Introduction to Analog And Digital C

ommunications

Second Edition

Simon Haykin, Michael Moher

Chapter 5 Pulse Modulation :
Transition from Analog to Digital Commu
nications
5.1 Sampling Process
5.2 Pulse-Amplitude Modulation
5.3 Pulse-Position Modulation
5.4 Completing the Transition from Analog and Digital
5.5 Quantization Process
5.6 Pulse-Code Modulation
5.7 Delta Modulation
5.8 Differential Pulse-Code Modulation
5.9 Line Codes
5.10 Theme Examples
5.11 Summary and Discussion
Ø  Some parameter of a pulse train is varied in accordance with the message signal
Ø  Analog pulse modulation
§  A periodic pulse train is used as the carrier wave
§  Some characteristic feature of each pulse is varied in a continuous manner in accord
ance with the corresponding sample value of the message signal
Ø  Digital pulse modulation
§  The message signal is represented in a form that is discrete in both time and amplitud
e
§  Its transmission in digital form as a sequence of coded pulse
Ø  Lesson1 : Given a strictly band-limited message signal, the sampling theorem e
mbodies the conditions for a uniformly sampled version of the signal to preserv
e its information content
Ø  Lesson2 : Analog pulse-modulation systems rely on the sampling process to ma
intain continuous amplitude representation of the message signal. In contrast, di
gital pulse-modulation system use not only the sampling process but also the qu
antization process. Digital modulation makes it possible to exploit the full powe
r of digital signal-processing techniques.

3
 5.1 Sampling Process
v  Instantaneous Sampling and Frequency-Domain Consequences
Ø  Sample the signal g(t) instantaneously and at a uniform rate,
Ø  Instantaneously (ideal) sampled signal
§  The signal obtained by individually weighting the elements of a periodic sequence
of Dirac delta functions :
∞

gδ (t ) = ∑ g (nTs )δ (t − nTs ) (5.1) Fig. 5.1

n = −∞

Ø  Reproduce the relationships listed at the bottom of the right-hand side of the t
able 5.1
§  The process of uniformly sampling a continuous time signal of finite energy results
in a periodic spectrum with a repetition frequency equal to the sampling rate.

∞ ∞ ∞

∑ g (nT )δ (t − nT ) ⇔ f ∑ G( f − mf ) = ∑ g (nT ) exp(− j 2πnT f ) = G ( f )

n = −∞
s s s
n = −∞
s
n = −∞
s s δ (5.2)

Table. 5.1
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Fig.5.1 Back Next

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table.5.1 Back Next

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v  Sampling Theorem
Ø  A discrete-time Fourier transform of the sequence
⎛ n ⎞ ⎛ jπnf ⎞
∞

Gδ ( f ) = ∑ g ⎜ ⎟ exp⎜ − ⎟ (5.3)
n = −∞ ⎝ 2W ⎠ ⎝ W ⎠

Gδ ( f ) = f s G ( f ) + f s ∑ G ( f − mf s )
m = −∞
m≠0

Ø  For a strictly band-limited signal, under the two conditions

1.G( f ) = 0 for f ≥ W
2. f s = 2W
1
G( f ) = Gδ ( f ), − W < f < W (5.4) Fig. 5.2
2W
1 ∞ ⎛ n ⎞ ⎛ jπnf ⎞
G( f ) = ∑ g ⎜ ⎟ exp ⎜ − ⎟, − W < f < W (5.5)
2W n =−∞ ⎝ 2W ⎠ ⎝ W ⎠
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Fig.5.2 Back Next

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Ø  The sequence {g(n/2W)} has all the information contained in g(t).

Ø  Reconstructing the signal g(t) from the sequence of sample values.
∞
g (t ) = ∫ G ( f ) exp( j 2πft )df
−∞

W1 ∞
⎛ n ⎞ ⎛ jπnf ⎞
= ∫ ∑ g ⎜ ⎟ exp⎜ − ⎟ exp( j 2πft )df
−W 2W
n = −∞ ⎝ 2W ⎠ ⎝ W ⎠

⎛ n ⎞ 1 n ⎞⎤
∞ W
⎡ ⎛
g (t ) = ∑ g ⎜ ⎟ ∫ exp ⎢ j 2πf ⎜ t − ⎟⎥df (5.6)
n = −∞ ⎝ 2W ⎠ 2W −W
⎣ ⎝ 2W ⎠⎦

Ø  The interpolation formula for reconstructing the original signal g(t) from the se
quence of sample values {g(n/2W)} .

⎛ n ⎞
∞

g (t ) = ∑ g ⎜ ⎟ sin c(2Wt − n), − ∞ < t < ∞ (5.7)

n = −∞ ⎝ 2W ⎠

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Ø  The sampling theorem for strictly band-limited signals of finite energy i
n two equivalent parts
§  Analysis : A band-limited signal of finite energy that has no frequency comp
onents higher than W hertz is completely described by specifying the values
of the signal at instants of time separated by 1/2W seconds.
§  Synthesis : A band-limited signal of finite energy that has no frequency com
ponents higher than W hertz is completely recovered form knowledge of its
samples taken at the rate of 2W samples per second.

Ø  Nyquist rate

§  The sampling rate of 2W samples per second for a signal bandwidth of W h
ertz
Ø  Nyquist interval
§  1/2W (measured in seconds)

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v  Aliasing Phenomenon
Ø  The phenomenon of a high-frequency component in the spectrum of the
signal seemingly taking on the identify of a lower frequency in the spe
ctrum of its sampled version.
Ø  To combat the effects of aliasing in practices
§  Prior to sampling : a low-pass anti-alias filter is used to attenuate those hig
h-frequency components of a message signal that are not essential to the inf
ormation being conveyed by the signal
§  The filtered signal is sampled at a rate slightly higher than the Nyquist rate.

Fig. 5.3
Ø  Physically realizable reconstruction filter
§  The reconstruction filter is of a low-pass kind with a passband extending fro
m –W to W
§  The filter has a non-zero transition band extending form W to fs-W

Fig. 5.4
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Fig.5.3 Back Next

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Fig.5.4 Back Next

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 5.2 Pulse-Amplitude Modulation
v  Pulse-Amplitude Modulation (PAM)
Ø  The amplitude of regularly spaced pulses are varied in proportion to the
corresponding sample values of a continuous message signal.
Ø  Two operations involved in the generation of the PAM signal
§  Instantaneous sampling of the message signal m(t) every Ts seconds,
§  Lengthening the duration of each sample, so that it occupies some finite val
ue T.

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v  Sample-and-Hold Filter : Analysis
Ø  The PAM signal is ∞

s (t ) = ∑ m(nTs )h(t − nTs ) (5.8)

n = −∞

Ø  The h(t) is a standard rectangular pulse of unit amplitude and duration

⎛ T ⎞ ⎧1, 0 < t < T

⎜ t − ⎟ ⎪⎪ 1
h(t ) = rect⎜ 2 ⎟ = ⎨ , t = 0, t = T (5.9)
⎜⎜ T ⎟⎟ ⎪ 2
⎝ ⎠ ⎪⎩0, otherwise
Ø  The instantaneously sampled version of m(t) is
∞

mδ (t ) = ∑ m(nTs )δ (t − nTs ) (5.10)

n = −∞

Fig. 5.5
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Fig.5.5 Back Next

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Ø  To modify mδ(t) so as to assume the same form as the PAM signal
∞
mδ (t ) ∗ h(t ) = ∫ mδ (τ )h(t − τ )dτ
−∞

∞ ∞

=∫
−∞
∑ m(nT )δ (τ − nT )h(t − τ )dτ
n = −∞
s s

∞ ∞
= ∑ m(nTs ) ∫ δ (τ − nTs )h(t − τ )dτ (5.11)
−∞
n = −∞
∞

∫ δ (τ − nTs )h(t − τ )dτ = h(t − nTs )

−∞

Ø  The PAM signal s(t) is mathematically equivalent to the convolution of

mδ(t) , the instantaneously sampled version of m(t), and the pulse h(t)
∞

mδ (t ) ∗ h(t ) = ∑ m(nTs )h(t − nTs ) (5.12)

n = −∞
∞
s(t ) = mδ (t ) ∗ h(t ) (5.13) M δ ( f ) = f s ∑ M ( f − kf s ) (5.15)
∞k = −∞
S ( f ) = M δ ( f ) H ( f ) (5.14) S ( f ) = f s ∑ M ( f − kf s ) H ( f ) (5.16)
k = −∞
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v  Aperture Effect and its Equalization Fig. 5.6
Ø  Aperture effect
§  The distortion caused by the use of pulse-amplitude modulation to transmit an analo
g information-bearing signal
Ø  Equalizer
§  Decreasing the in-band loss of the reconstruction filter as the frequency increases
§  The amplitude response of the equalizer is

1 1 πf Fig. 5.7
= =
H ( f ) T sin c( fT ) sin(πfT )

Ø  The noise performance of a PAM system can never be better than direct transm
ission of the message signal

Ø  For transmission over long distances, PAM would be used only as a means of
message processing for time-division multiplexing.

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Fig.5.6 Back Next

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Fig.5.7 Back Next

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 5.3 Pulse-Position Modulation
v  PDM (Pulse-duration modulation)
Ø  Pulse-width or Pulse-length modulation.
Ø  The samples of the message signal are used to vary the duration of the i
ndividual pulses.
Ø  PDM is wasteful of power

v  PPM (Pulse-position modulation)

Ø  The position of a pulse relative to its unmodulated time of occurrence is
varied in accordance with the message signal.
∞

s (t ) = ∑ g (t − nTs − k p m(nTs )) (5.18)

n = −∞

g (t ) = 0, t > (Ts / 2) − k p m(t ) max (5.19)

k p m(t ) max < (Ts / 2) (5.20) Fig. 5.8

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Fig.5.8 Back Next

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 5.4 Completing the Transition from Analog to Digit
al
v  The advantages offered by digital pulse modulation
Ø  Performance
§  Digital pulse modulation permits the use of regenerative repeaters, when placed alon
g the transmission path at short enough distances, can practically eliminate the degr
ading effects of channel noise and signal distortion.
Ø  Ruggedness
§  A digital communication system can be designed to withstand the effects of channel n
oise and signal distortion
Ø  Reliability
§  Can be made highly reliable by exploiting powerful error-control coding techniques.
Ø  Security
§  Can be made highly secure by exploiting powerful encryption algorithms
Ø  Efficiency
§  Inherently more efficient than analog communication system in the tradeoff between t
ransmission bandwidth and signal-to-noise ratio
Ø  System integration
§  To integrate digitized analog signals with digital computer data

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 5.5 Quantization Process
v  Amplitude quantization
Ø  The process of transforming the sample amplitude m(nTs) of a baseband
signal m(t) at time t=nTs into a discrete amplitude v(nTs) taken from a f
inite set of possible levels.

I k : {mk < m ≤ mk +1}, k = 1,2,..., L (5.21)

Ø  Representation level (or Reconstruction level)

Fig. 5.9
§  The amplitudes vk , k=1,2,3,……,L
Ø  Quantum (or step-size)
§  The spacing between two adjacent representation levels

v = g (m) (5.22)

Fig. 5.10
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Fig.5.9 Back Next

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Fig.5.10 Back Next

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 5.6 Pulse-Code Modulation
v  PCM (Pulse-Code Modulation)
Ø  A message signal is represented by a sequence of coded pulses, which is accom
plished by representing the signal in discrete form in both time and amplitude
Ø  The basic operation
§  Transmitter : sampling, quantization, encoding
§  Receiver : regeneration, decoding, reconstruction

v  Operation in the Transmitter

1.  Sampling
1.  The incoming message signal is sampled with a train of rectangular pulses
2.  The reduction of the continuously varying message signal to a limited number of discr
ete values per second
2.  Nonuniform Quantization
1.  The step size increases as the separation from the origin of the input-output amplitude
characteristic is increased, the large end-step of the quantizer can take care of possi
ble excursions of the voice signal into the large amplitude ranges that occur relativel
y infrequently.

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Ø  Compressor
§  A particular form of compression law : µ-law

log(1 + µ m )
v= (5.23)
log(1 + µ )
d m log(1 + µ )
= (1 + µ m ) (5.24)
dv µ
§  µ-law is neither strictly linear nor strictly logarithmic

§  A-law : ⎧ A m 1
⎪1 + log A , 0 ≤ m ≤ A
⎪
v = ⎨ (5.25)
⎪1 + log( A m ) , 1 ≤ m ≤ 1
⎪⎩ 1 + log A A
⎧1 + log A 1
, 0 ≤ m ≤
d m ⎪⎪ A A
= ⎨ (5.26)
d v ⎪ 1 Fig. 5.11
⎪⎩(1 + log A) m , A ≤ m ≤ 1
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Fig.5.11 Back Next

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 Fig. 5.12
3.  Encoding
1.  To translate the discrete set of sample vales to a more appropriate form of si
gnal
2.  A binary code
§  The maximum advantage over the effects of noise in a transmission medium is ob
tained by using a binary code, because a binary symbol withstands a relatively hi
gh level of noise.
§  The binary code is easy to generate and regenerate
Table. 5.2

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Fig.5.12 Back Next

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table.5.2 Back Next

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v  Regeneration Along the Transmission Path
Ø  The ability to control the effects of distortion and noise produced by transmitti
ng a PCM signal over a channel
Ø  Equalizer
§  Shapes the received pulses so as to compensate for the effects of amplitude and phase
distortions produced by the transmission
Ø  Timing circuitry
§  Provides a periodic pulse train, derived from the received pulses
§  Renewed sampling of the equalized pulses
Ø  Decision-making device Fig. 5.13
§  The sample so extracted is compared o a predetermined threshold
Ø  ideally, except for delay, the regenerated signal is exactly the same as the infor
mation-bearing signal
1.  The unavoidable presence of channel noise and interference causes the repeater to ma
ke wrong decisions occasionally, thereby introducing bit errors into the regenerated
signal
2.  If the spacing between received pulses deviates from its assigned value, a jitter is intro
duced into the regenerated pulse position, thereby causing distortion.
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Fig.5.13 Back Next

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v  Operations in the Receivers
1.  Decoding and expanding
1.  Decoding : regenerating a pulse whose amplitude is the linear sum of all the
pulses in the code word
2.  Expander : a subsystem in the receiver with a characteristic complementary
to the compressor
1.  The combination of a compressor and an expander is a compander

2.  Reconstruction
1.  Recover the message signal : passing the expander output through a low-pas
s reconstruction filter

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 5.7 Delta Modulation
v  Basic Consideration
Ø  DM (Delta Modulation)
§  An incoming message signal is oversampled to purposely increase the corre
lation between adjacent samples of the signal
§  The difference between the input signal and its approximation is quantized i
nto only two levels - corresponding to positive and negative differences

e(nTs ) = m(nTs ) − mq (nTs − Ts ) (5.27)

eq (nTs ) = Δ sgn[e(nTs )] (5.28)

mq (nTs ) = mq (nTs − Ts ) + eq (nTs ) (5.29)

Fig. 5.14
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Fig.5.14 Back Next

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v  System Details
Ø  Comparator
§  Computes the difference between its two inpus
Ø  Quantizer
§  Consists of a hard limiter with an input-output characteristic that is a scaled version
of the signum function
Ø  Accumulator
§  Operates on the quantizer output so as to produce an approximation to the message
signal.

mq (nTs ) = mq (nTs − Ts ) + eq (nTs ) Fig. 5.15

= mq (nTs − 2Ts ) + eq (nTs − Ts ) + eq (nTs )


n

= ∑ e (iT )
i =1
q s (5.30)

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Fig.5.15 Back Next

39
v  Quantization Errors
Ø  Slope-overload distortion
§  The step size is too small for the staircase approximation to follow a steep s
egment of the original message signal
§  The result that the approximation signal falls behind the message signal

Ø  Granular noise

§  When the step size is too large relative to the local slope characteristic of th
e original message signal
§  The staircase approximation to hunt around a relatively flat segment of the
message signal.

Fig. 5.16
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Fig.5.16 Back Next

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v  Delta-Sigma Modulation (Sigma-delta modulation)
Ø  A delta modulation system that incorporates integration at its input
Ø  Benefit of the integration
§  The low-frequency content of the input signal is pre-emphasized
§  Correlation between adjacent samples of the delta modulator input is incre
ased
§  Design of the receiver is simplified

Fig. 5.17
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Fig.5.17 Back Next

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 5.8 Differential Pulse-Code Modulation
v  Prediction
Ø  If we know the past behavior of a signal up to a certain point in time, it
is possible to make some inference about its future values
Fig. 5.18

Ø  Tapped-delay-line filter (discrete-time filter)

§  A simple and yet effective approach to implement the prediction filter
§  With the basic delay set equal to the sampling period
e(nTs ) = m(nTs ) − m(nTs − Ts ) − q(nTs − Ts ) (5.32)
∧
Fig. 5.19
e(nTs ) = m(nTs ) − m(nTs ) (5.34)
Ø  The quantizer output may be expressed as

eq (nTs ) = e(nTs ) + q(nTs ) (5.35)

∧ ∧
mq (nTs ) = m(nTs ) + eq (nTs ) (5.36) mq (nTs ) = m(nTs ) + e(nTs ) + q(nTs ) (5.37)
mq (nTs ) = m(nTs ) + q(nTs ) (5.38) mq (nTs ) = m(nTs ) + q(nTs ) (5.31)
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Fig.5.18 Back Next

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Fig.5.19 Back Next

46
Ø  Comparing the DPCM with DM system,
§  The use of a one-bit (two-level) quantizer in the DM system
§  Replacement of the prediction filter in the DPCM by a single delay element

Ø  Noise is concerned

§  DPCM, like DM, is subject to slope-overload distortion whenever the input
signal changes too rapidly for the prediction filter to track it
§  Like PCM, DPCM suffers from quantization noise

47
 5.9 Line Codes
v  Several line codes
1.  On-off signaling
2.  Nonreturn-to-zero (NRZ)
3.  Return-to-zero
4.  Bipolar return-to-zero (BRZ)
5.  Split-phase (Manchester code)
6.  Differential encoding

Fig. 5.20
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Fig.5.20 Back Next

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 5.10 Theme Examples
v  Time-division Multiplexing
Ø  Enables the joint utilization of a common communication channel by a
plurality of independent message sources without mutual interference a
mong them
Ø  Highly sensitive to dispersion in the common channel – a non-constant
magnitude response of the channel and a nonlinear phase response.

v  Synchronization
Ø  Keep the same time as a distant standard clock at the transmitter
Ø  One possible procedure to synchronize the transmitter and receiver cloc
ks is to set aside a code element or pulse at the end of a frame and to tra
nsmit this pulse every other frame only

Fig. 5.21
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Fig.5.21 Back Next

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52
v  Impulse Radio
Ø  Information is sent by means of very narrow pulses that are widely separated i
n time
Ø  A form of a ultra-wideband (UWB) radio transmission

Ø  Gaussian monocycle

§  One type of pulse used for impulse radio
Fig. 5.22
⎛ t ⎞ ⎧ ⎛ t ⎞ 2 ⎫
v(t ) = A⎜ ⎟ exp ⎨− π ⎜ ⎟ ⎬ (5.39)
⎝ τ ⎠ ⎩ ⎝ τ ⎠ ⎭ Fig. 5.23
Ø  PPM is one method for digitally modulating such an impulse wave

Fig. 5.24
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Fig.5.22 Back Next

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Fig.5.23 Back Next

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Fig.5.24 Back Next

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Ø  Good aspect
§  The signal power is spread over a large bandwidth, the amount of power th
at falls in any particular narrowband channel is small
Ø  Bad aspect
§  The power falls in all such narrowband channel

Ø  Due to the limitation on transmit power,

§  Ultra-wideband radio is restricted to short-range applications ( less than a
few hundred meters )

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 5.11 Summary and Discussion
Ø  Sampling : which operates in the time domain ;
§  The sampling process is the link between an analog waveform and its discre
te-time representation
Ø  quantization : which operates in the amplitude domain;
§  The quantization process is the link between an analog waveform and its dis
crete-amplitude representation
v  Sampling theorem
Ø  A strictly band-limited signal with no frequency components higher tha
n W Hz is represented uniquely by a 2W samples per second.
Ø  The sampling process is basic to the operation of all pulse modulation s
ystems
v  Analog pulse modulation results from varying some parameter of th
e transmitted pulses
v  Digital pulse modulation systems transmit analog message signals a
s a sequence of coded pulses

58
v  The advantage of DM (delta modulation) is simplified circuitry
v  Differential pulse-code modulation employs increased circuit compl
exity to improve system performance
v  Adaptivity
Ø  Is used in delta modulation to improve noise performance
Ø  Is used in differential pulse-code modulation to reduce bandwidth requi
rement
v  Pulse modulation
Ø  lossy in the sense that some information is lost as a result of the signal r
epresentation that they perform
v  Source-encoding strategies (PCM, DM, and DPCM)
Ø  Whose purpose is to convert analog signals into digital form

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Fig.5.25 Back Next

Fig. 5.25
60
Fig.5.26 Back Next

Fig. 5.26
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Fig.5.27 Back Next

Fig. 5.27
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Fig.5.28 Back Next

Fig. 5.28
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Fig.5.29 Back Next

Fig. 5.29
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