r~

Marine and
Petroleum Geology
ELSEVIER Marine and PetroleumGeology 16 (1999) 337-353

Diagenesis in North Sea HPHT clastic reservoirs consequences

for porosity and overpressure prediction
Mark J. Osborne*], Richard E. Swarbrick
Department of Geological Sciences, South Rd., Durham University, Durham, DHI 3LE, U.K.

Received 1 August 1997; receivedin revisedform 2 June 1998;accepted26 June 1998

Abstract

Upper Jurassic clastic reservoirs of the Fulmar formation in the Central North Sea possess anomalously high porosities for their
present day depth of burial. Reservoirs with the highest overpressures have the highest porosities, possess less macroquartz cement,
and have significant secondary porosity. Quartz cementation in HPHT (High Pressure High Temperature) reservoirs has been
inhibited by a combination of factors: high overpressure, limited fluid movement, presence of early grain coating cements, high pore
fluid salinity, and possibly petroleum migration. Secondary porosity has contributed to reservoir quality, with an average of 4vo1%
extra porosity created. Quantitative prediction of porosity would require an improved depositional model for the Fulmar, accurate
thermal and pressure modelling, and detailed knowledge of field filling and leakage histories. Theoretical calculations indicate that
diagenetic reactions occurring in the Fulmar formation (smectite iUitisation and quartz cementation), did not generate significant
overpressure, because seal permeabilities were too high and the rate of volume increase associated with the reactions too small.
Therefore diagenetic reactions can effectively be ignored when modelling overpressure generation in the Central North Sea, although
cementation will affect rock permeability and rates of fluid dissipation. © 1999 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Overpressure;Diagenesis; Fulmar formation; Porosity

1. Introduction H P H T areas, and it is important for economic reasons

Upper Jurassic Fulmar formation clastic reservoirs in
the U K Central North Sea and laterally equivalent res-
ervoirs in the Norwegian North sea, have variable and
often anomalously high porosity for their present day
depth of burial (Fig. 1). For example, at depths of 4.0-
6.0 km, average helium porosities for clean, well sorted,
fine-medium grained Fulmar formation reservoir sand-
stones typically vary between 20-30%, whereas expected
values for clean, well sorted, quartz cemented clastic res-
ervoirs in the North Sea might be 10-15% (Giles et al.,
1992; Sclater & Christie, 1980). Such unusually high
porosities are obviously good news for explorationists,
but caution is required as porosities are not ubiquitously
high, because in a few wells, average Fulmar formation
porosities were found to be only 10%. There are con-
siderable technical problems associated with drilling in
*Corresponding author. Tel.: +0044-1932-762234; Fax: +0044-
1932-762000
t Present address: BP-AmocoExploration, Building 200/130, Chert-
sey Rd., Sunbury-on-Thames,Middlesex,TW16 7LN, UK
that reservoir quality should be accurately assessed prior
to drilling. Hence this paper attempts to address the ori-
gins of high porosity in High Pressure High Temperature
(HPHT) Fulmar formation reservoirs.
Diagenetic mineral reactions have been widely credited
with generating overpressure in sedimentary basins.
Growth of cement in the pores of a sediment will generate
overpressure if there is a net reduction in pore volume
and the fluid cannot escape from the rock due to lateral
and vertical seals. For this mechanism to be effective,
cementation must not be inhibited by overpressure, the
ions for cementation must be locally sourced, and the
seals must have very low permeability. Bjorkum and
Nadeau (1996) have suggested that quartz cementation
is a source of overpressure in deeply buried clastic res-
ervoirs, and Bruce (1984) inferred that the transformation
of smectite to illite is a major cause of overpressure in
shales, and in reservoirs interbedded with shales. The
potential of quartz cementation and smectite trans-
formation to produce overpressure in Central North Sea
(HPHT) reservoirs is critically assessed, and the geo-
logical factors which have been responsible for retaining
high porosities at great depth.

0264-8172/99/$ - see front matter © 1999ElsevierScienceLtd. All rights reserved

P11:S0264-8172(98)00043 9
338 M.J. Osborne, R.E. Swarbrick et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 16 (1999) 33~353
0 10
0
-1000
-2000
~-3000
a
-4000
-5000
-6000
Fig. 1. Helium porosity vs depth for Fulmar formation sandstone reservoirs. There is no systematic decline in porosity with depth, but porosities
below 4000 m can be extremely high. Compaction curve for CNS sandstones from Sclater and Christie (1982) for reference.
2. Effect of diagenesis and overpressure on reservoir
quality
From studies of high porosity reservoirs in the North
Sea, there are four likely explanations for anomalously
high porosity in Fulmar formation reservoirs:
2.1. Effects of grain coating cements
Tiny crystals of microquartz less than 5 pm in length,
coat the surface of detrital quartz grains in sandstones
which contain Rhaxella sponge spicules, which upon dis-
solution are envisaged to be the source of the cement
(Aase et al. 1996). As sponge spicules were present in the
rock on deposition, it is likely there is a sedimentological
control on microquartz distribution in Fulmar formation
sandstones. Textural evidence suggests that the mic-
roquartz precipitated during relatively shallow burial
( < 2500 m), although cementation post-dated mech-
anical compaction. At shallow depths of burial mic-
roquartz cemented horizons have the lowest porosities,
but at depths greater than 3700 m the situation is
reversed, so that microquartz cemented horizons have
the highest porosities. The microquartz lithifies the grain
contacts and may allow the rock to resist later chemical
compaction (pressure solution). This inhibition of com-
paction allows microquartz cemented reservoirs retain
high porosity to greater depths of burial than non-micro-
quartz cemented reservoirs (Fig. 2).
% POROSITY
20 30 40 50
2.2. Geochemical inhibition of cementation
Bjorkum et al. (1993) proposed that stylolitisation is
the main source of quartz cement in sandstones, and
stylolitisation can be stopped if silica is released into the
pore fluids by illitisation of kaolinite. As illitisation does
not cause a net porosity loss, porosity loss due to quartz
cementation and sylolitisation will be halted over the
depth/temperature range at which illitisation takes place.
This would mean that sandstone porosity would not be
reduced by chemical compaction where illitisation was
occurring. Dissolution of quartz cement at stylolites is
very sensitive to silica supersaturations. If silica activities
are high, then stylolitisation may be inhibited or halted.
Many Norwegian researchers believe that stylolitisation
is the main source of quartz cement in the reservoirs,
and chemical compaction is temperature, not pressure
dependent (Oelkers et al., 1996; Walderhaug, 1994). The
other main source of silica is illitisation of kaolinite.
However this reaction does not lead to a net porosity
loss, because the products of the reaction (quartz and
illite) have similar volume to the reactants (K-feldspar
and kaolinite). Therefore if stylolitisation is halted due
to illitisation, there will be less quartz cement in the
reservoir and no net porosity reduction due to diagenesis.
There are little or no stylolites in the Fulmar formation,
and relatively little quartz cement compared to many
other clastic reservoirs worldwide. Could illitisation of
kaolinite in the Fulmar formation have inhibited styl-
olitisation and associated quartz cementation? Unfor-
 M.J. Osborne, R.E. Swarbrick et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 16 (1999) 337 353 339

Helium Porosity (%)

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
-2500
AZ~Z~
-2700

-2900 • No microquartz R2 =
Z~ Microquartzcement
-3100
Linear (no microquartz)
A -3300 AA A
E
• A
-3500

1~-3700
ZXA ~X ZX ~ ZX
-3900 A~ A A

-4100

-4300 A A /X

-4500
Fig. 2. Porosity vs depth for microquartz and non-microquartz cemented Upper Jurassic CNS sandstones. Non-microquartz cemented sandstones
lose porosity with increasing depth of burial at a greater rate than microquartz cemented sandstones. Data partly from Aase et al. (1996), plus
unpublished data.

tunately, there is no evidence that kaolinite was once
present in the wells examined in this study. Kaolinite
cement is thought to be the result of feldspar dissolution
in meteoric water. In the Central North Sea, kaolinite
distribution is exclusively restricted to shallow wells on
the western margin of the basin. These wells contain
kaolinite because they were flushed with meteoric water
from a palaeo-landmass that once existed to the west.
As kaolinite was not originally present in most Fulmar
formation sandstones, no subsequent illitisation could
occur.
However, other clay transformations could be respon-
sible for the inhibition of stylolitisation in the Fulmar
formation. The transformation of smectite to illite also
releases silica, which could clearly inhibit stylolitisation
considering the extreme sensitivity of chemical com-
paction to silica supersaturation. Hence transformation
of smectite to illite, which is inferred to have occurred in
the Fulmar formation, could have inhibited styi-
olitisation and quartz cementation over the depth/t-
emperature range at which the transformation was
occurring. This hypothesis could explain why quartz
cements in the key wells did not precipitate until tem-
peratures > 13ff'C were reached.
2.3. Effect of overpressure
Overpressure could potentially inhibit pressure solu-
tion (chemical compaction) in reservoir sandstones by
decreasing the effective stress at grain contacts (Porter
& James, 1986). To test this hypothesis, petrographic,
petrophysical and fluid inclusion data were compiled
from Fulmar formation reservoir sandstones in six oil/
condensate fields with highly variable pressure state and
depth of burial (Table i).
In these deeply buried reservoirs small volumes (aver-
age 3.0 vol%) of macroquartz cement are found as over-
growths on detrital quartz grains. Below 3000 m,
macroquartz cement abundance does not increase with
present day depth of burial, suggesting that quartz
cementation in these samples is not strongly temperature
controlled (Fig. 3). In contrast with Middle Jurassic res-
ervoirs of the Brent Group and Garn formation in the
northern North Sea and Norwegian Sea, where much
larger volumes of quartz cement are found (average 10
vol%), and the amount of quartz cement present in the
sandstones shows a linear increase over a depth range of
2700-4300 m (e.g., Giles et al., 1992).
While there is no apparent relationship in the Fulmar
340 M.J. Osborne, R.E. Swarbrick et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 16 (1999) 337-353

Table 1
Pressure, cement abundance and petrophysical data for the wells studied

Quartz Illite Total Porosity

Overpressure Effstress Depth
Well Min. Av. Max. Min. Av. Max. Min. Av. Max. (psi) (psi) (m)

A 1 3.9 7 20 1728 5600 -3200

B 1 2.8 4 20 753 5200 -3300
C 1 5.3 10 0.02 0.2 2 11.8 19.85 30.1 842 6195 -3911
D 0.3 3.31 6.3 0 1,1 2.14 4 17.7 24 870 6323 -4663
E 2 5.9 10.5 0.5 0,9 1.5 17 1380 6486 --4198
F 0 0.5 1 12.6 3534 3140 -3700
G 0 2.42 4 1 4.15 22 9.7 16.1 21 5808 2491 -4680
H 1.6 2.44 4 0.3 2.55 7 2.5 16 26 7975 1588 -5280
I 0 2.3 6.7 1.3 15.2 29.5 8127 1616 -5192
J 0.3 0.7 1.7 3.8 5.92 7.8 24 31 34 8061 419 -4069
K 4 0.2 -4511.09
L 3 0 -4206.29
M 0 0.9 5 0.01 20 6105 1100 -3992.93

Quartz cement (vol%)

0 2 4 6 8 10
-2000 li m mm m m
I
Im
I

-2500
4N" •
-3000

-3500
.!!'...=
[] i im ma mm lm
~ M N m N M M M M i [] []
.-. -4000 m m MMJ M m N [] mm
E m m l MM H
-4500 m |ml m mm
m

a -5000
m
limi mm
-5500

-6000
m mm mm mmm m m
-6500 mmm

-7000
Fig. 3. Distribution of macroquartz cement vs present day depth of burial for the Fulmar formation. Only small amounts of quartz cement are
present in the Fulmar formation, and there is no marked increase with depth (temperature).

formation between quartz cement abundance and present
day depth of burial (temperature), there does appear to
be a relationship between quartz abundance and effective
stress in reservoirs buried to depths of 4--6 km (Fig.
4). This relationship between effective stress and quartz
overgrowth abundance can be explained if pressure solu-
tion at grain contacts is the source of much of the cement.
Pressure solution could be inhibited by build-up of over-
pressure, hence explaining why there is relatively little
quartz cement in the H P H T reservoirs compared to res-
ervoirs which are only slightly overpressured.
In order to test this hypothesis, the source of the quartz
cement was investigated using cathodoluminesence on
a scanning electron microscope. The amount of quartz
cement and the amount of pressure solution at grain
contacts were quantified for sandstones in two wells, one
of which was highly overpressured, the other slightly
overpressured. The volume of cement and the volume of
 M.J. Osborne, R.E. Swarbrick et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 16 (1999) 337-353
7000
N=13 wells
6000
.-~'5000
v
4000
> 3000
w 2000
1000
0 1
% Ouartz c e m e n t (Ave)
Fig. 4. Quartz abundance vs effective stress for wells buried to depths of 3.5-6.0 km. Wells with high effective stress at the present day have more
quartz cement. For further discussion see text. Data from Table 1.
'overlap' at long grain and point contacts was compared
for several samples in each well and the results illustrated
in Fig. 5. No stylolites were seen in the wells studied, and
stylolites are rare or absent in the Fulmar formation
throughout the Central North Sea, despite the abundance
of detrital clay. This contrasts with Brent Group and
Garn formation sandstones in the northern North Sea
which contain abundant stylolites at depths of 3~4 km
(Oelkers et al., 1992).
Pressure solution can supply much of the quartz in the
sandstones from these two wells (Fig. 5; Table 2). Note
that more quartz cement occurs in the slightly over-
pressured well compared to highly overpressured well.
However, three samples have more quartz cement than
can be supplied by pressure solution alone. These samples
are sandstones which are immediately adjacent to silts-
tones. Petrographic examination of these siltstones indi-
cates they contain highly pitted quartz grains surrounded
by clays and micas, suggesting that quartz grains have
undergone extensive pressure solution. Pressure solution
in the siltstones has therefore released silica which
migrated into the adjacent sandstones, producing
enhanced quartz cementation near the siltstone-sand-
stone contacts. Alternative sources of silica, such as feld-
spar dissolution, and spicule dissolution, are insignificant
in the samples studied.
Further information about the origin of the quartz
overgrowths has been obtained using fluid inclusion mic-
341
,~ "-" Slightly =
/ Overpressured I
2 3 4 5 6
rothermometry. A plot of quartz overgrowth aqueous
fluid inclusion homogenisation temperatures versus
depth for the study wells is shown in Fig. 6. Typically,
the homogenisation temperatures in each sample span a
temperature range of about 40°C, and often have values
approaching present day reservoir temperature, based on
palaeotemperature gradients of 35-40°C/km, suggesting
that the quartz must have formed during deep burial, at
relatively high temperatures. No evidence for resetting of
fluid inclusion temperatures as described by Osborne and
Haszeldine (1993) was observed in the samples studied.
The quartz cement is genuinely late diagenetic (high tem-
perature) in origin.
If the fluid inclusion temperature data are combined
with accurate subsidence and thermal history curves for
the wells, it is possible to estimate the time span over
which cementation must have occurred (Table 3). If the
amount of quartz cement in the well is also known, an
average rate of cementation can be calculated for that
well by dividing the volume of quartz cement present by
the time range over which cementation occurred. Such
calculations indicate that an average of only 3.0 vol%
quartz cement precipitated in these reservoirs within the
last 10-30 M.Y. Hence, volumetrically small amounts
of quartz cement precipitated in these reservoirs, over
extended periods of geological time, at a fairly late stage
in the subsidence history. This lack of late diagenetic
quartz cement is one of the key reasons why porosity
342 M.J. Osborne, R.E. Swarbriek et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geolo#y 16 (1999) 337-353

,, OVERPRESSURED WELL (El)

[] HYDROSTATIC WELL (E2)
35
/
30 /
N
L-
EXPORT Silica /
25 Bala~ed
0"

[]
/
o 20
/
ffl
~ 15 \
I [] Io \
_1
II: 10
W /o" [] \
0
5 / • IMPORT
/
0
0 10 20 30
OVERGROWTH (as % total quartz)
Fig. 5. Silica budget for two CNS wellswith variable overpressure.Overlap quartz is quartz released by pressure solution at grain contacts, overgrowth
quartz is quartz cement observed in the sandstones. The less overpressured well has the most quartz cement, but most silica in both of the wells can
be supplied by pressure solution. Three samples have much larger volumes of quartz cement which cannot be explained by pressure solution within
the sandstones. These samples occur adjacent to siltstones. For further discussion see text. Data from Table 2.

in the Fulmar formation has remained relatively high
compared to m a n y other deeply buried clastic reservoirs
worldwide, which are usually extensively quartz
cemented (McBride, 1989).The rate at which quartz
cement precipitated is related to present day pressure
distribution in Fig. 7 indicates, which shows that quartz
cement grew faster in the slightly overpressured wells
than the overpressured wells. This finding is consistent
with the idea that quartz was sourced by pressure solu-
tion, and that chemical compaction was inhibited by low
effective stresses in the H P H T wells. Detailed modelling
of pressure solution in these sandstones would require
the variation in effective stress through time to be well
constrained, using fluid inclusion palaeobarometry and
basin modelling.
2.4. Effect o f secondary porosity (feldspar dissolution)
Secondary porosity from dissolution of K-feldspar
grains is common in the Fuimar formation. Wilkinson
and Haszeldine (1996) have proposed that dissolution of
massive volumes of feldspar (35 vol%) has occurred in
the Fulmar formation during burial, and that the released
ions have been removed from the sandstone, and hence
reservoir porosities greatly improved. This proposition is
controversial. Wilkinson and Haszeldine's estimate of the
amount of feldspar dissolved is deduced from a plot of
feldspar content versus depth for wells from Quads 29
and 30 in the U K North Sea, which shows an apparent
decline in feldspar from 35 to 5 vol% over a depth range
of 3000-6000 m (Fig. 8). Large volumes of feldspar dis-
solution would give rise to large volumes of authigenic
illite in a closed system. Because equivalent volumes of
illite have not been precipitated within the pore spaces of
the sandstones, Wilkinson & Haszeldine (1996) believe
the feldspar-depth trend provides evidence for export of
aluminium and other ions from the reservoir following
feldspar dissolution. This conclusion is unfounded for
the following reasons:
(1) Insolubility of aluminium: it is theoretically very
 M.J. Osborne, R.E. Swarbriek et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geoloyy 16 (1999) 33~353 343

Table 2 could only be exported if aluminium solubility could

Silica budget for two wells, E1 + E2 be enhanced by the presence of large amounts of
% Pressure
organic acids (Surdam et al., 1984). Sufficient vol-
Well Depth Sample % Overgrowth solution umes of organic acids are not generated in the sub-
surface to allow aluminium complexing, and such
El 15146' #1 14.5 5.5 acids would either react with carbonates in the rocks
El 15146' #2 12.6 9.7 or be complexed with other ions in preference to
E1 15160' 34.3 7.5
E1 15169' #1 9.0 6.7
aluminium (Giles & de Boer, 1990). While presence
El 15169' #2 8.6 6.5 of unusually high concentrations of organic acids
E1 15188' #1 5.7 7.9 may enhance rates of feldspar dissolution under
E1 15188' #2 6.5 8.6 acidic conditions, it is unlikely they will dominate
El 15188' #3 7.7 8.2 fluid-rock interactions unless the source of the acids
E2 12884' #1 10.6 8.5
is immediately adjacent to the reservoir and rates of
E2 12884' #2 15.8 10.3 acid production are very rapid (Harrison & Thyne,
E2 12884' #3 12.5 8.4 1992). Wilkinson and Haszeldine (1996) offer no
E2 12898' 14.5 20.3 explanation for the origin of such large amounts of
E2 12900' #1 11.6 8.9 organic acids, and provide no evidence for their pres-
E2 12900' #2 16.9 12.5
ence in Futmar formation reservoir fluids. Hence the
E2 12900' #3 10.9 7.9
E2 12900' ' #4 15.6 15.6 case for export of aluminium ions remains unproven.
E2 12962' #1 26.5 12.2 (2) Feldspar vs depth trend: the feldspar versus depth
E2 12962' #2 26.8 14.8 trend produced in Wilkinson and Haszeldine (1996)
does not represent a decline in feldspar versus depth
due to dissolution, but may reflect a regional vari-
ation in the amount of feldspar present in the sand-
unlikely that sufficient volumes of aluminium could stones upon deposition. Compilation of data in this
be exported from these sandstones to improve study, from a wider area in the Central North Sea
porosities by 30 vol%. Aluminium is very immobile than was available to Wilkinson and Haszeldine
and insoluble in the subsurface and large amounts (1996) indicates that there is no systematic decline in

TEMPERATURE (°C)
80 100 120 140 160 180 200 22(
-2000

\
-2500
\
-3000 \ \ N=280
t'll
A
-3500
v
E
-r-
l-- -4000
13.
I,U
C3
-4500 /km

-5000
I~ • M 4 1 1 1 D O /km
-5500
Fig. 6. Aqueous primary fluid inclusion homogenisation temperatures for quartz overgrowths vs depth. Geothermal gradients of 35 and 4WC/km
are shown for comparison. Data partly from Saigal et al. (1992) and Nedkvitne et al. (1993), plus unpublished data.
344 M.J. Osborne, R.E. Swarbrick et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 16 (1999) 337-353

Table 3
Rates of cementation and temperature of cementation for the wells studied

Homogenisation Duration of Quartz Rate of

Temperature Cementation Cement cementation
Well/field (°C) (M.Y.) (vol %) (vol %/M.Y.)

E1 150-160°C ~ 10 1.9 0.19

E2 148-160°C ~ 10 5.0 0.5
Fulmar 85-125°C ~ 10 2.8 0.28
Ula 110-140°C ~ 10 5.0 0.5
D2 130-173°C ~ 30 2.4 0.08
B2 145-165°C ~ 20 3.6 0.18

7000

6000
J
w ~I'GHT-MODER/I~T~
" 5000
(n
(/)
uJ 4000 J
cc
HIGHLY I f
(/) OVERPRESSURED I
m 3000 f
>
I • ~ R2 = 0.7429
I-
O 2000
ILl
14. /
14.
m 1000

] I

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

QUARTZ GROWTH RATE (VoI% / M.Y.)
Fig. 7. Rate of quartz cement growth vs effective stress for deeply buried sandstones. Wells with high effective stress have faster quartz growth rates.
For further discussion see text. Data from Table 3.

feldspar with present day depth of burial (Fig. 9).
Instead, feldspar content varies markedly with geo-
graphical area, or quad (Fig. 9). Hence a primary
sedimentological explanation for present day feld-
spar distribution appears feasible, and although some
feldspar has been dissolved in these,6andstones, the
amount of secondary porosity seen in the rock (aver-
age 4.0%) is not sufficient to explain the much greater
variation in feldspar abundance. Variation in sedi-
ment provenance must be partly responsible for the
amount and types of feldspar present, with diagenesis
playing a lesser role.
(3) Volumetric mass balance: feldspar dissolution will
only increase porosity if the ions liberated during
dissolution are exported and do not reprecipitate
locally in the form of illite cement. As the amount of
feldspar which has been dissolved can be estimated
from the amount of secondary porosity seen in the
rock, the amount of illite that would precipitate fol-
lowing feldspar dissolution can also be calculated,
using the chemical reaction given below.
1.0 K-feldspar + 0.174H20 + 0.522 H +
+0.109 Mg 2+ ~ 0.739 K + +0.435 Illite
+ 1.478 Quartz
This reaction assumes that aluminium is conserved,
and is reprecipitated locally as illite cement. If it is
assumed that the neoformed illite was sourced by feldspar
dissolution, then calculations indicate that there is less
authigenic illite than would be expected, indicating that
some ions, including aluminium, have been 'exported'
from the sandstones, with an average of 4.0% porosity
created (Fig. 10; Table 4). This is problematic, as alu-
minium is extremely insoluble in most fluids. Where has
 M.J. Osborne, R.E. Swarbrick et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 16 (1999) 337-353 345

K-feldspar (vol%)
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
0 I I I I I I

-1000 I aQusd29&30 ]

-2000

" -3000
lib

-4000

-5000
II

-6000
Fig. 8. K-feldspar vs depth for Quads 29 and 30, from Wilkinson and Haszeldine (1996). There is an apparent decline in K-feldspar with depth,
supposedly due to dissolution.

K-feldspar (vol%)
0 10 20 30 40 50
b I i
• Quad 21
• Quad 22
-1000 o Quad 29
x Quad 30
- Quad N1
-2000
m • •@
A Quad 23
E
.,,,, • Quad 31
.= -3000 o Quad 39
Q. x
= x
x~

-4000
bOO oooo o

-5000
,I lip I,. • ..
-6000
Fig. 9. Feldspar vs depth for whole of the CNS compiled by GeoPOP. There is no marked decline in feldspar abundance vs depth, but instead
feldspar abundance may vary with geographical area, suggesting sediment provenance has a strong control on feldspar distribution.

the missing aluminium gone? One possible explanation
would be that smectitic clays are the 'sink' for the alu-
minium ions released during feldspar dissolution. Feld-
spar from the clean sands has dissolved to supply the
K and A1 ions needed for illitisation of smectite in the
intraformational clay rich sands, an explanation for
insufficient illite observed in the clean sandstones. Alu-
minium has not been exported from the Fulmar forma-
tion, but has been locally redistributed, creating effective
secondary porosity in the cleaner sandstones. Cal-
culations indicate that all of the 'missing' aluminium
could easily be absorbed by the conversion of 2-5 vol%
smectite to illite, and there is no need to invoke export of
aluminium as an explanation for the lack of illite cement
in the cleaner sands.
If our model for aluminium redistribution is correct,
then sandstones from clay rich sections of the reservoir
should have greater amounts of secondary porosity than
sandstones from the clay poor sections, because less illite
will have precipitated per unit of feldspar dissolved. This
theory is supported by the observation that clay rich
upper Fulmar formation reservoirs have higher porosities
346 M.J. Osborne, R.E. Swarbrick et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 16 (1999) 337-353
15
/ (e.g., Giles et al. 1992; Walderhaug, 1990), probably
/ because the effect of migration on cementation will be
A
JUT
10 RIGHT
-J
.J / internally sourced from pressure solution, cementation
a
W
/ could possibly continue in the presence of petroleum if a
..,/.
i
LLI
5 / TOO LITTLE
0 cipitation (Saigal et al., 1992; Walderhaug, 1990). If
/
JiB i I B
/
II =11
0 5 10
AMOUNT OF ILLITE THAT SHOULD BE PRESENT (%)
Fig. 10. Mass balance calculation showing that significantexport of
aluminium has occurred following feldspar dissolution. Data from
Table 4.
than clay poor lower Fulmar formation sandstones. Up
to 58% (av. 28%) of the total porosity in these reservoirs
is secondary in origin, from the dissolution of feldspar
grains (Fig. 11). A depositional control on porosity can
be ruled out, because the sandstones have the same grain
size and sorting characteristics, are of identical facies, and
have similar amounts of cement and primary mineralogy.
If conversion of smectite to illite is responsible for
feldspar dissolution, then using published kinetic models
and knowing the volumetrics of the reaction, the for-
mation of secondary porosity in the reservoir can be
modelled through time. The results of three different kin-
etic models (Bethke & Altaner, 1986; Dutta, 1986), are
shown in Fig. 12. The modelled amounts of secondary
porosity are in broad agreement with the amounts of
secondary porosity seen in the reservoir today, if the
initial smectite content of the clay fraction is assumed to
be 30%. Mineralogic studies of North Sea Upper Jurassic
mudrocks suggest that this initial smectite content is
reasonable (Pearson & Small, 1988).
2.5. Effect of petroleum migration
Petrographic evidence suggests that migration of pet-
roleum into these reservoir sandstones has not inhibited
cementation in the hydrocarbon column relative to the
water leg. Where core is available in the oil and water
leg, cement distribution shows no systematic variation
across present day hydrocarbon contacts. Emery et al.
(1993) demonstrated convincingly that migration of oil
into the Magnus oilfield inhibited quartz cementation and
controlled porosity distribution across the field, therefore
inhibition of quartz cement growth by oil influx is clearly
possible. However most researchers have seen no firm
evidence for quartz cement inhibition in other oilfields
modified depending on the petroleum saturation, the
source of the quartz cement (internal or external), plus
time and temperature. Where quartz cementation is
thin layer of water remained around the grains, allowing
diffusion of ions from grain contacts to the site of pre-
quartz cement in a sandstone is externally sourced, (e.g.
clay transformation or pressure solution in adjacent
shales), petroleum influx is likely to halt cementation,
because flow of pore water will not be available to trans-
15 port the ions into the reservoir. Although primary pet-
roleum fluid inclusions occur in some quartz cements,
indicating that petroleum migration was occurring at the
same time as cementation, presence of petroleum
inclusions in diagenetic minerals does not necessarily
imply that the reservoir was saturated in hydrocarbons
at the time of cementation. Filling of an oilfield is not
geologically instantaneous, and is a complicated process.
We cannot determine the effect of oil inhibition on quartz
cementation patterns without a detailed understanding
of reservoir geometry, plumbing, oil entry points, charge
duration and amount of supply. There is no direct evi-
dence that hydrocarbon migration has halted diagenesis
in the oil leg relative to the water leg, but this does not
rule out the possibility that inhibition of cementation has
occurred in the past. The effect of petroleum migration
on the porosity of these reservoir sandstones is uncertain,
because our knowledge of field filling and leakage his-
tories is poorly constrained.
3. Diagenesis as a cause o f overpressure
Diagenetic reactions could produce overpressure in
two ways:
(1) Growth of cement in the pores of a sediment will
generate overpressure if there is a net reduction in
pore volume and fluid cannot escape from the rock
due to lateral and vertical seals.
(2) Dehydration of minerals such as smectite can lead
to an expansion in fluid volume which will produce
significant overpressure if the rocks are perfectly
sealed.
The significance of diagnesis as an overpressure mech-
anism depends on the size and rate of the volume expan-
sion or porosity reduction, and the sediment
permeability.
3.1. Smectite to illite transformation
A net reduction in pore volume could occur during the
transformation of smectite to illite. The reaction requires
 M.J. Osborne, R.E. Swarbrick et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geoloyy 16 (1999) 33~353 347

Table 4
S e c o n d a r y p o r o s i t y - illite m a s s b a l a n c e f o r the wells s t u d i e d . % F e l d s p a r dissolved, Illite a n d Q u a r t z derived f r o m p o i n t c o u n t d a t a

Calculated
Calculated v o l u m e o f illite
% Feldspar volume of (assuming 50% Observed Quartz Quartz Depth
Well dissolved illite microporosity) illite Difference predicted observed Difference (m)

N 3.22 1.771 3.542 0.93 -2.62 0.9982 5.56 4.56 -4060.29

0.49 0.2695 0.539 0.00 - 0.54 0.1519 3.94 3.79 -4062.73
3.63 1.9965 3.993 0.00 - 3.99 1.1253 3.18 2.06 --4065.47
2.16 1.188 2.376 0.43 - 1.94 0.6696 2.16 1.49 --4068.22
0.96 0.528 1.056 0.00 - 1.06 0.2976 3.85 3.55 --4073.09
1.35 0.7425 1.485 0.00 - 1.49 0.4185 2.72 2.30 -4076.44
D 0.7 0.385 0.77 0.5 -0.27 0.217 5.5 5,28 -4069.13
2 1.1 2.2 0.5 - 1.70 0.62 3.5 2.88 --4069.13
2.5 1.375 2.75 0.3 - 2.45 0.775 3.7 2.93 --4069.13
1.5 0.825 1.65 0 - 1.65 0,465 4.7 4.24 --4038.65
2.7 1.485 2.97 2 - 0.97 0.837 2 1.16 --4038.65
2.3 1.265 2.53 1.8 -0.73 0.713 6.3 5.59 --4023.41
2 1.1 2.2 2 -0.20 0.62 0.3 -0.32 --4008.17
J 4.5 2.475 4.95 5.8 0.85 1.395 0.5 -0.90 --4663.5
5.2 2.86 5.72 5.5 -0.22 1,612 0.7 -0.91 --4663.5
6.2 3.41 6.82 5.8 1.02 1.922 0.5 - 1.42 -4663.5
4.2 2.31 4.62 5.7 1.08 1.302 0.3 - 1.00 -4693.98
5.1 2.805 5.61 6.8 1.19 1.581 1.3 -0.28 -4693.98
1 3.2 1.76 3.52 0 -3.52 0.992 6.7 5.71 -6284.72
3 1.65 3.3 0 3.30 0.93 4.3 3.37 --6297.76
3.8 2.09 4.18 0 4.18 1.178 5.3 4.12 --6305.5
1.6 0.88 1.76 0 - 1.76 0.496 0 -0.50 --6331.75
3.8 2.09 4.18 0 4.18 1.178 0.7 -0.48 --6346.51
3 1.65 3.3 0 3.30 0.93 1.7 0.77 -6366
4 2.2 4.4 0 - 4.40 1.24 1 - 0.24 -6393.5
5.6 3.08 6.16 0 -6.16 1.736 4 2.26 6406.51
-

0 0 0 0 0.00 0 0 0.00 - 6417.75

0 0 0 0 0.00 0 0.7 0.70 --6429.72
0 0 0 0 0.00 0 1 1.00 --6456.03
1.8 0.99 1.98 0 - 1.98 0.558 2.3 1.74 -6464.8
3.8 2.09 4.18 0 -4.18 1.178 6.7 5.52 -6502.75
1.3 0.715 1.43 0 - 1.43 0.403 0 - 0.40 -6518.51
0 0 0 0 0.00 0 0.3 0.30 -6555.5
O 6.67 3.6685 7.337 0.2 -7.14 2.0677 0.67 - 1.40 -5016.15
6 3.3 6.6 1 - 5.60 1.86 12.33 10.47 -5017.07
5.67 3.1185 6,237 I - 5.24 1.7577 6 4.24 -5019.81
3.33 1.8315 3.663 0 - 3.66 1.0323 2.33 1.30 - 5023.47
8.33 4.5815 9.163 0.33 -8.83 2.5823 6.67 4.09 - 5026.21
3.33 1.8315 3,663 0 - 3.66 1.0323 3.33 2.30 - 5027.13
6 3.3 6.6 0 - 6.60 1.86 8.67 6.81 - 5029.26
5.33 2.9315 5.863 1.67 - 4.19 1.6523 2.67 1.02 - 5034.14
4.67 2.5685 5.137 0 - 5.14 1.4477 0.33 - 1.12 - 5036.27
5.33 2.9315 5.863 0.33 - 5.53 1.6523 2 0.35 - 5039.32
6 3.3 6.6 0 -6.60 1.86 0.2 - 1.66 -5044.2
5 2.75 5.5 0 -5.50 1.55 3.67 2.12 - 5046.94
6 3.3 6.6 2 -4.60 1.86 1.33 -0.53 -5050.6
7.33 4.0315 8.063 0 - 8.06 2.2723 2.33 0.06 - 5055.17
7.33 4.0315 8,063 0.2 - 7.86 2.2723 1.33 - 0.94 - 5058.22
8 4.4 8.8 0 -8.80 2.48 0.33 -2.15 - 5060.66
4 2.2 4.4 0 - 4.40 1.24 2 0.76 -5063.7
4.33 2.3815 4.763 0 -4.76 1.3423 3.67 2.33 - 5067.67
6.33 3.4815 6.963 0.33 -6.63 1.9623 11.67 9.71 - 5068.89
6.67 3.6685 7.337 0.2 - 7.14 2.0677 II 8.93 - 5070.41
P 8 4.4 8.8 0 - 8.80 2.48 1 - 1.48 -4311.6
3 1.65 3.3 0 -3.30 0.93 0.2 -0.73 -4293.47
6 3.3 6.6 0 -6.60 1.86 5 3.14 -4272.74
7 3.85 7.7 0 -7.70 2.17 0.2 - 1.97 -4259.02
12 6.6 13.2 0 - 13.20 3.72 0.2 -3.52 -4247.44
7 3.85 7.7 0 -7.70 2.17 0.2 - 1.97 -4208.12
0 0 0 0 0.00 0 0 0.00 -4194.71
348 M.J. Osborne, R.E. Swarbrick et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geoloyy 16 (1999) 337-353

Volume% Volume% Volume% Volume%

40 0 20 40 20 40 0 20 40
i I

r~

Higher Porosity Abundant Clay Lower Porosity Little Clay

Fig. 11. Distribution of clay and porosity in the upper and lower Fulmar formation from an HPHT well. The most porous horizons are those which
are interbedded with abundant clay. Up to 48% of the porosity is secondary in origin. For further discussion see text.

o! • ,
2 ~

Z Z
0 0

el W

200 1SO 100 SO 0 -', 200 t60 100 60 0 •

T I M E (M.Y.) o T I M E (M.Y.) o

Fig. 12. Kinetic models showing the amount of secondary porosity that would be created in the upper and lower Fulmar formation through geological
time in an HPHT well.

the addition of AI and K ions, and the release of Na, Ca,
Mg, Fe, Si ions plus water. The general form of
the reaction is: K-feldspar + Smectite =~ Illite +
Quartz + Water. In the Gulf Coast of the U.S.A., there is
a broad correlation between the onset of overpressuring
and the smectite to illite transformation (Bruce, 1984).
There is no proof that the transformation produces
abnormal pressures. Although significant water is
released in the transformation, overpressure will not
result unless an overall volume expansion occurs during
the reaction. But, the association between the smectite to
illite reaction and overpressure could be due to reduction
in sediment permeability and change in compressibility
induced by the transformation.
The exact volume changes involved in the reaction
are difficult to ascertain because the exact nature of the
numerous reactions involved are not yet clear (Ahn &
Peacor, 1986). The overall volume change and the
amount of water released by the reaction varies widely
depending on which hypothetical reaction is used in the
calculation, the molar volume of smectite, and whether
ions are assumed to be exported from the system or not.
Osborne and Swarbrick (1997) calculated the volume
changes associated with ten possible smectite to illite
reactions; results indicate either volume increases of 0.1-
4.1%, or volume decreases of 0.7-8.4%, during the trans-
formation. Net volume increase could potentially gen-
erate overpressure, depending on the rock permeability,
but volume reduction would lead to either a decrease in
pressure, or enhanced sediment compaction.
A number of kinetic models for the transformation of
smectite to illite exist (e.g., Bethke & Altaner, 1986;
Dutta, 1986). These models assume the reaction is con-
trolled by time and temperature, so if accurate thermal
and subsidence histories are available for a well, the frac-
tion of smectite that has converted to illite through time
can be calculated. Such kinetic models can then be com-
bined with reaction volumetrics to calculate the cumu-
lative change in rock volume during burial. The volume
changes that occurred during the subsidence of an Upper
 M.J. Osborne, R.E. Swarbrick et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 16 (1999) 33~353 349

Jurassic sediment in a Central North Sea H P H T well, for
six different smectite to illite reactions, are shown in Fig.
13. The model assumes the solid fraction of the rock was
100% smectite originally, the geothermal gradient was
35'~C/km and the present day reservoir temperature is
200°C. Note the amount of volume change is generally
small, and volume decreases occur in some reactions. The
maximum rate of volume change is ~0.2 vol%/M.Y.
(Fig. 13). The model represents the maximum possible
volume change that could occur in the rocks, because on
deposition the sediments did not contain 100% smectite.
Once the cumulative change in rock volume through
time has been calculated, the influence of volume change
on fluid pressure can be assessed, using a rearranged form
of Darcy's Flow Law:
DP = QmL/KA
14). The calculation assumes that the seal is 10 m thick
and has uniform permeability. Even at very low seal
permeabilities (1 × 10 - 9 mD) the amount of overpressure
is insignificant ( < 10 psi, Fig. 14). This seal permeability
is comparable to the lowest shale permeability ever mea-
sured (Neuzil, 1994), at higher values of permeability the
amount of overpressure produced is even smaller. It is
unlikely that shales would have permeabilities as low as
l x 10 - 9 mD at depths of 2-3 km where the trans-
formation of smectite to illite occurs. Hence smectite
transformation is unlikely to be a cause of overpressure
in the Central North Sea because the rate of volume
increase is too slow, and rock permeabilities are not
sufficiently small. In addition, smectite is generally not
abundant in the sediments of the North Sea (Pearson &
Small, 1988).

Where:
RATE OF VOLUME EXPANSION
D P -- change in pressure DURINGCONVERSIONOF SMECTITETO ILLITE(Vol%I M.Y.)
Q = flow rate (rate of volume change) Maximum Rate
m = fluid viscosity 0.0001 0,001 0.01 0.1 1 10

L = length of flow path 1oooo

K-~ permeability
A --- area lO ~-
The maximum rate of volume change of ~0.2 0.1 <
vol%/M.Y represents the maximum rate at which the 0.01
0.11111 ~
pore space will be filled due to cementation. If an equi-
valent volume of fluid escapes from the rock at the same ' O,OOO01 ~
1E410 ~
time as cements are filling up the pore space, fluid pressure 1E-07
will not increase. However, if the rate of cementation 1E-08
IE-09
exceeds the rate at which fluid can be expelled from the
IE-I0
rock, overpressure will result. The amount of over- Fig. 14. Graph illustrating the amount of overpressure that could be
pressure produced can be calculated from the above produced by conversion of smectite to illite, for varying values of seal
equation, for various values of seal permeability (Fig. permeability. The amount of overpressure generated is negligible.

TIME (M.Y.) Present

160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0
I L I 1 I t I | 6
!
Maximumrate
of volumeincrease ~ ° " 7 ' ' ' ~ 4
0.2 vo,%/M.Y. ~ . " ~ _ 1* ~' • LU

'
Expnsion ' '
.,,~. ""
~,,'~"~" --- ]2 3g- 9

am IIi
ReacUon 2 "~;~lmmamhb ~n~ Z
~'='4:>~ Reaction3 k ..... ~ -4 ~__) IIXI o.~
~ 'R.=Ion, ~ ."
' Reaction 6
-8
Fig. 13. Graph showing the cumulative volume changes associated with the conversion of smectite to illite in an Upper Jurassic sediment from the
Central North Sea well through geologic time. Volume changes are small, and in some cases volume decreases occur. For further discussion, see text.
350 M.J. Osborne, R.E. Swarbrick et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geoloyy 16 (1999) 337-353
3.2. Quartz cementation as a source o f overpressure
Precipitation of quartz cement as overgrowths (mac-
roquartz) has been suggested as a cause of overpressure in
deeply buried clastic reservoirs by Bjorkum and Nadeau
(1996). From Fig. 9, and data presented in Walderhaug,
(1996), the average rate of quartz cementation in the
North Sea can be calculated to be between 0.06 and 3.5
vol%/M.Y. Using the equation above, the amount of
overpressure that could be created by this rate of quartz
cementation can be calculated, for various values of seal
permeability (Fig. 15). The calculation assumes that the
seal is 10 m thick and has uniform permeability. Even at
very low seal permeabilities (1 × 1 0 - 9 mD) the amount of
overpressure generated is insignificant (< 100 psi, Fig.
15). Hence it is unlikely that quartz cementation will
generate significant overpressure, unless perfect sealing
occurs. In addition, data presented in this paper suggests
overpressure may inhibit overgrowth formation.
4. Discussion
As sponge spicule distribution is an important control
on porosity preservation in the Fulmar formation it is
desirable to construct a predictive model for their occur-
rence. The volume of spicules present is also important:
too many spicules result in the development of pore-
occluding chalcedony cement (Hendry & Trewin, 1995),
but smaller volumes (2-3 vol%) result in the precipitation
of the grain rimming cement that inhibits chemical com-
paction (Aase et al., 1996). Spicules are found in a wide
range of silty fine grained lithologies worldwide including
turbiditic sandstones and marls and shallow marine sand-
stones (Vagle et al., 1994). The spicules were clearly
deposited in shallow water but can be redeposited in deep
water environments by sediment gravity flows (Hendry
Range in quartz
GROWTHRATE(Vol%/M,Y.) ~lrowth rat~,~
1~
0.0001 0.001 0.01
SEALPERMEABILITY
I J
- " "" 10000
~ ~..~ ~ ~
~1.00E-4 mD • 10
~ 0.01
~~~
, ~
Fig. 15. Graph illustrating the amount of overpressure that could be
produced by quartz cementation, for varying values of seal
permeability. The amount of overpressure generated is negligible.
and Trewin, 1995). To date no predictive model exists
correlating spicule distribution and abundance to a depo-
sitional model which could enable the porosity dis-
tribution to be predicted more accurately. Why
microquartz grain coats inhibit porosity loss and quartz
overgrowth formation is also uncertain. Hendry &
Trewin (1995) attribute the lack of later quartz over-
growths to the inconsistent lattice distribution of the earl-
ier microquartz generation. Early cementation may
decrease the differential stress at grain contacts, and
inhibit later chemical compaction in limestones and sand-
stones (Sibley & Blatt, 1976). Aase et ai. (1996) propose
a geochemical solution to the problem: as a higher degree
of supersaturation is required to grow small quartz crys-
tals, the formation of microquartz crystals could allow
pore water silica activities to increase to a level at which
release of silica from stylolites would be inhibited. This
would mean less silica would be available for quartz
cementation. This model is only valid in a closed geo-
chemical system and crystal sizes must remain < 2-3/~m
in size (Aase et al., 1996). If crystal sizes become larger
quartz overgrowth formation and stylolitisation should
occur. This model does not explain why the non-mic-
roquartz cemented portions of highly overpressured res-
ervoirs have little quartz cement, or why quartz cement
grew fastest in the slightly overpressured reservoirs.
We have noted that there is an apparent relationship
between high effective stresses at the present day and
greater quartz cement abundance. The explanation for
this is uncertain, but the most likely reason is that high
overpressures, maintained over several millions of years,
have inhibited pressure solution at grain contacts and
reduced the amount of silica available for cementation.
This hypothesis could be tested if the pressure history of
the fields could be accurately constrained. Most of the
overpressure produced in the Upper Jurassic of the Cen-
tral North Sea was the result of disequilibrium com-
paction produced by rapid subsidence in the late Tertiary.
From fluid inclusion microthermometry and subsidence
history modelling we do know that this period of rapid
subsidence was synchronous with quartz cementation in
10 the reservoirs. Pressure solution, and chemical com-
1.ooo
paction in general, remain one of the most poorly under-
1000 stood geological processes, and there is little agreement
1oo .--- between theoretical, experimental and field studies (Tada
& Siever, 1989). Experimental studies of pressure solution
0.1 indicate that pressure does affect quartz solubility,
though temperature and fluid salinity are more important
0.001 z
0.0001 controls (Porter & James, 1986). For example, in hydro-
: 0.ooo01 static pressure conditions at 5 km, the solubility of quartz
1E-06
1E-07 would be 12 ppm higher than if pressures were close to
1E-08 lithostatic (Porter & James, 1986). These differences are
1E-09 admittedly small, but may well be significant over geo-
1E-10
logical time scales. The validity of such experimental
studies remains open to question, as they use unreal-
istically high temperatures and pressures. Because of
 M.J. Osborne, R.E. Swarbrick et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 16 (1999) 337-353
these uncertainties in modelling pressure solution, it is
uncertain that pressure alone is responsible for inhibition
of chemical compaction and quartz cementation in the
Fulmar formation, but the data we have compiled does
not support the time-temperature dependent quartz
cementation model of Walderhaug (1994), because there
is no marked increase in the volume of quartz cement
present with increasing depth (higher temperature). Lack
of significant quartz cement in highly overpressured
Fulmar reservoirs may be due to a combination of
factors:
(l) High fluid pressures, which decrease silica solubility
at grain contacts. This mechanism is probably only
feasible if the high pressures are maintained over
millions of years.
(2) Geochemical inhibition. Most CNS reservoirs have
highly saline pore fluids, and because solubility of
quartz decreases with rising salinity, highly saline
pore fluids may have inhibited pressure solution at
grain contacts. Similarly release of silica from smec-
tite transformation to illite could have halted styl-
olitisation and quartz cementation over the
depth/temperature range at which illitisation occurs.
This explanation is only feasible if transport is the
rate limiting step for cementation.
(3) Petroleum migration. There are no marked differ-
ences in the degree of quartz cementation across
HWCs at the present day. However, because the fill-
ing and leakage histories of the fields are difficult to
constrain it is still possible that petroleum migration
has slowed the rates of quartz cementation in some
fields. Rates of quartz growth are slower in the more
deeply buried HPHT reservoirs. If petroleum
migration is responsible for slowing quartz growth in
these reservoirs, then HPHT reservoirs must have
been charged earlier than the shallower slightly over-
pressured reservoirs examined in this study.
Our model for secondary porosity generation in the
Fulmar formation could be used semi-predictively if the
original volume of smectite and the thermal history of
the well was known. However, the original volume of
smectite present in sediment may be difficult to constrain.
In addition, the kinetic models used for modelling the
transformation of smectite to illite assume that the reac-
tion is time and temperature controlled, and do not con-
sider the effect of fluid composition on the rate of the
reaction. From experimental data, the rate of reaction is
known to be slowed by the presence of Na, Mg plus
pressure, and requires the ready availability of AI and K,
but the magnitude of the effect on the reaction rate is not
well constrained (Eberl & Hower, 1978; Huang et al.,
1993). Although the magnitude of secondary porosity
produced is uncertain, the timing of secondary porosity
generation is broadly similar in all the models (Fig. 12).
351
Information on the timing of secondary porosity gen-
eration relative to the timing of petroleum migration into
the reservoir will be of use to explorationists. If petroleum
enters the sandstones prior to secondary porosity gener-
ation, less hydrocarbon will be found in the reservoir.
Highly overpressured reservoirs have the greatest sec-
ondary porosity, suggesting that more secondary
porosity is preserved in these rocks because over-
pressuring has inhibited further compaction. Hence, the
timing of feldspar dissolution relative to overpressuring
is also important; where feldspar dissolution has been
rapidly followed by pressure build-up more secondary
porosity will be retained. Our model for secondary
porosity enhancement in the Fulmar formation could
also be applied to the South Brae oilfield, North Sea,
where turbidite reservoir sandstones are similarly inter-
bedded with smectite bearing shales (McLaughlin et al.,
1994), and the sandstones show an apparent export of
aluminium following feldspar dissolution.
Can reservoir quality in the Fulmar formatuion be
predicted? Where feasible, sequence stratigraphic sub-
division of the Fulmar formation is useful, because the
best poroperm is found in sands belonging to lowstand
systems tract and the lower part of the transgressive sys-
tems tract (Veldekamp, et al., 1996). Detailed sedi-
mentological studies indicate that poroperm is controlled
by subtle variations in grain size, sorting, clay content
and degree of bioturbation (Gowland, 1996). However,
most of the sedimentological and sequence stratigraphic
studies have been conducted on wells from the Western
Platform area. These wells are relatively shallow buried
and the Fulmar formation does not exhibit the more
pronounced diagenetic alteration seen in the deeper wells
of the Central Graben area. Prediction of reservoir qual-
ity in these deeper prospects requires knowledge of the
diagenesis and subsidence history of the sediments.
The main compactional and diagenetic controls on the
porosity of the Fulmar formation are detailed in Table
5. The chief problem in predicting reservoir quality in the
Fulmar formation is the lack of a depositional model to
explain the distribution and abundance of sponge spicules
and detrital clay. These two factors strongly influence
the distribution of microquartz, quartz overgrowths, and
secondary porosity in the reservoir. Without a more
detailed sedimentological model, prediction of the
porosity variations of within the reservoir will be difficult.
The theoretical calculations presented in this paper
indicate the magnitude of overpressure produced by
smectite transformation to illite and quartz diagenesis in
the Central North Sea is negligible. However, the exact
magnitude of overpressure produced will vary depending
on the thickness and permeability of the overlying seal,
the volumetrics and rate of the reaction, and the volume
of the reservoir in which the cementation is occurring.
The major uncertainty is the seal permeability, which is
poorly constrained for mudrocks.
352 M.J. Osborne, R.E. Swarbrick et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 16 (1999) 337-353

Table 5
Porosity reducing/enhancing processes in the Fulmar formation

Process Influence on porosity % of Reservoir affected Can it be predicted?

Chalcedony cement Can drastically reduce or < 5-20% No, unless a depositional model for predicting sponge
completely occlude porosity. spicule distribution and abundance is developed.
Microquartz Can preserve porosity and inhibit< 40% No, for the same reason chalcedony cement cannot be
cement chemical compaction. predicted.
Secondary porosity Can offset porosity loss due to Entire reservoir, although sands Secondary porosity generation through time can be
compaction and cementation. adjacent to shales have greatest modelled, but detailed prediction of secondary porosity
%. distribution is difficult without detailed facies models.
Dolomite/Ankerite Reduce porosity significantly in • Disseminated rhombs affect the No, distribution is entirely random.
cement many wells. entire reservoir and fill 0-10%
of porosity.
• Concretions completely No, but concretionary horizons do not
occlude porosity and occur in compartmentalise the reservoir, and cause no
< 10% of the reservoir. production problems.
• Massive pore-filling dolomite A qualified yes. Dolomite cementation is likely
can completely occlude wherever Jurassic and Triassic sediments are
porosity but is largely restricted juxtaposed against the Zechstein.
to within a few metres of the
Zechstein.
Quartz cement Small volumes (0-10%) occur in Affects non-microquartz parts Yes, if pressure and temperature history of the well
deeply buried reservoirs. of the reservoir only. is known.

5. Conclusions
(1) Development of early grain coating microquartz
helps to retain high porosity at depths up to 4 km,
probably by reducing the amount of chemical com-
paction at grain contacts. Microquartz cement is
restricted to horizons which contain detrital sponge
spicules.
(2) Overpressure inhibits pressure solution, and retards
the development of late diagenetic quartz over-
growths, helping to preserve high porosities during
deep burial. Quartz overgrowths mainly precipitate
in the non-microquartz cemented sandstones, and the
rate of growth is fastest under conditions of high
effective stress.
(3) Secondary porosity after feldspar could have created
an average of 4.0% porosity in the Fulmar formation,
if the ions released during feldspar dissolution were
exported from the clean sands and migrated into
adjacent silty sands.
(4) Highly overpressured, deeply buried reservoirs in the
Central North Sea are likely to possess moderate to
good reservoir quality, because overpressuring and
early grain coating cements have inhibited com-
paction of primary and secondary porosity.
(5) Smectite transformation is unlikely to be a cause of
overpressure in the Central North Sea because the
rate of volume increase is too slow, seal permeabilities
are too high, and the amount of smectite present is
small.
(6) Quartz cementation is a negligible cause of over-
pressure because the rate of overgrowth formation is
too slow, and seal permeabilities are too high. Cemen-
tation may also be inhibited by pressure build up.
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