qualities and relationships of dev‘t
Economic planning- facilitates the working of the

market
Allocative planning- regulatory planning
Innovative planning- dev‘t planning

CATEGORIES AND CONCEPTS OF PLANNING
Indicative planning- lays down general guidelines; advisory

in nature
Imperative planning- otherwise called command planning,

involves specific directives
Normative planning- otherwise called utopian planning
Behavioral planning- otherwise called reformist planning.

Actual limitations that circumscribe the pursuit and
achievement of rational action; proposes piece meal
―disjointed incrementalist‖ approach to societal change.
(C.E Lindboom)
READINGS IN PLANNING THEORY
The Planning Typology
The four kinds of planning are:
1. Traditional
2. Democratic
3. Equity
4. Incremental
Traditional Planning
The type of planning where the planner prescribes both the goals of
the plan and the means of attaining them.
The principal objective of traditional planners of the orderly

development of the urban environment, and the proximate goals of the
plan are derived from standards that supposedly measure desirable
physical arrangements.
The conception of scientific planning assumes that the planners‘

special qualifications free them from class or special-interest biases
when they are formulating the contents of the plan.
Gans however, correctly points out that planners have generally

advocated policies that fit the predispositions of the upper classes but
nor those of the rest of the population.
Democratic Planning
They called for the transformation of planning from a top-down to a
participatory process.
David R. Godschalk‖ what is needed if a modus operandi which brings

governmental planners face-to-face with citizens in a continuous
cooperative venture.‖
Friedmann calls for a ―struggle…for a recovery of the political community

in which our western ideas of democratic governance are based.‖
Forester exhorts planners to develop a set of community networks

alerting less organized interests of significant issues, assuring that
community-based groups are adequately informed and engage in critical
analysis of policies affecting them, exercising skills in conflict mgt and
group relations, compensating for political and economic pressures.
Democratic planners pointed on the public as the ultimate authority in

the formulation of plans and take a populist view that differentiates
between special interests and the public interest. Generally side with
the underdog.
The democratic planner must contend with the problem of conflicting

interests and must judge the legitimacy of the representatives of
various clienteles.
According to the democratic planning ideal, the public chooses

both ends and means in practice the planner shapes the alternatives
that will be considered by determining the composition of the planning
group.
3. Equity Planning. Equity and democratic planning are overlapping types

Democratic planning emphasizes the participatory process
Equity planning emphasis is on the substance of programs.

The concept of equity planning contains an explicit recognition of a multitude of
conflicting social interests, some of which may become irreconcilable.
Equity planner would ―promote a wider range of choices for those…residents who
have few‖
Equity and advocacy planning are now used more or less interchangeably.
Advocacy planning- referred to the defense of excluded interests.
Advocacy planning- as limited to this approach, was an extension of what Lindblom

calls partisan mutual adjustment
Advocate planners were simply consultants who acted on behalf of groups that could
afford their services only if offered pro bono or financed by outside sources like
foundations or gov‘t programs.
Equity planning differs fundamentally from traditional planning in that

particular planning specifics need not be justified as being in the
general public interest (although equity planners argue that their
overall objective of achieving redistributional goals is in the public
interest and if they occupy a public office, would certainly try to look
nonpartisan).
Equity planners are not always democrats, since they will favor
redistributional goals even in the absence of a supportive public.
Democratic planner‘s ethic is a procedural one of allowing all voices to

be heard.
Equity planners, even when holding office, have a particular

responsibility to advance the interests of the poor and racial or ethnic
majorities.
4. Incremental Planning
Policy makers come to a decision by weighing the marginal advantages of a
limited number of alternatives. Rather than working in terms of long-range
objectives, they move ahead through successive approximations.
Lindblom ―that society requires conscious control and manipulation is one

assertion; that an ‗organizing center‘ is required is quite another‖
In terms of our definition of planning, incrementalism is not really planning at

all. Lindblom claims that the mechanism of ―partisan mutual adjustment‖- the
working out of different claims through compromise, adherence to procedural
rules. And the market process- results in rational decision making: ―the
concern of this study has been…with partisan mutual adjustment as a method
of calculated, reasonable, and rational intelligent, wise, policy making‖
While incrementalism embodies the opposite of planning in its methods, it

produces the fruits of planning in its results.
Four Types of Political theory
Political theorists offer insights into appropriate behavior

for planners. Since like most planning theorists, they
endeavor to find models of decision-making that will
produce desirable social outcomes.
We can identify four major types of political theory that

correspond to our typology of political theories.
1. Technocratic theory and traditional planning

Technocratic thinking is a product of the industrial era. It represents an
effort to come to grips with the central social problems created by the
Industrial Revolution.
Like the conservatives, the technocrats desire to restore the order of

the pre-industrial world, but unlike the conservatives they accept
modernization, welcoming technology as the cure for the ills of
mankind. Their motto is “order and progress”
In their eyes, capitalism dissolved the bonds of the ancient regime,

replacing community with the marketplace, and the paternalism of the
old elite with the innovativeness of the new.
They wish to harness the power of technology to create a new society
and thereby to ameliorate the condition of the lower classes, as well as
the threat they pose to social order.
Technocratic theory, while more detailed and explicit

than the discussions of traditional planning, presents a
picture of society that is quite compatible with traditional
planning ideas and useful in baring their hidden
foundation. Underlying traditional planning is the
technocratic faith in progress through science and
rationality tied to the constructive use of power in the form
of the plan.
Technocratic theory makes explicit an assumption of

traditional planning: that social change or the benefit of all
society must be initiated paternalistically by the upper
classes.
2.Democratic theory and democratic planning
Democratic theory begins with the sanctity of the individual and the
primacy of his or her interests. Not only does all sovereignty emanate
from the people, they are also the only source of public values.
―Everyone is equal and has an equal right to advance his or her cause‖
For ―the very essence of democratic gov‘t consist in the absolute

sovereignty of the majority‖
Democratic panning requires the planner to act as delegate of the

citizenry.
The democratic planner, like the democratic governor both responds

to constituents and attempts to educate them, to show them
alternatives and the relation between particular policies and their
interests.
There are three major criticisms of democratic planning:
First, democratic policy makers are immediately confronted with the

short-term relative ignorance and selfishness of the citizenry, and the
fact that ―education through participation‖ is a slow process for which
public policy cannot wait.
Second, It is difficult for democratic theory to explain why citizens

should bother to participate in public policy making or planning at all,
for a rational calculus of the costs benefits of participation often makes
apathy quite compatible with the private interests of individuals.
The final criticism of democratic theory suggests that the rule of the
majority leads to social mediocrity and even to fascist authoritarianism.
3.Socialist theory and equity planning
Concerned entirely with obtaining power and benefit for the poor within an existing
democratic capitalist society, as opposed either to socialist revolution or the operation
of a purely a socialist gov‘t
Socialism begins with a conflict analysis of society. It highlights the divergence of

interests among different social strata and emphasizes the extent to which the upper
strata maintain control of a disproportionate share of social resources through their
use of power.
Socialism sees the interest of individuals as determined by the objective, material
and circumstances of their lives.
―the ideas of the ruling class are in every epoch the ruling ideas: i.e the class which is
the ruling material force of society, is at the same time its ruling intellectual force.‖
Equity planners believe in the potential of democratic gov‘t.
Krumholz ―that equity in the social, economic, and political relationships among people
is a requisite condition for a just and lasting society‖
Equity planning combines the socialist‟s belief in equality with the democrat‘s faith
in gov‘t by the people.
4.Liberal theory and incrementalism

Liberalism begins with an atomistic conception of human society, seeing human
beings as rational actors who are the best judges of their own private interests.
The obligation of liberal gov‘t is first and foremost to guarantee the rule of law, to
defend agreed-upon procedures (Locke) , to act as an impartial judge or umpire.
Liberalism in pure form gives gov‘t no other function than this role of umpire and
thus no mandate to address social inequality.
Nevertheless, liberalism in all its forms emphasizes the prime importance of a

diffusion of power within society.
Incrementalism, like liberalism, is based on procedural value of maximizing

individual freedom.
The most acceptable form of gov‘tal activity for these groups is that which
ensures their present position- hence the acceptability of zoning ordinances and
the like.
RATIONALE OF TOWN AND COUNTRY PLANNING
1. it would avoid unnecessary implementation expenditures in terms of

money, effort and time.
2. it would enable the area to have a rational and sound basis for reclassifying
land uses that are consistent with legal, environmental, sociological,
political and economic considerations that ensure its smooth passage and
approval by concerned national and local agencies.
3. it would serve as the basis for enacting a zoning ordinance
4. it allows the introduction of new trends in planning
5. it ensures that dev‘t would take a sustainable path.
6. the plan will facilitate the sourcing of funds for the implementation of
recommended programs and projects.
BASIC FEATURES OF MODERN URBAN AND REGIONAL PLANNING
- urban and regional planning is concerned
- it is a deliberate, self-conscious activity that usually involves persons trained
- It has goals and objectives, as well as the means
- urban and regional planners themselves seldom, lay out major

alternatives and recommendations
- urban and regional planners employ a variety of specialized tools
- the results of the most planning activities are discernible only to 5 to 20

years after the decision has been made.
Model of agricultural land use:
The Thünen rings
Johann Heinrich von
Thünen
• a prominent
nineteenth century
economist
• was a north German
landowner, who in
the first volume of his
treatise,
• The Isolated
State (1826),
developed the first
serious treatment of
spatial economics,
connecting it with the
theory of rent. Johann Heinrich von Thünen
(1783 – 1850)
Johann Heinrich von
Thünen
• The importance lies

less in the pattern of
land use predicted
than in its analytical
approach.
• Von Thünen
developed the basics
of the theory of
marginal productivity
in a mathematically
rigorous way Johann Heinrich von Thünen
(1783 – 1850)
Johann Heinrich von Thünen
• a prominent nineteenth
century economist
• was a north German
landowner, who in the first
volume of his treatise,
• The Isolated State (1826),
developed the first serious
treatment of spatial
economics, connecting it
with the theory of rent.
• The importance lies less in
the pattern of land use
predicted than in its
analytical approach.
• Von Thünen developed the
basics of the theory of
marginal productivity in a
mathematically rigorous Johann Heinrich von Thünen
way (1783 – 1850)
 summarizing it in the formula in which
 where R=land rent; Y=yield per unit of land;
c=production expenses per unit of commodity;
p=market price per unit of commodity;
F=freight rate; m=distance to market.
The Von Thünen model of agricultural land
 created before industrialization,
 made the following simplifying assumptions:
 The city is located centrally within an "Isolated State."
 The Isolated State is surrounded by wilderness.
 The land is completely flat and has no rivers or

mountains.
 Soil quality and climate are consistent.
 Farmers in the Isolated State transport their own goods

to market via oxcart, across land, directly to the central
city. There are no roads.
 Farmers behave rationally to maximize profits.
 The use of a piece of land is put to is a function of the

cost of transport to market and the land rent a farmer
can afford to pay (determined by yield, which is held
constant here).
The Von Thünen model of agricultural land
 The model generated four concentric rings of agricultural
activity. Dairying and intensive farming lies closest to the
city. Since vegetables, fruit, milk and other dairy products
must get to market quickly, they would be produced close to
the city.
 Timber and firewood would be produced for fuel and
building materials in the second ring. Wood was a very
important fuel for heating and cooking and is very heavy
and difficult to transport so it is located as close to the city.
 The third zone consists of extensive fields crops such as
grain. Since grains last longer than dairy products and are
much lighter than fuel, reducing transport costs, they can be
located further from the city.
 Ranching is located in the final ring. Animals can be raised
far from the city because they are self-transporting. Animals
can walk to the central city for sale or for butchering.
 Beyond the fourth ring lies the wilderness, which is too great
a distance from the central city for any type of agricultural
product.
Model of agricultural land use:
The Thünen rings
 In his theory of “The Isolated State", he started out from
Adam Smith's idea of “economic man": that the farmer is
expected to maximize his profit (“economic rent") from his
farmland.
 Von Thünen, as a landlord, knew that such returns depends
on an optimal use of the land surfaces and the transport
costs. In concentrating on the effects of these two variables
on profits, removal of other factors results in a
homogeneous - and isolated - state: A circular, completely
undilating plane with a single, dominant market in the
center and no interactions with the outside. The economy in
the surrounding rural area would have to rearrange itself
according to economic behavior in such a way that each
industry brings optimal profit in:
 Transport cost depends on the distance from the market and
different kind of products. The gain from farming per unit
area (locational rent) decreases with increasing distance
from the market. The minimum price of a commodity is
calculated by locational rent, transport costs and fixed
production costs - the profit is then the difference between
the costs and the fixed market price. Idealized pattern of
agricultural land use zones in von Thünen's model
Locational rent
 a term used by von Thünen in his argument, is
to be understood as the equivalent to land
value.
 It corresponds to the maximum amount a
farmer could pay for using the land, without
making losses. It can be defined as the equation
below:
 L = Y(P − C) − YDF is...
 Von Thünen concluded that the cultivation of a crop is only
worthwhile within certain distances from the city: beyond
that, either the cost of the land becomes too high, with
increasing distances transport costs also increase, or, if there
is another product having greater yield or lower transport
costs. After a distance from the market (the city) the
production of a crop becomes unprofitable, either because
its profits drop to zero or the profits earned by other crops
are higher, as von Thünen calculated them for products
having different intensities (cattle, wood, grain, eggs, milk,
etc.): For each product there is a certain distance from the
city where its production would be worthwhile. Since
Thünen referred transport costs directly to the market
("Luftlinie"), circular land use zones arises - the Thünen
rings. Representation of the locational rent relationship
between two agricultural goods
 The farmers of these products compete against each other,
plant their crops concentrically around the market according
to the locational rent curves of their own crops. Products
having low yields with high price and high transport costs
relative to its weight or distance due to its weight, will have
higher locational rent close to the market than a product
having lower transport costs.
 Locational rent is the highest possible amount
one will pay for the use of the land for a certain
cultivation, and is a relative indicator of
competitiveness of it in the market.
Weaknesses & Criticism
 The model was developed in an isolated state and
did not take into consideration differences in sites
(local physical conditions). It can be modified by
relaxing some of the conditions set forth by Von
Thunen:
 differential transportation costs. Example: boats
are the cheapest mode of transportation.
 variations in topography
 soil fertility
 changes in demand or price of the commodity
 However, the model tends to hold true in most
instances.
 The theory may break down somewhat in
industrial and post-industrial economies as urban
expansion/sprawl occur. For example, modern
refrigerators enable perishable products to be
transported longer distances
 Like many other models in geography, von Thünen's model
was criticized frequently due to its restrictive nature. The
basic conditions of the model, however, could be
approximated by slight modifications of the respective
reality.
 The circular pattern, which can be attributed to only one
market and excluding transport costs gradients running
from the centre, is for example only one of many conceivable
geometrical starting situations.
 If other natural landscapes or transportation routes are
present, the land use zones would be stripe-formed. If
several markets were present, groups of zones would be
formed around each market.
 A justified objection against it is the reference to the absence
of any productive profit. In von Thünen's theory different
agricultural uses compete for the optimal location, which
results from the product-specific supply/expenditure
relation.
 The competitive power becomes indirectly measurable over
locational rent. After deducting production costs and
location-specific transport costs, however, nothing more
remains of the market profits. The von Thuenen model leads
to the idea of complete self-sufficiency among farmers.
 Thünen's idea of "economic rent" attempted - while ignoring
other characteristics - to explain the use of zones controlled
solely by economically rational perception. Possible
consumers play, finally, the crucial role for the choice of
location.
 At the same time evaluation of all potential locations is
released, which leads to a zoning of the possible offers. This
simply developed space restaurant model reacts however
sensitively to changes of the space overcoming costs. It
possesses however due to its universality nevertheless a high
value within geographical questions and methodology.
 Location of industry, commercial districts,
transportation routes, and residences;
 Number and nature of parks and amount of green
spaces; and
 Direction in which a city is growing the fastest.
 distinctive differences exist in the internal
arrangement of cities
 - patterns of land use and distribution of population
 groups within cities
 conceptualized by Friedrich Engels in mid-19th century
  observed that population of Manchester, England, was
residentially segregated on the basis of class
  commercial districts were located in the center and
extended about half a mile in all directions
 the growth of any city occurs thru

a radial expansion from the center
to form a series of concentric rings
 a set of nested circles that represent
successive zones of urban expansion
Ernest Watson Burgess
father of concentric zone
theory model
 An urban sociologist born
in Tilbury, Ontario.
 He was educated at
Kingfisher College in
Oklahoma
 graduate studies in
sociology at the
University of Chicago.
 A faculty member at the
University of Chicago.
 An urban sociologist at
the University of Chicago
 24th President of the
American Sociological
Association (ASA). Ernest Watson Burgess
(1886 – 1966)
 Burgess' groundbreaking research, in conjunction
with his colleague, Robert E. Park, provided the
foundation for The Chicago School.
 InThe City, they conceptualized the city into the
concentric zones (Concentric zone model),
including the central business district, transitional
(industrial, deteriorating housing), working-class
residential (tenements), residential, and
commuter/suburban zones.[1] They also viewed
cities as something that experiences evolution and
change, in the Darwinian sense.
 Based on human ecology theories done by Burgess and
applied on Chicago, it was the first to give the
explanation of distribution of social
groups within urban areas.
 This concentric ring model depicts urban land use in
concentric rings: the Central Business District (or CBD)
was in the middle of the model, and the city expanded
in rings with different land uses.
 It is effectively an urban version of Von Thunen's
regional land use model developed a century earlier.[2]
 contrasts with Homer Hoyt's sector model and
the multiple nuclei model.
Five zones:
 central business district (CBD) – characterized by retail
and wholesale sectors
 zone of transition – characterized by stagnation and social
deterioration
 zone of factory worker’s homes
 zone of better residential units – including single-family

dwellings and apartments
 commuter zone – extending beyond the city limits and
consisting of suburbs and satellite communities
 Burgess's work is based on the bid rent curve. This
theory states that the concentric circles are based
on the amount that people will pay for the land.
This value is based on the profits that are
obtainable from maintaining a business on that
land. The center of the town will have the highest
number of customers so it is profitable for retail
activities. Manufacturing will pay slightly less for
the land as they are only interested in the
accessibility for workers, 'goods in' and 'goods
out'. Residential land use will take the surrounding
land.
 This competition results in variations in the
cost of land and, therefore, causes segregation
within a city. The model assumes uniformly
flat, and available, land, and ignores the
importance of transport routes, but relies on
the theory that city growth results from
distinct waves of in-migrants,
that is to
invasion and
succession.
 the process of invasion and succession
 each type of land use and each socio-economic
group in the inner zone tends to extend its zone by
the invasion of the next outer zone
 as the city grows or expands, there is a spatial
redistribution of population groups by residence
and occupation
 many social characteristics are spatially distributed
in a series of gradients away from the central
business district (i.e. percentage of foreign-born
groups, poverty, and delinquency rates -- tends to
decrease outward from the city center.

Criticisms
 The model has been challenged by many contemporary
urban geographers. First, the model does not work well
with cities outside the United States, in particular with
those developed under different historical contexts.
Even in the United States, because of changes such as
advancement in transportation and information
technology and transformation in global economy,
cities are no longer organized with clear "zones"
(see: Los Angeles School of Urban Analysis).
 It describes the peculiar American geography, where
the inner city is poor while suburbs are wealthy; the
converse is the norm elsewhere
 It assumes an isotropic plain - an even, unchanging
landscape
 Physical features - land may restrict growth of certain
sectors; hills and water features may make some
locations unusually desirable for residential purposes
 Commuter villages defy the theory, being in the
commuter zone but located far from the city
 Decentralization of shops, manufacturing industry,
and entertainment
 Urban regeneration and gentrification - more
expensive property can be found in 'low class'
housing areas
 Many new housing estates were built on the edges
of cities in Britain
 It does not address local urban politics and forces
of globalization
 The model does not fit polycentric cities, for
example Stoke-on-Trent
 developed in the 1930s by Homer Hoyt, an
economist
 examined spatial variations in household rent in 142
American cities
 concluded that the general patterns of housing values
applied to all cities and that those patterns tended to
appear as sectors, not concentric rings
 residential land use seems to arrange itself along
selected highways leading into the CBD
  giving a land use
 map a
directional bias

Homer Hoyt
• A land economist,
a real estate
appraiser, and a
real
estate consultant
Homer Hoyt (1895–1984)

Homer Hoyt
• he conducted path-
breaking research
on land economics,
developed an
influential approach
to the analysis of
neighborhoods and
housing, refined
local area economic
analysis, Homer Hoyt (1895–1984)
Homer Hoyt
• was a major figure

in the
development of
suburban
shopping
centers in the
decades after
World War II Homer Hoyt (1895–1984)
Homer Hoyt
• His sector model

of land use
remains one of his
most well-known
contributions to
urban scholarship
Homer Hoyt (1895–1984)

Sector model,
 also known as the Hoyt model,
 is a model of urban land use proposed in 1939

by economist Homer Hoyt.
 It is a modification of the concentric zone
model of city development. The benefits of the
application of this model include the fact it
allows for an outward progression of growth.
As with all simple models of such complex
phenomena its validity is limited.
 While accepting the existence of a central
business district, Hoyt suggested that zones
expand outward from the city center along
railroads, highways, and other transportation
arteries. Using Chicago as an example, an
upper class residential sector evolved outward
along the desirable Lake Michigan shoreline
north of the central business district, while
industry extended southward in sectors that
followed railroad lines.
 In developing this model Hoyt observed that it was
common for low-income households to be near railroad
lines, and commercial establishments to be along business
thoroughfares. Recognizing that the various transportation
routes into an urban area, including railroads, sea ports,
and tram lines, represented greater access, Hoyt theorized
that cities tended to grow in wedge-shaped patterns -- or
sectors -- emanating from the central business district and
centered on major transportation routes. Higher levels of
access meant higher land values, thus, many commercial
functions would remain in the CBD but manufacturing
functions would develop in a wedge surrounding
transportation routes. Residential functions would grow in
wedge-shaped patterns with a sector of low-income
housing bordering manufacturing/industrial sectors (traffic,
noise, and pollution makes these areas the least desirable)
while sectors of middle- and high-income households were
located furthest away from these functions. Hoyt's model
attempts to state a broad principle of urban organization.
 High-rent residences were the most important group in
explaining city growth
  they tended to pull the entire city in the same
direction
 New residential areas did not encircle the city at its
outer limits, but extended farther and farther outward
along a few select transportation axes
  giving a land use map the appearance of a pie cut
into many pieces.
 The sectoral pattern of
city growth can be
explained in part by the
filtering process
 Filtering process
 the construction of new housing is located
primarily on the outer edges of the high-rent sector
 new homes, new offices, and stores are attracted to
the same areas
 as inner, middle class areas are abandoned, lower
income groups filter
into them
 city grows over time in the
direction of expanding
high-rent residential sector
Application
 This model applies to numerous British cities.
For example, if it is turned 90 degrees counter-
clockwise it fits the city of Newcastle upon
Tyne reasonably accurately. This may be
because of the age of the cities when
transportation was a key limitation, as a
general rule older cities follow the Hoyt model
and more recent cities follow the Burgess
(concentric zone) model.
Limitations
 The theory is based on early twentieth century rail
transport and does not make allowances for private
cars that enable commuting from cheaper land outside
city boundaries.[3] This occurred in Calgary in the 1930s
when many near-slums were established outside the
city but close to the termini of the street car lines. These
are now incorporated into the city boundary but are
pockets of low cost housing in medium cost areas.[2]
 Physical features - physical features may restrict or
direct growth along certain wedges
 The growth of a sector can be limited by leapfrog land
use
developed in 1945 by Chauncy Harris and Edward
Ullman
cities tend to grow around not one but several distinct
nodes
 forming a polynuclear (many-centered) pattern
Multiple Nuclei pattern factors:
Certain activities are limited to particular sites because

they have specialized needs
i.e. retail district – requires accessibility which is ocated
in a central location manufacturing district – requires transportation
Chauncy Dennison Harris
 pioneer of modern geography.
 His seminal works in the field of
American urban
geography ("The Nature of
Cities" and "A Functional
Classification of Cities in the
United States") along with his
work on the Soviet Union during
and after the Cold War era
established him as one of the
world's foremost urban
geographers.
 He also made significant
contributions to the geographical
study of ethnicity, specifically
with respect to non-Russian
minorities living within the
Soviet Union. Harris traveled
regularly to the Soviet Union
and played a key role in
establishing a healthy dialog
between Soviet and American
scholars.
Chauncy Dennison Harris
(1914 - 2003)
 He received a B.A. from Brigham Young
University(BYU) in 1933.
 The valedictorian of his class, Harris became
the first Rhodes Scholar from BYU.[2] The
scholarship took him to Oxfordwhere he
completed a second B.A. as well as a Master's
Degree.
 He also received an M.A. from the London
School of Economics before returning to the
U.S.
 He completed his Ph.D. at the University of
Chicago in 1940.
 His dissertation was entitled, "Salt Lake City -
a Regional Capital in 1940."
 After brief stints at Indiana University and the University
of Nebraska, Harris was appointed
 Professor of Geography at the University of Chicago
 Around this same time he was called into military service
with the U.S. Department of State, Office of the
Geographer.
 In Washington he became intrigued by the mystery
surrounding the Soviet Union. He started
studying Russian and exploring the
available cartographic and statistical information about the
country. He published his first two works on the Soviet
Union in 1945. His early work in this area left him well
prepared in the late 1950s when the Soviet Union began
opening up to foreigners. By the time of his first visit, he
was already a well established and respected expert in the
field. Over the course of his career, he made 14 trips to the
Soviet Union and
 played an important role in fostering and promoting
collaboration between American and Russian geographers.
 wrote "The Nature of Cities"
with Edward Ullman.
 He served on the University of
Chicago faculty from 1943 to 1984
 Dean of the Division of the Social
Sciences at the University of Chicago
(1954-1960).
Edward Louis Ullman
 An American
Geographer
 He proposed that trade
was an interaction
based on three
phenomena:
complementarity,
intervening
opportunities and
transferrability of
commodities
 wrote "The Nature of
Cities" with Chauncy
Harris Edward Louis Ullman
(1912 – 1976)
Multiple nuclei model
 The model describes the layout of a city.
 It notes that while a city may have started with a
central business district, similar industries with
common land-use and financial requirements are
established near each other.
 These groupings influence their immediate
neighborhood. Hotels and restaurants spring up
around airports, for example. The number and
kinds of nuclei mark a city's growth.
 The theory was formed based on the idea that
people have greater movement due to increased
car ownership. This increase of movement allows
for the specialization of regional centers (e.g.
heavy industry, business park).
 Certain related activities or economic functions tend to cluster
in the same district
 can carry on their activities more efficiently as a
cohesive unit
 i.e. automobile dealers, auto repair shops, tire
shops, auto glass shops cluster in one area
 Certain related activities repel each other

 i.e. high end residential district will locate away
from the heavy manufacturing district
 Certain activities may be relegated to less accessible locations
  due to inability to generate enough income to pay the high
rents of certain sites i.e. specialty shops
 Number of distinct nuclei occurring within a city is a function of
city size and recentness of development
  rampant urban sprawl: reflected in a mixed
 pattern of industrial, commercial and residential
 areas in peripheral locations
 sprawling urban landscape as described by
 geographer Pierce Lewis: galactic metropolis
nucleations resemble a galaxy of stars and planets
 some of the nucleations become cities in the
suburbs: edge cities
  Doughnut Model:
Edge cities are the CBDs of newly emerging urban centers
scattered through the suburban ring surrounding older central
cities
 Observed mostly in LDCs
 Reversal of the concentric zone model
 Cities where this pattern exist have been called
preindustrial
  primarily administrative and/or religious centers
(or were at the time of their founding)
 central area is the place of the residence of the elite
class
 low income families live on the periphery
 social class in these places is inversely related to distance
from the center of the city
 Reasons for this pattern:
 a. the lack of an adequate and dependable
transportation system
  restricts the elite to the center of the city so
they can be close to their places of work
 b. the functions of the city (administrative, religious,
cultural) are controlled by the elite and concentrated in the
center of the city
References:
 Burgess, Ernest W., Robert E. Park.
(1921) Introduction to Science of the
Sociology. ISBN 0-8371-2356-9.
 ^ McKenzie, Roderick D.; Park, Robert Ezra;
Burgess, Ernest Watson (1967). The City.
Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-
226-64611-4
 According to Hoyt; Fifty Years of Homer Hoyt / Articles on
law, real estate cycle, economic base, sector theory,
shopping centers, urban growth, 1916-1966. [Washington,
D.C., 1966]
 Autobiography of Homer Hoyt; Michael Hoyt and Jean Hoyt.
No city: photocopy, 2005. Available at Avery Library,
Columbia University.
 "More Than Sector Theory: Homer Hoyt's Contributions to
Planning Knowledge," Journal of Planning History 6, 3
(2007):248-271 by Robert Beauregard.
 The Structure and Growth of Residential Areas in American
Cities; Homer Hoyt. Washington DC: Federal Housing
Administration, 1939.
 One Hundred Years of Land Values in Chicago; Homer Hoyt.
New York : Arno Press, 1970, [c1933]
THANK YOU!

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FOUNDATION OF PLANNING

TRADITIONAL DEFINITION OF TOWN PLANNING

Town planning is the art and the science of

SCOPE OF TOWN PLANNING

Planning law and its enforcement through what

One of the main aspects of town planner‘s

developing community relations and understanding public participation

Town planning today is still influenced by its

THE ROLE OF THE PLANNER

THE ROLE OF THE PLANNER

- PLANNING CONTROL- ensured that space was

PLANNERS as ―oiling the wheels* of capitalism‖ criticized

THE ROLE OF THE PLANNER

- The ―white heat of technology squeaky clean uncomplicated

THE ROLE OF THE PLANNER

- economic planning has always been seen particularly by

- town planning involves the allocation of scarce resources

THE ROLE OF THE PLANNER

- in drawing up STATUTORY PLANS, the planners have to analyze the

THE ROLE OF THE PLANNER

- Environmental determinism- seeking to influence and determine the people‘s

- achieve only superficial change as ―tinkering with the superstructure‖

THE ROLE OF THE PLANNER

- in the private sector, planners have emerged as team leaders

- AUSTRALIA- there is a stronger look between the town planning and

- in eastern Europe- the planner has had a traditional socialist role as a

THE ANGLO AMERICAN TRADITION

1.0 HOWARD, EBENEZZER (1850-1928)

1.1 ―Garden City of tomorrow‖- one of the most

1.2 ROBERT OWEN- experimental settlement* at New

Ebenezer Howard (1850-1928)

Ebenezer Howard (1850-1928)

 The publication resulted in the founding of th

HOWARDS THREE MAGNETS- diagram setting out the advantages

(TOWN, COUNTRY, TOWN & COUNTRY)

This could be achieved by planned decentralization of workers and

 6,000 acres (5,000 greenbelt and 1,000 for the

.GARDEN CITY MODEL OF HOWARD

 Borrowed money could buy land cheaply in

 Socially mixed community

 Every type of house from big mansion to small

1.3 EXAMPLES OF GARDEN CITIES PLANs

a. BOURNVILLE, outside Birmingham built by chocolate

b. Port Sunlight in the Mersey built by William Lever.

1.3 IDEA OF HOWARD:

a. all of the industry was decentralized deliberately from

HOWARD INFLUENCES ON OTHER PLANNERS

EDWARD Gibbon Wakefield- had advocated the planned

JAMES SICK BUCKINGHAM- developed the idea of a

ALFRED MARSHALL- invented the idea of the new town

1. SIR FREDERICK OSBORN

3.1 a dormitory suburb owning its existence to the new underground

4. WYTHENSHAWE-(by Parker) called the 3rd garden city, with surrounding

1. background of open space instead of greenbelts

PERRY/ STEIN & TRIP

CLARENCE STEIN- architect planner working in NY

ALKER TRIPP- assistant commissioner of police a London‘s

- published a book called TOWN PLANNING & TRAFFIC.

- hierarchy of roads in which main arterial or sub arterial roads

1. ABERCROMBIE- most notable professional planner in Britain in the Anglo

2. PATRICK GEDDES- Scottish biologist.

a. recognized human ecology- the relationship between man and his

Patrick Geddes (1854-1932)