E – MOBILE

A
REPORT
OF
MAJOR PROJECT
SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIRMENT FOR THE
AWARED OF DEGREE
OF
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN MECHANICAL
ENGINEERING

SUBMITTED BY
ASHEESH DHEEMAN 661020104002
SURAJ SANWAL 151020104048
AMRISH SAINI 151020104006
AMAN SINGH KAMBOJ 661020104001
ABDUL RAOOF KHAN 151020104002
ANIL SINGH KHOLIA 151020104008

ROORKEE COLLEGE PF ENGINEERING, ROORKEE

(AFFILIATED TO UTTARAKHAND TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY, DEHRADUN)

MAY 2019

Page i of 40
 ceRTIFICATe

This is certified that the project work entitled “E - MOBILE” is a bonafide work carried out
by ASHEESH DHEEMAN (6601020104002), AMAN SINGH KAMBOJ
(661020104001), SURAJ SANWAL (151020104048), AMRISH SAINI (151020104006),
ABDUL RAOOF KHAN (151020104002), ANIL SINGH KHOLIYA (151020104008)in
partial fulfilment of the requirement for the awarded of “Bachelor of Technology in
Mechanical Engineering” of the “Uttarakhand Technical University”, Dehradun during the
year of 2018-2019. It is certified that all the corrections / suggestion indicate for internal
assessment have been incorporated in report deposited in the departmental library. The
project report has been approved as it satisfies the academic requirements with respect to the
project work prescribed for the degree of Bachelor of Engineering.

Signature of the guide Signature of Co-ordinator Signature of H.O.D

1____________

2____________

Signature of External Examiner

_____ _____________

Page ii of 40
 DECLARATIO
N

We hereby declare that the project work has entitled “E - MOBILE” has been carried out by
us. This is submitted towards fulfillment of the requirements for the award of Bachelor’s
Degree in Mechanical Engineering, in Department of Mechanical Engineering of Roorkee
College of Engineering, Roorkee is entirely our own work. This document has not been
submitted for any degree in any other institution.

Date: Signature
Place: Roorkee (Team Leader)

NAME OF TEAM MEMBER ROLL NO. SIGNATURE OF TEAM MEMBER

ASHEESH DHEEMAN 661020104002

AMAN SINGH KAMBOJ 661020104001

SURAJ SANWAL 151020104048

AMRISH SAINI 151020104006

ABDUL RAOOF KHAN 151020104002

ANIL SINGH KHOLIYA 151020104008

Page iii of 40
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are extremely grateful to ROORKEE COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, ROORKEE

without whose support completion of this project was impossible. The satisfaction that
accompanies the successful completion of any task would be incomplete without the mention
of the people who made it possible and whose constant encouragement and guidance
has been a source of inspection throughout the course of the project.
We also wish to express my sincere thanks to respected Director General, Director and Prof.
Abhinav Bhatnagar (Head, Mech. Dept.) for his support and encouragement throughout the
completion of project work. Any amount of gratitude is incomplete without thanking
our project coordinator Mr. Sandeep Kumar (Assistant Prof. Mech. Dept.) for his
encouragement, constant support.
We express heartfelt gratitude to our guide Prof. Abhinav bhatnagar, Mr. Sandeep Kumar, and
all other faculty and lab assistant for his constructive, informative, detailed guidance,
suggestions and encouragement at every step which helped us to complete our project
successfully.

Page 4 of 40
 ABSTRACT
It has been a long time that scientists are trying to move vehicles on the expense of
non- renewable energy. The vehicles powered by internal combustion enginer produces a
large amount of harmful gases like CO2, SO2, CO and so on. Which pollutes the environment
and causes global warming and it consumes enormous non-renewable energy and there
are couple of alternate source of energy such as solar power, geo-thermal power and ne of them
is compressed air. The vehicle powered by the air engine runs on air only, no fossil fuel. The
project was successfully carried out and tested. This technology is cheaper in cost and
maintenance and it does not cause any kind of harm to the environment. Thus the vehicle
what we call it E-MOBILE powered by compressed air engine will play vital role in reducing
air pollution and also in reducing temperature of the earth. Compressed air engine uses air as a
fuel which is available abundantly in atmosphere.

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Contents
Chapter 1 : INTRODUCTION.............................................................................................. ix

I. BASICS .............................................................................................................................ix
II. HISTORY .......................................................................................................................x
III. NEED OF THE TECHNOLOGY..................................................................................xi
IV. OBJECTIVE .................................................................................................................xii
V. ADVANTAGES ......................................................................................................... xiii
VI. LIMITATIONS........................................................................................................... xiii
Chapter 2 : LITERATURE REVIEW................................................................................. xv

I. LITERATURE SURVAY ................................................................................................xv

II. DESCRIPTION OF MECHANICAL COMPONENTS.............................................xvii
FRAME....................................................................................................................................... xvii
TANKS ...................................................................................................................................... xviii
COMBINED INLET/EXHAUST VALVE................................................................................ xviii
PISTON AND CYLINDER......................................................................................................... xix
PNEUMATIC TUBES................................................................................................................. xxi
AIR COMPRESSOR .................................................................................................................. xxii
AIR FILTER .............................................................................................................................. xxiii
COMPRESSED AIR ................................................................................................................. xxiv
III. DESCRIPTION OF ELECTRICAL COMPONENT .................................................xxv
BATTERY .................................................................................................................................. xxv
DC MOTOR............................................................................................................................... xxvi
IV. COMPRESSED AIR ENGINE:- ..............................................................................xxvii
MECHANISM .......................................................................................................................... xxvii
WORKING .............................................................................................................................. xxviii
Chapter 3 : DESIGN AND FABRICATION ....................................................................xxxi

I. DESIGN OF MECHANICAL COMPONENTS...........................................................xxxi

CRANK SHAFT DESIGNING ................................................................................................. xxxi
FRAME DESIGNING .............................................................................................................. xxxii
INLET/EXHAUST VALVE DESIGNING ..............................................................................xxxiii
II. FABRICATION AND ASSEMBLY.......................................................................xxxiv
FABRICATION PROCESSES ...................................................................................xxxiv
III. PROBLEM FACED DURING DESIGNING .........................................................xxxix
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IV. SOLUTION ADAPTED..........................................................................................xxxix
Chapter 4 : CONCLUSION................................................................................................... xl

Page 7 of 40
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

BASICS

HISTORY

NEED OF THE OBJECTIVE

OBJECTIVES

ADVANTAGES

LINITATIONS

Page viii of 40
 Chapter 1 : INTRODUCTION

I. BASICS

E-MOBILE is the abbreviation of “ECO” and “MOBILE” i.e. there is something which is eco-
friendly and dynamic. Generally E-MOBILE is a vehicle powered by the compressed air. A
compressed-air vehicle (CAV) is a transport mechanism fueled by tanks of
pressurized atmospheric gas and propelled by the release and expansion of the gas within
a Pneumatic motor. CAV's have found application in torpedoes, locomotives used in digging
tunnels, and early prototype submarines. Potential environmental advantages have generated
public interest in CAV's as passenger cars, but they have not been competitive due to the low
energy density of compressed air and inefficiency of the compression / expansion process.
Compressed-air propulsion may also be incorporated in hybrid systems, such as with battery
electric propulsion. This kind of system is called hybrid-pneumatic electric propulsion.
Additionally, regenerative braking can also be used in conjunction with this system.
Compressed air vehicle uses a device called compressed air engine in which the atmospheric
air serves as a fuel. A Compressed-air engine is a pneumatic actuator that creates useful work
by expanding compressed air. A compressed-air vehicle is powered by an air engine, using
compressed air, which is stored in a tank. Instead of mixing fuel with air and burning it in the
engine to drive pistons with hot expanding gases, compressed air vehicles (CAV) use
the expansion of compressed air to drive their pistons. They have existed in many forms over
the past two centuries, ranging in size from hand held turbines up to several hundred
horsepower. For example, the first mechanically-powered submarine, the 1863
Plongeur, used a compressed air engine. The laws of physics dictate that unconstrained
gases will fill any given space. The easiest way to see this in action is to inflate a balloon.
The elastic skin of the balloon holds the air tightly inside, but the moment you use a pin to
create a hole in the balloon's surface, the air expands outward with so much energy that the
balloon explodes. Compressing a gas into a small space is a way to store energy. When the gas
expands again, that energy is released to do work.

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II. HISTORY
Compressed air has been used since the 19th century to power mine locomotives and trams in
cities such as Paris (via a central, city-level, compressed air energy distribution system), and
was previously the basis of naval torpedo propulsion.
During the construction of the Gotthardbahn from 1872 to 1882, pneumatic locomotives
were used in the construction of the Gotthard Rail Tunnel and other tunnels of
the Gotthardbahn.
In 1903, the Liquid Air Company located in London England manufactured a number
of compressed-air and liquified air cars. The major problem with these cars and all compressed-
air cars is the lack of torque produced by the "engines" and the cost of compressing the air.
Since 2010, several companies have started to develop compressed air cars including hybrid
types that also include a petrol driven engine; none has been released to the public, or have
been tested by third parties.

The first compressed air vehicle was devised by Bompas, a patent for a locomotive being
taken out in England in 1828. There were two storage tanks between the frames, with
conventional cylinders and cranks. It is not clear if it was built. (knight, 1880)
The first recorded compressed air vehicle in France was built by the Frenchmen Andraud and
Tessie of Motay in 1838. A car on a test track at Chaillot on the 9th July1840, and worked well,
but the idea was not pursued further.

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 In 1848 Barin von Rathlen constructed a vehicle which was reported to have been
driven from Putney to Wandsworth at an average speed of 10 to 20 mph.

Louis Mekarshi built a standard gauge self-contained tramcar which was tested in February
1876on the Courbevoie-Etoile line of the Paris Tramways Nord, where it much impressed the
current president and minister of transport. The tramcar was also shown at the exhibition of
1878 as it seemed to be an ideal transport method, quiet, smooth, without smoke, fire or the
possibility of boiler explosion.

III. NEED OF THE TECHNOLOGY

Today fossil fuels are widely used as source of energy in various different fields like power
plants, internal and external combustion engines, as a heat source in manufacturing
industries, etc. But its stock is very limited and due to this tremendous use, fossil fuels are
depleting at faster rate. So in the world of energy crisis, it is inevitable to develop alternative
technologies to use renewable energy source, so that fossil fuels can be conserved. One of the
major field in which fossil fuels are used in internal combustion engine. An alternative of IC
engine is “AIR POWERED ENGINE”. It is an engine which will use compressed air to run
the engine. It is cheap as it uses air as fuel, which is available abundantly in atmosphere.
There are several technical benefits of using this vehicle, like as no combustion take place inside
the cylinder, working temperature of the engine is very close to the ambient temperature.
This helps in reducing wear and tear of the engine components. Also there is no possibility of
knocking. This in turn results in smooth running of the engine. One more technical
benefits is that there is no need of any cooling system and complex fuel injection system. This
make the design simpler. Here air is compressed using compressor, which is cheaper and
widely used. This adds value to its economic benefits.
One more interesting thing is that the exhaust temperature of this engine will be slightly less
than the atmospheric temperature. So this will help in cooling the environment and if
this technology is widely used than it will help in controlling global warming. There are some

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 green bytes associated with this technology. Exhaust gas leaving the engine will be only air
having low temperature. So this will eliminate the problem of harmful emissions, in
conventional engines. Also there will be no thermal radiation produced, radar cannot detect
these vehicles. So these will help our army too.
Also the components used in this are some conventional engine parts, air vessel to
store compressed air, and timing circuit are economical. These economical and readily
available components make the technology easily adaptable.

IV. OBJECTIVE
1. The main objective is to develop compressed air engine which can be run by
the compressed air. A two stroke single cylinder conventional engine can be run
on compressed air with a few modifications. The main advantage of compressed
air engine is that no hydrocarbon fuel required means no combustion process.
Our environment must be protected against various contaminations produced by
vehicles driven on IC Engine which produces some of most adverse environment
effects. For example nitrogen oxide after oxidation forming nitric acid, contributes
to acid rain which causes severe damage to environment.
2. An air driven engine uses the expansion of compressed air to drive the pistons of an
engine.
3. An air driven engine is a pneumatic actuator that creates useful work by expanding
compressed air.
4. There is no mixing of fuel as there is no combustion.
5. To reduces the dependability on the fossil fuels.
6. To make automobile more friendly with environment or the part of ecosystem.
7. To reduces the weight to power ratio as it high in conventional engines.
8. To reduces the overall cost associated with manufacturing as in conventional
vehicles.
9. To reduces the structural complexity associated with conventional engine vehicles.

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V. ADVANTAGES
1. Air, on its own, is non-flammable, abundant, economical, transportable, and storable
and most importantly non-polluting.
2. Compressed air technology reduces the cost of vehicle production by about
20%,
because is no need to build a cooling system, fuel tank, spark plugs or silencers.
3. High torque for minimum volume. The mechanical design is simple and robust.
4. Low manufacture and maintenance costs as well as easy maintenance. Lighter
vehicles would mean less abuse on roads, thus, resulting in longer lasting roads. The
price of fueling air powered vehicles will be significantly cheaper than the currents
fuels.
5. Transportation of the fuel would not be required due to drawing power off the
electrical grid. This presents significant cost benefits.
6. Compressed air tanks can be disposed of or recycled with less pollution than batteries.
7. The tank may be able to be refilled more often and in less time than batteries can be
recharged, with refueling rates comparable to liquid fuels.

VI. LIMITATIONS
1. Very little is known about air powered vehicles thus far.
2. Compressed air vehicles likely will be less robust than typical vehicles of today. This
poses a danger to users of compressed air vehicles sharing the road with larger,
heavier, and more rigid vehicles.
3. Compressed air has a low energy density comparable to the values of
electrochemical lead acid batteries. While batteries can somewhat maintain their
voltage throughout their discharge and chemical fuel tanks provide the same power
densities from the first to the last liter, the pressure of compressed air falls as air is
drawn off.
4. When the air is expanded in engine, it will cool down via adiabatic cooling and lose
pressure thus its ability to do work at colder temperatures. It is difficult to maintain or
restore the air temperature by simply using a heat exchanger with ambient heat at the
high flow rates used in a vehicle, thus the ideal is thermic energy capacity of the tank
will not be realized.

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CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
LITERATURE SURVAY

DESCRIPTION OF MECHANICAL COMPONENTS

DESCRIPTION OF ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS

STUDY OF COMPRESSED AIR ENGINE AND ITS WORKING

Page 14 of 40
 Chapter 2 : LITERATURE REVIEW

I. LITERATURE SURVAY
Behavior of compressed air is clean, simple, safe and efficient. There is no dangerous fumes or
other harm by products when compressed air is used as a utility. It is a non-combustible and
non-polluting utility.
When air at atmospheric pressure is mechanically compressed by compressor then the
transformation of air at 1 bar into air at higher pressure is determined by the laws of
thermodynamic.
They states that an increase in pressure equals a rise in heat and corresponding air creates a
proportional increase in heat. Boyle’s law states that if a volume of gas halves during
compression then the pressure is doubled. Charles’s law states that the volume of gas
changes is directly proportional to the temperature. These law states that pressure, volume,
temperature are proportional; change in one variable and remains one or both will also
change, according to this equation,

(P1 V1)/T1 = (P2 V2)/T2

Compressed air is normally used in pressure ranges from 14 psi to 100 psi at various flow rates
from as little as 0.1m and up. The laws of physics dictate that uncontained gases will fill any
given space.
The simplest way to see this in action is to inflate a balloon. The elastic skin of balloon holds
the air tightly inside, but the moment you use a pin to create a hole in the balloon’s surface, the
air expands outward with so much energy that the balloon explodes.
Compressing a gas into a small space is a way to store energy. When the gas expands again,
that energy is released to do work. That’s the basic principle behind what makes an air cargo.
The first air cars will have air compressor built into them after a brisk drive, you’ll be able to
take the car at home, put it into the garage and plug in the compressor.
The compressor will use air from around the vehicle to refill the compressed air tank.
Unfortunately, this is rather slow method of refueling and will probably take up to two hours
for a complete refill. If the idea of an air car catches on, air refueling stations will become
available at ordinary gas stations, where the tank can be refilled much more rapidly with air
that’s already been compressed. Filling your tank at the pump will probably take about three
minutes.

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It is an engine which will use compressed air to run the engine. It is cheap as it uses air as fuel,
which is available abundantly in atmosphere. Here air is compressed using compressor which
in turn uses electricity, to run, which is cheaper and widely used.

The first air vehicle will almost use the compressed air engine developed by the french
company, Motor Development International (MDI). Air cars using this engine will have tank
that will probably hold about 3200 cubic feet of compressed air.
The vehicle’s accelerator operates a valve on its tank that allows air to be released into a pipe
and then into the engine, where the pressure of the air expansion will push against the piston
and turn the crankshaft.
This will produce enough power to run the vehicle at the appropriate speeds. When the air
vehicle can surpasses, a motor will kick in to operate the in car air compressor so it
can compress more air on the fly and provide extra power to the engine. The air is also heated
as it hits the engine, increasing its volume to allow the car to move faster.
The concept of compressed air technology has been taken from various journal papers and
studying the various aspects of compressed air technology. The basic concept of compressed
air car was taken from the below journal paper.
Today fossil fuels are widely used as a source of energy in various different fields like power
plants, internal and external combustion engines, as heat source in manufacturing industries
etc. but its stock is very limited and due to their tremendous use, fossil fuels are depleting at
faster rate.
So, in this world of energy crisis, it is inevitable to develop alternative technologies to use
renewable energy sources, so that fossil fuels can be conserved. One of the major fields in
which fossil fuels are used is internal combustion engine. An alternative of IC engine is “Air
Powered Engine”.
The various aspects related to the performance characteristics of the engine is taken from this
journal some of them are;
1. Swept volume of the engine

2. Torque calculations

3. Power calculations

4. Efficiency of the engine

5. Exhaust air temperature.

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II.DESCRIPTION OF MECHANICAL COMPONENTS
FRAME
A frame consists of an internal framework that supports man-made objects in its
construction and use. It is analogous to an animal’s skeleton. An example of a frame is
the under part of a motor vehicle, consisting of the frame. If the running gears such as
wheels and transmission, and sometimes even the driver’s seat, are inclined then the
assembly is described as a rolling frame.

The long section which are right and left members of frame are called long members.
There are joined together with cross members with the help of bolts and nuts. Various
load dealt with the frame:
i. Weight of the vehicle causing vertical bending of side members
ii. Vertical loads when the vehicle comes across a bumps or hollow, which
results in longitudinal torsion due to one wheel lifted or lowered with other
wheels at the usual road level.
iii. Loads due to road camber, side wind, and so on.
iv. Load due to wheel impact with road obstacles.
v. Engine torque and braking torque tend to bend the side members
vi. Sudden impact loads during a collision, which may results in sudden collapse.

Page xvii of 40
TANKS

The tanks must be designed to safety standards appropriate for a pressure vessel, such
as ISO 11439.
The storage tank may be made of metal or composite materials. The fiber materials are
considerably lighter than metals but generally more expensive. Metal tanks can
withstand a large number of pressure cycles, but must be checked for corrosion
periodically.

The tanks may be refilled at a service station equipped with heat exchangers, or in a few
hours at home or in parking lots, plugging the car into the electrical grid via an on-board
compressor.

COMBINED INLET/EXHAUST VALVE

It is the most important element of compressed air vehicle because it is responsible for
inlet and exhaust of compressed air. The high pressure compressed air comes from
storage tank through high pressure flow line and first enters in the valve then it enters
in the cylinder, after expansion it returns in the valve and exit in the atmosphere.

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 This valve consists of bracket, housing, plunger. The housing has a small hole which
connected with high pressure flow line. This small hole concentric with another hole
drilled in hollow plunger.
When both the hole are in concentric position the compressed air enters in the
cylinder and expand, on the other hand when they are not in concentric position then air
flow is restricted, and when plunger hole is out of the housing the exhaust take place.

PISTON AND CYLINDER

A piston is a component of reciprocating engines, reciprocating pumps, gas

compressors and pneumatic cylinders, among other similar mechanisms. It is the
moving component that is contained by a cylinder and is made gas-tight by piston
rings. In an engine, its purpose is to transfer force from expanding gas in the cylinder
to the crankshaft via a piston rod and/or connecting rod. In a pump, the function
is reversed and force is transferred from the crankshaft to the piston for the purpose of
compressing or ejecting the fluid in the cylinders a valve by covering and
uncovering ports in the cylinder.

Pistons are cast from aluminium alloys. For better strength and fatigue life, some
racing pistons may be forged instead. Billet pistons are also used in racing engines
because they do not rely on the size and architecture of available forgings, allowing for
last-minute design changes. Although not commonly visible to the naked eye,
pistons themselves are designed with a certain level of ovality and profile taper,
meaning they are not perfectly round, and their diameter is larger near the bottom of the
skirt than at the crown.

Early pistons were of cast iron, but there were obvious benefits for engine balancing if
a lighter alloy could be used. To produce pistons that could survive engine
combustion temperatures, it was necessary to develop new alloys such as
Y alloy and Hiduminium, specifically for use as pistons.

A few early gas engines had double-acting cylinders, but otherwise effectively all
internal combustion engine pistons are single-acting. During World War II, the
US submarine Pompano was fitted with a prototype of the infamously
unreliable H.O.R. double-acting two-stroke diesel engine. Although compact, for use in
a cramped submarine, this design of engine was not repeated.

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A cylinder is the central working part of a reciprocating engine or pump, the space in
which a piston travels. Multiple cylinders are commonly arranged side by side in
a bank, or engine block, which is typically cast from aluminum or cast iron
before receiving precision machine work. Cylinders may be sleeved (lined
with a harder metal) or sleeveless (with a wear-resistant coating such as
Nikasil). A sleeveless engine may also be referred to as a "parent-bore engine".
A cylinder's displacement, or swept volume, can be calculated by multiplying its
cross-sectional area (the square of half the bore by pi) by the distance of piston travels
within the cylinder (the stroke). The engine displacement can be calculated by
multiplying the swept volume of one cylinder by the number of cylinders.

A piston is seated inside each cylinder by several metal piston rings fitted around its
outside surface in machined grooves; typically two for compressional sealing and one
to seal the oil. The rings make near contact with the cylinder walls (sleeved or
sleeveless), riding on a thin layer of lubricating oil; essential to keep the engine from
seizing and necessitating a cylinder wall's durable surface.
During the earliest stage of an engine's life, its initial breaking-in or running-
in period, small irregularities in the metals are encouraged to gradually form
congruent grooves by avoiding extreme operating conditions. Later in its life, after
mechanical wear has increased the spacing between the piston and the cylinder (with a
consequent decrease in power output) the cylinders may be machined to a slightly larger
diameter to receive new sleeves (where applicable) and piston rings, a process
sometimes known as reboring.

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PNEUMATIC TUBES

Pneumatic tubes (or capsule pipelines; also known as pneumatic tube

transport or PTT) are systems that propel cylindrical containers through networks
of tubes by compressed air or by partial vacuum. They are used for transporting solid
objects, as opposed to conventional pipelines, which transport fluids. Pneumatic tube
networks gained acceptance in the late 19th and early 20th centuries for offices that
needed to transport small, urgent packages (such as mail, paperwork, or money) over
relatively short distances (within a building or, at most, within a city). Some
installations grew to great complexity, but were mostly superseded. In some settings,
such as hospitals, they remain widespread and have been further extended and
developed in the 21st century.

Pneumatic tube systems are used in science, to transport samples during neutron
activation analysis. Samples must be moved from the nuclear reactor core, in which
they are bombarded with neutrons, to the instrument that records the resulting
radiation. As some of the radioactive isotopes in the sample can have very short half-
lives, speed is important. These systems may be automated, with a magazine of
sample tubes that are moved into the reactor core in turn for a predetermined time,
before being moved to the instrument station and finally to a container for storage and
disposal.

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AIR COMPRESSOR

A reciprocating compressor or piston compressor is a positive-displacement

compressor that uses pistons driven by a crankshaft to deliver gases at high pressure.
The intake gas enters the suction manifold, then flows into the compression cylinder
where it gets compressed by a piston driven in a reciprocating motion via a
crankshaft, and is then discharged. Applications include oil refineries,
gas pipelines, chemical plants, natural gas processing plants and refrigeration plants.
One specialty application is the blowing of plastic bottles made of
polyethylene terephthalate (PET).

In the ionic liquid piston compressor many seals and bearings were removed in
the design as the ionic liquid does not mix with the gas. Service life is about 10
times longer than a regular diaphragm compressor with reduced maintenance during
use, energy costs are reduced by as much as 20%. The heat exchangers that are used in
a normal piston compressor are removed as the heat is removed in the cylinder itself
where it is generated. Almost 100% of the energy going into the process is being used
with little energy wasted as reject heat.

Piston-type: air compressors use this principle by pumping air into an air chamber
through the use of the constant motion of pistons. They use one-way valves to guide air
into and out of a chamber whose base consists of a moving piston. When the
piston is on its down stroke, it draws air into the chamber.

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 When it is on its up stroke, the charge of air is forced out and into a storage
tank. Piston compressors generally fall into two basic categories, single-stage and
two- stage. Single stage compressors usually fall into the fractional
through
5 horsepower range

Two-stage compressors provide greater efficiency than their single-stage

counterparts. For this reason, these compressors are the most common units within
the small business community. The capacities for both single-stage and two-stage
compressors is generally provided in horsepower (HP), Standard Cubic feet per
Minute (SCFM) and Pounds per Square Inch (PSI). To a lesser extent, some
compressors are rated in Actual Cubic Feet per Minute (ACFM). Still others are rated
in Cubic Feet per Minute(CFM). Using CFM to rate a compressor is incorrect
because it represents a flow rate that is independent of a pressure reference. i.e. 20
CFM at 60 PSI.

AIR FILTER

A particulate air filter is a device composed of fibrous or porous materials which

removes solid particulates such as dust, pollen, mold, and bacteria from the air. Filters
containing an adsorbent or catalyst such as charcoal (carbon) may also
remove odors and gaseous pollutants such as volatile organic
[1]
compounds or ozone. Air filters are used in applications where air quality is
important, notably in building ventilation systems and in engines.

Some buildings, as well as aircraft and other human-made environments

(e.g., satellites and space shuttles) use foam, pleated paper, or spun fiberglass filter
elements. Another method, air ionizers, use fibers or elements with a static
electric charge, which attract dust particles. The air intakes of internal combustion
engines and air compressors tend to use either paper, foam, or cotton filters. Oil bath
Page 23 of 40
 filters have fallen out of favor. The technology of air intake filters of gas turbines has
improved significantly in recent years, due to improvements in
the aerodynamics and fluid dynamics of the air-compressor part of the gas turbines.

The combustion air filter prevents abrasive particulate matter from entering the
engine's cylinders, where it would cause mechanical wear and oil contamination.

Most fuel injected vehicles use a pleated paper filter element in the form of a
flat panel. This filter is usually placed inside a plastic box connected to the
throttle body with duct work. Older vehicles that use carburetors or throttle
body fuel injection typically use a cylindrical air filter, usually between 100
millimetres (4 in) and 400 millimetres (16 in) in diameter. This is positioned above
or beside the carburetor or throttle body, usually in a metal or plastic container
which may incorporate ducting to provide cool and/or warm inlet air, and secured with
a metal or plastic lid. The overall unit (filter and housing together) is called the air
cleaner.

COMPRESSED AIR

Compressed air is an important medium for transfer of energy in industrial processes.

Compressed air is used for power tools such as air hammers, drills, wrenches
and others. Compressed air is used to atomize paint, to operate air cylinders
for automation, and can also be used to propel vehicles. Brakes applied by compressed
air made large railway trains safer and more efficient to operate. Compressed air
brakes are also found on large highway vehicles.

Compressed air is used as a breathing gas by underwater divers. It may be carried by

the diver in a high pressure diving cylinder, or supplied from the surface at lower
pressure through an air line or diver's umbilical. Similar arrangements are used in
breathing apparatus used by firefighters, mine rescue workers and industrial workers in
hazardous atmospheres.

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III. DESCRIPTION OF ELECTRICAL COMPONENT
BATTERY
A rechargeable battery, storage battery, secondary cell, or accumulator is a type
of electrical battery which can be charged, discharged into a load, and recharged
many times, as opposed to a disposable or primary battery, which is supplied fully
charged and discarded after use. It is composed of one or more electrochemical cells.
The term "accumulator" is used as it accumulates and stores energy through a
reversible electrochemical reaction. Rechargeable batteries are produced in many
different shapes and sizes, ranging from button cells to megawatt systems connected to
stabilize an electrical distribution network. Several different combinations of
electrode materials and electrolytes are used, including lead–acid, nickel–
cadmium (NiCd), nickel–metal hydride (NiMH), lithium-ion (Li-ion), and lithium-ion
polymer(Li-ion polymer).

Rechargeable batteries typically initially cost more than disposable batteries, but have
a much lower total cost of ownership and environmental impact, as they can be
recharged inexpensively many times before they need replacing. Some rechargeable
battery types are available in the same sizes and voltages as disposable types, and can
be used interchangeably with them.

During charging, the positive active material is oxidized, producing electrons, and the
negative material is reduced, consuming electrons. These electrons constitute
the current flow in the external circuit. The electrolyte may serve as a simple buffer for
internal ion flow between the electrodes, as in lithium-ion and nickel- cadmium
cells, or it may be an active participant in the electrochemical reaction, as in lead–
acidcells.

The energy used to charge rechargeable batteries usually comes from a battery
charger using AC mains electricity, although some are equipped to use a vehicle's 12-
volt DC power outlet. The voltage of the source must be higher than that of
the battery to force current to flow into it, but not too much higher or the battery may
be damaged.

Chargers take from a few minutes to several hours to charge a battery. Slow "dumb"
chargers without voltage or temperature-sensing capabilities will charge at a low rate,
typically taking 14 hours or more to reach a full charge. Rapid chargers can typically
charge cells in two to five hours, depending on the model, with the fastest taking as little
as fifteen minutes. Fast chargers must have multiple ways of detecting when a cell
reaches full charge (change in terminal voltage, temperature, etc.) to stop charging
before harmful overcharging or overheating occurs. The fastest chargers often
incorporate cooling fans to keep the cells from overheating. Battery packs intended
for rapid charging may include a temperature sensor that the charger uses to protect the
pack; the sensor will have one or more additional electrical contacts.

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DC MOTOR

A DC motor is any of a class of rotary electrical machines that converts direct current
electrical energy into mechanical energy. The most common types rely on the forces
produced by magnetic fields. Nearly all types of DC motors have some internal
mechanism, either electromechanical or electronic, to periodically change the
direction of current flow in part of the motor.
DC motors were the first form of motor widely used, as they could be powered from
existing direct-current lighting power distribution systems. A DC motor's speed can be
controlled over a wide range, using either a variable supply voltage or by changing the
strength of current in its field windings. Small DC motors are used in tools, toys, and
appliances. The universal motor can operate on direct current but is a lightweight
brushed motor used for portable power tools and appliances. Larger DC motors are
currently used in propulsion of electric vehicles, elevator and hoists, and in drives for
steel rolling mills. The advent of power electronics has made replacement of DC
motors with AC motors possible in many applications.

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IV. COMPRESSED AIR ENGINE:-
MECHANISM
The arrangement of oscillating cylinder engine mechanism is used in air compressed
engine. It is the inversion of single slider crank chain which is a four-link mechanism.
The oscillating cylinder engine mechanism is used to convert reciprocating motion
into rotary motion.

It consists of four links-

i. Link-1 (Piston rod)

ii. Link-2 (Crank shaft)

iii. Link-3 (Frame)

iv. Link-4 (Cylinder)

In this mechanism, the link-3 forming the turning pair is fixed. The link-
3 corresponds to the frame. When the crank (link-2) rotates, the piston attached
to piston rod (link-1) reciprocates and the cylinder (link-4) oscillates about a pin pivoted
to the fixed link.

Page xxvii of 40
WORKING

Air Compressor: it is the initial phase of working where the atmospheric air is
compressed. The pressure of the air is increases up to appropriate pressure. The
compressor used is the reciprocating compressor. After the compression the
compressed air is delivered to the storage tank through a non-return valve.
Storage tank: it is the second phase of working where the compressed air
comes from compressor through non-return valve is stored in a vessel at higher
pressure. Combined inlet/exit valve: In this phase, the compressed air stored in
storage tank at higher pressure is enters in this valve through pneumatic tubes. This
valve is timed by crank shaft in such a way that when holes of housing and plunger are
in concentric position then compressed air is delivered to the engine cylinder
through pneumatic tubes. If they are not in concentric position and plunger hole
is out of the housing then the air expended in cylinder is comes back in valve
and exhaust to the atmosphere.
Piston/Cylinder assembly: It is the last phase of working where the brake power
output is arrested at crank shaft. In this phase the compressed air comes from valve
through pneumatic tube is enters in the cylinder. This air are at high presser due to that
it forces the piston reciprocate inside the cylinder. A piston rod is attached with the
piston/cylinder, which converts reciprocating motion of the piston into rotary
motion with the help of crank shaft. This rotary motion is delivered to the road by wheel
and converting into linear one to run the vehicle.

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PROCESSES DIAGRAM

VALVE TIMING DIAGRAM

Page 29 of 40
CHAPTER 2: DESIGN AND FABRICATION

DESIGN OF MECHANICAL COMPONENTS

FABRICATION AND ASSEMBLY

PROBLEM FACED DURING DESIGNING

SOLUTION ADAPTED

Page 30 of 40
 Chapter 3 : DESIGN AND FABRICATION

I.DESIGN OF MECHANICAL COMPONENTS

CRANK SHAFT DESIGNING
A crank shaft is subjected to bending and torsional moments due to the
following three forces-
1. Force exerted by the connecting rod on the crank pin
2. Weight of the flywheel acting downwards in the vertical direction
3. Resultant belt tensions acting in the horizontal direction
o Assumption
1. The engine is vertical and the crank is at the top dead centre position.
2. The crank shaft is simply supported on bearings.

Page 31 of 40
FRAME DESIGNING
The following aspect has been considered during designing of the frame, which is one
of the most rigid component,
a. Weight of the vehicle causing vertical bending of side members
b. Vertical loads when the vehicle comes across a bumps or hollow, which
results in longitudinal torsion due to one wheel lifted or lowered with other
wheels at the usual road level.
c. Loads due to road camber, side wind, and so on.
d. Load due to wheel impact with road obstacles.
e. Engine torque and braking torque tend to bend the side members
f. Sudden impact loads during a collision, which may results in sudden collapse.

Page 32 of 40
INLET/EXHAUST VALVE DESIGNING

Page xxxiii of 40
II. FABRICATION AND ASSEMBLY

Manufacturing processes are the steps through which raw materials are transformed into
a final product. The manufacturing process begins with the creation of the
materials from which the design is made. These materials are then modified through
manufacturing processes to become the required part. Manufacturing processes can
include treating (such as heat treating or coating), machining, or reshaping the
material. The manufacturing process also includes tests and checks for quality
assurance during or after the manufacturing, and planning the production process
prior to manufacturing.

Fabrication processes
These are secondary manufacturing processes where the starting raw materials
are produced by any one of the previous manufacturing processes desired. Its assembly
involve joining pieces either temporary or permanent. So that they would be perform
the necessary function. The joining can be achieved by either or both of heat
and pressure joining materials. Many of the steel structure construction, we see are first
rolled and then joined together by a fabrication process are,
1. Drilling
2. Grinding
3. Cutting
4. Welding
5. Fastening

DRILLING
Drilling is a cutting process that uses a drill bit to cut a hole of circular cross-
section in solid materials. The drill bit is usually a rotary cutting tool, often
multipoint. The bit is pressed against the workpiece and rotated at rates from
hundreds to thousands of revolutions per minute. This forces the cutting edge against
the workpiece, cutting off chips (swarf) from the hole as it is drilled. Ling

In rock drilling, the hole is usually not made through a circular cutting motion, though
the bit is usually rotated. Instead, the hole is usually made by hammering a drill bit into
the hole with quickly repeated short movements. The hammering action can be
performed from outside the hole (top-hammer drill) or within the hole (down-the-hole
drill, DTH). Drills used for horizontal drilare called drifter drills.

Page 34 of 40
GRINDING
Grinding is an abrasive machining process that uses a grinding wheel as
the cutting tool.

Grinding practice is a large and diverse area of manufacturing and toolmaking. It can
produce very fine finishes and very accurate dimensions; yet in mass
production contexts it can also rough out large volumes of metal quite rapidly. It is
usually better suited to the machining of very hard materials than is "regular"
machining (that is, cutting larger chips with cutting tools such as tool
bits or milling cutters), and until recent decades it was the only practical way
to machine such materials as hardened steels. Compared to "regular" machining, it is
usually better suited to taking very shallow cuts, such as reducing a shaft’s
diameter by half a thousandth of an inch or 12.7 μm.

Grinding is a subset of cutting, as grinding is a true metal-cutting process. Each

grain of abrasive functions as a microscopic single-point cutting edge (although of
high negative rake angle), and shears a tiny chip that is analogous to what would
conventionally be called a "cut" chip (turning, milling, drilling, tapping, etc.).
However, among people who work in the machining fields, the term cutting is
often understood to refer to the macroscopic cutting operations, and grinding is
often mentally categorized as a "separate" process. This is why the terms are
usually used separately in shop-floor practice.

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CUTTING
In the context of machining, a cutting tool or cutter is any tool that is used to
remove material from the work piece by means of shear deformation. Cutting may
be accomplished by single-point or multipoint tools. Single-point tools are used
in turning, shaping, planing and similar operations, and remove material by means
of one cutting edge. Milling and drillingtools are often multipoint tools. It is a
body having teeth or cutting edges on it. Grinding tools are also multipoint
tools. Each grain of abrasive functions as a microscopic single-point cutting edge
(although of high negative rake angle), and shears a tiny chip.
Cutting tool materials must be harder than the material which is to be cut, and the
tool must be able to withstand the heat generated in the metal-cutting process.
Also, the tool must have a specific geometry, with clearance angles designed
so that the cutting edge can contact the workpiece without the rest of the tool
dragging on the workpiece surface. The angle of the cutting face is also important,
as is the flute width, number of flutes or teeth, and margin size. In order to have a
long working life, all of the above must be optimized, plus the speeds and feeds at
which the tool is run.

Page 36 of 40
WELDING
Arc welding is a welding process that is used to join metal to metal by
using electricity to create enough heat to melt metal, and the melted metals when
cool result in a binding of the metals. It is a type of welding that uses a welding power
supply to create an electric arc between a metal stick ("electrode") and the base
material to melt the metals at the point of contact. Arc welders can use either
direct (DC) or alternating (AC) current, and consumable or non-
consumable electrodes.
The welding area is usually protected by some type of shielding gas, vapor, or slag.
Arc welding processes may be manual, semi-automatic, or fully automated. First
developed in the late part of the 19th century, arc welding became commercially
important in shipbuilding during the Second World War. Today it remains an
important process for the fabrication of steel structures and vehicles.

Page xxxvii of 40
FASTENING
Bolted joints are one of the most common elements in construction and machine
design. They consist of fasteners that capture and join other parts, and are secured
with the mating of screw threads.
There are two main types of bolted joint designs: tension joints and shear joints.
In the tension joint, the bolt and clamped components of the joint are designed to
transfer an applied tension load through the joint by way of the clamped
components by the design of a proper balance of joint and bolt stiffness. The joint
should be designed such that the clamp load is never overcome by the external
tension forces acting to separate the joint. If the external tension forces overcome the
clamp load (bolt preload) the clamped joint components will separate, allowing
relative motion of the components.
The second type of bolted joint transfers the applied load in shear of the bolt shank
and relies on the shear strength of the bolt. Tension loads on such a joint are only
incidental. A preload is still applied but consideration of joint flexibility is not as
critical as in the case where loads are transmitted through the joint in tension.
Other such shear joints do not employ a preload on the bolt as they are designed to
allow rotation of the joint about the bolt, but use other methods of maintaining
bolt/joint integrity. Joints that allow rotation include clevis linkages, and rely on a
locking mechanism (like lock washers, thread adhesives, and lock nuts).

Page 38 of 40
III. PROBLEM FACED DURING DESIGNING
1. Availability of components of desired specification in market as per the design.
2. To vary the output speed and torque of the engine.
3. To prevent the air leakage.

IV. SOLUTION ADAPTED

1. As per the market survey conducted by us we have selected the components
with nearest possible specifications as per our design to get the desired power.
2. To get the variable output speed we have to use a feedback mechanism in the
electronic circuit which will sense the pressure variation and therefore varies the
timing of solenoid valve with pressure. But the use of feedback mechanism increases
the complexity as well as cost of the model. So we dropped out the idea of variable
speed output.
3. With the use of tight joints formed by the connecters we prevent the leakage of air.

Page 39 of 40
Chapter 4 : CONCLUSION
The model designed by us is a small scale working model of the compressed
air engine. When scaled to higher level it can be used for driving
automobiles independently or combined with other engines like IC Engines.
Main advantages of compressed air engine are:
I. Zero emission.
II. Use of renewable fuel.
III. Zero fuel cost.
But the compressed air engine has some disadvantages, which are:

I. Less power output

II. High pressure of compressed air may lead to brushing of storage tank.
III. Probability of air leakage.

Page 40 of 40