Sabp A 018 PDF

Best Practice
SABP-A-018 27 April 2008

GOSP Corrosion Control
Document Responsibility: Materials and Corrosion Control Standards Committee
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Table of Contents
1 Scope and Purpose…………………………………………….….. 2
2 Conflicts and Deviations………………………………….............. 2
3 References…………………………………………...…..……….... 2
4 Definitions and Abbreviations……………………...…….……...... 5
5 Process Description………………………………………….….…. 5
6 Damage Mechanisms…………………………………....….…...... 10
7 Corrosion Control Options………………………………............... 15
8 Operating Windows……………………………………..…….….... 27
9 Corrosion Monitoring……………………………………................ 28
10 Corrosion History…………………………………..…..….............. 34
11 Record Keeping………………………………………...…............. 36
12 Strategy for GOSP Corrosion Review and Evaluation…............ 37
Appendix A - Corrosion Loops and Damage Mechanisms…..... 39
Previous Issue: New Next Planned Update: TBD

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Primary contact: Omari, Ahmad Saleh on 966-3-5721786
Copyright©Saudi Aramco 2008. All rights reserved.

Document Responsibility: Materials & Corrosion Control SABP-A-018
Issue Date: 27 April 2008
Next Planned Update: TBD GOSP Corrosion Control
1 Scope and Purpose
Crude oil production usually co-produces varying amounts of gas, water, formation
solids and corrosion products. The source of the water may be connate water from the
oil reservoir or from water injected in an enhanced recovery process. The water
frequently contains dissolved salts, chlorides, sulfates, and bicarbonates. A separation
process, usually simple gravimetric separation, at the Gas Oil Separation Plant (GOSP)
reduces the contaminants in the crude oil to meet the specifications of 0.2% BS&W
(bottoms, sediment and water) and 10 PTB (pounds per thousand barrels) of salt
maximum. Additionally, separating water in the GOSP minimizes transportation costs
and decreases the potential for corrosion in the transportation system.
Corrosion control plays a vital role in the Company’s ability to maintain the operational
and structural integrity of the GOSPs. Produced water accounts for most of the
corrosion failures experienced in oil production facilities.
The primary objective of this Best Practice is to become a resource for:

• The corrosion management strategy for individual facilities.
• Training and reference material in GOSP corrosion for Operators, Engineers,
Inspectors and others.
• RBI studies and inspection planning.
• A reference for designers of future GOSPs to incorporate appropriate corrosion
management features in their designs.
2 Conflicts and Deviations
This Best Practice was written to be consistent with Saudi Aramco and applicable
international standards. If there is a conflict between this Best Practice and other
standards or specifications, please contact the Coordinator of ME&CCD/CSD for
resolution.
3 References
The following list shows the recommended industry and company documentations that
are applicable to the corrosion control managements of GOSPs:
3.1 Saudi Aramco References
Saudi Aramco Engineering Procedures

SAEP-20 Equipment Inspection Schedule
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SAEP-306 Assessment of the Remaining Strength of

Corroded Pipes
SAEP-310 Pipeline Repair and Maintenance
SAEP-325 Inspection Requirements for Pressurized
Equipment
SAEP-333 Cathodic Protection Monitoring
SAEP-343 Risk-Based Inspection (RBI) for In-Plant Static
Equipment
SAEP-355 Field Metallography and Hardness Testing
SAEP-1024 Chemical Cleaning of New Steam Generating
Equipment
SAEP-1025 Chemical Cleaning of Boilers
SAEP-1026 Boilers Lay-Up Procedures
SAEP-1135 On-Stream Inspection Administration
SAEP-1143 Radiographic Examination
SAEP-1144 Magnetic Particle Examination
SAEP-1145 Liquid Penetrant Examination
SAEP-1146 Manual Ultrasonic Thickness Testing
Saudi Aramco Engineering Standards

SAES-A-007 Hydrostatic Testing Fluids and Lay-up
Procedures
SAES-A-104 Wastewater Treatment, Reuse and Disposal
SAES-A-205 Oilfield Chemicals
SAES-A-206 Positive Material Identification
SAES-A-208 Water Treatment Chemicals
SAES-A-301 Materials Resistant to Sulfide Stress Corrosion
Cracking
SAES-D-008 Repairs, Alterations, and Re-rating of Process
Equipment
SAES-D-108 Repair, Alteration, and Reconstruction of Storage
Tanks
SAES-F-007 System Design Criteria of Flares
SAES-G-005 Centrifugal Pumps
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SAES-H-001 Coating Selection & Application Requirements for

Industrial Plants & Equipment
SAES-H-002 Internal and External Coatings for Steel Pipelines
and Piping
SAES-H-101 Approved Protective Coating Systems for
Industrial Plants & Equipment
SAES-H-201 General Specifications for Over-the-Ditch
External and Internal FBE Coating of Field
Girth Welds
SAES-J-801 Control Buildings
SAES-L-105 Piping Material Specifications
SAES-L-108 Selection of Valves
SAES-L-132 Material Selection for Piping Systems
SAES-L-133 Corrosion Protection Requirements for
Pipelines/Piping
SAES-L-136 Pipe Selection and Restrictions
SAES-L-310 Design of Plant Piping
SAES-L-610 Nonmetallic Piping
SAES-P-111 Grounding
SAES-S-040 Saudi Aramco Water Systems
SAES-W-010 Welding Requirements for Pressure Vessels
SAES-W-011 Welding Requirements for On-Plot Piping
SAES-W-014 Weld Overlays and Welding of Clad Materials
SAES-W-015 Strip Lining Application
SAES-W-016 Welding of Special Corrosion-Resistant Materials
SAES-X-400 Cathodic Protection of Buried Pipelines
SAES-X-500 Cathodic Protection of Vessel and Tank Internals
SAES-X-600 Cathodic Protection of Plant Facilities
Saudi Aramco Materials System Specifications

01-SAMSS-016 Qualification of Pipeline, In-Plant Piping and
Pressure Vessel Steels for Resistance to
Hydrogen-Induced Cracking
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09-SAMSS-107 Qualification Requirements and Application of

Composite Fluoropolymer/Ceramic Coatings to
Fasteners
Saudi Aramco Library Drawing

DA-950035 2-Inch High Pressure Access System Chemical
Injection and Corrosion Monitoring
Saudi Aramco Best Practice

SABP-A-015 Chemical Injection Systems
Saudi Aramco Inspection Procedures

00-SAIP-74 Inspection of Corrosion under Insulation and
Fireproofing
00-SAIP-75 External Visual Inspection Procedure
Saudi Aramco Engineering Report

SAER-2365 Saudi Aramco Mothball Manual
3.2 Industry Codes and Standards
American Petroleum Institute

API STD 510 Pressure Vessel Inspection Code: Maintenance
Inspection, Rating, Repair, and Alteration
API STD 570 Piping Inspection Code: Inspection, Repair,
Alteration and Re-rating of In-Service Piping
Systems
API RP 571 Damage Mechanisms Affecting Fixed Equipment
in the Refining Industry
API RP 572 Inspection of Pressure Vessels
API RP 574 Inspection Practices for Piping System
Components, June 1998
API RP 575 Inspection of Atmospheric and Low-Pressure
Storage Tanks
API RP 576 Inspection of Pressure Relieving Devices
API STD 580 Risk Based Inspection
API STD 620 Recommended Rules for Design and Construction
of Large, Welded, Low-Pressure Storage Tanks
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API STD 651 Cathodic Protection of Above-ground Petroleum

Storage Tanks
API STD 653 Tank Inspection, Repair, Alteration, and
Reconstruction
API STD 1632 Cathodic Protection of Underground Petroleum
Storage Tanks and Piping System
National Association of Corrosion Engineers

NACE RP0198 The Control of Corrosion under Thermal
Insulation and Fireproofing Materials
NACE RP0204 - 2004 Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC) Direct
Assessment Methodology
NACE MR0175 / Petroleum and Natural Gas Industries
ISO 15156 Materials for Use in H2S-Containing
Environments in Oil and Gas Production
Part 1: General principles for selection of
cracking-resistant materials -
Part 2: Cracking-resistant carbon and low
alloy steels, and the use of cast irons -
Part 3: Cracking-resistant CRAs (corrosion-
resistant alloys) and other alloys
3.3 Other References

John T. Reynolds, “The Importance of Integrity Operating Windows in the
Process Safety of Pressure Equipment”, Inspectioneering Journal, Mar/Apr
2005 Volume 11, Issue 2, pages 1-6.
S. Kokal and A. Ghamdi, “Performance Appraisals of Gas/Oil Separation
Plants”, SPE paper102854, presentation at the 2006 SPE Annual Technical
Conference and Exhibition held in San Antonio, Texas, U.S.A., 24–27 September
2006.
4 Definitions and Abbreviations

API American Petroleum Institute
ASME American Society of Mechanical Engineers
BS&W bottom sediment and water
CO2 Carbon Dioxide
GOSP Gas Oil Separation Plant
H2S Hydrogen Sulfide
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HIC Hydrogen Induced Cracking

mpy Mils per Year
MEA Monoethanolamine
MIC Microbiologically-Influenced Corrosion
PFD Process Flow Diagram
SCADA Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition
SCC Stress Corrosion Cracking
SOHIC Stress Oriented Hydrogen Induced Cracking
SS Stainless Steel
TEG Triethylene Glycol
TML Thickness Measurement Location
UT Ultrasonic Testing
5 Process Description
There are a variety of GOSPs within Saudi Aramco. This Best Practice describes the
most common features of GOSPs, the expected corrosion issues and methods to manage
or control them.
The purpose of the GOSP is to process the well flow into clean marketable products:
crude oil and associated gas. While there are many differences in the detail of each
GOSP, the general function of a GOSP is to receive “wild” crude from wells and
separate most of the water and dissolved gases from the crude then ship the oil
elsewhere for further processing. Similarly, the associated gas separated from the crude
is compressed and sent to a gas plant for additional processing. Water removed from
the gross production and waste water from washing the crude is recovered, stripped of
residual oil, and injected into subsurface formations.
GOSPs are designed to produce oil and natural gas by a continuous separation process,
using well fluid from the nearby wells. A typical Saudi Aramco GOSP consists of a 2
or 3-stage oil-gas separation facility, with a 2 or 3-stage dehydrator/desalting train. A
typical GOSP processes ~300 MBD of crude and ~100 MBD of water. The GOSPs are
generally designed to handle water cuts up to 30%, and some have been modified and
retrofitted to handle higher water cuts. Some GOSPs operate with one train while the
others have two.
The separation process within a train consists of a series of vessels in which the
pressure is reduced in each of two or three stages of separation. At each stage flashes
gas off the oil and the off-gas is sent to gas gathering system for compression, then to a
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Gas Plant for further treatment. To separate the incoming crude to oil, gas and water,
independent separation vessels have been constructed, identified as the High Pressure
Production Trap (HPPT), High Pressure Testing Trap (HPTT) (not present in all
GOSPs), and Low Pressure Production Trap (LPPT). Some facilities (Abqaiq GOSPs,
for example) have an extra vessel called Intermediate Pressure Production Trap (IPPT)
located between the HPPT and LPPT.
The HPPTs are three-phase horizontal separators. Gas flashes from the oil to the top of
the vessels and exits for compression and further processing. Water and solids will
settle to the bottom of the vessel. Clean oil usually cascades over a weir at one end of
the vessel. LPPTs (and IPPTs, when present) are usually 2 phase separators where only
gas is flashed from the oil.
The HPTT (High Pressure Test Trap) is a three-phase horizontal well testing separator,
which is designed to separate and measure accurately the gas, oil, and water volumes
produced from a well. This separator vessel can be used in well testing and to clean up
new completions or stimulated wells. Moreover, it can be used in a wide range of
applications such as low- or high-volume wells and corrosive or sweet wells.
Crude oil is seldom produced alone and is generally commingled with water. Produced
water occurs in two ways: some of the water may be produced as free water, i.e., water
that will settle out rapidly, and some of the water may be produced in the form of
emulsions. Separated water is collected at the Water Oil Separation Vessel (WOSEP).
This water is then directed to the injection pumps and re-injected into the wells. Oil
recovered from the WOSEP is returned to the crude product stream, typically to the
LPPT.
The GOSP depicted schematically in Figure 1 is designed to produce partially stabilized

crude. Most GOSPs take only simple flashes of the gas from the crude and more
extensive stabilization such as via heating the crude is not performed. However, in a
few cases, the crude is heated to achieve partial stabilization of the crude. Stabilization
has the additional benefit of reducing the acid gas, i.e., H2S, content of the crude,
thereby minimizing corrosion downstream.
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Figure 1 – Schematic of a Typical GOSP/Oil Side (2 Trains)
On the gas side, there is again no universally-applied design for processing facilities in
GOSPs. Some have 2 or 3 stages of compression; some have dew point control for the
gas stream using chillers and a few use Triethylene Glycol dehydration systems, e.g.,
Shaybah Producing Department, to reduce the water content of the gas.
5.1 Corrosion Loops and Damage Mechanisms
A corrosion loop is a section of plant in which the following parameters are

similar:
• Materials of construction
• Potential corrosion, materials damage/degradation and fouling mechanisms
• Operating conditions
A Corrosion Loop Diagram is laid out similarly to a Process Flow Diagram

“PFD”, showing the corrosion loops, and potential damage mechanisms. Four
(4) corrosion loops are identified for a typical GOSP (see Appendix A) with
their associated damage mechanisms. The identified damage mechanisms for a
particular stream apply to all components exposed to that stream.
• Corrosion Loop 1 – Water (Blue)
Loop Description:
This loop includes all GOSP piping and equipment components exposed to
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water stream.
Potential Damage Mechanisms:
Materials of construction are carbon steel.
The following potential damage mechanisms are identified:

ο Pitting corrosion
ο Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion (MIC)
ο Erosion corrosion
ο Under deposited corrosion
ο Cavitation
• Corrosion Loop 2 – Crude Oil (Black)
Loop Description:
crude oil stream.

ο Wet H2S Cracking
ο External Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC)
ο Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion (MIC)
ο Erosion corrosion
ο Cavitation
• Corrosion Loop 3 – Gas (Red)
Loop Description:
gas stream.
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ο General Corrosion
ο Erosion Corrosion
ο Wet H2S Cracking
ο Corrosion under Insulation (CUI)
• Corrosion Loop 4 – Stainless Steel (Green)
Loop Description:
This loop includes the LP, IP Compressor after-cooler and HP gas air cooler.
Materials of construction are carbon steel and stainless steel.

ο Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC)
5.2 Corrosive Species
The most common corrosive species in oil and gas production are CO2 and H2S.
These gases are produced from the reservoir with the oil, gas and connate water.
Oxygen (O2) and microbiological species are also concerns, but generally less
prevalent than the acid gases.
In most oil and gas production corrosion problems, a liquid water phase is
required. While water does not enter directly into the corrosion reactions and is
not corrosive in and of itself, it does provide the electrolyte for the overall
corrosion reaction to occur. Large quantities of water are not required either.
Corrosion can occur in small droplets on the surface of piping or vessels
provided that a corrodent is available.
6 Damage Mechanisms
Saudi Aramco standard SAES-L-133 “Corrosion Protection Requirements for Pipelines,

Piping and Process Equipment” defines various types of corrosion and appropriate
corrosion control methodologies. The Standard also addresses requirements for
corrosion monitoring in new projects.
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Almost all oil field corrosion is associated with a liquid water phase. Additional factors
that influence oilfield corrosion include the presence of gases, especially CO2, O2, and
H2S. These gasses make the water an aggressive electrolyte. Other influences are flow
velocity, material of construction, pressure, temperature and water quality issues
(including the pH and presence of microbes, bicarbonates, chlorides and organic acids).
Corrosivity usually increases with the percentage of water in the produced liquid (water
cut). Moreover, many wells in geologically young formations produce fine sand along
with the fluids. This fine sand may remove inhibitor films, protective corrosion product
layers, or metal, depending on the velocity of the fluids. At lower velocities, sand may
deposit, creating a porous barrier between the produced fluid and the metal substrate.
This may allow water to pass through to the metal but restrict passage of inhibitive
chemicals.
6.1 General Corrosion
General corrosion is an attack over the entire exposed surface, or a large area of
a metal. The metal loss is distributed uniformly across the exposed surface. The
rate often decreases with time of exposure as semi-protective corrosion product
films grow across the surface, for example, iron carbonate in CO2 systems or
iron sulfide in H2S systems. In principle, general corrosion should be the easiest
to deal with in terms of risk to an operation. However, general corrosion is not
the typical corrosion mechanism active in most Saudi Aramco facilities.
6.2 Pitting Corrosion
Pitting corrosion is a localized and often intense attack that initiates at a break in
the passive film/protective corrosion product layer. The break may occur at
specific areas, for example, inclusions/discontinuities in the surface that cause a
weakness as the film is formed, e.g., manganese sulfide inclusions in steel. The
growing pit is a small anode that is driven by the relatively large surrounding
cathode area of protective film. Pits may continue to grow and cause perforation
of the metal wall. Localized corrosion is the predominant corrosion mechanism
in Saudi Aramco facilities.
6.3 Erosion Corrosion
Erosion corrosion usually occurs at locations where turbulence develops in a

system and where there is an abrasive component in the stream. The erosion
interferes with the formation of the normal protective film on the pipe wall.
Because some wells produce fine solids, erosion/corrosion can be a factor in
some facilities.
Erosion corrosion can occur both in the presence and in the absence of
suspended matter in the flow stream. In the presence of suspended matter, the
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effect is very similar to sandblasting, and even strong films can be removed at
relatively low velocities.
For design purposes as specified in SAES-L-132 paragraph 5.1.2, flow velocity

in single-phase liquid lines shall be limited to a maximum 4.6 m/s. Flow
velocity should not be less than 1 m/s to minimize deposition of solids and
accumulation of water at the bottom of the pipe. The flow velocity should not
get below the minimum velocity specified by SAES-L-132 in order to avoid
having water stagnancy that will lead to internal corrosion and the maximum
flow velocity should not be exceeded to avoid erosion.
6.4 Under Deposit Corrosion
Under deposit corrosion is a relatively specialized form of corrosion where

corrosion is encouraged under a deposit on the surface of the exposed metal; this
deposit could be a corrosion film, solids from the formation or perhaps a
disbonded coating.
Under deposit corrosion is difficult to control unless the deposits are mechanically
removed. In flowlines and trunklines, scrapers are used to remove deposits.
Separators usually have jetting systems installed to flush solids to drains.
6.5 Environmental Cracking
6.5.1 Wet H2S Damage
There are several types of low temperature damage that result in

blistering and/or cracking of carbon steel and low alloy steels in wet H2S
environments. These types are hydrogen induced cracking (HIC), stress
oriented HIC (SOHIC) and sulfide stress cracking (SSC). The wet H2S
damage mechanisms are related to the absorption of hydrogen in steels.
6.5.1.1 Hydrogen Induced Cracking (HIC) and Hydrogen

Blistering
HIC may form as surface bulges on the ID surface, or within

the wall thickness of a pipe or pressure vessel. The blister,
which is a special type of HIC, results from hydrogen atoms
that form during the sulfide corrosion process on the surface of
the steel, that diffuse into the steel, and collect at a
discontinuity in the steel such as an inclusion, dislocation or
lamination. The hydrogen atoms combine to form hydrogen
molecules that are too large to diffuse out and the pressure
builds to the point where local deformation occurs, forming a
blister. Blistering results from hydrogen generated by
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corrosion, not hydrogen gas from the process stream.
HIC failure occurs in low strength steels and the failure mode
is ductile. They occur in the base metal along the plate rolling
direction in the absence of any stress. However, residual stress
could increases the HIC susceptibility especially for large
diameter pipe with t/d > 3. These forms of cracking are usually
controlled by proper material selection at the design phase of a
project. 01-SAMSS-016 specifies the requirements for testing
and qualifying materials for resistance to HIC. A full
discussion of those requirements is beyond the scope of this
document.
6.5.1.2 Stress Oriented Hydrogen Induced Cracking (SOHIC)
SOHIC is a special form of HIC that mostly occurs in the base

metal adjacent to the weld heat affected zones (HAZ) of a
weld seam due to the presence of high stress (applied and/or
residual) especially experienced in spiral pipe and can develop
in HIC susceptible or resistant steel adjacent to the heat
affected zone. SOHIC could also occur at the tip of cracks
including SSC. The through thickness cracks in SOHIC are
aligned approximately perpendicular to the residual or applied
stress. SAES-L-136 prohibits the use of spiral pipe in wet sour
service if not post heat treated to avoid SOHIC.
6.5.1.3 Sulfide Stress Cracking (SSC)
Sulfide stress cracking (SSC) is a form of wet H2S damage,

which occurs when a susceptible material is exposed to a
corrosive environment containing water and H2S at a critical
level of applied or residual tensile stress. SAES-A-301 defines
the requirements for SSC-resistant materials. Generally, SSC
is controlled by the materials selection and at the fabrication
stages of a project. PWHT is beneficial in reducing the
hardness and residual stresses that render the steel
susceptibility to SSC. However, as it is a cracking related
phenomenon, controlling corrosion (through effective
inhibition, for example) will also control SSC. SSC would
apply for any sour facility if sour service restrictions are not
followed.
6.5.2 External Stress Corrosion Cracking
There are two types of external SCC normally found on buried pipe,
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known as high pH (9 to 13) and near-neutral pH external SCC (5 to 7).

The high pH external SCC caused numerous failures in Saudi Aramco,
whereas near-neutral pH external SCC failures have not been found so
far.
High pH external SCC is a classical SCC, which is normally found

within 20 kilometers downstream of a compressor station. High pH
external SCC normally occurs in a relatively narrow cathodic potential
range (-600 to -750 mV Cu/CuSO4) in the presence of a
carbonate/bicarbonate environment in a pH window from 9 to 13.
Temperatures greater than 38oC are usually necessary for high pH
external SCC susceptibility; crack growth rates decrease exponentially
with temperature.
An intergranular cracking mode generally indicates high pH external

SCC. A thin carbonate layer is formed in the concentrated carbonate-
bicarbonate environment, which provides protection around the crack
surfaces. However, due to changes in loading or cyclic loading there is
crack tip strain resulting in breakage of oxide film. This results in crack
extension due to corrosion. Because of such narrow environmental
conditions for high pH SCC initiation, high pH SCC is not encountered
as often as the near-neutral pH external SCC. High pH External SCC
has been primarily noted in gas transmission lines near the discharge of
compressor stations.
As per NACE RP0204 - 2004 for Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC)

Direct Assessment Methodology, a pipe segment is considered
susceptible to high-pH external SCC if all of the following factors are
met:
• The operating stress exceeds 60% of specified minimum yield
strength (SMYS).
• The operating temperature exceeds 38oC
• The segment is less than 32 km (20 miles) downstream from a
compressor station.
• The age of the pipe is greater than 10 years.
• The coating type is other than fusion-bonded epoxy (FBE).
6.6 Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion (MIC)
Microbiologically influenced corrosion (MIC) can degrade the integrity, safety,

and reliability of piping or vessels. Early detection of MIC problems can only
be achieved by routine monitoring of the physical, chemical, and biological
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characteristics of piping systems. Lab analyses are conducted to detect and

quantify MIC.
The most harmful and notorious bacteria known to enhance corrosion are the
sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB). SRB reduce the sulfate to the corrosive H2S,
which again reacts with the steel surface to form iron sulfides. Both SRB
colony populations and sulfide corrosion mechanisms are more pronounced in
stagnant or near stagnant conditions.
SRB are anaerobes that are sustained by organic nutrients. Generally, they
require a complete absence of oxygen and a highly reduced environment to
function efficiently. Nonetheless, they circulate in aerated waters, including
those treated with chlorine and other oxidizers, until they find an "ideal"
environment supporting their metabolism and multiplication. SRB reduce
sulfate to sulfide, which usually shows up as hydrogen sulfide or, if iron is
available, as black ferrous sulfide. Most common strains of SRB grow best at
temperatures from 25° to 35°C.
A few thermophilic strains capable of survival at more than 60°C have been
reported. SRB have been implicated in the corrosion of most common
construction materials including steels, 300 series stainless steels, copper nickel
alloys and high nickel molybdenum alloys. There have been cases of MIC
failures in carbon, stainless and non-ferrous equipment and piping provoked by
poor water quality during original hydrotesting. Saudi Aramco Engineering
Standard SAES-A-007 provides control guidelines to mitigate MIC during the
hydrotest.
SRBs are ubiquitous, meaning that they are everywhere. They remain in soils,
surface water streams and waterside deposits in general. Their mere presence,
however, does not mean they are causing corrosion. The key symptom that
usually indicates their involvement in the corrosion process of ferrous alloys is
localized corrosion filled with black sulfide corrosion products.
6.7 Corrosion Under Insulation (CUI)
Severe corrosion and/or stress cracking of equipment, piping and structural

components made of carbon and stainless steel can occur under thermal and fire
proofing insulations. It occurs due to several factors: moisture (from the
atmosphere or nearby cooling tower) penetration into the insulations, leachable
halides precipitate on the underlying substrate. Corrosion becomes more severe
at metal temperatures between the boiling point 212oF (100oC) and 250oF
(121oC), where water is less likely to vaporize and insulation stays wet longer.
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6.8 Galvanic Corrosion
Galvanic corrosion is an electrochemical action of two dissimilar metals in the

presence of an electrolyte and an electron conductive path. The potential for
Galvanic Corrosion must be considered where dissimilar metals are in direct
contact in a water phase. It is recognizable by the presence of a buildup of
corrosion product at the joint between the dissimilar metals.
7 Corrosion Control Options
7.1 Materials Selection
Carbon steel is considered the main construction material for upstream

applications. Corrosion resistant alloys may be necessary for specific design
problems and may be used downhole in corrosive CO2 wells. Non-metallics
have potential application. SAES-L-132 “Materials Selection for Piping
Systems” is used to select the suitable piping material for all services. The
materials selection for pumps and valves are included in SAES-G-005 and
SAES-L-108, respectively. Operational requirements to be considered include,
but are not limited to, temperature range, environments, reliability requirements
and life expectancy. Special consideration shall be given to those deterioration
modes which are likely to result in a service failure. The modes include pitting
corrosion, galvanic corrosion, stress corrosion cracking and wet H2S damage.
7.2 Chemical Treatments
Chemical treatment plays a crucial role in corrosion mitigation practices in oil

and gas producing operations. Two types of chemical treatments are
implemented in a typical GOSP; batch (squeeze) downhole treatment and
surface continuous injection. Squeeze treatment is performed at prescribed
frequencies determined by the persistency of the treatments. GOSPs using well
water (such as Wasia) for wash or power water often use squeeze treatment of
the water well to protect the downhole tubulars and surface piping.
Squeeze treatments for oil producers, while theoretically possible, are rarely
used. The two main reasons for not applying squeeze treatments to oil
production wells are the potential for damage to the formation and that
persistency would not be adequate in high volume producers. Surface
continuous injection inhibition is usually applied at the production inlet header
(occasionally wellhead), gas compressor discharge and gas out line.
Most corrosion inhibitors provide corrosion protection by forming a thin film on

the interior surface of the pipe. This chemical film provides a protective layer to
prevent direct contact between the metal and the corrosive service. From this
point, it is very important to maintain the correct dosage to continue building
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this protective film. Under treatment results in an ineffective inhibitor film and
thus exposes the metal to the corrosive media and jeopardizing the system. Over
dosing results in loss of chemical by injecting unnecessary quantity. The
economic penalty for over treatment is generally less than that for not
adequately treating a system.
Chemical treatments allows us to use carbon steel in corrosive services without

linings, coatings, or other expensive protection. They generally inhibit
corrosion by adsorbing at the metal/solution interface. Because most inhibitors
are surface-active chemicals, having clean metal surfaces is important for their
successful control of corrosion. Inhibitors often will not get through old scale
deposits on the metal surface. Corrosion deposits, scale, and sand will be coated
and affect the performance of the inhibitor program. Sand is a particularly
undesirable contaminant. The small grains have such large surface area that
much of the chemical intended to provide protection to the piping and vessels
are adsorbed onto the sand. Most piping failures caused by internal corrosion
especially in the production header occur in the bottoms of the lines, mainly in
the low spots. The most effective treatment is an inhibitor that moves through
the lines and partition into the water wherever it accumulates and wets the pipe.
7.2.1 Corrosion and Scale Inhibitor Injection
In the typical GOSP, the corrosion and scale inhibitors are injected
continuously through a quill in different locations as shown in the table
below.
Table 1 – Typical GOSP Corrosion/Scale Inhibitor Injection System
Chemical Type Injection Location Rates

Wet Crude
Production Header 20 -50 ppm (total liquid)
Corrosion Inhibitor
Scale Inhibitor Production Header
LPPT Gas Compressor
3 - 6 pint/MMSCF
Discharge Line
IPPT Gas Compressor
3 - 6 pint/MMSCF
Gas Corrosion Inhibitor Discharge Line (if available)
HPPT Gas Compressor
3 - 6 pint/MMSCF
Discharge Line
Dry Gas Line to NGL 3 - 6 pint/MMSCF
Injection is accomplished with a positive displacement pump.

SABP-A-015 “Chemical Injection Systems” provides guidelines for the
detailed design, materials selection, quality assurance, operations and
inspection of chemical injection systems. This Best Practice covers
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chemical injection systems including all upstream oil & gas processing
facilities.
Operations personnel should note that the under dosing an anodic

inhibitor (often used in water systems) can be worse than using no
inhibitor at all since insufficient inhibitor produces incomplete barriers
that can promote rapid localized corrosion or pitting.
Frequent field visits and spot-checks should be conducted by the Area

Corrosion Engineer to ensure strict adherence to the chemical treatment
procedures. Scheduling random visits to each facility and spot-check the
chemical treatment system and verify data from the SCADA reports of
pump operation will help ensure good inhibition operations.
The intent of the spot checks is to bring to the attention of the Operations
organizations the deficiencies in the chemical dosage rates, chemical
injection pumps, the type of chemicals used and similar issues.
Maintaining the optimum chemical dosage to process streams and
monitoring the effect on corrosion rates are extremely important in
corrosion control. Failure to do so would result in unplanned equipment
failures and deferred production.
Monthly status reports need to be prepared and circulated to the

Operations Foreman and other management as necessary. These reports
should highlight any discrepancies noted and the recommend a course of
action. Follow-up visits will be made to observe the implementation of
recommendations.
Operations shall be responsible for tracking chemical consumption and

shall provide monthly status reports reconciling actual consumption vs.
projected consumption, highlighting any discrepancies. The status report
shall be forwarded to the Corrosion Engineer, with the Operations
Forman and the Corrosion Engineer determining required courses of
action. In some cases, the daily operation of chemical pumps may be
checked on the SCADA system. Where practical, this information
should be in the monthly report.
7.2.2 Squeeze Treatment
In Southern area, squeeze treatments are applied to Wasia supply wells.

The inhibitor solution is displaced to the bottom of the well, and
calculated over flush of water is then used to push the inhibitor into the
formation. This technique often leads to continuous feedback lasting for
up to 1 year. The squeeze treatment is monitored using weight loss
corrosion coupons and corrosion inhibitor residual concentration. The
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only corrosion protection program for the Wasia well tubing is the
corrosion inhibitor residual returns from the squeeze job that is
conducted in a yearly basis.
7.3 Control of Wet H2S Damages
Several mitigation methods can be used to control the wet H2S damages. These
methods include:
• Effective barriers that protect the surface of the steel from the wet H2S
environment can prevent damage including alloy cladding and coatings.
• Process changes that affect the pH of the water phase.
• The use of HIC-resistant steels to minimize the susceptibility to blistering
and HIC damage.
• Limiting the hardness of welds and heat affected zones to 200 HB (22 HRC)
maximum through preheat, PWHT, weld procedures and control of carbon
equivalents can generally prevent the susceptibility to SSC.
• PWHT can also help to minimize susceptibility to SOHIC.
7.4 Control of MIC
Control is achieved through application of biocides to control the bacteria

growth. It is usually most effective to take extreme precautions during
construction and commissioning new plant and equipment to minimize
contamination of the equipment with bacteria, once bacteria are established
within a system, it is nearly impossible to achieve a “kill” of all of the colonies.
There are a range of biological control methodologies to choose from for

microbial control. These treatments range from simple chlorination (or chlorine
dioxide) in water systems to introducing toxins such as gluteraldehyde or
quaternary amines to utilizing other microbes (encouraging growth of non-
damaging species which minimizes or eliminates growth of damaging bacterial
colonies). Specific treatments should be confirmed with the subject matter
experts in either the Research and Development Division of R&DC or
ME&CCD of Consulting Services Division. Microbial corrosion can also be
prevented by reducing or removing the food source of the particular microbe.
For example, nitrate containing cooling water systems can be replaced by
molybdate/nitrate systems.
7.5 Control of CUI
Methods to control CUI include: eliminating moisture ingress to the jacket

system by sealing the jacket, selecting free-halide insulation (especially
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important for stainless steel systems), applying an immersion resistant coating

under the insulation such as APCS-2A/2E or applying new thermal insulating
composite coatings as per APCS-5. Insulated stainless steel must be coated to
prevent the stress corrosion cracking. The selection of coating type under the
insulated stainless steel shall be based on the table in NACE RP0198. For
example air-dry silicone base coatings (Thurmalox 70 & Hi-Temp 1027) are
used under insulated austenitic stainless steel. The protective coating with
conventional insulation, water entry generally occurs because the insulation
jacketing is either damaged or improperly installed.
Compliance with Company standards and maintaining the insulation jacket

integrity to keep the insulation dry will minimize CUI.
7.6 Control of Galvanic Corrosion
The following recommended practices should be observed to keep galvanic

corrosion to a minimum.
• Avoid the use of widely dissimilar metals in direct contact.
• When dissimilar metals must come into contact, they should be separated by
using electrically non-conductive materials, barrier coatings, or by plating.
• The anode should be as large as feasible in relation to the cathode.
• Coat both the anode and the cathode with the same material. If it is only
possible to coat one material always coat the cathode, never the anode.
• Use coated fasteners in accordance to 09-SAMSS-107.
7.7 Salt Water Disposal Lines Scraping
The salt water disposal lines are critical to the GOSP operation. This
necessitates the implementation of all corrosion mitigation measures to maintain
lines integrity. As a result, disposal line scraping is an important performed
practice to control corrosion and maintain adequate water quality. Scraping
removes debris that promotes under deposit corrosion at the bare girth welds and
exposed steel where coating failure occurred.
All waste water disposal lines should be scraped at least one per year. The
ongoing scraping jobs remove reasonable quantity of sludge and deposits from
the disposal line.
In some operating areas, OIMs (Operating Instruction Manuals) has been issued
to govern the scraping activities. Complying with the scraping guidelines,
whether in an OIM or other recommendations, will enhance the performance of
corrosion inhibitors, prevent under deposit corrosion and minimize failures.
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Biocides, oxygen scavengers and inhibitors are also used to control corrosion in
waste water disposal lines when necessary. Effective monitoring of corrosion
will indicate the need for additional treatments.
Coating and linings can be used to prevent the internal corrosion and the deposit
formation for the salt water disposal line. The internal girth weld can be coated
for piping with diameters above 8 inch. Refer to the guidelines in SAES-H-002
and SAES-H-201 about coating selection and coating application.
7.8 Mothballing
Corrosion of idle equipment is caused by contact with water and oxygen from
the air or other acid gases from the fluids in the line. A decision must be made
between long-term and minimum cost mothballing. Long-term mothballing is
aimed at preserving a plant essentially intact for future use. Minimum cost
mothballing is really based on the idea that the plant is not likely ever to be
used, and can be cannibalized as a prelude to probable abandonment. Its
primary aim is to identify and preserve the valuable or long-delivery equipment
items. The Mothballing Manual (SAER-2365) provides useful guidelines for
mothballing procedures.
7.9 Cathodic Protection
In general, cathodic protection is an approach where the metal surface to be

protected is forced to be the cathode of an electrochemical cell. Since corrosion
and material loss occurs only at the anode, this approach protects the metal. The
surface to be protected is provided with a supply of electrons, either from a
direct current source or from the corrosion of a more active metal. Cathodic
protection is the only technique for corrosion control that can be totally effective
in eliminating corrosion; unfortunately, it is not universally applicable. CP
requires an anode, a cathode (structure to protect), a common electrolyte shared
by both the anode and cathode (water or soil) and an electron conductor
connecting the anode and cathode. Therefore, facilities that may be protected
include buried pipelines or buried tanks (to protect the external surface only) and
vessels or tanks with a continuous water phase on the bottom (anodes placed
inside the vessel and located in the water, to protect the internal surface only).
There are two types of cathodic protection, the sacrificial (galvanic) anode and
the impressed-current method. The sacrificial anode method is the simpler
method, and utilizes galvanic corrosion. Sacrificial anodes are castings of a
suitable alloy electrically connected by a wire or steel strap to the structure to be
protected. The alloys used must be less noble than steel (the common oilfield
material), such as magnesium, zinc, or aluminum. The sacrificial anodes
corrode, releasing electrons to the steel. As cathodic electrochemical reactions
consume electrons, the steel surface becomes a preferential cathode and is thus
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protected from corrosion. Magnesium and zinc are usually used in soils, and
zinc can also be used in brine environments. Sacrificial anodes are most often
used when current requirements are relatively low, electric power is not readily
available, and when system life is short, which calls for a low capital
investment.
Impressed-current method uses an external energy source to produce an electric

current that is sent to the impressed-current anodes, which can be composed of
graphite, high-silicon cast iron, lead-silver alloy, platinum, or even scrap steel
rails. Impressed-current cathodic protection is used when current requirements
are high, electrolyte resistivity is high, fluctuations in current requirements will
occur, and when electrical power is readily available.
Well casings and normally below grade pipelines (and plant piping) are
protected with impressed current remote and distributed anodes, while short
isolated piping and buried sections of normally above grade pipelines are
protected with galvanic anodes. In plant areas, a combination of remote and
distributed anode systems could be more feasible, viable, practical and cost-
optimum than the distributed anode system alone.
7.9.1 Cathodic Protection for Crude Oil Tank Internals
Crude oil tanks are protected with either magnesium or aluminum anodes
mounted internally on the tank bottom plates (and inside the sump) to
ensure sufficient protection when water accumulates on the bottom of the
tank and/or inside the sump.
7.9.2 Cathodic Protection for Water Tank Internals
Either galvanic or impressed current cathodic protection is used to

protect water tank internals, provided the electrolyte resistivity is less
than 2000 ohm-cm. While galvanic anodes can be aluminum or
magnesium, impressed current anodes used are mixed metal oxide
(MMO), platinum-coated titanium or niobium, or high silicon cast iron
(HSCI).
7.9.3 Cathodic Protection for Tank Bottom Externals
New above grade storage tanks are protected against soil-side corrosion
by grid or continuous MMO (Mixed Metal Oxide) anode systems
installed underneath the tank while the tank is being constructed.
Existing tanks constructed on oily-sand pads are protected by HSCI
(High Silicon Cast Iron) anodes installed along a circumference outside
the tank ring-wall.
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7.9.4 Cathodic Protection for Underground Plant Piping and Casings
Buried sections of normally above grade plant piping are cathodically

protected with galvanic anodes. On the other hand, normally below
grade piping is usually protected with impressed current cathodic
protection using distributed HSCI or continuous impressed current
anodes. Short sections of electrically isolated buried piping less than
500 meters long can be protected using galvanic anodes. Pipeline
casings are protected with dedicated anodes, or by indirect protection
through electrical connection to plant structures with dedicated
protection.
7.9.5 Cathodic Protection for Buried Valves and Fittings
Buried valves, fittings, metallic risers, fire hydrants, monitors, hose reels,
posting indicator valves, etc., connected to RTR FW piping are protected
with galvanic anodes. The type of galvanic anodes used depends on the
soil resistivity, where zinc is typically used in low (less than 500 ohm-cm)
resistivities, and magnesium in high (higher than 500 ohm-cm) resistivity
areas.
There are specific structures inside plant areas which normally do not
require cathodic protection, such as, supports for above grade junction
boxes, non-pressurized gravity drain lines, sewer lines, pipe racks, piles
and pipe supports. However, some of these structures are evaluated on a
case-by-case basis if the plant is deemed critical or soil corrosivity is
severe. Bare copper grounding system are not permitted and do not
require dedicated cathodic protection, as detailed in SAES-P-111.
7.10 Paints, Coatings & Linings
Coatings control corrosion by creating:

• Sacrificial layer between metal and its environment such as zinc rich
coatings. Thermal spraying, hot-dipping, electro plating, spraying are
coating process to apply zinc rich layer on carbon steel surfaces.
• Barrier layer between metal and its environment. The barrier coatings resist
and delay the water, gases and salts migration to the underlying steel
substrate. There are high performance coatings for corrosion control such
as: 100% solid, solvent free novolac epoxies, 100% solid aromatic cured
polyurethanes, glass flakes filled polyester and vinyl-ester, aluminum filled
coatings. These coating systems are mainly used for internal coating of
GOSP vessels.
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The internal coating of GOSP vessels is considered as the first line of defense,
while Cathodic Protection and chemical treatment are secondary line of defense
in corrosion control in case coating has voids due to application or coating
deterioration due to service related conditions.
The quality of surface preparation and coating application process is very

essential to be assured by qualified coating inspectors in order to prevent
premature coating failures. In addition, the right selection of quailed coating
applicator is a key step to ensure optimum workmanship.
7.10.1 External Corrosion Control by Coatings
The external coatings shall be selected based on the substrate type and
function, substrate temperature and operating, location environment
(buried subsea) or above ground (marine, industrial or arid), coating
application types, shop or field application, and if there are thermal
insulation and/or fire proofing. Refer to SAES-H-001 for selecting
proper external coating systems and ISO 12944 “Corrosion Protection of
Steel Structure by Paints System.”
Most of structural steel items for equipment such fin-fan coolers frames
are protected from atmospheric corrosion with metallic zinc coating
applied by hot-dip galvanizing. The zinc coating thickness depends on
the atmospheric exposure, steel thickness and steel composition. Refer
to ASTM A123 “Hot-Dip Galvanizing for Steel and Iron.”
The performance of external coatings for the purchased pumps, valves,

compressors, turbines shall comply with C4 environment (industrial) in
ISO 129444 or equivalent to the performance of approved coating in
SAES-H-101.
External corrosion protection of motors and transformer, the coating

should have both high heat emissivity, low film thickness and comply
with C4 environment in ISO 12944 or better.
7.10.2 Internal Corrosion Control by Coating for Vessels, Drums and

Tanks
There are several internal coatings for immersion service conditions such
as sour, wet crude and gas, jet fuel and turbine fuel, potable water, fire
water, and waste water service:
7.10.2.1 Thin Film Barrier Coating
The solvent base epoxy- phenolic coatings are thin film barrier
coatings with dry film thickness not exceeding 20 mils. Its
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function is corrosion control of carbon steel in water service

and wet crude/gas services they are approved under APCS-
2A/2B/2C/2D. They are applied in three coats as per the
coating specification APCS-2A and APCS-2C in SAES-H-101.
This solvent base coating requires a 7 days minimum to attain a
proper cured film. It also requires an interval time between the
coats. It requires waiting time for the solvent to evaporate
from the coating film. The overall coating application process
may have an effect on the project schedule. The expected
performance service life is dependant on many factors.
• APCS-2A is specified for GOSP traps vessels at
temperature up to 90°C.
• APCS-2C can be specified as above and for wet gas drums
at temperature up to 120°C.
• APCS-2A can be specified for fire water and waste water
tanks.
• APCS-2B is specified for lining potable water tanks
• APCS-2D is specified for jet fuel tanks
7.10.2.2 Thick Film Barrier Coatings
These coatings are applied at minimum thickness of 20 mils

(500 microns) dry film thickness. They can be applied in
single application with multiple wet passes to achieve the right
thickness. They dry faster and have less curing time than the
three coat system. The expected performance service life is
between 7 - 12 years. There are four types of generic approved
coatings: epoxy-novolac under APCS-2E, glass-flakes
polyester under APCS-2F, glass-flake vinyl ester under APCS-
2G, and hybrid inorganic-organic epoxy under APCS-27.
Refer to the detailed coating specification in SAES-H-101.
• Coal Tar Epoxy APCS-3: It is specified for storage tanks
of crude and waste water.
• Epoxy-Novolac APCS-2E: It is specified for GOSP Traps
and storage tanks for crude and water service. It can be
used for caustic service and used under insulated carbon
and stainless steel -45 to105°C.
• Glass Flake Polyester APCS-2F: It is used for water and
waste service tanks
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• Glass Flake Vinyl Ester: It is specified for GOSP Traps

and storage tanks for crude and water service.
• Hybrid Epoxy Coating APCS-27: It is immersion coating
for hot hydrocarbon, hot gas and boiling water up to 150°C.
7.10.3 Internal & External Corrosion Control by Coating for Pipelines &
Piping
Fusion bonded epoxy FBE powder coatings, which are approved under
SAES-H-002, APCS-104, are used to protect the external surfaces of
new pipe joints. Fusion bonded epoxy FBE powder coatings which are
approved under SAES-H-002, APCS-102, are used to protect the internal
surfaces of new pipelines and plant piping in crude, gas and water
services. Baked phenolic and baked phenolic epoxy as per SAES-H-002
APCS-100 is specified for down hole tubing and non-bending piping and
heat exchanger tube bundle coating. Liquid coatings or fusion bonded
epoxy can be used for the external and internal girth weld areas. Refer to
SAES-H-201.
During maintenance and rehabilitation, high solid liquid coatings as per

APCS-113A, and Visco-Elastic coating as per APCS-113C can be
applied to provide the external corrosion protection of buried pipelines
and piping.
7.10.4 Internal Corrosion/Erosion Control by Coatings for Pumps and

Valves
The internal body of pumps and valves can be protected from corrosion,
erosion and chemical attacks by utilizing the suitable coating system as
given per APCS-28 - SAES-H-101 and FBE Powder coating as per
APCS-102 – SAES-H-002. The coating system used for repair should be
able to be machined to meet the final fitting tolerances. Other thermo
plastic and thermo setting coating can be used such as P10, PTFE,
ECTFE and Nylon for preventing corrosion, scaling and fouling build
up. The internal coating application is depending on the size of the
pump and valve, operating and service conditions.
7.10.5 Internal Corrosion and Fouling Control by Coating for Heat

Exchangers
Baked phenolics, baked epoxy phenolics, and cold cured epoxy-phenolic

are applied on the internal of tubes of heat exchanging equipment to
prevent corrosion, and mitigate scaling and fouling build up. There are
two ways of coating applications for shell and tubes exchanger and for
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fin-fan exchangers: the shop application with using baked cured coatings
and the field by using cold cured coatings.
7.11 Controlling Erosion Corrosion and Cavitation
Cavitation and erosion can be prevented by the proper equipment design and
material selection in additions to controlling the operating parameters. This
involves reducing flow velocity and excessive turbulence. Some prevention
methods for erosion corrosion and cavitation include improving the flow
patterns within the pipe, by smoothing out irregularities, allowing bends to have
larger angles, and changing pipe diameters gradually rather than abrupt changes.
Other methods include slowing the flow rate (reducing turbulence), reducing the
amount of dissolved oxygen, changing the pH, using erosion-corrosion
resistance coatings or upgrading the base material to a different metallurgy.
7.12 Process Controls
Water is an essential component in the overall corrosion process. Eliminating

water from a system will control corrosion and eliminate the need for other
corrosion control measures. In gas systems, TEG dehydration units are quite
effective in controlling the water dew points to acceptable levels. If the water
dew point of a gas stream is controlled to at least 3oC (5oF) below the minimum
ambient temperatures expected, liquid water cannot condense in the system and
therefore corrosion will not occur.
8 Operating Windows
Each GOSP should have its own operating windows. These operating windows should
be established based on the analysis of each GOSP information plus GOSP experience.
There are two types of limits should be included in the operating windows which are
critical and standard limits. In critical limits, the operator may need to take immediate
action to control the process or shut down within a fairly short period of time; while in
the standard limits, the operator needs to take action within a specified timeframe to get
the process back into control in order to avoid escalation of the issue.
Various types of limits create boundaries for any specific operating window. Typically,
operating windows fall into two categories of limits, physical and chemical. Examples
of physical limits include: various limits on pressure and temperatures including design,
operating, partial pressures, dew points, dry points, heating and cooling rates, delta P,
etc. In addition, there are flow rates, injection rates, inhibitor dosage, vibration limits,
corrosivity probe measurements, etc. Examples of chemical limits include: pH, water
content, H2S & CO2 concentrations, salt content, inhibitor concentration, chloride
contamination levels, oxygen content, etc.
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GOSP personnel need to become knowledgeable about their facility operating windows
conditions. The operation of the GOSP should be within the stable limits for long term
safe, environmentally sound operation. Outside of those limits, operator involvement
may be required to return the process into the safe operating limits.
9 Corrosion Monitoring
This section describes various methods for corrosion monitoring. Within Saudi Aramco,
the generally accepted maximum corrosion rate is 5 mpy. Corrosion rates determined
through monitoring techniques rarely match exactly the actual rates experienced in the
vessel. Successful corrosion management is obtained through building a history of
monitor results and correlating that data to actual T&I or OSI (On-Stream Inspection)
inspection results.
The following methods can be used to monitor corrosion behavior and inhibitor
effectiveness:
• On-line Corrosion Monitoring (resistance probes or linear polarization)
• Weight loss coupons (gives only average rate)
• NDT Testing (OSI)
• CP Anode Monitoring System (AMS) for the Plant Vessels
• Laboratory analyses
o Product residuals (corrosion deposit analyses)
o Inhibitor residual analysis
o Iron counts
o Bacteria counts
o Brine analyses
• Monitoring changes in pressure, temperature and/or production.
• Failure record keeping and visual inspection (after failures have occurred)
• Failure analysis
• Several GOSPs have On-guard corrosion monitors in their control rooms to monitor
corrosion of computer systems in the control rooms. (SAES-J-801, Paragraph 9.3.1).
Some methods are useful for on-stream measurements, either continuous or periodic.
Others are methods used during shutdowns. It is essential that the purpose of the
monitoring system and how the data will be used be clearly understood and agreed at
the design stage so that appropriate techniques are chosen and built into the facility. For
example, if the intent is to monitor general corrosion rates over long time, coupons are a
good choice. If the intent is to monitor the efficacy of a chemical inhibition program,
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then a more sensitive and real-time system, such as on-line corrosion monitoring,
should be selected.
Corrosion coupons and on-line probes are often used in studying the effectiveness of
corrosion inhibitor programs or the effects of specific process changes on corrosion.
However, they do not accurately measure localized corrosion (pitting).
The corrosion coupons/probes readings should be used to create a corrosion rate loss
indicator through the trending of data. Whenever this indicator shows an upwards
trend, the corrosion inhibition and process parameters of the plant piping and equipment
shall be reviewed by skilled corrosion engineer.
The following means should be considered for achieving quality corrosion monitoring
& control:
• Selection of sampling locations for stream analysis and monitoring locations for
corrosion assessment.
• Specification of sampling/monitoring frequency.
• Application of the established operating procedures for stream analysis and
corrosion monitoring.
• Management of corrosion data and analysis.
• Correlation of corrosion data with the inspection and operation data.
9.1 Probes
Some of the newer GOSPs have an on-line monitoring technology to obtain

corrosion rate using the MICROCOR® system. This system is based on an
electrical resistance probe and transmitter that are connected to a computer in
the control room. Locations which are typically monitored include:
• Flowlines or trunklines
• Wash water
• HPPT water out
• Formation water disposal line
The main advantage of an on-line system, such as MICROCOR®, is that

corrosion rates can be recorded in nearly real time and that the data is recorded
continuously and automatically.
The technology uses the change in resistance of a metal element as it loses

cross-sectional area to corrosion. The system measures the resistance changes
of the metal wire or strips contained in the probe and calculate that change to a
corrosion rate, which is displayed and can be trended. Instead of the traditional
weight loss coupon, the system uses a thin wire, tube, or strip of metal.
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9.2 Coupons
Metal loss coupons are simple to use, usually accurate, but completely manual.
They are small test specimens of metal that are exposed to an environment of
interest for a period of time to determine the reaction of the metal to the
environment. The metal-loss coupon is removed at the end of the test period
and any remaining corrosion products mechanically and/or chemically removed.
The average corrosion rate over that period can be determined from the mass
loss of metal over the period of exposure. This is accomplished by weighing the
coupon before and after exposure (coupons must first be cleaned following
exposure to remove corrosion products and any other deposits) and determining
the weight loss. The average corrosion rate can easily be calculated from the
weight loss, the initial surface area of the coupon and the time exposed.
Metal loss coupons are an effective tool for providing a quantitative estimation
of corrosion rates occurring in an operating system. They also provide a visual
indication of the type of corrosion which may be occurring in the monitored
system. The metal loss calculations from the retrieved coupons are important
for a number of reasons, some of which are to:
• Provide an insight into corrosion mechanisms.
• Determine and predict corrosion rates of the plant piping and equipment.
• Provide a basis for estimating service life of the plant piping and equipment.
• Evaluate the effectiveness of various corrosion control methods.
• Monitor the progress of an existing corrosion control program.
Metal Loss coupons become an even more valuable predictive maintenance tool
when results are compared to confirmed wall loss information such as provided
through ultrasonic thickness testing or actual pipe removal and metallurgical
analysis. Metal loss coupons are basically historical (i.e., after-the-fact)
measurements which provide an indication of the cumulative damage that has
occurred over time. Moreover, one of the drawbacks of metal loss coupons is
that any upsets in process conditions may not be captured and reflected by the
monitoring probes since the corrosion monitoring is done through manual data
collection and for specified time intervals. It should be noted that metal loss
coupon is not recommended as a monitoring technique for optimization of
corrosion inhibitor in the high corrosion rate condition due to the slow response.
Frequently, corrosion during shutdowns or operating upsets contributes

appreciably to total metal loss. This possibility should be considered, particularly
if unexpectedly high corrosion rates are encountered during a test. Consideration
should be give to exchanging coupons immediately before and after a planned
prolonged shutdown to monitor the effects of the shut down only.
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Coupons in general can be used to provide information about the baseline

corrosion rate or provide feedback to the chemical inhibition and inspection
programs. For example, if the corrosion rates are higher than the target, then an
increase in inhibitor concentration may be required. Conversely, if corrosion
rates are substantially lower than the target then a reduction in inhibitor
concentration may be warranted.
The coupons can be designed to intrude some distance into the fluid as in the
strip coupons (intrusive styles) or be flush mounted with the surface of the
piping as shown in Figure 2. This enables the monitoring to be positioned
within the middle of the process stream or immediately adjacent to the pipe wall.
Figure 3 shows an example of both strip and flush mounted coupons.
Figure 2 – Common Coupon Design for Pipeline Application
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Figure 3 – Strip and Flush Coupons
Page 33 of 43
The typical design of the corrosion monitoring point is shown in the Library
Drawing DA-950035 “2-Inch High Pressure Access System Chemical Injection
and Corrosion Monitoring”.
9.3 Inspection using Non Destructive Testing
Some nondestructive testing techniques allow inspection while the equipment is

in use or on-stream, (NDT could find a condition where repair would be
necessary.) This type of testing is valuable because the specimen is not
destroyed; however, these techniques generally require greater operator skill and
the results are not always straightforward to interpret. Below are some of the
common NDT techniques:
• Visual Testing (VT)
• Radiographic Testing (RT)
• Ultrasonic Testing (UT)
o Straight Beam UT
o Shear Wave UT
• Magnetic Particle Testing (MT)
• Penetrant Testing (PT)
• Eddy Current Testing (ET)
• Acoustic Emission
Non-destructive testing (NDT) can be considered as one of the inspection tools

to monitor corrosion. All of the above mentioned methods provide only a
snapshot of information on the status of the integrity of the plant piping and
equipment and they are often the best for assessment of general attack.
9.4 CP Anode Monitoring System (AMS) for Plant Vessels
Some vessels within GOSPs are equipped with Anode Monitoring System
(AMS) to monitor anodes that cathodically protect the vessel internal surfaces.
AMS consists of sacrificial anodes (normally High-Temperature Sacrificial Zinc
anodes), cables and monitoring box as shown in the below typical AMS
drawing.
AMSs are installed normally in HPPT and dehydrators which are most
susceptible to corrosion. They are monitored every month by the area CP
Inspectors. The readings are collected and sent to the CP Engineer for analysis.
AMS reports are issued quarterly for each area. AMS readings give an
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indication for any sign of corrosion, coating damages and insulations damages if
any inside the vessel.
Figure 4 – CP Anode Monitoring System (AMS)
10 Corrosion History
10.1 Weight Loss Coupons Analysis
As an example from one area of operations, a total of six (6) active corrosion
monitoring points containing twelve (12) weight loss coupons are installed in
each GOSP. The monitoring points are distributed on oil and water streams, as
shown in the following table:
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Table 2 – Weight Loss Coupons Locations
# Location Service
1 LPPT oil out Oil
2 Oil out from LPPT Oil
3 Wash water line at Desalter area Water
4 Wasia well manifold Water
5 Injection well Water
6 Water out from HPPT Water
10.2 Plant Dead Legs
As defined in paragraph 11.4.3 of SAES-L-310 “Design of Plant Piping”, a

section of a piping system meeting the following criteria is considered a dead
leg:
• When a pipe section is connected to a flowing stream where it is not self
draining and is not normally flowing.
• The piping material has the potential for corrosion in service.
• For 2 inch pipes and larger, when the length is longer than three times its
pipe diameter, or 1.22 m (4 ft) in length, the length of the dead leg is the
distance measured from the outside diameter of the header (or run) to the
near end of the branch valve.
• For branch connections of 1-½ inch NPS and smaller, the length of the dead
leg is the distance measured from the end of the boss to the near end of the
valve.
Plant dead legs should be eliminated, coated, or added to the plant flushing list.
In certain cases, relocation of valves at the dead leg locations could prevent
creation of stagnancy. The above recommendations were set as preventive
measures to reduce the possibility of leak caused by corrosion. Moreover, it is
recommended to create a numbering system to plant dead legs for tracking
purposes and label them in the field.
10.3 Insulated Piping without Inspection Window
The insulated piping is not accessible for monitoring, which will increase the
probability of corrosion failures under thermal insulation. As per paragraph
5.1.1 of 00-SAIP-74 “Inspection of Corrosion under Insulation and
Fireproofing”, these piping systems are considered susceptible for corrosion
Page 36 of 43
under insulation (CUI) since they were fabricated from carbon steel and
operating between temperatures 25 to 250°F.
The most common and straightforward way to inspect for corrosion under
insulation (CUI) is to cut plugs in the insulation that can be removed to allow for
ultrasonic testing.
10.4 Jetting and Drain Lines
High corrosion rates were observed in the jetting and drain lines. To avoid
frequent leaks and to maximize cost avoidance, the future replacement of the
corroded jetting and drain lines should utilize advanced coating technique such
as internally fluorocarbon lining.
10.5 Inspection of Piping Resting on Racks/Supports
Pipe sections resting on supports are currently not monitored for corrosion. One
technology that could be used to inspect critical process lines that are resting on
pipe racks/supports is the guided wave or Lamb wave technique.
10.6 Flare and Relief Lines
High corrosion rates are often observed in the flare and relief lines. Effective
control of internal corrosion in flare and relief systems could be to use internal
coating and maintain positive sloping of the future replacement relief lines to
prevent corrosion and water stagnation. Paragraph 6.4 of SAES-L-133 states
that a service condition that would cause a metal penetration rate of 3.0 mills per
year (mpy) or more is corrosive enough to require specific corrosion control
measures including coating, inhibition or other mitigation method.
11 Record Keeping
Effective corrosion management requires meticulous record keeping. Fortunately, in

today’s world, electronic records are relatively easily collected, stored and analyzed.
The following information for each major piece of equipment, pipeline or flowline
within his area of responsibility should be recorded, analyzed and filed by the local area
Corrosion Engineer:
• On-line Corrosion Monitoring Data (resistance probes or linear polarization)
• Weight loss coupons corrosion rates (gives only average rate)
• NDT Testing Results (OSI)
• T&I inspection results and repairs
• Maintenance conducted and reason for work order.
• Laboratory analyses of the process stream
Page 37 of 43
o Corrosion product analysis (recovered during T&I or with liquid samples)

o Iron counts
o Bacteria counts
o Brine analyses
• Process changes in pressure, temperature and/or production.
• Failure record keeping and visual inspection (after failures have occurred)
• Failure analyses
• CP Anode Monitoring System (AMS) for the Plant Vessel
With all the data being collected from the plant, it is important to turn that data into
meaningful results. Any inspection or corrosion monitoring data can provide useful
information. However, the real benefit is gained when these programs are combined
and correlated with each other. Corrosion monitoring provides an early indication of
problems while inspection measures the actual extent of any damage done. Moreover,
availability of both corrosion monitoring and operational data history will enhance the
level of confidence in the asset integrity and be the basis for optimization of scraping,
chemical injection and inspection frequency.
The corrosion engineers along with inspection personnel should review the collected
data, analyzes the monitoring, aids in technical support and reviews injected chemical.
The data gathered from corrosion monitoring system, and analyzed by the corrosion
engineer, shall be also shared with operations personnel and chemical company
personnel to continue to refine the corrosion mitigation efforts. The chemical vendors
play an important role to ensure ongoing performance testing, check that inhibitor rates
are set correctly and help troubleshoot increases in corrosion.
12 Strategy for GOSP Corrosion Review and Evaluation
This strategy details a procedure of corrosion study which the Corrosion Team should
follow to ensure comprehensive corrosion review and evaluation of all on-plot
equipment and piping at GOSPs.
The objective of the corrosion review and evaluation is to streamline inspection

activities by identifying and evaluating areas of corrosion concern based on collected
OSI data and plant visits. This will provide an early warning to plant personnel of
active corrosion in the facility in order to prevent future failures and avoid unscheduled
plant shutdowns, thus enhancing plant safety and reliability.
The Corrosion Evaluation Team should typically consist of:

• Area Corrosion Engineer
Page 38 of 43
• Plant Engineer
• Area Inspector
Corrosion evaluation and review of GOSPs should be based on several elements that
include OSI data book review, inspection worksheets, unused equipment, piping under
insulation, dead legs, chemical spot check, corrosion coupons and disposal line scraping
results. Below is the detail procedure that should be followed to do a quality job and to
accomplish this task:
• Review the entire OSI data of the plant.
• Review the OSI circuit drawings and recommend deleting or adding more data
points as required to ensure adequate inspection coverage.
• Review the inspection worksheets for the last five years.
• Review the Plant job log and identify the pending engineering packages then make
sure that they are implemented.
• Evaluate the effectiveness of the corrosion inhibitor by reviewing the results of the
retrieved corrosion coupons.
• Identify plant dead legs and make sure that they are included in the OSI program.
The identified dead legs should be eliminated, internally coated or added to the plant
flushing list. Make sure that there is a numbering system for these dead legs for
tracking purposes.
• Identify unused equipment in the plant and make sure that they are mothballed
properly, to avoid corrosion, and/or eliminated for possible utilization in other Saudi
Aramco facilities.
• Identify plant insulated piping then review the need for this insulation and where
insulation is required, request the proponent to provide inspection windows on the
insulated piping sections to allow for periodic ultrasonic testing.
• Identify plant pipe sections that are resting on supports and inaccessible for
inspection.
• Review plant chemical spot checks.
• Review the results of previous scraping activities for plant pipelines.
• Review the corrosion coupon data.
• Recommend Engineering Solutions that involve corrosion mitigation strategies,
optimization of inspection activities, monitoring intervals and repair or replacement
of corroded equipment that have reached their specified retirement thickness.
• Report with conclusions and recommendations.
• Follow-up for the implementation of engineering solutions.
Page 39 of 43
Moreover, indices should be generated to illustrate the severity of corrosion of plant

equipment based on SAEP-20. The corrosion classes should be identified for each
service media including gas, oil and water.
13 Contributing Authors
Name Affiliation
A. S. Al-Omari North Ghawar Producing Department
M. A. Al-Anezi Consulting Services Department
C. I. Cruz Consulting Services Department
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to acknowledge the valuable contributions of North Ghawar
Producing Department for their efforts in developing this Best Practice.
Revision Summary
27 April 2008 New Saudi Aramco Best Practice.
Page 40 of 43
Appendix A – Corrosion Loops and Damage Mechanisms
Corrosion Loops (CL):

CL1: Water
CL2: Crude Oil
CL3: Gas
CL4: Stainless Steel
1 General Corrosion
2 Pitting Corrosion
3 Erosion Corrosion
4 Wet H2S Cracking
5 External SCC
6 Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion (MIC)
7 Corrosion under Insulation (CUI)
8 Under Deposit Corrosion
9 Cavitation
10 Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC)
Notes:
o Damage mechanisms identified for a particular stream apply to all components

exposed to that stream.
o Sulfide Stress Cracking would apply for any sour facility if sour service restrictions
are not followed.
o Crevice Corrosion can be active in association with flange gaps, tube to tube sheet
junctions, socket weld gaps, thread separations, etc.
o The potential for Galvanic Corrosion must be considered where dissimilar metals are
in direct contact in a water phase.
Page 41 of 43
Typical Potential Damage Mechanisms for Wet Crude GOSP
* **
2 4 5 8
HPPT IPPT LPPT Charge Pumps
From 2 6 8 2 6 8 2 6 8
3 9
Production
Header 2 6 8 2 6 8
2 2 6 8
3 9
6
To Flare *
Gas from IPPT To Flare
1 2 4 8 2 6 8 *
1 2 4 8
WOSEP Dehydrator
2 6 28 2 6 8
2 6 8
3 9
* ** 3 9 3 9
2 4 5 8 To P/Ls
HPTT 3 9
3 9 To Flare
From Test 2 6 8 *
1 2 4 8
Header
2
3 9 3 9 Shipping Pumps
TO Desalter
6 LPPT 2 6 8
2 6 8 3 9
Water Injection
Transfer Pump From
Pumps
To To
2 Wash
3 9
Evaporation Injection Water
6
Pond Wells 3 9 2 Wells
2 2 8
Wash Water Pumps
3 3 3 9
Degassing Vessel
6 6
* In old GOSPs with non-HIC steel. 8 8 Recycle Pumps
** In Buried Piping with Damaged Tape Wrap.
Page 42 of 43
Typical Potential Damage Mechanisms for GOSP Gas Compression Facility
To Flare
*
To Flare 2 4
*
1 2 4
*
1 2 3 4
7 *
1 2 4
7 To Flare
LP Compressor
LPPT LP 2 After-cooler
Condensate
Pump 8
LP Gas
2 8 10 To Gas
Gathering 2 8
2 8 Compressor
LPPT K.O.
3 9 Drum Evaporator
* Shell Freon
1 2 3 4
out 7
7
7 Tube
IP Compressor in Tube
IPPT 2 After-cooler out
2 8 10
8 7
IP Gas
2 8 Compressor Shell
IPPT K.O. in
Drum HP Gas Air
*
1 2 3 4 Cooler To IPPT
2 2 8 10
2 K.O. 2
8
8
Drum 8 To
HPPT To Gas Condensate
HPPT K.O.
K.O. Drum Gathering Tie Line Oil
Drum 8
Out
2
*
1 2 3 4
HPTT
Page 43 of 43

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Best Practice

SABP-A-018 27 April 2008

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

1 Scope and Purpose…………………………………………….….. 2

2 Conflicts and Deviations………………………………….............. 2

4 Definitions and Abbreviations……………………...…….……...... 5

7 Corrosion Control Options………………………………............... 15

12 Strategy for GOSP Corrosion Review and Evaluation…............ 37

Appendix A - Corrosion Loops and Damage Mechanisms…..... 39

Previous Issue: New Next Planned Update: TBD

Copyright©Saudi Aramco 2008. All rights reserved.

1 Scope and Purpose

The primary objective of this Best Practice is to become a resource for:

2 Conflicts and Deviations

3.1 Saudi Aramco References

Saudi Aramco Engineering Procedures

SAEP-306 Assessment of the Remaining Strength of

Saudi Aramco Engineering Standards

SAES-H-001 Coating Selection & Application Requirements for

Saudi Aramco Materials System Specifications

09-SAMSS-107 Qualification Requirements and Application of

Saudi Aramco Library Drawing

Saudi Aramco Best Practice

Saudi Aramco Inspection Procedures

Saudi Aramco Engineering Report

3.2 Industry Codes and Standards

American Petroleum Institute

API STD 651 Cathodic Protection of Above-ground Petroleum

National Association of Corrosion Engineers

3.3 Other References

4 Definitions and Abbreviations

HIC Hydrogen Induced Cracking

The GOSP depicted schematically in Figure 1 is designed to produce partially stabilized

Figure 1 – Schematic of a Typical GOSP/Oil Side (2 Trains)

5.1 Corrosion Loops and Damage Mechanisms

A corrosion loop is a section of plant in which the following parameters are

A Corrosion Loop Diagram is laid out similarly to a Process Flow Diagram

Potential Damage Mechanisms:

Materials of construction are carbon steel.

The following potential damage mechanisms are identified:

Potential Damage Mechanisms:

Materials of construction are carbon steel.

The following potential damage mechanisms are identified:

Potential Damage Mechanisms:

Materials of construction are carbon steel.

The following potential damage mechanisms are identified:

Potential Damage Mechanisms:

Materials of construction are carbon steel and stainless steel.

The following potential damage mechanisms are identified:

5.2 Corrosive Species

Saudi Aramco standard SAES-L-133 “Corrosion Protection Requirements for Pipelines,

6.1 General Corrosion

6.2 Pitting Corrosion

6.3 Erosion Corrosion

Erosion corrosion usually occurs at locations where turbulence develops in a

For design purposes as specified in SAES-L-132 paragraph 5.1.2, flow velocity

6.4 Under Deposit Corrosion

Under deposit corrosion is a relatively specialized form of corrosion where

6.5 Environmental Cracking

6.5.1 Wet H2S Damage

There are several types of low temperature damage that result in

6.5.1.1 Hydrogen Induced Cracking (HIC) and Hydrogen

HIC may form as surface bulges on the ID surface, or within