MCAT Section Tests

Dear Future Doctor,

The following Section Test and explanations should be used to practice and to assess
your mastery of critical thinking in each of the section areas. Topics are confluent and
are not necessarily in any specific order or fixed proportion. This is the level of
integration in your preparation that collects what you have learned in the Kaplan
classroom and synthesizes your knowledge with your critical thinking. Simply
completing the tests is inadequate; a solid understanding of your performance through
your Score Reports and the explanations is necessary to diagnose your specific
weaknesses and address them before Test Day.

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Albert Chen
Executive Director, Pre-Health Research and Development
Kaplan Test Prep

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 ANSWER KEY

1. D 11. C 21. D 31. A 41. B 51. D

2. C 12. B 22. C 32. A 42. D 52. B
3. A 13. B 23. B 33. B 43. A 53. D
4. B 14. D 24. B 34. C 44. D 54. B
5. C 15. A 25. C 35. A 45. C 55. A
6. D 16. B 26. B 36. A 46. D 56. A
7. D 17. D 27. B 37. D 47. D 57. B
8. A 18. C 28. D 38. B 48. C 58. A
9. C 19. C 29. D 39. A 49. B 59. B
10. C 20. A 30. C 40. C 50. C 60. B
Passage I (Questions 1-6)

Topic and Scope: The nature of Plato’s “tyrant” and Giovannini’s proposed
interpretation.
Paragraph 1 rewards the patient reader: only at the last sentence, after
negotiating through two dense sentences about such broad subjects as the
Enlightenment and democracy, do we get a clear sense that the topic of the
passage will likely be Plato’s view of the tyrannical character.
Paragraph 2 begins by describing the view of tyranny traditionally associated with
Plato. The sentence that begins, “An argument recently propounded…” indicates
a major development in the unfolding of the passage. Buried mid-paragraph, this
sentence, in classic MCAT style, should prompt a strong suspicion that the scope
of the passage is to discuss Giovannini’s alternative view of platonic tyranny—a
suspicion quickly confirmed by a glance at the remainder of the passage, in
which the word “Giovannini” appears frequently. A final point about the second
paragraph: Note that the words “the traditional view, while sound as far as it
goes, is incomplete” establish the opinion, not of the author, but of Giovannini.
Expect that, in the questions associated with the passage, some wrong choices
will trip-up test takers who failed to make this distinction.
Paragraph 3 gives the details of Giovannini’s alternative view.
Paragraph 4 gives the first clear sense of the author’s opinion: Giovannini’s
findings, “while ingenious and provocative, [are] not beyond question.” Notice
that, like so much else in the content and structure of the passage, this opinion
adheres to a familiar MCAT style: authorial voices that are reasoned and
moderate, rather than intense and extreme.

1. D
Choice (A) is a FUD. Giovannini, not the author of the passage, sought a richer
alternative. (B) is also FUD. The relationship between content and order is
instrumental to a larger point pursued by the author in the fourth paragraph; it is
not, in itself, the primary concern of the paragraph. (C) is a Distortion. The
second sentence of the paragraph (as well as the larger passage) is balanced
and measured, not, as this choice has it, dismissive. (D) captures the structural
role in the passage of the fourth paragraph: to pull together the author’s review of
Giovannini’s study by: reiterating its aim in broad terms; broadly evaluating the
extent of Giovannini’s success; and elaborating a significant potential deficiency
in the study.

2. C
Choice (A) is FUD. This is the image of tyrannical regimes that is associated with
Republic, not Lysis. (B) is a Distortion. Though tempting, this choice, on careful
inspection, falls on the subtle grounds that tyranny cannot be reconciled with
“healthy political community.” What’s more, such a reconciliation is “ultimately
impossible,” not, as this choice has it, “typically incompatible.” (C) captures the
heart of Giovannini’s claims about Lysis as expressed in the third paragraph,
particularly the idea that “the tyranny found in Lysis is the wake of a doomed
union between the needy masses and the singular, complete one.” (D) is Outside
the Scope. The discussion of Lysis provides no evidence for this claim. In fact, to
the extent that paragraph describes the relationship between the ruler and ruled
as “doomed,” we have reason to believe that the ruled would not achieve such
positive traits as strength and self-reliance.

3. A
Choice (A) represents the narrative function of the Aristotle reference, which
appears in the first paragraph, immediately following the words “the Greek
philosophers contributed to this development less by their embrace of the
democratic principle than by their rejection of tyranny.” (B) is FUD. True, a broad
connection is made in the first paragraph between the Greek philosophers and
the Enlightenment. But the purpose of the specific reference to Aristotle’s
classificatory schema is, again, to amplify the claim that these philosophers
tended to reject tyranny as a desirable form of government. (C) is wrong. Plato
did greatly influence political thought, especially that of Aristotle. But the passage
explicitly mentions neither of these points, so to involve them in our thinking
about a choice would be to allow outside knowledge to inform our reading of a
passage—always a bad move. (D) contradicts information in the passage.
Aristotle and Plato alike rate tyranny worst.

4. B
(B), the exception (therefore the correct choice), might be tempting because it’s
FUD. The topic of friendship arises in the third paragraph, which treats Lysis, not
the “best-known platonic description of tyranny.” The treatment in Lysis
specifically grounds the tyrant’s status in his non-reliance on the populace.
Choices (A), (C), and (D) are all characteristics discussed in the second
paragraph, which treats the “best-known platonic depiction of tyranny” in
Republic: the tyrant’s slavishness includes the domination of “unnecessary
appetites” over the tyrant (C), and the tyrant’s dependence ontaxation (A) and
bodyguards (D).

5. C
Choice (A) contradicts information in the passage. The supposition in the
question stem strongly suggests that Plato may have recognized but chosen not
to disclose the paradoxical conception of tyranny that emerges from comparative
readings of Republic and Lysis. This would lend support to, not undermine,
Giovannini’s argument. (B) is FUD and a Distortion. Recall the observation from
our analysis of the passage: at one point or another, a likely wrong choice will
exist to tempt test takers who have not distinguished the opinion of the author of
the passage (“ingenious and provocative, [but] not beyond question”) from that of
Giovannini (“the traditional view, while sound as far as it goes, is incomplete”).
This is that choice. Giovannini, not the author of the passage, claimed that
Republic and Lysis, taken together, provide a more accurate depiction of platonic
tyranny than arises from consideration of Republic alone. What’s more, note the
distortion signified by the word “verify.” Even if the choice were about Giovannini,
the question stem’s hypothetical would lend some support to, but certainly would
not in itself verify, Giovannini’s claim. Choice (C) is correct. The author is
concerned that “Giovannini may have invented, rather than discovered, subtle
interconnections in Plato’s thought.” The basis of this concern is the fact that “if
Plato intended the conception of tyranny that appears in Republic to be somehow
bound up in a paradox with the conception in Lysis, he would presumably have
hinted as much.” But if, as this choice has it, Plato by design may have avoided
acknowledging his paradoxical finding, we have some grounds to discount the
author’s criticism of Giovannini. (D) contradicts information in the passage.
Again, the supposition in the question stem strongly suggests that Plato may
have recognized but chosen not to disclose the paradoxical conception of
tyranny that emerges from comparative readings of Republic and Lysis. Were
this the case, significant doubt would arise about the soundness of the author’s
major criticism of Giovannini, who may have “right” in his finding of a paradox. If
we knew that indeed, he was right, we would have all the more reason to agree
with the author’s estimation of Giovannini’s work as “ingenious and provocative.”

6. D
In paragraph 4, the author states that the most significant objection to
Giovannini’s work is that works from Plato’s “formative” period are treated as
“bound up in a paradox” wit the later treatment of tyranny in Republic. Choice
(D) is a paraphrase of this. (A) and (B) are FUDs; they are both mentioned as
aspects of the Republic version of the tyrant. (C) is never mentioned in the
passage, and clearly both the author and Giovannini are citing the original
sources.

Passage II (Questions 7-12)

Topic and Scope: Hobbes’ theory, including some ambiguities connected to it.
Paragraph 1 introduces Hobbes “state of nature”
Paragraph 2 describes the state of nature
Paragraph 3 introduces the ambiguities.

7. D
Choices (A), (B), and (C) are all FUD. The relationship in (A) is addressed in
paragraph three as one in which nature “derive[s]” from physics. The conception
in (B) is addressed in paragraph two as “matter and motion.” And the role in (C)
is addressed in paragraph three as instrumental: through introspection we can
know the “thoughts and passions of all other[s].” At no point does the passage
treat the transition from the state of nature to civil society. Note the potential trap.
Some readers may happen to know that the idea of a social contract is the key to
this transition. But does the passage address that? No.

8. A
Read above and below the actual line reference, in order to contextualize it. The
billiard-ball depiction emerges immediately after acknowledgement that for
Hobbes, the universe is simply matter and motion. And soon following the
billiard-ball reference is the implication for human behavior: “What is usually
termed ‘will’ is unreal, nothing more than the final derivative of appetite or
aversion…there is also no natural law in the scholastic sense of providentially-
prescribed rational commands of right conduct for everyone. ‘Good’ is radically
individual and utilitarian; it is always and only that to which appetite or aversion
drives a person.” For Hobbes, neither Providence nor nature makes any pursuit
or principle inherently good or bad. Passions drive people to their interests as
force drives one billiard-ball into another—and that’s all there is to it. This view is
consistent with choice (A). (B) is Outside the Scope. This is a very broad claim,
part of which—political society—is almost completely ignored in the passage.
(C) is FUD. The passage mentions positive law and natural law, but makes no
claim about the basis of one in the other. (D) is opposite. Again, Hobbes
believes that will is unreal.

9. C
Choice (A) is FUD. The choice starts of fine, but goes wrong with the words “but
groundless.” After all, the author agrees with the commonplace understanding of
the state of nature as the foundation of Hobbesian thought. (B) is FUD. This
choice is tempting, but falls under close examination: There’s nothing necessarily
inconsistent between the views, on one hand, that a concept is seminal and, on
the other, that it is ambiguous. (C) captures the structural role of the “every
social theorist” reference, which is a “rule” that appears immediately after
reference to LaJoie and Saccente, who make similar claims with respect to
Hobbes. (D) is FUD and Distortion. The tip-off to the Faulty Use of Detail is that
this choice refers to paragraph two, while the reference in the question stem
comes from paragraph one. What makes Hobbes’s philosophy systemic is that it
bases a political theory one a theory of nature, which in turn is a reflection of a
theory of the nature of physical reality. The choice is also a Distortion, in the
sense that very little in this passage is a matter of demonstration in the sense of
proving. Even if the reference in the question stem bore on the systemic
character of Hobbes’s thought, the reference would not prove that the thought is
systemic.

10. C
We have four parameters here: covenants, compacts, civil society, and the state
of nature. In the passage we read much about the last, but next to nothing about
civil society—a consideration that should prompt heavy doubt about choices (B)
and (D). (Remember: We need the answer that “the passage suggest[s].”) We
also know very little about compacts and covenants, other than the “key
distinction” described in the question stem. So the question is, Is the state of
nature characterized by “good faith and the expectation of long-term future
cooperation?” No. So despite all that we don’t know, we can be very confident
that a covenant of mutual trust is unlikely in the state of nature.

11. C
The situation in choice (A) implies cooperation and superior-subordinate
relationships that bear no resemblance to the state of nature. The situation in (B),
though tempting by its reference to war, implies moral restraint and principled
behavior—both without analogy in the state of nature. (C) is analogous to the
claims that in the state of nature, “because of limited resources and the absence
of any summum bonum to fortify a moral order, anarchy rules.” Also, “‘Good’ is
radically individual and utilitarian…Possessed of a natural liberty to compete for
limited resources and to win what security they can by whatever means they
choose, actors in the natural state vie, according to the famous phrase, for
“Power after power.” The vigilantes and lawlessness in (D) give its situation
anarchic overtones, but the reference to businesses and police—neither of which
could exist in the state of nature—rule it out.

12. B
Begin by defining LaJoie’s characterization. Paragraph one attributes to LaJoie
the view that the state of nature “’sets in motion the dominoes of deduction’ from
which ultimately issue the politics proper.” The last paragraph quotes LaJoie’s
description of the state of nature as “a creation of logic, not history.” The point
then becomes to identify the book in which understanding of the state nature is
most clearly associated with logic and deduction. Paragraph three associates
Leviathan, choice (A), with direct experience, De Cive (C) with intuition, and
Leviathan Logic—note the clever but misleading use of “Logic” in the title—with
imagination, among other things. But De Corpore (B) “derives” nature (as one
might derive a proof of logic or math) and uses “ratiocination”—a perhaps
unfamiliar term, but one that probably deals with reasoning and rationality. (In
fact, ratiocination is the deduction of conclusions from premises.)

Passage III (Questions 13-18)

Topic and Scope: Why Creationism should be discussed outside the science
class.
Paragraph 1 introduces the ancient roots of “evolution” theories
Paragraph 2 discusses Christian versions of earlier evolution theories
Paragraph 3 describes the increased acceptance of Darwin’s evolution theory
Paragraph 4 introduces the proposed “creation science” theory
Paragraph 5 concludes with where and how Creationism should be discussed.

13. B
The author here suggests that creationism is a movement localized to the United
States among other industrialized nations by contrasting the importance of
evolution in Britain’s classrooms with the banning of evolution from American
classrooms. Although choice (A) is an appealing possibility, the contrast between
the two systems does not show necessarily that the Bible was unimportant in
British education, simply that it figured largely into the design of American
curricula. There is no implication here that Darwin’s ideas needed a great deal of
support to make their way into the British educational system (C) yet Huxley’s
presence could not have hurt. (D) is incorrect because natural theology was not
based on a literal interpretation of the Bible, but rather was an attempt to
reconcile nature’s beauty with God’s assumed benevolence.
14. D
Carl Sagan suggests in his quote that part of being human is that we create for
ourselves a world filled with (haunted by) demons. Because this quote can be
found in the passage directly after a reference to Sagan as an advocate “of
rationality and reason,” it would be safe to assume that Sagan does not himself
believe in demons nor would he feel that human claims of demons should be
supported, choice (A). In addition, (B) is too much of a sweeping generalization,
somehow implying that we are born superstitious, and is incorrect. Although
Sagan would certainly agree with (C), his reference to a demon-haunted world
does not imply anything about science teaching. (D) makes the most sense
given the quote, that part of the human condition is to surround ourselves with
“demons” that we create in order to fill in gaps in our understanding of the world
around us.

15. A
As stated in the question stem, Wallace’s ideas on evolution were nearly identical
to Darwin’s. Yet, he could not bring himself to include the complexities of the
human brain along with other traits evolved by natural selection. Thus his views
are closest to Huxley’s, an ardent supporters of Darwin’s, with a little natural
theology (an attempt to recognize God’s creation in nature) mixed in. Wallace’s
views were certainly not all creationist, which eliminates choices (B), (C), and
(D).

16. B
The author is clear that creationism does not belong in science classrooms and
that it works counter to rationalism. He builds up the discussion of evolution to
show that evolutionary ideas are perhaps as old as creationist ones, yet
maintains that the continued strength of creationist views today threatens
“rationality and reason,” choice (B). The passage neither contrasts disparate
creationist views, (A) and (C), nor attempts to explain the merits of a scientific
approach over a creationist one, (D).

17. D
The author here has nothing whatsoever to say of the Bible’s legitimacy in
guiding moral principles and consoling people; yet, it is clear that the author does
not support the use of the Bible in any endeavor having to do with science
education. Thus, he would most likely agree with choice (D) here. Be careful of
(C), a tempting answer, since the author seems to imply that there is no room for
any irrationality or superstition. However, a close read of the passage shows that
he reserves this statement for a specific instance: the teaching of creationism in
science classrooms. (A) is incorrect because the author states that creationism
should be discussed, simply to show what it is and what it is not. There is no
evidence in the passage for (B).

18. C
By simply legalizing the teaching of evolution as blocking attempts to ban
evolution from science classrooms, the Supreme Court took a large step toward
ensuring that proper science was being taught in science classrooms. Yet, the
case never touched upon issues such as creation science, which – with its
“science” sounding name – was able to start infiltrating classrooms around the
country. Thus, choice (C) is correct.

Passage IV (Questions 19-25)

Topic and Scope: Diversity in coral reef ecosystems and the diverse behavior
exhibited by reef fishes.
Paragraph 1 demonstrates the richness of coral ecosystems.
Paragraph 2 concerns fish mimicry, camouflage, and symbiotic relationships
between fish and other organisms.
Paragraph 3 concentrates on different fish reproductive behaviors.

19. C
This global question asks for a general statement that the author would agree
with. Keep the passage’s scope and topic in mind when choosing the correct
answer. Choice (A) is outside the scope of the passage. Choosing this answer
would mean that you are privy to an awareness of the author’s intentions that is
not contained in the passage. Stick to what the passage states. (B) is too
extreme. (C) is the correct answer. The passage concerns the richness and
diversity of coral reefs, and the author would agree with this statement. (D) is an
opposite answer. The passage mentions the importance of scientific analysis of
reef ecosystems. Be careful with this answer, though. It is appealing until it says
“environments other than coral reefs.” If you are reading fast you might miss this
important distinction.

20. A
First find the section of the passage discussing hermaphroditic reef fishes and
study its context. At the end of the third paragraph, the author describes
hermaphroditic fish behavior and then concludes by mentioning that evolutionary
biologists find coral environments to be rich in material for further study. The
author echoes this statement in the first sentence of the third paragraph by
referring to how reef fishes intrigue scientists. Look over the answer set keeping
these sentences in mind. Choice (A) builds on information in the passage. Don’t
get confused by “perciform.” Perciform families are mentioned in line 12.
Biologists studying reproductive behaviors would be interested in the
evolutionary development of these behaviors, which can be inferred from the final
sentence of the passage. (B) is way outside the scope of the passage. (C) is
FUD. Spawning behavior of coral animals is mentioned in the opening sentence
but would be outside the interest of fish biologists. (D) is also FUD. While
temperature requirements for coral growth would interest some scientists,
remember that the question asks about scientists studying fish reproduction.
21. D
Reread the section around line 17 to prepare to answer this logic question. The
question stem asks you why the author chose to provide an example of the
number of worm species found on a head of coral. You know that the passage’s
purpose is discuss diverse fish behaviors and that the first paragraph sets up the
inherent diversity in reef communities. Choice (D) addresses the passage’s
purpose and allows the author to demonstrate in an eye-opening way the
diversity of a small section of reef. There is no evidence for (A) since the author
does not present the coral head as being an anomaly. (B) is FUD. The example
demonstrates the diversity of worms, but the passage does not rank diversity or
compare the coral head to fish species. (C) is outside the scope of the passage.

22. C
To tackle this question, evaluate what the author says about the effect of water
clarity and temperature of coral growth. In the first paragraph the author mentions
how these factors are necessary for coral growth but doesn’t give any specific
requirements. Choice (C) paraphrases what the passage states about these
requirements and is the correct answer. (A) contradicts the author’s point that
while there are strict requirement for reef growth, ecological diversity is not
limited by these requirements. While it may look like a tempting answer, (B) is
FUD. Once you refer to the question stem, which asks why these criteria would
interest scientists studying reefs, you can recognize that (B) doesn’t address the
question. (D) is outside the scope of the passage.

23. B
This question asks you to evaluate a detail within the passage and choose a
statement that summarizes this information. First, reread the section of the
passage concerning the symbiotic relationship between anemonefish and sea
anemones. Choice (B) restates the author’s idea that these relationships are
varied. (A) is an opposite answer since the passage provides two examples of
coral animals and fish operating together: the cleaner wrasse and the
anemonefish. (C) is too extreme. The section mentions that the benefits to the
anemone are not clear, which contradicts this choice. (D) is outside the scope of
the passage and fails to address the question stem.

24. B
To answer this question, you must first address what the author is arguing or
attempting to convey. The author demonstrates the diversity of coral reefs by
discussing fish behaviors that can be found on a reef. Look for the answer that
weakens the concept of diverse behavior on a reef. That would be choice (B).
Don’t let the fact that the answer mentions a specific coral reef throw you off. (A)
is stated in the passage itself and FUD. The author acknowledges that other
organisms have more diverse representation on a reef, but this fact doesn’t relate
to the author’s main point. (C) is another faulty use of detail. The passage
mentions teleost species, but discovery of a new species would not weaken the
author’s main point about diverse fish behaviors. (D) is outside the scope of the
passage.

25. C
This inference question refers to a statement in the first paragraph, line 15.
Animals from more phyla can be found on coral reefs than in rainforests. The first
paragraph also emphasizes the diversity of coral reefs. Choice (C) combines
both the idea that an increase in the number of phyla means more biodiversity.
Analyze the other choices individually. (A) is FUD. The number of turtle species
on a reef demonstrates its biodiversity, but this is only a detail in the discussion.
(B) is outside the scope of the passage. A thriving population does not mean
increased biodiversity. You could have an ecosystem where one organism
thrives to the detriment of the ecosystem’s diversity. (D) is too extreme. The
passage contains no evidence that anyone would argue that biodiversity is
restricted by location.

Passage V (Questions 26-31)

Topic and Scope: The disadvantages of using “tracking” in our school systems
Paragraph 1 defines tracking
Paragraph 2 addresses the argument that students learn best in a group with
comparable capabilities.
Paragraph 3 describes how tracking can inadvertently limit a student’s options
Paragraph 4 concludes with the obstacles to eliminating tracking

26. B
The author maintains in this passage that tracking encourages dumbing down, or
teaching to the lowest common denominator. If students perform better overall on
standardized tests, this argument is weakened – hence, choice (B) is correct
here. (A) and (C) are arguments made in the passage, yet neither one is
weakened by the finding in the question stem. (D) is an argument put forth by
administrators and not by the author himself; in addition, (D) is supported by the
students’ success.

27. B
The author seems to assert in the passage that tracking can often cause
students to get lost in the system, so to speak. The passage implies that tracking
may be okay if students can move from one track to another and if tracking does
not result in dumbing down in any classroom; thus, choice (B) is correct here.
While the other choices describe ideas discussed in the passage, none of them
are the main idea of the passage.

28. D
Only statement II would weaken the author’s argument, since students excelling
on tests when tracked would support that idea that tracking helps students learn
and excel. Both statements I and III would strengthen the author’s argument,
since statement I implies that it is harder for lower-level students to make it into
higher-level classes, thus stunting their potential for higher-level learning; and,
statement III would support the idea of tracking as creating lower-level classes
that cannot move as fast as other levels, also stunting students’ learning.

29. D
Students may be tracked due to grades, learning speed and other learning
issues, and the kinds of courses they enroll in early on in school; yet, although
classrooms may differ in energy and conversation level because of the kinds of
students in them, students themselves are not tracked by their talkativeness or
energy – at least, not as specified by this author.

30. C
The author maintains that low track dumb down material to students. Thus, it is
reasonable to assume that the author’s first reaction to a student claiming
boredom would be that the student is in a track that is too low, choice (C). There
is nowhere in the passage that the author discusses anything about student
discipline (B) nor would boredom be the likely response to being in a track that is
too high (A). (D) is incorrect, since it is unlikely that the author would agree that
a student should automatically be placed in the very highest classes just because
s/he is in a track that is currently too low for them.

31. A
The author here is primarily concerned with contrasting his views on tracking with
the general views of school administrators, choice (A). Although “dumbing down”
is defined (B) and the author implies that all students need to be pushed together
to excel (D), these choices are not the overall concern in paragraph 2. (C) is also
incorrect since the author mentions divergent experiences in passing, without
going into much detail about it.

Passage VI (Questions 32-39)

Topic and Scope: Two successive focuses for the Civil Rights Movements, the
former of which influenced the latter
Paragraph 1 discusses how the civil rights movement, after the abolition of
slavery, focused primarily on the interpretation and implementation of
constitutional rights. The main battleground for this fight was the court system.
Paragraph 2 traces the development of pluralist politics, which focused on a
struggle for resources. This movement tried to interpret social law rather than
constitutional law, but retained some of the terms and methods of its
predecessor.

32. A
The reference to this case occurs at the very end of paragraph 1, and is
preceded by a reference to Rosa Parks and the bus boycott, which are examples
of civil disobedience. The passage states that the Supreme Court upheld Parks’
refusal to sit in the back of the bus, so the case mentioned led to a change in the
municipal law in Alabama. Choice (B) is Outside the Scope, especially since the
first paragraph focuses on how the early part of the civil rights movement
concentrated on using the court systems to challenge and re-define constitutional
law. (C) is also FUD because it mentions the struggle for resources, a topic
introduced in the second paragraph and this question is concerned with a
specific reference from the first paragraph. Finally, (D) is a Distortion of the lines
in the middle of paragraph 1: “Congress and the presidency were not principal
participants” but the passage never states that the federal government was
completely uninvolved. Indeed, the reference to the Supreme Court at the end of
paragraph 1 refutes such a claim.

33. B
The middle of paragraph 2 tells us that the struggle for resources was “a struggle
to capture and control public office” and focused on “precinct captains and
patronage.” Choice (B) paraphrases this. (A) is a Distortion of the same part of
the passage, for the use of grass-roots activism is implied in the new emphasis
on local politics, but the need for electoral power is also implied rather than
shunned, as this answer choice suggests. (C) is a Distortion since it specifically
mentions “national” political positions and the passage suggests that local or
regional elections were more important at the time. (D) is Outside the Scope,
since no mention of cooperation with immigrant groups is ever discussed.

34. C
The middle of paragraph 1 tells us that both Congress and the presidency “were
not principal participants, because the political constituencies supporting their
elections did not favor such participation.” Elected officials in both the Legislative
and Executive Branches of the federal government acted according to the
opinions of their voters. Keep in mind, however, that this question only asks
about the Executive Branch, i.e. the presidency. For this reason, both choices
(B) and (D) are incorrect, since they single out the Legislative Branch. (A) is
Outside the Scope, since the influence of civil rights advocates isn’t discussed.

35. A
Any time you get a “structure of the passage” question, look at the job each
paragraph does. Here paragraph 1 discusses the Black “civil rights through the
courts” experience, while paragraph 2 discusses and compares the urban-ethnic
experience. (That comparison starts in the middle of paragraph 2; notice that
each sentence there contains some sort of comparison word—“Instead of,”
“while,” “both roles were . . . critical . . . but”—take advantage of such Keywords.)
This structure is summarized in correct choice (A). (B) is right about “two
examples”, but this author doesn’t consider them part of “a historical movement,”
singular. For example, in the first sentence of paragraph 2, the author refers to
them as “the civil rights movement” and “pluralist politics”—two separate
phenomena. Also, “praise” is wrong. The movements are described objectively.
(C) and (D) have a similar problem: they refer to “a struggle” and “a problem”.
The Black civil rights movement is the focus of this passage, not the more
abstract category of “minority group participation.”

36. A
Paragraph 1 deals with the time period this question discusses: from the Civil
War to 1965. The author characterizes the pre-sixties movement in mid-
paragraph; we’re told that the civil rights struggle was conducted mainly through
the court system. That’s choice (A). (B) distorts the point; we’re told that
constitutional lawyers supported the civil rights movement by overturning
restrictions on Black voting. Mobilizing electoral support (C) isn’t touched on until
the end of paragraph 2—remember that we’re told that the main arena for civil
rights action up until 1965 was the courts, not the political system. (D)’s out for
the same reason; we’re told quite explicitly in mid-paragraph that Congress was
not involved in the movement until 1965.

37. D
You might get in trouble here if you have outside knowledge. Recalling whatever
you know about the Montgomery bus boycott can help you understand the
author’s points about the civil rights movement. But be careful in answering the
question! What the author says about the incident is that it was an example of the
legal focus of the pre-1960s civil rights movement: That emphasis is underlined
in the little thumbnail history of the boycott that follows. All this is summed up in
correct choice (D). (A) and (B) play on your outside knowledge of the civil rights
movement. Montgomery was a turning point and did help launch Martin Luther
King, Jr.’s career—but the author mentions neither of these facts. Moreover, (A)
misstates the turning point—the turn to “resources” came later, according to
paragraph 2—and it’s inferable from the thumbnail history that Montgomery was
important for other reasons besides the one given in (B). Choice (C) is based on
the author’s description of the bus boycott as “famous”—but incorrectly states
that its fame is the reason for mentioning it in the passage. The fact that it ended
up in court is the reason for mentioning the bus boycott.

38. B
Choice (B) is the only one that talks about the legal system rather than the
political system. The group in this passage most closely associated with the legal
system is the Black civil rights movement. So chances are that (B) is the answer
you’re looking for—it is not a way in which the “politics of plural-ethnicity” differs
from another movement because it is not a characteristic of those politics. This is
stated in one of the author’s contrasts in paragraph 2: the Black movement used
lawyers “as sophisticated interpreters of new constitutional meaning” while
“ethnics” used them to interpret rules, obtain licenses, etc. In checking the other
choices, remember those contrast Keywords—“while,” “but,” etc.—easy to find
again when a question asks about those comparisons. “But while the politics of
race was characterized by a struggle for rights, the politics of plural-ethnicity was
a struggle to capture and control public office and the ability to dispense
patronage” begins the author. This confirms (A), which mentions an “ethnic”
concentration on elections, and (C), which mentions “patronage.” Early in
paragraph 2 the author states that “pluralist politics was infused with a heavy
dose of ethnicity” (D).

39. A
This question asks about the relationship between pluralist politics and the civil
rights movement. The best way to answer it is to remember the big points in the
passage: (1) for nearly a hundred years the civil rights movement focused on the
courts and constitutional rights—paragraph 1; (2) in the meantime pluralist
politics concentrated on resources—paragraph 2; (3) finally (“The point is the
following . . .”), in the 1960s “the civil rights movement evolved from rights to
resources.” Clearly, then, it took on some of the characteristics of pluralist politics
(A). The main characteristic was the focus on “resources”; this must have
included a quest for urban political offices, control of patronage, and the like—all
concerns of ethnic pluralism, according to the author. (A) is also accurate in
calling those characteristics “less legalistic,” since paragraph 1 deeply
emphasizes the legal nature of the early civil rights days, and paragraph 2 the
political nature of the urban-ethnic struggle. Civil rights was legalistic in the old
days; then it took on characteristics of another struggle; now it’s less legalistic.
(B) directly contradicts this viewpoint, saying that pluralist politics have not
affected the civil rights movement. Between (A) and (B), only one can be
correct—and (A) is the winner. (C) is easy to eliminate if you remember that until
the ‘60s, the urban-ethnic politics and the Black civil rights struggle were different
in method and goal; these politics did not influence the civil rights movement in
the 1950s. As for (D), we’re told that ethnics pursued resources, not
constitutional rights; even if there were incidental civil or constitutional gains
made by ethnic politicians, the author doesn’t let us know about them here.

Passage VII (Questions 40-47)

Topic and Scope: Virtue is a performative knowledge, and as such can be

difficult to define in words rather than in actions.
Paragraph 1 introduces the subject of virtue and states that virtue is not defined
by memorizing rules but rather by human activity.
Paragraph 2 continues the discussion of the performative nature of virtue,
introduces the subject of norms, and explains how norms of human behavior can
result in successful or unsuccessful actions. Since virtue is contextualized in
normative terms, this includes the cultivation of human skills and actions.
Paragraph 3 extends this argument to the teaching of virtue, which is the
teaching of a skill, similar to training, rather than indoctrination based on certain
principles or rules. Since virtue consists of performative knowledge, it cannot be
easily defined in the same way that an object is. In this way, virtue is similar to
language, since both are taught by example and their meaning cannot be easily
articulated.

40. C
The author makes the point that virtue and language are similar because “Both
are taught by example,” meaning that learning virtue or language is based on
seeing and imitating other’s actions. Choice (A) is a Distortion of the first
sentence of paragraph 3, which uses the term “indoctrination.” (B) is Outside the
Scope, as the ideal relative age of learning either virtue or language is never
discussed by the author. (D) is Outside the Scope because the author never
mentions acquisition of language and simply uses language as a comparison in
order to further explain the nature of virtue.

41. B
The citation in paragraph 2 discusses the nature of human actions and how they
can be performed correctly or incorrectly, but says nothing specifically about
virtue. For this reason, statement II is a Distortion of the contents of the citation,
so choices (C) and (D) can be eliminated. Statement I is opposite from what the
author declares in paragraph 3 about how virtue is an example of performative
knowledge, so (A) can be eliminated.

42. D
In paragraph 3, the author declares that “our knowledge of virtue is a kind of
performative knowledge – both knowledge acquired through action and
knowledge expressed or revealed in action, in performing a task,” implying that
certain skills, like virtue, can only be revealed through action. Choice (A) is
Outside the Scope since the author focuses on virtue, not on moral values in
general. (B) is too extreme is its use of the word “only” and is also Outside the
Scope, since the author discusses the study of human actions, not of human
nature. (C) is opposite from the author’s assertion at the end of paragraph 3,
through the reference to Socrates and Plato, that articulating the meaning of
virtue may be impossible, but is not an indication that a knowledge of virtue is
lacking.

43. A
The second sentence of paragraph 2 defines norms as “ways of doing
something, getting something done; these ways of acting are taught by doing and
showing how to do;” choice (A) provides a paraphrase of this definition. (B) is
Outside the Scope since historical precedents of human activity norms are not
mentioned. (C) is a Distortion of the last sentence of paragraph 2, which
mentions the cultivation of human skills and practices, but in reference to virtue
rather than to human actions. (D) is Outside the Scope, since comprehension of
right and wrong is not given as part of the foundation of human actions.

44. D
The end of paragraph 1 tells us that both meanings of virtue are “taught
nondidactically, performatively.” Choices (A) and (B) are Distortions of other
parts of the passage that discuss human actions. (C) is the opposite of the
author’s first definition of virtue given in paragraph 1.
45. C
This one focuses squarely on the author’s curious usage of “norms.” As we’ve
stressed already, for our author, norms are “ways of doing something, getting
something done” (paragraph 2); this idea is paraphrased in choice (C). In (A),
“maxims” and “define” should have made you frown; maxims are related to the
dreaded “rules or guidelines” in paragraph 3, “define” recalls the equally dreaded
“propositional knowledge.” In other words, you should have recognized concepts
in (A) that run counter to the author’s central points. No author is going to agree
with a statement about norms that contradicts his/her central points, so once you
see this, don’t stop to puzzle out exactly what (A) is saying; reject it out of hand.
Behavioral norms (B) are never mentioned. “Didactic teaching” in (D), like
“maxims” and “define” in (A), should be a red flag—the author will not agree.
Specifically, sentence 2 of paragraph 2 says norms “are taught by doing and
showing how to do”—not by didactic methods.

46. D
This one takes you to the end of the passage; the stem plus choice (D)
straightforwardly paraphrases the sentence about Socrates. The issue in (A) is
not specifically mentioned; but since virtue is taught by “doing and showing how
to do,” probably someone who knew virtue but couldn’t define it could teach it. At
least, we can’t say for sure that he/she couldn’t teach it. (B) makes a distinction
the passage won’t support. Whatever is true of the person who can’t define
virtue—whether he/she can or can’t teach it—would presumably apply to
teaching virtue in both senses, not just one. (C) makes exactly the wrong
distinction. Someone who can’t define the subject matter can’t teach didactically,
where the main teaching method is to repeat definitions and explanations.

47. D
Reading the context here, the key thing to realize is that the “propositional
knowledge” discussed is contrasted with the author’s main theme—the correct
way to teach virtue. From this standpoint, we can rule out choices (A) through
(C), since they all fit the author’s definition of “performative knowledge”—
“knowledge acquired through action and knowledge expressed or revealed in
action, through performing a task.” Conducting experiments, imitating moral
actions and learning a language are all ways of learning from actions—learning
by example. Choice (D), on the other hand, exemplifies the type of didactic
learning the author contrasts with teaching virtue. We can infer then, that
memorizing definitions of virtue is an example of “propositional knowledge.”

Passage VIII (Questions 48-53)

Topic and Scope: The modern codification of laws and Edward Livingston’s first
penal code, modeled after Jeremy Bentham’s legal concepts
Paragraph 1 provides a historical context for the discussion of modern penal
codes, specifically describing the influence of Jeremy Bentham
Paragraph 2 introduces the penal code created by Edward Livingston, whose
work was directly influenced by Bentham’s earlier theories
Paragraph 3 goes into greater depth about certain components of Livingston’s
penal code, praises this work, and outlines its essential goals.

48. C
The first paragraph gives a brief history of the modern codification tradition,
which “has its roots in the new rationalism of the eighteenth century
Enlightenment,” so that changes in thinking during this time period were direct
influences on the first penal codes. Choice (A) is a Distortion of the discussion of
Bentham’s influence on Livingston, and is inaccurate since Bentham preceded
Livingston and the answer choice is phrased as if Livingston was Bentham’s
predecessor. (B) is outside the scope – the second sentence of paragraph 1
declares that Enlightenment ideas were widespread in both England and in the
rest of Europe, but the author never claims that lawmakers “agreed
wholeheartedly” on the need for codification of penal codes. (D) is half-right and
half-wrong, since paragraphs 2 and 3 declare that Bentham’s influence has led to
development of other penal codes and makes no mention of any lack of success
of Benthamite’s codification.

49. B
The final sentence of paragraph 1 gives a list of concepts that the author
ascribes to Bentham’s legacy, and only the legalization of capital punishment,
statement III or choice (B), is not included in the list. Each of the concepts in
statements I, II, and IV is included in the list.

50. C
Paragraph 2 describes in detail the influences that led Livingston to develop his
“great penal code,” and specifically mentions the fact that Livingston was “well
read in Continental as well as English intellectual and social developments.”
Choice (A) is a direct contradiction of the first sentence of paragraph 2, which
claims that Livingston’s code was the first in the Benthamite tradition. Similarly,
(D) contradicts the author’s statement in paragraph 3 that Livingston completed
his work “unassisted.” (B) is Outside the Scope, since Livingston is the only
American legal figure who is mentioned specifically as being influenced by
English and Continental legal systems.

51. D
The first sentence of paragraph 2 states that Livingston’s penal code was “never
enacted,” so that choice (D) is the opposite of a strength in his code. (A), (B),
and (C), on the other hand, are all mentioned as “notable characteristics” of
Livingston’s code.

52. B
The next to last sentence of paragraph 3 tells us that the purpose of Livingston’s
Code was “to leave as little as possible to judicial creativity,” and only choice (B)
provides a paraphrase of this purpose. (C) is a Distortion of the previous
sentence of paragraph 3, which declares that Livingston wanted to avoid all use
of common-law terms and definitions since they allowed judges to “infused their
own moral views into the definition of crimes.” (A) is a Distortion of parts of the
final sentence of paragraph 1, which details certain aspects of Bentham’s original
code, so it’s also outside the scope for this question since here we are only
concerned with Livingston’s Code. (D) is FUD of the final sentence of paragraph
3 – although Livingston’s Code did assert “freedom of speech and the rights of
the accused,” this detail does not answer this particular question.

53. D
Only choice (D) correctly describes the main function of each paragraph. (A)
starts off well, with the historical background, but then goes off course since the
author does not present any thesis statement based on the topic of the penal
code in the second paragraph, nor does the third paragraph contain refutation of
a thesis. (B) can be immediately discarded, since no mention is ever made of a
“controversial thesis.” And (C) is incorrect because the author only discusses
one successor to Bentham, rather than several successive “stages.”

Passage IX (Questions 54-60)

Topic and Scope: How writing has influenced human consciousness; the
necessity of writing for the enhancement of human life
Paragraph 1 introduces the differences between literate and oral cultures, and
gives examples of the difficulty literates have in separating written words from the
objects they represent.
Paragraph 2 describes how people in a completely oral culture function.
Paragraph 3 shows how the objections to writing voiced by Socrates are similar
to objections to computers today.
Paragraph 4 counters these objections, and concludes by claiming that
interiorized technology enhances human life.

54. B
The sentence immediately before the one that contains the reference to Hesiod
tells us that “sophisticated orally patterned thought” can be “marked by set
expressions skillfully used.” The author continues with the reference to Hesiod, a
pre-literate Greek, who was able to deliver “quasiphilosophic material in the
formulaic verse forms.” The implication, then, is that Hesiod was able to produce
some sophisticated expressions prior to achieving full literacy. Choices (A) and
(C) are both outside the scope, for no comparison of poets is mentioned, nor is
there discussion of what constitutes the foundation of an ideal society. (D) is a
Distortion of the reference to mnemonic patterns that comes earlier in paragraph
2.

55. A
Paragraph 1 explains how literate people process language and thoughts based
on thinking of words as the “visual transformations of language” and as the
“visible marks signaling words to decoders.” Only choice (A) paraphrases this
process, which includes the idea of words as visual codes. (B) is a Distortion of
information in paragraph 1, for although literacy is an acquired trait, as explained
in the final sentence of the paragraph, its basis does not lie in the interpretation
of oral communication but rather in the use of writing as a structure for
communication and understanding. (C) is Outside the Scope since the exact
time of life when a person learns literacy is not discussed. (D) is a Distortion of
parts paragraph 1 because although objects represented by words may be
transformed into a visual language, this process is never described as
“conscious” on the part of literates.

56. A
The author concludes the passage by claiming that technology can enhance
human life, implying that developments in computers and other informational
technology will, like writing, eventually prove to be beneficial to human
consciousness. Choice (B) is the opposite of this answer choice, and is the
opposite of what the author professes in this passage. (C) is outside the scope,
since the author never directly criticizes primary oral cultures for a lack of
effective communication, but rather focuses on the advantages and progress
made in cultures based on written literacy. (D) is a Distortion of the first sentence
of the last paragraph, which declares that “beautiful and powerful creations” need
writing in order to be produced.

57. B
The author contends that writing, which is a strictly visual manner of rendering
words and objects, is “absolutely necessary for the development not only of
science, but also of history, philosophy, explicative understanding of literature
and any art…” in paragraph 4. Thus, any proof that people who have never been
exposed to writing can excel in all of these areas to the same extent as people
who have been exposed to writing would weaken the author’s argument. Only
choice (B) provides us with this sort of evidence. (A) is on the right track, but
only mentions advances in philosophy, not in all of the other fields to which the
author refers. (C) and (D) are both opposites for this question, since their
evidence would strengthen the author’s conclusion.

58. A
In paragraph 2, the author states that an oral culture’s ability to recall information
is limited by how much of it can be remembered. Literate cultures, on the other
hand, have access to information through written texts, which minimizes reliance
on memory. So choice (A) is the correct answer. (B) is incorrect because the
passage states in paragraph 2 that thought in oral societies is quite structured—
that “mnemonic patterns” mold language into “set expressions” and “formulaic
verse forms” which are “shaped for ready recurrence.” And while the passage
states in paragraph 4 that written language has enabled the development of
many complex modes of thought, the author suggests in paragraph 2 that oral
cultures are characterized by complex use of language, so (C) isn’t right. And (D)
is wrong because the author never brands oral culture as “barbaric”—he never
expresses that kind of value judgment.

59. B
The author refers to Plato to support the notion that writing is an alien
technology, and to suggest the possible disadvantages of this technology, choice
(B). (A) is off-base because the author devotes much of the 3rd paragraph to
Plato’s objections to writing, so it’s unlikely that he is mentioned as a mere
example of literate Greek philosophy. (C) is incorrect because the author never
suggests that Plato’s views on writing are misconceived; he or she simply
presents Plato’s views, and goes on to discuss the benefits that “nevertheless”
can be attributed to writing. (D) is wrong because the comparison between
writing and computers is a detail that functions as an analogy, stressing a
similarity, not a difference, between the two technologies in question.

60. B
The author’s position on the technology of writing becomes clear in paragraph 4,
where he or she asserts that literature enables humanity to “achieve its fuller
potentials” and produce “beautiful and powerful creations.” Choice (B) correctly
expresses this view. (A) is incorrect because the author suggests in the
passage’s final line that far from conflicting with the human consciousness,
technology can be interiorized, to our benefit. (C) is incorrect because the author
never agrees with Plato’s view that writing damages human resources. (D) is a
big exaggeration: although the 4th paragraph says that literacy is necessary for
an “explicative understanding” of art, that’s a far cry from saying that literacy is
necessary for the creation of art.