are similar, ageing effects can be quite variable.
For
where: Qt is the capacity at time t, Q0 is the reference
capacity at time t0 (which is equal to 1 day for Figure
1), and A is a constant (dimensionless set-up factor).
Based on a database study, Chow et al. (1998)
suggested an average increase in shaft capacity of
50% per log cycle of time, whilst Axellson (2000)
suggested a somewhat lower percentage of 40 ±
25%. The data in Figure 1 demonstrate the variabil-
ity often seen in these database studies. Although
most piles exhibited some increase in capacity, the
increase for the H Piles described by Shek et al.
(2006) were small, whilst that for the concrete
closed-ended piles (Tavenas & Audy 1972 and Ax-
ellson 2000) was relatively large, with piles capaci-
ties doubling over the time period considered. De-
spite the large increases evident at some sites, the
gains in pile capacity at a given time were highly
variable. This results in a wide range for the set-up
factor A, even for a given site. It is noted that Lim &
Lehane (2015) show that the value of A is critically
dependent on the reference time and that the quanti-
fication of set-up is better achieved by normalising
capacity with respect to a reference capacity such as
given by any particular design method.
Figure 1. Case histories of pile set-up in sandy soil (after Zhang
and Wang 2014)
Bowman & Soga (2005) and Lim & Lehane
(2014) identify a number of limitations which may
affect database studies on pile ageing. These include;
(i) uncertainty in comparing pile capacity measured
in dynamic and static load tests, (ii) the effects of
multiple pile testing on set-up, (iii) under mobilisa-
tion of pile capacity (particularly in compression
load tests), (iv) uncertainty is separating shaft and
base resistance for compression load tests, (v) the
adoption of variable reference times, t0 and (vi)
choosing reference times such as the end of installa-
tion (EOI) resistance which might include short-term
effects associated with excess pore pressures devel-
oped during driving. However, Figure 1 demon-
strates that even when considering a single site
where the pile type, soil conditions and loading type
example the nine day capacity of concrete piles re-
ported by Tavenas and Audy had QT/Q0 ratios be-
tween 1.1 and 1.85.
2.2 Pile Tests at Dunkirk
Chow et al. (1998) describe a case history for a 324
mm diameter, 11 m long pipe pile installed into
dense sand at Dunkirk, France. Brucy et al. (1991)
reported data relating to the installation of the pile
and the results of four static load tests (two tension
and two compression) performed on the pile follow-
ing its installation in 1989. The six-month load test
was performed with the soil core intact with tension
loading followed by compression loading. After
completion of the first load test, the soil core was
drilled out and the pile was reloaded nine months af-
ter installation. The purpose of this test was to assess
the effect of the pile plug on the pile performance.
Figure 2. Evidence of changes in capacity of open-ended pile in
Dunkirk over a five year set-up period (tests on pile CS after
Chow et al. 1998)
The results from this series of tests are plotted on
Figure 2 with the pile head displacement set to zero
at the start of each tension load test. The tension ca-
pacity of the pile with the core removed was slightly
higher than that measured in the six-month load test.
The capacity measured in two compression tests (the
data from which are not included in Figure 2) was
quite similar, although it was noted that the removal
of the complete plug proved quite difficult and a por-
tion of the lower plug remained in the pile. When the
pile was reloaded in 1994 (T94) a tension resistance
of 810 kN was mobilised, representing an 85% in-
crease in shaft resistance over a five year period. The
initial stiffness response was surprisingly similar
during all the load tests.
Chow (1997) considered a number of potential
mechanisms to explain the ageing trend. These in-
cluded corrosion of the steel pipe pile and physio-