1 en ROUTE v7 Ch01 PDF

Implementing Cisco IP Routing (ROUTE)
Chapter 1: Differentiating
Basic Network and Routing
Routing Concepts Protocols
Elaborated by: Ing. Ariel Germán

For: ITLA
Based on: Foundation Learning Guide
CCNP ROUTE 300-101
Diane Teare, Bob Vachon, Rick Graziani
2015
ROUTE v6 Chapter 1 Chapter 1
© 2007 2010, Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Public 1 © 2007 2010, Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Public 3
Chapter 1 Topics Enterprise Network Infrastructure

Differentiating Routing Protocols Enterprise Campus
Understanding Network Technologies Enterprise Edge
Connecting Remote Locations with Headquarter
Routing and TCP/IP operations
Implementing RIPng
Summary
Chapter 1 Chapter 1
Role of Dynamic Routing Protocols IGP versus EGP
(Autonomous system (AS) represents a collection of
network devices under a common administration).
Interior Gateway Protocols (IGPs):

Are used within the organization, and exchange routes within an AS.
Fast convergence, not complex to configure.
RIP, EIGRP, OSPF, IS-IS
Exterior Gateway Protocols (EGPs):

Exchange routes between different ASs.
Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) is the only EGP used today.
BGP is the routing protocol of the Internet.
Chapter 1 Chapter 1
Choosing a Dynamic Routing Protocol Types of Routing Protocol 1/2

Input requirements: Distance vector protocols:
Size of the network Determines the direction (vector) and distance (link cost or number of
hops) to any link in the network.
Multivendor support
Router only knows the distance or metric and the interface to get
Knowledge level of specific protocol there.
RIPv1 and IGRP used only the periodic exchange of routing
Protocol characteristics: information for a topology change
EIGRP and RIPv2, used triggered updates.
Type of routing algorithm
Speed of convergence
Link-state protocols:
Scalability
Use the Shortest Path First (SPF) to create an abstract of the topology
of the entire network or a area.
All link-
OPF and IS-IS are examples.
Chapter 1 Chapter 1
Types of Routing Protocol 2/2 Route Summarization
Path Vector Protocols: Group several subnets into one aggregate entry that
Exchange information about destination networks, and the path on describes all of them.
how to reach them. Reduce overhead and improve stability and scalability by
reducing amount of routing information exchanged.
BGP is the only path vector protocol widely used.
Distance vector protocols support summarization in any
interface, but link states support it only at area boundaries.
IP addressing must be hierarchically assigned in contiguous
blocks across the network.
What is the
summarized
network?
Chapter 1 Chapter 1
Convergence Routing Protocol Scalability

Process of when routers notice a change in the network, Scalability describes the ability of a routing protocol to support
exchange information and recalculate the best routes. further network growth.
Scalability factors:
Number of routes
Converged network: All routers have the same view on the Number of adjacent neighbors
network topology. Number of routers in the network
Network design
Frequency changes
Convergence time can be influenced: Available resources (CPU and memory)
Fine-tuning routing protocols timers (increases traffic, overhead, CPU Hierarchical addressing, structured address assignment, and
utilization in routers). route summarization improves the overall scalability.
Route summarization (less networks to update). Routing protocols have their own mechanisms:
OSPF: hierarchical areas
EIGRP: stubs routers
Chapter 1 Chapter 1
Traffic Types 2/2
Anycast:
Traffic sent to anycast address is routed to the nearest interface that
has this particular address.
Nearest interface is found according the measure of distance of the
routing protocol used.
Understanding Example: DNS
Network Technologies
Broadcast:
Only used in IPv4
Information is transmitted from one sender to all connected receivers.
Local broadcast address: 255.255.255.255
Directed broadcast: last IPv4 address in each subnet.
Chapter 1 Chapter 1
Traffic Types 1/2 IPv6 Address Types 1/2

Unicast:
Exchanged only between one sender and one receiver.
Most used traffic type
Multicast:
Traffic sent to a multicast address is sent to multiple destinations at
the same time.
An interface my belong to any number of multicast groups
IPv4: 224.0.0.0 239.255.255.255
IPv6: FF00::/8
Chapter 1 Chapter 1
IPv6 Address Types 2/2 Network Types 1/2
Global Unicast: equivalent to public IP address in IPv4. Point-to-point network:
Link Local: automatically or manually configured. Not Connects a single pair of routers
routable. Example: A serial link
Assigned Multicast: Similar to well-known multicast
addresses in IPv4.
Solicited node Multicast: Used by ICMPv6 Neighbor Broadcast network:
Discovery. Similar to ARP for IPv4.
Connects many routers
Loopback: Used for testing.
All are reachable through one single address
Unspecified: Used as source IPv6 address indicating Example: Ethernet
absence of Global Unicast address.
Unique Local: equivalent to private IP address un IPv4
Embedded IPv4: Used to represent the IPv6 equivalent of
a IPv4 address.
Chapter 1 Chapter 1
ICMPv6 Neighbor Discovery Network Types 2/2

ICMPv6 is similar to ICMPv4 Nonbroadcast Multiaccess (NBMA) networks:
ICMPv6 provides automatic address allocation, address Support many routers.
resolution, and duplicate address detection. Does not have broadcast capabilities.
ICMPv6 Neighbor Discovery includes five messages: Sender needs to create an individual copy of the same packet for
each router.
Router Solicitation (RS): Multicast sent to all IPv6 routers requesting
a Router Advertisement message. Introduce several challenges.
Router Advertisement (RA): Response to a RS Indicating prefix, Examples: Frame Relay and Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM).
prefix-length and default gateway address.
Neighbor Solicitation (NS): Similar to ARP for IPv4.
Neighbor Advertisement (NA): Response of a NS message.
Redirect: Sent by a router to inform a better next-hop router on the
link.
Chapter 1 Chapter 1
NBMA Networks 1/3 NBMA Networks 3/3
Subinterfaces overcome these limitations. There are two
Can use a variety of topologies. Hub-and-spoke or partial types:
mesh is the most common. Point-to-point subinterfaces: Each subinterface provides connectivity
Frame Relay is the most common example of NBMA between two routers, using its own subnet.
technology.
If multipoint interface is used to connect multiple sites, some
issues arise:
Split Horizon: In distance vector protocols, the hub receives the
update in its physical interface but cannot forward it through the same
interface to the other spokes.
Point-to-multipoint subinterfaces: One single subnet is used. EIGRP

and OSPF need additional configuration. Point-to-point are preferred.
Chapter 1 Chapter 1
NBMA Networks 2/3 Routing over the Internet

Neighbor discovery: OSPF over NBMA does not discover neighbors IGP are not used to establish connections over the Internet
by default. You have to configure them and manually establish the for the following reasons:
hub as the Designated Router (DR).
All IGPs need to establish adjacencies with directly connected
neighbors.
Organizations typically use private IP addressing.
Internet is insecure by nature.
To overcome these limitations, tunneling techniques can be
used. They´re generally named Virtual Private Networks
(VPNs).
Broadcast replication: The hub router must replicate broadcast Most VPN technologies support routing protocols.
packets on each PVC to the remote routes.
Adjacencies can be established using tunnel interfaces.
Chapter 1 Chapter 1
Principles of Static Routing 1/2
A static route can be used when:
Routing updates are undesirables, such as in dialup link.
Administrator needs total control over the routes.
Backup to a dynamically recognized route.
Connecting Is necessary to reach a network accessible by only one path (stub
network).
Remote Locations
with Headquarters
Router connects to a ISP and needs to have only a default route

pointing to it.
Router has few resources (CPU and memory).
Chapter 1 Chapter 1
Principles of Static Routing 2/2

To connect remote locations, leased lines and Frame Relay What are the drawbacks of static routing?
are not longer needed.
Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS) VPNs and Dynamic
Multipoint Virtual Private Network (DMVPN) are
widespread.
MPLS and DMVPN offer greater flexibility at a lower cost. Configuring IPv4 Static Route:
ip route prefix mask {address | interface [address]} [dhcp] [distance]
Routing protocols considerations needs to be taken. [name next-hop-name] [permanent| track number] [tag tag]
Prior to IOS 12.0 it was more efficient to use the exit interface.
After IOS 12.0 (with the implementation of CEF)is now recommended
to use the next-hop IP address.
Chapter 1 Chapter 1
Configuring a Static Default Route PPP Authentication Overview 1/3
Authentication is optional.
PPP can use PAP and CHAP.
PAP is very basic two-way process with no encryption.
CHAP involve a three-way exchange of a shared secret.
You can configure either PAP, or CHAP or both:
Router(config-if)# ppp authentication {chap | chap pap | pap chap |
pap} [if-needed] [list-name | default] [callin]
PAP authentication requires the remote device to send a

name and password to be checked against its user
database (or TACACS/TACACS+).
Chapter 1 Chapter 1
Basic PPP Overview PPP Authentication Overview 2/3

PPP has some advantages over its predecessor HLDC (default The hostname on one router must match the username the
encapsulation method in serial interfaces of Cisco routers). other router has configured for PPP.
PPP is configured on a interface
Password must also match.
Additional options can be used after it´s activated
Chapter 1 Chapter 1
PPP Authentication Overview 3/3 PPPoE 2/2
In CHAP, the local device sends a challenge to the remote. Configuration:
Create a dialer interface (which is virtual).
The remote encrypts the challenge and its name, and return it.
Configure the dialer interface encapsulation PPP and IP address by
Local router uses the configured name of the remote, encrypt it DHCP
with the challenge, and verify if the calculated and received Enable PPPoE in the ethernet interface that faces the client.
values match. Link the dialer interface to the ethernet
Set the MTU to 1492
Unlike PAP, CHAP authenticates periodically.
Chapter 1 Chapter 1
PPPoE 1/2 Basic Frame Relay Overview

ISPs value PPP because of the authentication, accounting Frame Relay is a high-performance WAN protocol that
and link management features. operates at the physical and data link layer of OSI model.
Ethernet links does not support PPP, that´s why PPPoE One single physical connection is needed.
was created. SP creates virtual circuits (VC), which are normally PVC,
PPPoE creates a PPP tunnel over the Ethernet connection. identified by a DLCI.
The modem convers the Ethernet frames to PPP frames by DLCI are locally significant.
stripping the Ethernet headers. A mapping between IP address and DLCI must be
established.
By default, Frame Relay is NBMA. But subinterfaces are
normally used.
Chapter 1 Chapter 1
VPN Connectivity Overview Tunneling VPNs
Frame Relay is being considered deprecated, for the GRE
following factors: Tunneling protocol developed by Cisco
Cost Enables encapsulation of L3 protocols inside point-to-point, tunnel-
Deployed services over-IP network.
Scalability Traffic is not encrypted.
IPsec
Next generation of VPNs support quick and easy Framework that uses a set of cryptographic protocols to secure L3
provisioning of full mesh topologies without compromising traffic .
security and scalability. Works with any application that uses IP as a transport protocol.
DMVPN
Used to scale IPsec hub-to-spoke and spoke-to-spoke designs in
large networks.
Supports routing protocols, and multicast.
Chapter 1 Chapter 1
MPLS-based VPN Hybrid VPNs

MPLS is used to build tunnels through the service provider core MPLS-based VPNs and tunnel VPNs are not mutually
network. exclusive.
Traffic forwarding through the MPLS backbone is based o labels
assigned by the SP. Is possible to combine them and encrypt (or tunnel) the data
Layer 3 MPLS: across the service provider network. (Tunnel over a tunnel).
SP participates in customer routing. Examples:
Customer routes are redistributed into MP-BGP Layer 3 MPLS VPN over GRE
On the other end, are redistributed back from MP-BGP to the routing Layer 3 MPLS over DMVPN (over IPsec).
protocol used.
Routing protocols on the local and remote sites, may be different Provides a greater level of security.
Layer 2 MPLS: Several layers of encapsulation increase latency and
Interconnects PE and CE at layer 2 using a pseudowire complexity.
Two types:
Virtual Private Wire Service (VPWS): Emulates a point-to-ponit L2 connection
Virtual Private LAN Service (VPLS): emulates Ethernet multiaccess network.
Chapter 1 Chapter 1
Routing Across MPLS VPNs 1/2 Routing Over a GRE Tunnel 1/2
Depends on whether it´s L2 MPLS VPN or L3 MPLS VPN A tunnel is a logical interface that provides a way to
L2 MPLS VPN: encapsulate passenger packets inside a transport protocol.
Customer selects the routing protocol. A tunnel have three main parts:
Customer routers (CE) establish adjacencies. A passenger protocol, that is being encapsulated.
Same IP subnet is used A carrier protocol. (GRE in for GRE tunnels).
A transport protocol, that carries the encapsulated protocol.
Chapter 1 Chapter 1
Routing Across MPLS VPNs 2/2 Routing Over a GRE Tunnel 2/2
L3 MPLS VPN: GRE tunnels offer the possibility to connect branch offices
Customer and SP must agreed routing protocol(s). across Internet or WAN.
Each customer router establish adjacency with a SP router (PE). Its main benefit: support multicast, and therefore is
A different subnet must be used in each pair of CE-PE. appropriate for routing protocols.
Does not encrypt the traffic.
IPsec can be used, creating a GRE-over-IPsec tunnel.
Chapter 1 Chapter 1
Dynamic Multipoint Virtual Private Network NHRP
Statics tunnels may be and appropriate solution for small NHRP is used by routers to determine the IP address of the
networks, but it´s not scalable. next hop in IP tunneling networks.
The Cisco DMVPN feature enables better scaling for large When a spoke initially connects to a DMVPN network, it
(and small) IPsec VPNs. registers its inner (tunnel) and outer (physical interface)
DMVPN combines multipoint GRE (mGRE), IPsec address with the hub router.
encryption and Next Hop Resolution Protocol (NHRP). This registration enables the mGRE interface on the hub
Benefits: router to build a dynamic GRE tunnel back to the registering
Not reconfiguration needed in the hub router when a new spoke is spoke.
added. NHRP creates a mapping for a tunnel IP address to the
IPsec is immediately triggered to create the point-to-point tunnel with physical interface IP address for each spoke at the hub.
no peering configuration needed.
Support for dynamically addressed spoke routers.
Chapter 1 Chapter 1
Multipoint GRE
mGRE enables a single GRE interface to support multiple GRE
tunnels and simplifies the complexity of the configuration.
Only one tunnel interface needs to be configured on a router to
support multiple remote GRE peers.
Devices using mGRE require NHRP to build dynamic GRE
tunnels.
mGRE also support unicast, multicast and broadcast.
Chapter 1 Chapter 1
IPsec MSS, Fragmentation and PMTUD 1/3
Is a framework of open standards that define how to provide An IPv4 packet has a maximum size of 65,535 bytes, whereas an
secure communications. IPv6 packet can support up to 4,294,967,295 bytes.
Provides four security services:

Most transmission links enforces a smaller Maximum
Confidentiality (encryption): The sender can encrypt the packets Transmission Unit (MTU).
before transmitting them across a network.
Data Integrity: The receiver can verify that the data was not altered
or changed during the transmission. Checksum is used.
When a router receives an IPv4 larger the MTU of the interface, it
must fragment the packet, unless the DF (Don´t Fragment) bit is
Authentication: Ensures the communication is made with the desired set.
partner. Devices and users are authenticated, by using Internet Key
Exchange (IKE). IKE uses username/password, OTP, biometrics,
PSK and digital certificates. Fragmentation cause several issues:
Antireplay protection: Verifies each packet is unique and not CPU and memory overhead in the origin.
duplicated, by comparing the sequence number of the received CPU and memory overhead in the destination, due to reassembly.
packet. Late and duplicate packets are dropped. Retransmission of the entire packet if one fragment is dropped.
Firewalls doing L4 L7 filtering may have trouble processing fragments.
Chapter 1 Chapter 1
MSS, Fragmentation and PMTUD 2/3

To avoid fragmentation, the TCP Maximum Segment Size (MSS)
defines the largest amount of data the receiving device is able to
accept in a single TCP segment.
Routing and The sending device is required to send segments equal to or less
than the reported MSS.
TCP/IP
Operations
TCP MSS should be the minimum buffer size, minus 40 bytes (20
bytes TCP header, 20 bytes of IP header).
Example, Ethernet MTU is 1500 bytes. MSS should be 1460.
TCP MSS just works at the two ends of the TCP connection.
To avoid fragmentation due to smaller MTU on a link along the

path, PMTUD is used.
Chapter 1 Chapter 1
MSS, Fragmentation and PMTUD 3/3 Bandwidth Delay Product
Path MTU Discovery (PMTUD) was developed to determine the TCP can experience bottlenecks on paths with high bandwidth
lowest MTU along a path. and long round-trip delays.
These are known as LFN, long fat networks.
Is performed by a host using MSS and setting the TCP DF bit.
Bandwidth Delay product (BDP) is the product of the bandwidth
If a router along the path needs to fragment the segment (due to (bps) times the round-trip delay (RTT in seconds).
smaller MTU size), it will drop the packet and send an ICMP
Destination Unreachable message with the code indicating BDP is the amount of unacknowledged data that TCP must
handle to keep the connection full.
that caused the drop.
Source receives the ICMP message and reduce the MSS to be BDP is used to optimize the TCP Windows size to fully utilize the
within the MTU and retransmit the message. link.
If the ICMP unreachable message is blocked, issues may occur. The result is the maximum of data can be transmitted on the link
Be sure to allow them in routers and firewalls along the patch. at any given time.
Chapter 1 Chapter 1
IPv6 Fragmentation and PMTUD TCP Starvation

IPv6 routers don´t fragment a packet unless it is the source TCP have mechanism for reliability, flow control and congestion
of the packet.
If an IPv6 router receives a packet larger the MTU of the When TCP and UDP flows are mixed during a period of
congestion, TCP cooperate by backing off on bandwidth.
outgoing interface, it will drop the packet and send an
ICMPv6 Packet Too Big message back to the source,
using the available bandwidth given up by TCP.
including the smaller MTU.
This is known as TCP starvation/UDP dominance.

PMTUD operation for IPv6 are similar to the PMTUD for
IPv4.
Is not always possible to separate TCP / UDP based flows, but
should be kept in mind this behavior when mixing applications.
Chapter 1 Chapter 1
Latency ICMP Redirects 2/2
Latency is the amount of time for a message to go from ne point ICMPv6 Redirect message works the same way as the
to another.
Redirect message for ICMpv4, with one additional feature:
Can be caused by several factors: propagation delay, If PCA wants to communicate with PCB (same segment, different
serialization, data protocols, routing, switching, queuing, and networks), it will use its default gateway, R1.
buffering. R1 will send a redirect message.
PCA will forward packets directly to PCB.
TCP requires a established virtual connection and bidirectional
communication ACKs, windows size, congestion control and so
on, which has a effect on latency.
UDP does not include reliability, and is used for streaming media
that requires minimum delay.
UDP has very low latency, better than most TCP connections.
Chapter 1 Chapter 1
ICMP Redirects 1/2

These messages are used by routers to notify the sender of
a packet that there is a better route available for a particular
destination.
Implementing RIPng
Chapter 1 Chapter 1
RIP overview RIPv2 Overview 2/2
One of the oldest routing protocol. By default RIPv2 automatically summarizes at major
Standard IGP, works in mixed-vendor router environment. network boundaries. Summarizing routes to the classful
Easy to configure. network address.
Good choice for small networks
Distance vector protocol, uses hop count as the metric. If discontinuous subnets are used, automatic summarization
Maximum hops: 15 must be disabled.
If a network is 16 hops or more, the router consider it
unreachable. Router(config-router)# no auto-summary
Implements split horizon with poison reverse. Prefers a
notification rather than just ignoring.
The ip summary-address rip ip-address network-mask
Support load balancing over equal-cost paths.
interface command is used to manually summarize.
Exits three versions: RIPv1, RIPv2 and RIPng
Router(config-if)# ip summary-address rip 10.2.0.0 255.255.0.0

Chapter 1 Chapter 1
RIPv2 Overview 1/2 Configuring RIPng

Classless routing protocol RIPng is already preconfigured in R1.
There is a static default route pointing to internet in R1.
R1 will be configured to share this default route with R2
using RIPng.
Chapter 1 Chapter 1
Basic RIPng Configuration 1/8 Basic RIPng Configuration 3/8
Enable IPv6 routing using ipv6 unicast-routing command On R2, enable RIPng on interface Ethernet 0/1 (connects to
on R2. R1) and Loopback0 (simulates LAN).
If you forgot to create the RIP process name, the router will
automatically create one.
Enable RIPng using ipv router rip name command.Set the
process name to CCNP_RIP Use the show ipv6 protocols to validate RIPng is correctly
configured.
Chapter 1 Chapter 1

Inspect the routing table on R2. Notice two IPv6 routes
On R2, enable IPv6 in interface configuration mode: learned from R1.
ipv6 address ipv6_address/prefix or
ipv6 enable
Use show ipv6 interface brief to validate interfaces are up
and correctly configured.
Chapter 1 Chapter 1
Propagate the default route of R1 to R2
On R2, verify R1 has shared its default IPv6 route
Chapter 1 Chapter 1

In RIPng, the sending router consider itself to be one hop Another option is using the keyword only instead of
away. Therefore, R2 considers the R1 LAN to be two hops originate.
away.
The concept of classful network doesn´t exist in IPv6, so

there isn´t any automatic route summarization in RIPng. It
Check the difference in the routing table of R2
must be done manually.
Summarize LAN addresses on R1:
Chapter 1 Chapter 1
Investigating the RIPng Database 1/3 Investigating the RIPng Database 3/3
show ipv6 rip show ipv6 next-hops
RIP process (es) RIP process (es)
Port number Next hop router IP address.
Hello and dead timer Interface in which it´s connected.
Interfaces configured Number of path (routes) in the IPv6 RIP routing table using that next
hop
Chapter 1 Chapter 1
Investigating the RIPng Database 2/3 Summary

.
show ipv6 rip database
RIP process (es) .
Route prefix and metric -state and path vector.
convergence time and improves scalability.
timer) anycast, and broadcast.
-to-point, broadcast, and NBMA networks.
-to-point subinterfaces are used to overcome the limitations of NBMA

networks.
-based VPNs, GRE+IPsec, and DMVPN.
protocol and a layer 3 MPLS VPN.
Chapter 1 Chapter 1
-to-point links and support dynamic
routing protocols.
hub-and spoke
configuration.
mGRE, and IPsec.
RIPng.
RIPng.
RIPng.
summarization, and ability to scale impact selection of a suitable routing protocol. It is

recommended that you use point-to-point subinterfaces when establishing routing
protocols over NBMA networks. DMVPN can be used as a scalable solution. RIPng is
asimple IGP protocol that supports IPv6.
Chapter 1
© 2007 2010, Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Public 77
Chapter 1
© 2007 2010, Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Public 78

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Implementing Cisco IP Routing (ROUTE)

Elaborated by: Ing. Ariel Germán

Chapter 1 Topics Enterprise Network Infrastructure

Interior Gateway Protocols (IGPs):

Exterior Gateway Protocols (EGPs):

Choosing a Dynamic Routing Protocol Types of Routing Protocol 1/2

Convergence Routing Protocol Scalability

Traffic Types 1/2 IPv6 Address Types 1/2

ICMPv6 Neighbor Discovery Network Types 2/2

Point-to-multipoint subinterfaces: One single subnet is used. EIGRP

NBMA Networks 2/3 Routing over the Internet

Router connects to a ISP and needs to have only a default route

Principles of Static Routing 2/2

PAP authentication requires the remote device to send a

Basic PPP Overview PPP Authentication Overview 2/3

PPPoE 1/2 Basic Frame Relay Overview

MPLS-based VPN Hybrid VPNs

Provides four security services:

MSS, Fragmentation and PMTUD 2/3

To avoid fragmentation due to smaller MTU on a link along the

IPv6 Fragmentation and PMTUD TCP Starvation

This is known as TCP starvation/UDP dominance.

ICMP Redirects 1/2

Router(config-if)# ip summary-address rip 10.2.0.0 255.255.0.0

RIPv2 Overview 1/2 Configuring RIPng

Basic RIPng Configuration 2/8 Basic RIPng Configuration 4/8

On R2, verify R1 has shared its default IPv6 route

Basic RIPng Configuration 6/8 Basic RIPng Configuration 8/8

The concept of classful network doesn´t exist in IPv6, so

Summarize LAN addresses on R1:

Investigating the RIPng Database 2/3 Summary

Route prefix and metric -state and path vector.

convergence time and improves scalability.

timer) anycast, and broadcast.

-to-point, broadcast, and NBMA networks.

-to-point subinterfaces are used to overcome the limitations of NBMA

-based VPNs, GRE+IPsec, and DMVPN.

protocol and a layer 3 MPLS VPN.

mGRE, and IPsec.

summarization, and ability to scale impact selection of a suitable routing protocol. It is

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