Chapter 1:

Introduction to Instrumentation and

Measurements
PRINCIPLES OF INSTRUMENTATION AND MEASUREMENT (BEKG
1233))

PART 3

Lecturer: Noor Azwan Bin Shairi

Faculty: Fakulti Kej. Elektronik dan Kej. Komputer
Topics covered in this slides:

1. Calibration
◦ Calibrating analog instruments, potentiometer, slide
wire and single range dial potentiometer, volt box.

2. Noise
◦ Correlated noise, uncorrelated noise
Calibration

Calibration means to compare a given
instrument against a standard instrument
to determine its accuracy.

In this chapter, the calibration of a DC and

AC voltmeter, DC and AC ammeter, and
Ohmmeter will be discussed.

The calibration method using

potentiometer will also be discussed.
Calibrating Analog Instruments

In calibrating a DC voltmeter, a few instruments such
as voltage regulator, resistor, potentiometer is used as
standard measuring instrument.

Standard instrument is the instruments which comply

with the international standard and it can be used to
calibrate the measuring equipments in laboratories
and industries.

Normally, digital instruments such as digital

multimeters usually have high accuracy and high
precision.

Thus it can be used as a standard instrument to

calibrate the other analog instruments.
Calibrating Analog Instruments

The circuit connection to calibrate a DC
voltmeter is shown in figure 1.1.

The test voltmeter reading, V, is compared to

the voltage reading obtained with the
standard instrument, M.

Regulated Standard
Voltmeter V R M Instrument
dc voltage
under test
source

Figure 1.1: Calibrating a Voltmeter

Calibrating Analog Instruments

A DC ammeter can be calibrated using a standard
resistor R and a standard voltmeter as shown in Figure
1.2.

The test ammeter reading, A, is compared to the

calculated Ohm’s Law current from the voltage
reading obtained across the known standard resistor
R, using the standard voltmeter M.

Figure 1.2: Calibrating an Ammeter

Calibrating Analog Instruments

The ohmmeter designed around the d’Arsonval
meter movement is considered to be an
instrument of moderate accuracy.

The accuracy of the instrument can be checked

by measuring different values of standard
resistance and noting the reading obtained.

Usually before using the ohmmeter in the

laboratory, a simple 0 Ω calibration is done by
connecting its probe together and adjusting the 0
Ω adjustment knob so that its pointer points the
0 Ω mark.
Calibrating Analog Instruments

For the AC voltmeter and ammeter, the
instruments can be calibrated using the
comparison method like the DC
instruments
Calibrating Potentiometer Circuit

The loading effect of instruments always influence
the ultimate value of a measured parameter.

Even when instruments with a high input impedance

are used to measure voltage, a small loading effect
still occurs.

One solution to this measurement problem is to utilize

an active (energy supplied) circuit called a
potentiometer.

The key operating condition for the use of the

potentiometer is zero current taken from the circuit
being measured.
Calibrating Potentiometer Circuit

A simple potentiometer circuit is shown in
Figure 1.3.

Figure 1.3: Potentiometer Circuit

Calibrating Potentiometer Circuit

In the figure, a relatively high-resistance wire is
connected in series with a voltage source, E.

A steady current in this wire produces a uniform

voltage drop along its length.

The voltage drop between the movable contacts X and

Y is directly proportional to the length of the wire
between points X and Y.

The voltage drop across a unit length of the resistance

wire depends on the value of the circuit current, which
can be changed by varying the rheostat R.
Slide Wire Potentiometer

Figure 1.4 shows a basic circuit of a slide
wire potentiometer.

Figure 1.4: Basic circuit of a slide wire potentiometer

Slide Wire Potentiometer

For initial measurement, the potentiometer
must be calibrated with one standard
value.

In the calibration process, when the switch

is closed, the working current will flow
through the slide wire and the rheostat.

The value of this current can be modified

by adjusting the rheostat.
Slide Wire Potentiometer
Calibration method

Switch S is connected to CAL

K key is connected to the sliding contact point ‘X’, around 1cm
from the end of the slide wire

Rheostat is then adjusted until galvanometer indicates 0 or no
deflection. In this null condition, voltage at point X (Vx) at length l1
is equal to standard cell Es. So the standard voltage scale = Es/l1.

l1
Slide Wire Potentiometer
Unknown Ex Measuring Method

Switch S is connected to OP (to measure Ex). OP stands for
OPERATE.

The sliding contact is adjusted until the galvanometer
indicates 0 or no deflection. At this point (point ‘Y’), the
length of the slide wire is l2
 l2 

The unknown voltage, E x = E s  
 l1 

l2
Slide Wire Potentiometer
Example

A potentiometer has a slide wire of 200 cm with

overall resistance 100 Ω, and a 3V working battery.
The internal resistance is neglected. This instrument is
standardized with a reference voltage source of
1.019 V and the sliding contact is set to 101.9cm
during the calibration process. Calculate:

a) Working current
b) The measurement range
c) Adjusting value of rheostat
Slide Wire Potentiometer
Solution
l = 101.9cm
a) if 200cm − − −100Ω
1

101.9
then 101.9cm − − − Rl1 = × 100Ω = 50.95Ω
200
E 1.019V
∴ working current, I = s = = 20mA
Rl1 50.95Ω

b) The measurement range, VAB = I work × R AB = 20mA × 100Ω = 2.0V

Working battery = Vrheostat + VAB

c) Vrheostat = working battery − VAB = 3V − 2V = 1V
Vrheostat 1V
∴ Rrheostat = = = 50Ω
I work 20mA
Single Range Dial Potentiometer

Single range dial potentiometer or known as two
dials is a variation of the slide wire potentiometer.
This potentiometer is more practical compared to
slide wire due to:

a) Can decrease the physical size of meter

b) The reading can be taken only in a short time

c) Accurate reading can be obtained (the reading

value can be taken directly from the needle
point on both dials.)
Single Range Dial Potentiometer

The physical form of this potentiometer is
similar with the slide wire potentiometer.
The only difference is the arrangement of
slide wire and resistor are in circular.

Figure 1.5 shows a basic construction of a

single range potentiometer.
Single Range Dial Potentiometer

Figure 1.5: Basic construction of a single range potentiometer

Single Range Dial Potentiometer
Calibration Method

Setting the direction needle of main dial and slide
wire dial to the standard voltage value.

Example:
Let say the standard cell that used is 1.019 volt.
◦ Setting the direction needle of main dial to 10 stages
(if every stages represent 0.1 volt).
◦ Setting the direction needle of slide wire to the
divisions of 19 (if had 100 divisions that can be step to
slide wire)
◦ This will represent the voltage:
(10 x 0.1V) + (19 x 0.1 / 100) = 1.019V
Single Range Dial Potentiometer

The switch is connected to
CAL source (calibrate).

The rheostat is adjusted

until no deflection on
galvanometer.

When 0 reading is
indicated on the
galvanometer, a protection
resistor must be short
circuited, and then the
rheostat is adjusted until
no deflection again.
Single Range Dial Potentiometer
Ex Measuring Method

The switch is
connected to OP
source (operate).

Ex is connected to the
circuit to measure its
value.

The measured value
of Ex is recorded by
adding the value read
from the main dial
and the slide wire dial.
Single Range Dial Potentiometer
Example

A two dials potentiometer consists of 20

stages of main dial. Every stage is 10 Ω, with
each stage represent 0.1V. A slide wire
resistance is 10 Ω with division scale of 200.
The working battery is 6 V. Calculate:

a) Working current
b) The measurement range
c) Adjusting value of rheostat
Single Range Dial Potentiometer
Solution
a) Resistance value for each stage = 10Ω
Each stage represents = 0.1V
V 0.1V
Working current, I = = = 0.01A = 10mA
R 10Ω
b) Total resistance, R T = Rmain dial + Rslide wire = (10Ω × 20) + 10Ω = 210Ω
∴ measurement range, Vmax = I work × RT = 10mA × 210Ω = 2.1V

Vrheostat = working battery − Vmax = 6V − 2.1V = 3.9V

c)
Vrheostat 3.9V
∴ adjusting value of rheostat, Rrheostat = = = 390Ω
I work 10mA
The Volt Box

Volt box is used to expand the voltage
measurement range of a basic
potentiometer circuit.

It uses voltage divider concept to reduce

the large unknown voltage Vinput.

Figure 1.6 shows a schematic diagram of

a volt box.
Volt box

Figure 1.6: Schematic diagram of a volt box

Volt box

A proper range of resistance must be
chosen so that the output voltage from the
volt box is not more than the measurement
range of the potentiometer.

The resistance value (in series) must be

added respectively for every range.
Volt box
Example

Design a volt box that ranges 5V, 10V, 50V, and

100V . Each resistor is 30Ω/V. The volt box is
used together with a potentiometer with range
1.8V as shown in Figure 1.7.

Figure 1.7
Volt box
Solution
R1 = 1.8V × 30Ω / V = 54Ω
VR2 = 5V − 1.5V = 3.2V
∴ R2 = 3.2V × 30Ω / V = 96Ω
VR3 = 10V − 5V = 5V
∴ R3 = 5V × 30Ω / V = 150Ω
VR4 = 50V − 10V = 40V
∴ R4 = 40V × 30Ω / V = 1200Ω = 1.2kΩ
VR5 = 100V − 50V = 50V
∴ R5 = 50V × 30Ω / V = 1500Ω = 1.5kΩ
Noise - Introduction

Electrical noise – any undesirable electrical
energy that falls within the passband of the
signal.

Figure 1.8 shows the effect that noise has on

an electrical signal.

The grassy-looking squiggles superimposed

on the sine wave are electrical noise, which
contains a multitude of frequencies and
amplitudes that can interfere with the quality
of the signal.
Noise - Introduction

Signal without noise

Signal with noise

Figure 1.8: Effects of noise on a signal

Noise - Introduction

Can be divided into 2 general categories:
◦ Correlated noise
◦ Uncorrelated noise

Correlation implies a relationship between

the signal and the noise.
◦ Correlated noise exist only when a signal is
present.
◦ Uncorrelated noise present all the time
whether there is a signal or not.
Correlated Noise

A form of internal noise – present only
when there is a signal (no signal, no
noise!)

Produced by nonlinear amplification and

includes harmonic and intermodulation
distortion (hence nonlinear distortion).
Correlated Noise
Harmonic distortion

Occurs when unwanted harmonics of a signal are
produced through nonlinear amplification.

Harmonics are integer multiples of the original

signal.

The original signal is the first harmonic called

fundamental frequency. (2x fund. freq = 2nd
harmonic, 3x fund. freq = 3rd harmonic,etc)

Also called Amplitude distortion

Correlated Noise
Intermodulation distortion

Generation of unwanted sum and difference
frequencies produced when 2 or more signals
mix in a nonlinear device.

Sum and difference frequencies are called

cross product.

Unwanted cross product frequencies can

interfere with the information signals.
Uncorrelated Noise

Can be subdivided into 2 general
categories:

◦ External – generated outside device or circuit

◦ Internal – generated within a device or circuit
Uncorrelated Noise
External Internal
Atmospheric Thermal
Extraterrestrial Shot
Solar Transient time
Cosmic
Man-made
Impulse
interference
Uncorrelated Noise - External
Atmospheric noise

Electrical disturbances that originate
within Earth’s atmosphere.

Commonly called static electricity

Eg. sputtering, crackling often heard from
a speaker when there is no signal present.
Uncorrelated Noise - External
Extraterristrial noise

Originate from outside Earth’s atmosphere

Also called deep-space noise

Divided into 2:
◦ Solar noise - Generated directly from the sun’s
heat
◦ Cosmic noise – continuously distributed
throughout the galaxies. Noise intensity is
relatively small
Uncorrelated Noise - External
Man-made noise

Produced by mankind
◦ Spark-producing mechanisms such as
commutators in electric motors, automobile
ignition systems, ac power-generating equipment,
etc.

Most intense in the more densely populated

metropolitan and industrial areas

Also called industrial noise

Uncorrelated Noise - External
Impulse noise

High-amplitude peaks of short duration in the
total noise spectrum.

Sudden bursts of irregularly shaped pulses that

generally last between a few microseconds and
several milliseconds.

Common sources include transients produced

from electromechanical switches, electric motors,
power lines, ignition systems, poor-quality solder
joints etc.
Uncorrelated Noise - External
Interference

When information signals from one source
produce frequencies that fall outside their
allocated bandwidth, and interfere with
information signals from another source.

Eg. Citizen band radios transmit signals in the

27- 28MHz range. Their 2nd harmonic frequencies
(54-55 MHz) fall within the band allocated to
VHF television. If the CB radio produces a high-
amplitude 2nd harmonic component, it could
interfere with other people’s television reception.
Uncorrelated Noise - Internal
Thermal noise

Rapid and random movement of electrons
within a conductor due to thermal agitation

Present in all electronic components and

communication systems

Often referred to as white noise (uniformly

distributed across the entire electromagnetic
frequency spectrum)
Uncorrelated Noise - Internal
Shot noise

Caused by random arrival of carriers
(holes and electrons) at the output element
of an electronic device such as diode, FET
or bipolar transistor.

Sometimes called transistor noise

Additive with thermal noise

Uncorrelated Noise - Internal
Transient-time noise

Any modification to a stream of carriers (holes and
electrons) as they pass from the input to the output of
a device (such as from emitter to collector of a
transistor) produces an irregular, random variation.

Carriers suffer from emitter-time delay, base transit-

time delay, and collector recombination-time delay
and propagation-time delay.

if transit delays are excessive at high frequencies, the

device may add more noise than amplification to the
signal.