Chapter 1

1. ‘Early Harappan archaeologists thought that certain objects which seems unusual
and unfamiliar may have had a religious significance’. Substantiate.
Or
2. Analyse the distinctive attempts made by the historians to reconstruct the religious
beliefs and practices of the Harappans.
Or
3. “The problems of archaeological interpretation are perhaps most evident in
attempts to reconstruct the religious practices of Harappa”. Give suitable arguments
in support of your answer.
 Early archaeologists thought that certain objects which seemed unusual or
unfamiliar may have had a religious significance. These included terracotta
figurines of women, heavily jewelled, some with elaborate head-dresses.
These were regarded as mother goddesses.
 Rare stone statuary of men in an almost standardised posture, seated with
one hand on the knee – such as the “priest-king” – was also similarly
classified.
 In other instances, structures have been assigned ritual significance. These
include the Great Bath and fire altars found at Kalibangan and Lothal.
 Attempts have also been made to reconstruct religious beliefs and practices
by examining seals, some of which seem to depict ritual scenes. Others, with
plant motifs, are thought to indicate nature worship. Some animals – such as
the one-horned animal, often called the “unicorn” – depicted on seals seem
to be mythical, composite creatures.
 Attempts have also been made to reconstruct religious beliefs and practices
by examining seals. In some seals, a figure shown seated cross-legged in a
“yogic” posture, sometimes surrounded by animals, has been regarded as a
depiction of “proto-Shiva”, that is, an early form of one of the major deities
of Hinduism.
 Besides, conical stone objects have been classified as lingas.
 Many reconstructions of Harappan religion are made on the assumption that
later traditions provide parallels with earlier ones.

4. ‘One of the most distinctive features of the Harappa cities was the carefully planned
drainage system’. Elaborate.
Or
5. Mention two features of drainage system of the Harappan cities.
Or
6. Describe the drainage system of the Harappan cities.
 Planned drainage system of Harappa
  Roads and streets were laid out along an approximate “grid” pattern,
intersecting at right angles.
 Streets with drains were laid out first and then houses were built along them.
 Every house had its own bathroom paved with bricks with drains connected
to the wall to the street drain.
 In some cases, limestone was used for the covers. House drains first emptied
into a sump or cesspit into which solid matter settled while waste water
flowed out into the street drains.
 Very long drainage channels were provided at intervals with sumps for
cleaning

7. “Archaeologists have no proper response for the central authority of the Harrapans.”
Substantiate.
Or
8. Describe the opinions of the archaeologists over the central authority of the
Harappan civilization.
Or
9. ‘‘There are indications of complex decisions being taken and implemented in the
Harappan society.’’ In light of this statement, explain whether there may have been
rulers to rule over the Harappan society.
 There are indications of complex decisions being taken and implemented in
Harappan society.
 Although Archaeological records provide no immediate answers as Harappa
script could not be yet deciphered.
 A large building found at Mohenjodaro was labelled as a palace by
archaeologists but no spectacular finds were associated with it.
 A stone statue was labelled and continues to be known as the “priest-king”
 Some archaeologists are of the opinion that Harappan society had no rulers,
and that everybody enjoyed equal status.
 Others feel there was no single ruler but several, that Mohenjodaro had a
separate ruler, Harappa another, and so forth.
 Historians argue that there was a single state, given the similarity in artefacts
- such as pottery seals, weights and bricks, the evidence- for planned
settlements such as the standardised ratio of brick size, and the
establishment of settlements near sources of raw material.
 There was extraordinary uniformity of Harappan artefacts. The bricks, though
obviously not produced in any single centre, were of a uniform ratio
throughout the region, from Jammu to Gujarat.
 Settlements were strategically set up in specific locations for various reasons.
 Labour was mobilised for making bricks and for the construction of massive
walls and platforms. A planned urban centre with well laid out drainage
system.
  According to some scholars the last theory seems the most plausible, as it is
unlikely that entire communities could have collectively made and
implemented such complex decisions.

10. Describe the basis on which archaeologists identified the centres of craft production
in the Harappan culture.
 The basis on which archaeologists identify the centres of craft production are
 Raw material such as stone nodules, whole shells, copper ore
 Tools
 Unfinished objects
 Rejects and Waste material– waste is one of the best indicators of craftwork.
For instance, if shell or stone is cut to make objects, then pieces of these
materials will be discarded as waste at the place of production.
 Finished products - Sometimes, larger waste pieces were used up to make
smaller objects which suggest that apart from small, specialised centres, craft
production was also undertaken in large cities such as Mohenjodaro and
Harappa.

11. Explain the techniques of craft production, especially bead making at the Harappan
sites of Lothal and Chanhudaro.
 To prepare beads was one of the most important craft of the people of
Harappan Civilisation. It was mainly prevalent in Chanhudaro.
 Material Used : A large variety of material was used to make the beads. It
included a beautiful red colour stone like carnelian, jasper, crystal, quartz and
steatite. Besides copper, bronze, gold, shell, faience, terracotta or burnt clay
was also used.
 The Process of Making Beads : The process of making beads was remarkable.
It differed according to the material.
 It had the following stages:
o The beads did not have geometrical forms like the ones made out of
harder stones. They had a variety of shapes.
o The red colour of carnelian was obtained by firing the yellowish raw
material.
o Nodules were chipped into through shapes. Thus they were finely
flaked into the final form.
o The last phase of the process included grinding, polishing and drilling.
The specialized drills have been found at many sites like Chanhudaro,
Lothal and Dholavira.

12. Explain the exclusive features of the craft production in Chanhudaro.

 It was exclusively devoted to craft production, including bead –making, shell-
cutting, metal-working, seal-making and weight –making.
  The variety of materials used to make beads was - stones like carnelian,
jasper, crystal, quartz and steatite, metals like copper, bronze and gold,
faience and terracotta or burnt clay.
 Some beads were made of two or more stones, cemented together or with
gold caps.
 The shapes were numerous – disc shaped, cylindrical, spherical, barrel-
shaped and segmented.
 Some were decorated by incising or painting and some had designs etched
onto them.
 Techniques for making beads differed according to the material. Steatite, a
very soft stone, was easily worked. Carnelian was obtained by firing raw
material and beads at various stages of production.
 Nodules were chipped into rough shapes, and then finely flaked into the final
form.
 Grinding, polishing and drilling completed the process.
 It is likely that finished products such as beads from Chanhudaro were taken
to large urban centres such as Mohenjodaro and Harappa.

13. Describe the distinctive features of domestic architecture of Mohenjodaro.

 The Distinctive features of Domestic Architecture of Mohenjodaro
 Lower town of Mohenjo-Daro provides examples of residential buildings.
 Many were centred on a courtyard with rooms on all sides.
 The courtyard was probably the centre of activities such as cooking and
weaving.
 Every house was connected to street drains.
 There was much concern for privacy. There are no windows on the walls
along the ground level.
 Main entrance doesn’t give direct view of the interior or the courtyard.
 Every house had its own bathroom paved with bricks, and with drains
connected through the wall to street drains.
 Houses had staircase to reach the second storey or the roof.
 Many houses had wells, often in a room that could be reached from the
outside and perhaps used by passers-by.
 House drains first emptied into a sump or cesspit into which solid matter
settled while waste water flowed out into the street drains.

14. Explain the strategies for procuring materials by the Harappans for the craft
production.
Or
15. ‘‘The Harappans procured materials for craft production in various ways.’’ In the light
of this statement, explain the strategies for procuring raw materials for craft
production.
 The Harappans procured materials for craft production in various ways.
  By establishing settlements in areas where raw material was available. They
established settlements such as Nageshwar and Balakot in areas where shell
was available.
 Other sites like Shortughai, in far off Afghanistan, the best source of lapis
lazuli, a blue stone that was highly valued.
 From Lothal and Bharuch –carnelian was procured, steatite from south
Rajasthan and North Gujarat.
 By sending expeditions to areas where material was available. Another
strategy for procuring raw material may have been to send expeditions to
areas such as Khetri region of Rajasthan for copper and South India for Gold.
 By procuring material from distant lands as Mesopotamia. Recent
Archaeological finds suggest that Harappans procured material from other
countries like – they got copper from Oman a region called Magan in
Mesopotamian texts. It is likely that communication with Oman, Bahrain or
Mesopotamia was by sea.

16. To what extent had the Harappa people established trade relations beyond the
subcontinent? Explain.
 Copper was probably brought from Oman.
 Mesopotamian texts refer to copper coming from a region called Magan
 Mesopotamian texts mention contacts with regions named Dilmun (probably
the island of Bahrain), Magan and Meluhha, possibly the Harappan region.
 The products from Meluhha: carnelian, lapis lazuli, copper, gold, and varieties
of wood.
 Harappan jar coated with a thick layer of black clay has been found at Omani
sites. Such thick coatings prevent the percolation of liquids.
 They established settlements such as Nageshwar and Balakot in areas where
shells were available.
 Other such sites were Shortughai, in far-off Afghanistan, near the best source
of lapis lazuli, a blue stone that was apparently very highly valued
 Lothal which was near sources of carnelian (from Bharuch in Gujarat),
steatite (from south Rajasthan and north Gujarat) and metal (from Rajasthan)

17. Describe the subsistence strategies of the Harappans.

Or
18. How have historians provided new insight into the subsistence strategies of the
Harappan culture?
 Archaeo Botanists studied plant remains and Archaeo Zoologists studied
about bones etc and reconstruct the subsistence strategies of Harappans.
These are studied by Archaeo-zoologists or zoo-Archaeologists who are
specialists in ancient animal remains.
  The Harappans ate a wide range of plant products. Archaeologists have been
able to reconstruct dietary practices from finds of charred grains, seeds and
bones.
 Food grains found at Harappan sites include wheat, barley, lentil, chickpea,
sesame, Millets and rice.
 The Harappans ate a wide range of animal products. Archaeologists have
been able to reconstruct use of animals from finds of charred animal bones
found at Harappan sites. These include those of cattle, sheep, goat, buffalo
and pig.
 Bull, oxen, cattle, and pig were domesticated for agriculture. These are
studied by Archaeo-zoologists or zoo-Archaeologists who are specialists in
ancient animal remains, indicate that these animals were domesticated.
 Harappans ate animal products including fish.
 Bones of wild species such as boar, deer and gharial were also found. We do
not know whether the Harappans hunted these animals themselves or
obtained meat from other hunting (tribal) communities.
 The field had two sets of furrows at right angles to each other, suggesting
that two different crops were grown together.
 Traces of canals have been found at the Harrapan site.
 Water drawn from wells and water reservoir was used for irrigation.
 Terracotta model of bull has been found indicating farming.
 Archaeologists have also found evidence of a ploughed field at Kalibangan
(Rajasthan).
 Have found terracotta models of plough.

19. “The burials in Harappan sites reveal the economic and social differences amongst
the people living within a particular culture.” Give two evidences in support of your
answer.
Or

20.
 Burials
o In Harappan sites, the dead were laid in pits.
o In some instances, the hollowed-out spaces were lined with bricks
o Some graves contained pottery and ornaments, indicating a belief
that these could be used in the afterlife. In others, there are none.
o Jewellery has been found in burials of both man and woman. (shell
rings, a jasper beads and micro beads were found)
o In some instances, the dead were buried with Copper mirrors.
o It appears that Harappan did not believe in burying precious things
with the dead.
o In Harappan burials, some graves contain pottery and ornaments and
 Luxury and Utilitarian Objects
 o Utilitarian objects included clay objects.
o rare or costly objects, objects made of non-local materials or with
complicated technologies like faience were luxury items.
o Gold too was rare and precious.
 Existence of upper and lower town.
 Evidence of larger and double storied houses and smaller houses.

21. Describe the agricultural technologies followed by the Harappans.

The agricultural technologies followed by the Harappans were:
 Representations on seals and terracotta sculpture indicate that the bull was
known, and archaeologists extrapolate from this that oxen were used for
ploughing.
 Terracotta models of the plough have been found at sites in Cholistan and at
Banawali.
 The fields had two sets of furrow at right angles to each other, suggesting
that two different crops were grown together.
 Water reservoirs found in Dholavira may have been used to store for
agriculture.

22. Explain how different methods of irrigation were developed for agriculture in the
Harappan sites.
 Most Harappan sites are located in semi-arid lands, where irrigation was
probably required for agriculture.
 Rivers Ravi and Beas provided large scale irrigation to Indus Valley
settlements around Harappa. Water was abundant so an advanced drainage
system also existed. The Harappans channelled water onto their fields with
little provision for drainage.
 Though there is no evidence of canal in this region, it is suspected that canals
might have silted.
 Traces of canals have been found at the Harappan site of Shortughai in
Afghanistan.
 It is also likely that water drawn from wells was used for irrigation.
 Besides, water reservoirs found in Dholavira may have been used to store
water for agriculture.

23. Describe the contribution of John Marshall in the Indian archaeology.

Or
24. How have archaeologists used evidence from material remains to piece together
parts of a fascinating Harappa history? Explain.
 Most of the archaeologist prior to Marshall were of the view that Indian
civilization started from 6th century BCE and there was this tendency to use
written words to guide the archaeological digs.
  Cunningham’s confusion- Harappan artefacts were found fairly often during
the nineteenth century and some of these reached Cunningham, he did not
realise how old these were but unsuccessfully tried to place it within the
time-frame of c. sixth century BCE-fourth century CE.
 Daya Ram Sahni- Seals were discovered at Harappa by archaeologists such as
Daya Ram Sahni in the early decades of the twentieth century, in layers that
were definitely much older than Early Historic levels. It was then that their
significance began to be realized.
 The information began to come and it was Rakhal Das Bannerji who discovered the
similarities of the seals discovered from the various sites leading to the
conjecture that these sites were part of a single archaeological culture.
 Based on these finds, in 1924, John Marshall, Director General of the ASI,
announced the discovery of a new civilisation in the Indus valley to the world. It
was then that the world knew not only of a new civilisation, but also of one
contemporaneous with Mesopotamia.
 John Marshall`s Ignorance- John Marshall was the Director General of ASI from
1902 to 1928. In fact, John Marshall’s stint as Director-General of the ASI marked a
major change in Indian archaeology. He was the first professional archaeologist
to work in India, and brought his experience of working in Greece and Crete to the
field. More importantly, though like Cunningham he too was interested in
spectacular finds, he was equally keen to look for patterns of everyday life.
Marshall tended to excavate along regular horizontal units, measured
uniformly throughout the mound, ignoring the stratigraphy of the site. This
meant that all the artefacts recovered from the same unit were grouped
together, even if they were found at different stratigraphic layers. As a result,
valuable information about Harappan civilisation was irretrievably lost.
 S.N. Roy- As S.N. Roy noted in The Story of Indian Archaeology, “Marshall left
India three thousand years older than he had found her.” This was because
similar, till-then-unidentified seals were found at excavations at
Mesopotamian sites. It was then that the world knew not only of a new
civilization interesting results in the future.
 The mistake which was noted by Wheeler (next director general). Even then it was
during his tenure that Indians were allowed to participate in excavations in their
own country.
 R.E.M. Wheeler`s problems- R.E.M. Wheeler took over as Director-General of
the ASI in 1944, rectified many problems. Wheeler recognized that it was
necessary to follow the stratigraphy of the mound rather than dig
mechanically along uniform horizontal lines.

25. Analyse the areas of Cunningham’s confusion in understanding the significance of

Harappa.
 Cunningham’s main interest was in the archaeology of the Early Historic and
later periods.
  He used the accounts left by Chinese Buddhist pilgrims who had visited the
subcontinent between the fourth and seventh centuries CE
 Cunningham also collected, documented and translated inscriptions found
during his surveys.
 A site like Harappa which was not part of the itinerary of the Chinese
pilgrims, did not fit very neatly within his framework of investigation.
 Cunningham did not realize how old Harappa artefacts were.
 Cunningham tried to place Harappan seals within the time-frame with which
he was familiar.

26.
 Cunningham was the Director-General of the ASI.
 He used the accounts left by Chinese Buddhist pilgrims
 Used inscriptions that he found in his excavations.
 He used the artefacts found in excavations.

27. ‘‘The most unique feature of the Harappan civilization was the development of
urban centres.’’ Explain.
Or

28.
Or

29.
 Most unique feature of Harappan civilization was the development of urban
centres like Harappa and Mohenjodaro.
 The urban centres divided into two section: One smaller but higher(citadel).
Other larger but lower (lower town).
 Both walled separately.
 On the Citadel buildings, were constructed on mud brick platforms.
 Citadel had structure probably used for public purposes like warehouse, great
bath.
 The residential buildings were mostly found in the lower town.
 Elaborate planning –first platforms constructed, sun-dried or baked bricks of
standardized ratio used.
 Drainage system was carefully planned.
 Streets with drains laid out first and then houses built along.
 Roads and streets were laid out along a "grid" pattern intersecting at right
angles.
 Lower town had residential buildings with a courtyard and room on all sides.
  Courtyard was a centre of activities as cooking and weaving, particularly
during hot and dry weather.
 There is concern for privacy as no window in the walls along ground level and
main entrance does not give direct view into the interior.
 Every house had bathroom paved with bricks, drains connected with street
drains and in some houses staircases and wells have been found.
 Every house needed to have at least one wall along a street.

30. Explain the distinctive features of the Harappan script.

 It was pictographic in nature as the script consisted of designs of animals,
fishes and various forms of human figure too.
 It was found to be inscribed on seals, terracotta tablets, etc.
 The seals used generally had a line of writing, which probably had name and
title of the owner.
 The seal had a motif (generally an animal) which conveyed a meaning to
those who could not read.
 The inscriptions were short and written right to left.
 The script has not been deciphered to date.

31.
 The Great Bath was lined with bricks, Coated with plaster, and made water
tight with natural tar.
 The ‘Great Bath’ was a large rectangular tank surrounded by corridors on all
the four sides.
 There were two flights of stairs on north and south leading into the tank.
 The tank was made water tight by laying bricks on the edge and using mortar
of gypsum.
 Rooms were built on the three sides of the tank, with one room having a
large well.
 The water from the tank overflowed into a huge drain. Across the lane there
was a smaller building with eight bathrooms, four at each side of a corridor,
with drains from each bathroom connecting to a drain that ran along the
corridor.

32. State the possible causes described by the archaeologist for the decline for Harappa.
 By 1800 most of the mature Harappan sites in regions such as Cholistan had
been abandoned. Simultaneously there was an expansion of population into
new settlements like Gujarat, Haryana, etc.
 In the few Harappan sites that continued to be occupied after 1900 B.C, there
appears to have been transformation of material culture and there new
settlement indicated a rural way of life named as later Harappan.
  The possible reasons could have been
 Invasion of the cities most probably by the Aryans.
 Climatic change
 Deforestation
 Excessive floods
 The shifting and or drying up of rivers
 Earthquakes

33. Read the following excerpt carefully and answer the questions that follow:
Much later, in 1947, R.E.M. Wheeler, then Director-General of the ASI tried to correlate this
archaeological evidence with that of the Rigveda, the earliest known text in the
subcontinent. He wrote:
The Rigveda mentions pur, meaning rampart, fort or stronghold. Indra, the Aryan war god is
called puramdara, the fort-destroyer. Where are – or were – these citadels? It has in the
past been supposed that they were mythical… The recent excavation of Harappan may be
thought to have changed the picture. Here we have a highly evolved civilization of
essentially non-Aryan type, now known to have employed massive fortifications… What
destroyed this firmly settled civilization? Climatic, economic or political deterioration may
have weakened it, but its ultimate extinction is more likely to have been completed by
deliberate and largescale destruction. It may be no mere chance that at a late period of
Mohenjodaro men, women and children, appear to have been massacred there. On
circumstantial evidence, Indra stands accused.
From R.E.M. Wheeler, “Harappa 1946”, Ancient India, 1947.
a) How did R.E.M. Wheeler correlate his archaeological evidence with Rigveda?
 Rig-Veda mentions pur, meaning rampart, fort or strong-hold. Indra, the
Aryans' war-god is called purandara, the fort destroyer.
b) How has recent excavations at Harappa changed the mythical approach of citadels.
c) State the possible causes described by the archaeologist for the decline of Harappa.

34. Read the extract given below and answer the questions that follow:
In the 1960s, the evidence of a massacre in Mohenjodaro was questioned by an
archaeologist named George Dales. He demonstrated that the skeletons found at the site
did not belong to the same period. Whereas a couple of them definitely seem to indicate a
slaughter,….the bulk of the bones were found in contexts suggesting burials of the sloppiest
and most irreverent nature. There is no destruction level covering the latest period of the
city, no sign of extensive burning, no bodies of warriors clad in armour and surrounded by
the weapons of war. The citadel, the only fortified part of the city, yielded no evidence of a
final defence.
From G.F. Dales, “The Mythical Massacre at Mohenjodaro”, Expedition, 1964
 a) Mention the views of Dales on the evidences found while excavating the ruins at
Mohenjodaro.
b) Why this decline of Indus Valley Civilization called as enigmatic?

35. THE MOST ANCIENT SYSTEM YET DISCOVERED

About the drains, Mackay noted: “It is certainly the most complete ancient System as yet
discovered.” Every house was connected to the street drains. The main channels were made
of bricks set in mortar and
were covered with loose bricks that could be removed for cleaning. In some cases,
limestone was used for the covers. House drains first emptied into a sump or cesspit into
which solid matter settled while wastewater flowed out into the street drains. Very long
drainage channels were provided at intervals with sumps for Cleaning. It is a wonder of
archaeology that “little heaps of material, mostly sand, have frequently been found lying
alongside drainage channels, which shows… that the debris was not always carted away
when the drain was cleared.” From Ernest Mackay, Early Indus Civilization, 1948 drainage
systems were not unique to the larger cities, but were found in smaller settlements as well.
At Lothal for example, while houses were built of mud bricks, drains were made from burnt
bricks.
a) Why has MacKay described this system as complete ancient drainage system?
 Mackay has described it as complete ancient because of well planned,
systematic and unique like its contemporary civilization particularly drainage
system. Cleanliness part was also considered.
b) Was the drainage system similar in large & small settlements of Harappa?
Support your answer with Facts.
 Yes, in large cities like Mohenjo-Daro and small settlement like Lethal
drainage was unique.
c) How were the drains covered?
 Features of domestic drainage system
 Every house was connected with the street drain
 The main channel was made of brick set in mortar and were covered with
loose bricks that could be removed for cleaning
 In some cases, limestone was used for the covers.
 House drains first emptied into a sump or cesspit into which solid matter
settled while wastewater flowed out into the street drains.
 Very long drainage channels were provided at intervals with sumps for
Cleaning.