-------

AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 56:483-489(19811

M Century. Washington, pp.

ooth wear, tooth function and

r.Phys. Anthropol. 34; 17 5-199.
Americana or a Comparative The Development of Genetics and Population Studies
lUS Aboriginal Nations of North
.delphia; Dobson. WILLIAM S. POLLITZER
e from the antiquity of scalping
Department of Anatomy, University of North Carolina. Chapel Hill, North
. Antiq. 4;287-289.
Carolina 27514
eology and race in the American
d) Archaeology of the Eastern
Jniversity of Chicago Press. KEY WORDS Genetics, Selection, Population structure, Primates,
R il8541'Types of Mankind or Polymorphisms
.. Philadelphia; Lippincott,

,ir of the life and scientific labors

ABSTRACT The contribution of genetics and population studies to physical
,no In JC Nott and GR Gliddon
anthropology as reflected in the pages of our Journal is traced since its establish­
or Ethnological Researches....

ment in 1918. Major trends include the use of more genetic polymorphisms, the
atural History of Man. 4th Ed.
search for natural selection and genetic drift, the unraveling of population
structure in a wide variety of ecological niches, and the recognition of the role of
)blem in anthropology. Science

culture in human biology. Nonhuman primates have also been explored from the
) and Mode in Evolution. New
viewpoint of population genetics. Emphasis has been increasingly on process
ity Press.

loll skeletons of site OH2 Ohio

rather than classification.

:h. Rep. Dept. Anthropol. Univ.

It is appropriate that the American Associa­ While natural selection was the keystone of
)ard's Spots. Chicago; University

tion of Physical Anthropologists was founded Darwin's great theory, and DeVries introduced
tal remains from the Peachtree
at the University of Virginia, that creation of mutation before the turn of the century, it was
II. BAE 131;81-99.
the fertile mind of Thomas Jefferson, states­ Haldane and Fisher in England and Wright in \
,aeology and the image of the
man and scientist. His wide range of interests America who, in the years between the world .,',\)
\ntiq. 45:662-676.

I Vincent Kidder 1885-1963. Am.

encompassed the peoples of the world and the
'aphic models for anthropology.
)1. 27.
utline of early man studies in the
iq.31;172-92.
anthropology. Ann. Rep. Smith.
toric Man: Researches into the
Ithe Old and the New World. 3rd
lcmillan.
wars, blended gene frequencies and mating
diversity of their biology and culture. It is
fitting that today we who are gathered here
look back over the years to the achievements in
genetics and population studies and the ways
they have enriched our discipline of physical
anthropology and contributed to an under­
standing of our variability.
Modern genetics dates from the rediscovery \
of Mendel's laws in 1900, and population gene- \
tics from the principle of equilibrium by Hardy !
and Weinberg in 1908. Blood groups, those!
widely studied and useful monogenic traits,!
were also discovered by Landsteiner in 1900.
Our century has witnessed a fluorescence of
techniques from immunology to electropho­
resis that have introduced a broad battery of
traits to the anthropologist for his investiga­
tion of human diversity. Unraveling the gene­
tic component in continuous variables such as
skit! and eye color has also challenged physical
anthropologists. Dermatoglyphics represent a
complex inherited trait that came into its own
in this century as a handmaiden to medicine
and anthropology. While chromosomes were
identified 100 years ago, those of man were
accurately counted in the 1950s when tech­
niques of cell culture permitted that explosion
of knowledge of karyotypes and their minute
deviations from the normal pattern.
I
patterns to provide a mathematical basis for
the factors of evolutionary change: mutation,
selection, gene flow, genetic drift, and inbreed-v
ing.
While the genetic basis of metabolic disease
was first recognized in the early 1900s by
Garrod, biochemical genetics has flowered
only in recent years with the discovery of new
enzymes, their control by genes, and their role
in health and illness. The discovery of disease
associations with various normal or marker
genes gave new impetus to the search for
natural selection. Cell culture techniques and
high-speed computers facilitated linkage
studies and the assignment of genes to their
precise location on chromosomes. Adaptabil­
ity studies, from the heights of the Andes to
the heat of the Sahara, reminded us of the role
of the environment in shaping our biological
destiny.
Social scientists no less than biologists have
contributed to the population genetics of man­
kind by recognizing the importance of culture
in the flow of genes, whether by mating prefer­
ences and class structure or by economics and
hostile tribes that governed migration routes
Delivered at the Univer1iity of Virginia, Charlottesville, December
11-12,1980.

0002·9483/81/5604-0483$02.50 1981 ALAN R. LISS, INC.

 484 W.S. POLLITZER

over time and space. Modern demography at (1934), whose name is more often linked with iJ1l
long last joined human genetics to permit more cultural anthropology, suggested a scheme of AI
precise estimates of change and the opportuni­ classifying these distributions by plotting the sal
ties of natural selection by utilizing birth and ratio of 0 to A plus B. 1lU
death records. Volume 14 stands out in our heritage, forit nel
Archaeologists and physical anthropolo­ records the founding of our association here at ~
gists share a common interest in the life and Charlottesville, that first meeting from April wil
times of fossil man. Techniques for determin­ 17 through 19, 1930, the adoption of AJPA 89 qUl
ing blood types and other biochemical traits our official journal, and a list of founding SOl
from his bones add a fourth dimension of time members. faL
to the potential territory of population The earliest article potentially related to del
genetics and permit inferences on mortality natural selection and demography in mankind All
and family structure of our distant ancestors. was one on the fecundity of Sioux women by gIQ
Man has long been fascinated by other pri­ Hrdlicka (1932). fill
mates and their behavior. While observations Candela (1936) wrote on blood group reae- sig
go back over the centuries the systematic tions of 11 ancient human skeletons of Egyp- bio
study of their biochemistry and behavior and tians of 1500 B.C., generously crediting Boyd on.
its relevance to our own species is a modern de­ with similar and earlier investigations. ble
velopment. Quite recently enough data and Our Book Notes often present as much his­ dYJ
theory have accumulated to permit population tory of our discipline as our articles. One in foU
genetics of nonhuman primates. 1939 said that Dobzhansky's book, Genetic. det
Our Journal, which actually antedates our and the Origin of Species (1937), was "re- het
association by a dozen years, reflects the freshing and well worth a perusal by the 8II" E
growth of genetics and population studies and ;hropologist." Not long after Dobzhansky as 1
their influence upon physical anthropology. I ~1944) himself wrote on species and races of chs
have enjoyed following that development, for ! living and fossil man. Grounding his GefiDi:. for
its lineage can be traced by turning through~ I tions in genetics, he saw living mankind 89. drU
these pages. Even the first volume in 1918l('. single polytypic species and found "no ason giQJ
contains an appeal by the editor Ales Hrdlicka, : to suppose that more than a single ho .. VI
for "intensive studies of human heredity." The . species has existed on any time level ,. ant
Reports of Current Literature include studies . Pleistocene." Whether one agrees or not, his trai
on heredity and eugenics, such as Davenport's viewpoint united genetics with paleoant sigJ
work on stature. . pology. -­ flOl
An article on inheritance of eye color in man In that same volume Wiener with his our
appears in volume 2 (Boas, 1919). In 1922 our colleagues (1944) contributed the first of many T
still-active and much-honored first lady, articles on the frequency of blood factors, in­ prir
Mildred Trotter, published, with Danforth, a cluding the recently discovered Rh. cell
careful study of the incidence and heredity of ." In 1950 geneticists and anthropologists met hap
facial hypertrichosis in 1,696 white women at Cold Spring Harbor for a watershed sym G6J
(Trotter and Danforth, 1922). Two years later sium on the origin and evolution of man. Sub- of s
we read of racial differences in papillary lines sequent issues of our Journal echo and refine thai
of the palm (Keith, 1924), an early venture into the important ideas generated at that confer- his
dermatoglyphics soon to be followed by the ence. Boyd's seminal book, Genetics and tIN the
many contributions of Cummins and Midlo. Races ofMan, was favorably reviewed by Bini- gen,
Of far-reaching importance is an article by sell (1951). The following year Birdsell (19521 (l9E
Castle (1926) in which he questions any biolo­ explained in a brief communication why ~ sele
gical harm from race crossing, and considers frequencies need not coincide with raCli M8I
social factors of surpassing importance. In the phenotypes. Sanghvi (1953) demonstra imp.
same year Snyder (1926) published on the that blood types indicate a degree of divi- isoll
i human blood groups, their inheritance, and gence of castes of Bombay, India, sirnilllrto h
; racial significance, including techniques, dis­ that shown by their morphology. ­ tion
\ tribution, and his own survey of 250 Cherokee The 1950s saw an increasing shift from 8B pop1
\ Indians in North Carolina. Subsequent issues interest in racial classification for its own sake sucJ
were filled increasingly with such data on the to a focus on the process of change; races WII8 Yan
frequency of blood factors in various peoples of seen as fleeting stages in the broad sweep rl son
the earth. Some 118 articles on serology evolution. Coon et al. (1950) published their ch81
appeared in our first 21 volumes. Kroeber slender but provocative book on races, review- and

me is more often linked with
ology, suggested a scheme of
. distributions by plotting the
Ius B.
nds out in our heritage, for it
:ling of our association here at
that first meeting from April
930, the adoption of AJPA as
~nal, and a list of founding
rrticle potentially related to
l and demography in mankind
fecundity of Sioux women by
,j wrote on blood group reac­
mt human skeletons of Egyp­
C.. generously crediting Boyd
. earlier investigations.
;es often present as much his­
:ipline as our articles. One in
Dobzhansky's book, Genetics
of Species (1937), was "re­
III worth a perusal by the an­
'lot long after Dobzhansky
."rote on species and races of
il man. Grounding his defini­
s,he saw living mankind as a
: species and found "no reason
c more than a single hominid
sted on any time level in the ~ anthropologists of the influence of cultural
hether one agrees or not, his
Ki genetics with paleoanthnF.
te volume Wiener with his
I contributed the first of many
'requency of blood factors, in­
ntly ditscovered Rh.
lcists and anthropologists met
Iarbor for a watershed sympo­
'in and evolution of man. Sub­
;f our Journal echo and refine
leas generated at that confer­
ninal book, Genetics and the
1S favorably reviewed by Bird­
following year Birdsell (1952)
~ief communication why gene
d not coincide with racial
nghvi (1953) demonstrated
, indicate a degree of diver­
)f Bombay, India, similar to
leir morphology.
. an increasing shift from an
classification for its own sake
process of change; races were
ltages in the broad sweep of
et al. (1950) published their
,cative book on races, review­
DEVELOPMENT OF GENETICS AND POPULATION STUDIES
ing the nineteenth century zoological rules of
(': Allen, Bergmann, and Gloger to apply these
selective pressures to the formation of
mankind. Did not hemolytic disease of the
newborn, with the loss of one rarer Rh negative
allele and one more common Rh positive allele
with each infant death, mean that allele fre­
quencies must change over time? Did not Alli­
~; son demonstrate the profound influence of
falciparum malaria on the fluctuating inci­
dence of sickle cell hemoglobin? Studies on
ABO disease associations, briefly explored a
generation earlier and then shelved, began to
fill the pages of many journals. In her far­
sighted article in AJPA on selection and ABO
blood groups, Brues (1954) showed that only
one-fifth of the phenotype combinations possi­
ble actually occurred, an argument for
dynamically balanced selection factors. In the
following year Boyd (1955) wrestled with the
detection of selective advantages of the
heterozygotes in human genetic traits.
But Sewall Wright had stressed genetic drift
as well as selection as a factor of evolutionary
change. Glass (1956) presented in our Journal
for the first time evidence of random genetic
drift in a human population, the Dunker reli­
gious isolate in Pennsylvania.
We have noted the recognition among
traits in gene flow. Hulse (1957) published a
significant paper. linguistic barriers to gene
flow, a theme that has several later echoets in
our pages.
Through the sixties our Journal continued to
print population surveys using not only red
cell antigens, but such serological traits as
haptoglobins, group-specific component, and
G6PD deficiency, as well as articles on aspects
of selection and drift. Thus, in the last year of
that decade Livingstone (1969l, well known for
his studies of hemoglobin variants, wrote on
the founder effect - that twin brother of
genetic drift - and deleterious genes, and Sever
(19691 discussed ABO hemolytic disease as a
selective mechanism. In the following year
... Martin (19701 considered the evolutionary
implications of the founder effect in a human
isolate.
Increasingly in the seventies we find evolu­
tionary mechanisms related to demography in
population studies. Chagnon et al. (1970) found
such influences on gene flow into the
Yanomama Indians of South America. Erick­
son and colleagues (19701 related genetic
change to demography in Chiapas, Mexico,
and the studies of Halberstein and Crawford
- - -------- --------
485
(1972) in Tlaxcala, Mexico, approached natural
selection through demographic data.
One recurrent theme in population studies
has been a measure of genetic distance, or
degree of dissimilarity among people. II have
even been guilty of it myself.) A more recent
and more fruitful inquiry has been understand­
ing the causes for the diversity observed: How
much is due to drift because of isolation, how
much reflects admixture, and what is the role
of mating patterns? Leaders in these investi­
gations have been primarily geneticists whose
work overlapped with and contributed to
physical anthropology. Our discipline has been
enriched because Neel pioneered in population
studies of such primitive people as the
Xavante and Yanomama Indians. He contrib­
uted the idea of a lineal effect - a fission of a
village along certain kinship linets. When two
villages combine their inhabitants we may
speak of fusion. Such a fission-fusion model is
considered potentially important in its genetic
effects not only among uncivilized tribes of
today but over the millenia of prehistory as
well. Moreover, one head-man, endowed with
attributes of leadership, may through poly­
gamy contribute a disproportionate share of
genes to succeeding generations - a special
kind of founder effect. Concepts and calcula­
tions generated by these ideas often found
their way into our Journal. Thus, Spielman
(1973) published on the differences in
Yanomama Indian villages, and Fix (1975)
cited a similar model of fission-fusion and
lineal effect in its investigation of the Semai
Senoi of Malaysia.
One topic increasingly explored by physical
anthropologists in the past decade is the gene­
tic structure of human populations. Even half
a century ago Sewall Wright investigated sys­
tems of mating and their effects on gene fre­
quencies. Recognizing that preferential mat­
ings, along with immigration, produce devia­
tions from Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, he
contributed two models of the inbreeding co­
efficient, the genealogical and the hierarchical.
The latter especially was designed to explore
the opportunity for drift in a branching
process of semi-isolated populations. He
demonstrated that the genetic variance be­
tween such islands depends on the effective
population size and migration from outside. A
later spatial model devised by Malecot utilized
the covariance of gene frequencies to reflect
the probability of identity by descent. Such a
coefficient of kinship tends to decline with in­
creasing distance between the birthplace of
486 W.S. POLLITZER

parents. Morton especially applied Malecot's measures of fertility are attempted, and great
ideas to human populations, from Switzerland disease associations are further explored. prese
and Brazil to Pacific Islands, in a process he Palmarino and associates (1975) reported that varie
calls bioassay. It can be shown that inbreeding red cell acid phosphatase may be another poly­ varia
declines rapidly only at small distances, an morphism correlated with malaria. Of enor­ At a;
indication that consanguineous marriages mous promise are investigations that combine (1967
occur preferentially at large distances. adaptation with specific genetic traits. In this ledge
These approaches to population analysis are current year, Constans and colleagues \1980), that
expressed in the pages of our Journal. Fried­ in a study of Gc (Vitamin D binding protein) in somel
laender (1971) discovered barriers to matings the Sahara, find the lowest Gc' frequencies appea
both from distance and from kinship as indi­ where sunlight is strongest and a gradient of MOl
cated in gene frequencies in Bougainville GC 1F that parallels a skin color cline. Similarly, Janu~
Island, and, equally important, he found differ­ Moore and Brewer (1980) explore the biochemi­ andp
ences in the population structure of horticul­ cal mechanisms that make RBC 2,3 Diphos­ ited t
turalists and hunter-gatherers. Workman also phoglycerate increased at high altitudes. prosir.
vigorously applied such techniques to several Variations in the number and structure of chrom
populations. He and his colleagues (1974,1975) chromosomes are increasingly important to of se
found isolation by distance a most important medicine and anthropology. Literally hun­ monk!
factor in the pattern of regional differentiation dreds of deletions, duplications, inversions, It is
among Zuni Indian tribes and also among 14 translocations. and other alterations can now cepts I
villages of Sardinia. More recently he explored be identified precisely thanks to banding tech­ One,
the genetic structure of Finland (1976), noting niques. While many of them are distinctly rare amon~
gene flow from Sweden, the role of settlement and abnormal, others are common and harm' heard
patterns, and the gradient in certain allele less polymorphisms useful for the growing sci­ ternit)
frequencies. ence of human population cytogenetics. Steil
In other areas and different ecological niches Heltne and Singer (1971) reported on the from t4
investigators reported varying results of popu­ morphology and distribution of the chromo­ and su
lation structure analysis. For example, Kirk et somes of the Hottentot population. Curiously, quenci,
al. (1977) found no systematic relationship be­ very little additional human cytogenetics has due to
tween genetic distance and geographic loca­ appeared in our Journal since. ones. I
tion in the Caspian littoral of Northern Iran. The application of serological techniques to entiati,
Crawford and his associates contributed ancient tissues expanded the time depth of on Cay
greatly to an understanding of population genetics and physical anthropology. We have colleag
structure in several lands. In Mexico, they noted the initial work of Candela and Boyd on migratl
(1974) found geographical distance and hy­ blood groups of bones. In the intervening years can ex
bridization to be the major determinants of great improvements were made in their tech­ Moren
gene frequency distribution. niques. Allison and colleagues (1976) applied pointed
Since surnames are culturally inherited from such improved procedures to the typing of genetic
father to son, just like the biological trans­ Peruvian mummies. Micle and colleagues differer
mission of the Y chromosome, the frequency of (1977) at Tel Aviv University reported results among
the same last name has been useful in popula­ of typing 55 ancient skeletons of Israel. In the Toda:
tion analysis. Lasker was particularly respon­ same year Facchini and Pettener (1977) pre­ genetic!
sible for developing this method of isonymy, sented new techniques for dating skeletal provide
applying it extensively to the people of Great remains: benzidine reaction, ultraviolet fluor­ only de
Britain. Morton and Lalouel (1973), in their escence, specific gravity, and especially super­ evolutic
bioassay in Micronesia, find some agreement sonic conductivity. These and related ad­ primate
.lIl1ong estimations of kinship from pheno­ vances hold great promise for extending popu­ This I
types, anthropometrics, and isonymy. lation genetics of our species far into the past. tion st1
Azevedo and colleagues (Tavares-Neto and The idea dawned slowly that as man is apri­ tended
Azevedo, 1978; Oliveira and Azevedo, 1977) in mate, the serology and genetics, like the mor­ tions of
Brazil demonstrated the correlation of the phology, of other primates should be of con­ been om
degree of black, white, and Indian admixture cern to the physical anthropologists. Weineret cover a
with last names, physical measurements, and al. (1953) published the first of a series of devote 1
gene frequencies. articles on blood factors in apes and monkeys, and its i
The quest for detecting natural selection via including Rh, in our Journal and Butts (19531 velopme
population studies from several sources is mir­ described the hemagglutinins of chimpanzees their wa
rored in our Journal in the seventies. The in the same year. Shortly after, Gartler et aL Advar
demographic approach is expanded, direct (1956) wrote on inherited biochemical traits in The exci
 ----------

DEVELOPMENT OF GENETICS AND POPULATION STUDIES 487

ility are attempted, and great apes. Succeeding years saw many similar tics have much to contribute to physical an­
TIS are further explored. #II presentations on monogenic traits in a wide thropology. There is no reason why all of the
)Ciates (1975) reported that variety of primates: blood types, hemoglobin known biochemical traits should not be ex­
wtase may be another poly­ variants, serum proteins, and red cell enzymes. plored in varied populations, with one eye on
ed with malaria. Of enor­ At a symposium in Chapel Hill Barnicot et al. social structure and another on adaptation to
nvestigations that combine (1967) summarized the then-current know­ the natural environment for clues to selection.
ecific genetic traits. In this ledge of protein variations and primatology. In I would also like to see the gap closed between
tans and colleagues (1980), that same year the first article on chromo­ the gene and the chromosome with further in­
tamin D binding protein) in ,.
somes in the lemuridae (Egozcue, 1967) vestigation of the ultrastructure of cytogene­
:he lowest Gc' frequencies
appeared in our Journal. tic variations.
;trongest and a gradient of
More than any other person, Buettner­ Far more information can yet be wrung from
a skin color cline. Similarly,
Janusch has made us aware, from his research the interface of disease and genetics. Disease
(1980) explore the biochemi­
and publications, of the importance of inher­ associations of polymorphisms are one dimen­
wt make RBC 2,3 Diphos­
ited traits in nonhuman primates, especially sion. HLA, the human leucocyte antigens,
ased at high altitudes.
prosimians. He and his followers published on with their wide range of variations in popula­
e number and structure of
chromosomes in lemurs (1973) as well as a host tions, and the striking association of some
increasingly important to of serological traits in other prosimians, haplotypes with specific diseases, offer the
;hropology. Literally hun­ monkeys, baboons, and apes. greatest insights for the future. The more pre­
l, duplications, inversions, It is now possible to apply the data and con­ cise measure of predisposition to disease
i other alterations can now cepts of population genetics to such primates. against a background of varying climates and
iely thanks to banding tech­ One can determine paternity exclusions cultures opens up vistas of knowledge as im­
y of them are distinctly rare among monkeys, although I have not yet portant for anthropology as for medicine.
ers are common and harm­ heard of any resulting lawsuits from nonpa­ Presumably many so-called polygenic traits
,s useful for the growing sci­ ternity. may prove to be governed by one or a few
IUlation cytogenetics. Steinberg et al. (1977) reviewed Gm samples major genes, whose presence can be detected
~er (1971) reported on the from ten troops of baboons in Northern Kenya by segregation and linkage analysis.
iistribution of the chromo­ and suggested that variation in haplotype fre­ How little we still know about the genetic in­
mtot population. Curiously, quencies is the result of founder effect largely fluence on our utilization of food - not just of
lal human cytogenetics has due to fission of a large troop into two smaller proteins but a multitude of other nutrients in­
umal since. ones. Duggleby (1978) reported genetic differ­ cluding important trace elements, with a resul­
of serological techniques to entiation of social groups among the macaques tant effect on the growth and adaptation of
~panded the time depth of on Cayo Santiago. In the same year Ober and populations with different ecologies. In the
ical anthropology. We have colleagues (1978) showed that recurrent male contribution of genes to succeeding genera­
ork of Candela and Boyd on migration between troops of baboons in Kenya tions, we still have much to understand about
les. In the intervening years can explain intertroop microdifferentiation. differential fertility and its causes. What is the
ts were made in their tech­ More recently Cheverud and associates (1978) influence of birth control in different cultures
d colleagues (1976) applied pointed to lineal fusion, male migration, and on the actual fecundity of the people?
'ocedures to the typing of genetic drift as explanations for the degree of One new discipline, behavior genetics, has
.es. Micle and colleagues differences observed at the transferrin locus been relatively neglected by physical anthro­
University reported results among macaques on Cayo Santiago. pologists-perhaps for good and healthy rea­
lt skeletons of Israel. In the Today the various techniques of molecular sons. We do not wish to return to the eugenics
ni and Pettener (1977) pre­ genetics supplement traditional serology and of half a century ago with its excessive and
niques for dating skeletal provide a valuable tool for constructing not misplaced zeal for human betterment by elimi­
~ reaction, ultraviolet fluor­ only dendrograms of living populations but nating the allegedly poor germ plasm, its
ravity, and especially super­ evolutionary trees of the phylogeny of other racism, and its trail of human degrad'ltion. But
y. These and related ad­ primates as well. there is the proper place for the careful,
promise for extending popu­ This brief overview of genetics and popula­ objective investigation of the possible genetic
)ur species far into the past. tion studies, as voiced in AJPA, is not in­ and environmental influences on human
1slowly that as man is a pri­ tended to be complete. Significant contribu­ behavior, quite independent of any classes or
, and genetics, like the mor­ tions of many physical anthropologists have categories of people and totally devoid of value
primates should be of con­ been omitted. We have not even attempted to judgements.
uanthropologists. Weiner et cover a dozen textbooks of our science that What are the major trends and lessons seen
led the first of a series of devote up to half of their contents to genetics as we look back across these decades? Not just
actors in apes and monkeys. and its impact. Moreover, many important de­ the dramatic growth of genetic markers
,ur Journal and Butts (1953) velopments in genetics have not as yet found utilized in population surveys. Nor the devel­
lagglutinins of chimpanzees their way into our discipline. opment of theory of kinship structure alone. It
Shortly after, Gartler et al. Advances on all fronts would be welcome. is also the increasing recognition of culture and
herited biochemical traits in The exciting new discoveries of modern gene- attitudes in shaping society and directing the
488 W.S. POLLITZER
flow of genes over the centuries. The expansion
of the genetics of populations to embrace all
primates is another step in the right direction.
To see ourselves as part of the great unfolding
of evolution, to understand better those
factors of change that have produced all
species of life is a supreme intellectual
challenge. We must continue with courage and
honesty to learn all we can about the natural
causes of natural phenomena. Debates about
punctuated versus Darwinian evolution or
selectionists versus neutralists must be seen
as a healthy science refining its concepts in the
light of evidence and not as any rejection of
evolution.
Perhaps the most important lesson from
genetics. and its greatest influence upon our
discipline, has been the shift from a static to a
dynamic viewpoint. It sounded the death
knell of typology and rang in the birth of popu­
lations. Whether one discards racial groups en­
tirely to delineate only clines, or still finds
utility in identifying clusters of mankind, we
can recognize that such groups are relative,
labile. and quantitative rather than absolute,
stable, and qualitative. Our human percep­
tions influence the very formation of such
groups as well as their definitions. Weare more
concerned today with processes than with
classifications. We recognize that each indivi­
dual is unique in genetic endowment and envi­
ronmental heritage. We can appreciate and
cherish people in all of their splendid diversity.
And I believe that Thomas Jefferson would
have welcomed that democratic viewpoint.
LITERATURE CITED
Allison, MJ, Hossaini, AA, Castro, N, Munizaga, J, and
Pezzia, A 11976) ABO blood groups in Peruvian mummies.
1. An evaluation of teclmiques. Am. J. Phys. Anthropo1.
44:55-61.
Barnicot, NA, Jolly. CJ, and Wade, PT 119671 Protein varia­
tions and primatology. Am. J. Phys. Anthropo1.
27:343-355.
Birdsell, JB (19511 Genetics and the Races of Man by WC
Boyd. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 19:219-233 (book review).
Birdsell, JB (19521 On various levels of objectivity in geneti­
cal anthropology. Am. J. Phys. Anthropo1. 10:355--362.
Boas, HM 119191 Inheritance of eye-color in man. Am. J.
Phys. Anthropol. (0.8.)2:15-20.
Boyd, WC 119551 Detection of selective advantages of the
heterozygotes in man. Am. J. Phys. Anthropo1. 13:37 -52.
Brues, AM 11954) Selection and polymorphism in the A-B-O
blood groups. Am. J. Phys. Anthropo1. 12:559-597.
Buettner-Janusch, J, Hamilton, AE, and Bergeron, JA
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