OPERATIONAL

AMPLIFIER
 The term “Operational Amplifier” (Op
Amp) was originally the name of a circuit
used for carrying out mathematical
operations, such as
summation,Differential, differentiation,
integration etc.

 More recently it is used for many functions

besides mathematical operations.
(a) Schematic symbol for op amp; (b) equivalent circuit of op amp
This action is called common-mode rejection. Its importance lies in
the situation where an unwanted signal appears commonly on both
op-amp inputs. Common-mode rejection means that this unwanted
signal will not appear on the output and distort the desired signal.
Common-mode signals (noise) generally are the result of the pick-
up of radiated energy on the input lines, from adjacent lines, the 60
Hz power line, or other sources.
Concept of Virtual Ground:-
 The concept of a virtual ground is based on an ideal op amp.
 When an op-amp is ideal, it has infinite open-loop voltage gain
and infinite input resistance. Because of this,
1. Since Rin is infinite, i2 is zero.
2. Since AVOLis infinite, v2 is zero
Summing Amplifier:-
Differential Amplifier:-
The Integrator Amplifier:-
The Differentiator Amplifier:-
Problems:-
 Block diagram of an Op-amp.
A majority of commercially available Op Amps employ
four-stage structure as shown below:
 The first stage is a differential amplifier with a double-
ended output: this provides high input resistance, high
gain for difference signals, and rejection of signals
common to both terminals.
 The second stage is single output differential amplifier
that provides more gain.

 The third stage is an emitter follower, a buffer to provide

low output resistance and isolation of the amplifier from
the load.

 The last stage is combination of level shifter and a driver

stage. The level shifting corrects for any dc offsets that
have been introduced by the bias network. The driver is
a power amplifier to provide larger output current with a
low output resistance.
Importance of CMRR:-
The CMRR is the ability of a DA to reject the common-mode
signals. The larger the CMRR, the better the DA is at eliminating
common-mode signals.

Slew Rate:-
The slew rate is the maximum rate of change of output voltage
(dv0/dt) of an Op Amp, for all possible value (when the input
voltage level is instantaneously changed from a large value to a
small value).

dV0
Slew Rate  volt/μSec
dt max
 Vm 2 f
Slew Rate  6
volt
10
The higher the slew rate, the faster the Op Amp. The slew rate
of 741 Op Amp is 0.5 V/sec at unity gain.
A high speed Op Amp may have slew rate as high as 1500 V /
sec.
Unity Gain or Voltage follower:-
The voltage follower allows us to move from one circuit to another and
maintain the voltage level. It preserves the voltage source signal. This is why
it’s also called a buffer or isolation amplifier.
Digital Electronics
Advantages of Digital Techniques

1. Easy storage of information

2. Easier to design
3. Programmability
4. Less affected by noise
5. Easier fabrication processes
6. Accuracy and precision
Basic Gates: AND, OR, NOT

Universal Gates: NAND, NOR

Exclusive Gates:Ex-OR, EX-NOR

Logic Gates:
Rules of Boolean algebra

A  0  A A0  0
A  1  1 A 1  A
A  A  A A A  A
A  A 1 A A  0
The basic laws of Boolean algebra
1. Commutative Laws
2. Associative Laws
3. Distributive Laws
4. Transposition Laws
5. Consensus Laws

DeMorgan’s Theorems

X Y  X  Y
X  Y  X Y
Duality:All the algebraic expressions are valid if their
operators and identity element are interchanged.
A.1= A
A+0=A
Note: For OR operation identity element is “0” and for AND
operation identity element is 1

Complement of a function:
1. Find the dual of function (f)
2. Complement all variables

Truth Table: All possible combinations of input variables