Index

S. no. Name of practical Remarks

1. Database, DBMS definition
2. Introduction to SQL
3. Components of SQL, Data types
4. SQL Queries create, insertion
5. Create a table
6. Describe the table
7. Insert the values
8. To view the table
9. Sorting the data
10. To rename the table
11. Delete a particular row
12. Lower case
13. Upper case
14. Drop the table
15. Maximum
16. Minimum
17. Average
18. Like
19. Between
20. Primary key
21. Unique key
22. Count
23. Sum
24. Alter
25. Update
 Database

A database is an organized collection of facts. In other words, we can say that

it is a collection of information arranged and presented to serve an assigned
purpose. An example of a database is a dictionary.

Database Management System

Database management system, or DBMS, is a computer software program that

is designed as the means of managing all databases that are currently installed
on a system hard drive or network. Different types of database management
systems exist, with some of them designed for the oversight and proper control
of databases that are configured for specific purposes. Here are some examples
of the various incarnations of DBMS technology that are currently in use, and
some of the basic elements that are part of DBMS software applications. As the
tool that is employed in the broad practice of managing databases, the DBMS is marketed in
many forms. Some of the more popular examples of DBMS solutions include
Microsoft Access, FileMaker, DB2, and Oracle. All these products provide for
the creation of a series of rights or privileges that can be associated with a
specific user. This means that it is possible to designate one or more database
administrators who may control each function, as well as provide other users
with various levels of administration rights. This flexibility makes the task of
using DBMS methods to oversee a system something that can be centrally
controlled, or allocated to several different people.
Introduction to Structured Query Language (SQL)

Structured query language is a language that provides an interface to relational

database systems. SQL was developed by IBM in the 1970s for use in system R,
and is a defacto standard, as well as an ISO and ANSI standard. SQL is
often pronounced SEQUEL. SQL has been a command language for
communication with the oracle 9i server from any tool or application. Oracle
SQL contains many extensions. When an SQL statement is entered, it is stored
in a part of memory called the SQL buffer and remains there until a new SQL
statement is entered.

Features of Structured query language (SQL)

SQL can be used by a range of users, including those with little or
no programming experience.

1. It is a nonprocedural language.
2. It reduces the amount of time required for creating and maintaining
systems.
3. It is English like language.

Componentsof SQL

1) DDL (Data Definition Language):-

It is a set of SQL commands used to create, modify and delete database
structures but not data. They are normally used by the DBA not by user to a
limited extent, a database designer or application developer. These statements
are immediate i.e. they are not susceptible to ROLLBACK commands. It should
also be noted that if several DML statements for example UPDATES are
executed then issuing any DDL command would COMMIT all the updates as
every DDL command implicitly issues a COMMIT command to the database.
Anybody using DDL must have the CREATE object privilege and a table space
area in which to create objects.
For example: - CREATE, ALTER, DROP, TRUNCATE etc.

2) DML (Data Manipulation Language):-

It is the area of SQL that allows changing data within the database.

For Examples:- INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE etc.

3) DCL (Data Control Language):-

It is the component of SQL statement that control access to data and to the
database. Occasionally DCL statements are grouped with DML statements.
Examples: -COMMIT, SAVEPOINT, ROLLBACK etc.

4) DQL (Data Query Language):-

It is the component of SQL statement that allows getting data from the database
and imposing ordering upon it. It includes the SELECT statement. This
command is the heart of SQL. It allows getting the data out of the database
perform operations with it. When a SELECT is fired against a table or tables the
results is compiled into a further temporary table, which is displayed or perhaps
received by the program i.e. a front-end.

For Examples: - SELECT retrieve data from the database.

Oracle data types :-
Data types come in several forms and sizes, allowing the programmer to create
tables suited to the scope of the project. The decisions made in choosing proper
data types greatly influence the performance of a database. The information in
the database is maintained in the form of tables and each table consists of rows
and columns, which store data and therefore this data must have some data type
i.e. the type of data, which is stored in the table. The different types of data
types in Oracle are:-

1. CHAR
2. VARCHAR (size) or VARChAR2 (size)
3. NUMBER
4. DATE
5. LONG.
 QUERY

A query is a concise memo submitted to an editor by a writer seeking

publication. It is basically an in query to see whether the writer’s work is of
interest to a particular publication. A query briefly details a writer’s experience
and knowledge of the subject matter, and gives a summary or synopsis of the
article the writer hopes to have published. An approximate word count for
the proposed article or feature is also generally included.

1) THE CREATE TABLE COMMAND:-

The CREATE TABLE command defines each column of the table uniquely.
Each column has a minimum of three attributes, a name, data type and size (i.e.
column width).
Syntax:- CREATE TABLE <tablename> (<columnName1> <datatype>
(<size>), <columnname2> <data type>(<size>));

Example:
SQL> create table student(name varchar(23), roll_no number(12), class
varchar2(12), address varchar(23));

Table created.
2) THE INSERTION OF DATA INTO TABLE: -
Once a table is created, the most natural thing to do is load this with data to be
manipulated later i.e. to insert the rows in a table. The data in a table can be
inserted in three ways.
Syntax:-
INSERT INTO <table name >(<columnname1>,<columnname2>) VALUES (
<expression1>,<expression 2>);
OR
INSERT INTO <table name> VALUES(<expression1 >,<expression2> );
OR
INSERT INTO <table name>VALUES(‘<&columnname1>’, ‘<&columnname2>’);
Example :-
SQL> insert into student(name, roll_no, class, address) values ('Prabhat' ,06,
'BCA' ,’Hatlimore');

1 row created.
OR
SQL> insert into student values ('kishore',01,'BCA','Nagri');

1 row created.
OR
SQL> insert into student values( '&name', '&roll_no', '&class', '&address' );
Enter value for name: Amarjeet
Enter value for roll_no: 30
Enter value for class: BCA
Enter value for address: airwan
 old 1: insert into studentvalues('&name','&roll_no','&class','&address');
new 1: insert into student values('Atinder','04','BCA','Sawanchack');

1 row created.

FOR inserting more values we use ‘/’ slash after SQL> as below but after above
syntax use:- SQL> /
Enter value for name: Vinay
Enter value for roll_no: 08
Enter value for class: BCA
Enter value for address: Barnoti

old 1: insert into student values('&name', '&roll_no', '&class', '&address');

new 1: insert into student values('Vinay', '08’, 'BCA', 'Barnoti');

1 row created.

3) FOR VIEWING DATA IN THE TABLE: -

Once data has been inserted into a table, the next most logical operation would
be to view what has been inserted. The SELECT SQL verb is used to achieve
this. The SELECT command is used to retrieve rows selected from one or more
tables.
Syntax : - SELECT * FROM <table name>;
If we want to see all the tables that are already exist in the database . We use SELECT *
FROM TAB;
Example:-
SQL> select * from student;

NAME ROLL_NO CLASS ADDRESS

Prabhat 06 BCA Hatlimore

Kishore 01 BCA Nagri
Amarjeet 30 BCA airwan
Vinay 08 BCA barnoti

1 row created.
When we use the command SELECT* FRM TAB;
The output is displayed as:-
SQL> select * from tab;

TNAME TABTYPE CLUSTERID

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
ABC TABLE
ANKU TABLE
BONUS TABLE
DEPARTMENTS TABLE
DEPT TABLE
EMPLOYEE TABLE
EMPLOYEES TABLE
STUDENT TABLE
8 rows selected.
4) ELIMINATION OF DUPLICATE ROWS :-
A table could hold duplicate rows in such a case, only unique rows the distinct
clause can be used.
Syntax: -
SELECT DISTINCT <column name 1>,<column name2> FROM <table name> ;
This syntax will give the unique values of column 1 and column 2.
Example :- SQL> select distinct name, roll_no from student;
NAME ROLL_NO
------------------------------------
Prabhat 06

Syntax:- SELECT DISTINCT * from <table name>;

Example:- S-QL> Select DISTINCT * from student;

NAME ROLL_NO CLASS ADDRESS

Prabhat 06 BCA Hatlimore

5) SORTING DATA IN A TABLE: -

Oracle allows data from a table to be viewed in sorted order. The rows retrieve
from the table will be sorted either in ascending or descending order depending
on the condition specified in the select sentence.
Syntax: -
SELECT * FROM <table name>ORDER BY<column name1>,<column name 2> <[sort
order]>;
Example:-
SQL> SELECT * FROM STUDENT ORDER BY name;

NAME ROLL_NO CLASS ADDRESS

Amarjeet 30 BCA airwan

Atinder 04 BCA sawanchak
Dushyant 34 BCA jagatpur
Kishore 01 BCA Nagri
Prabhat 06 BCA Hatlimore
Vinay 08 BCA barnoti

6 rows selected

SQL> SELECT*FROM STUDENT ORDER BY name desc;

NAME ROLL_NO CLASS ADDRESS

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Vinay 08 BCA barnoti
Prabhat 06 BCA Hatlimore
Kishore 01 BCA Nagri
Dushyant 34 BCA jagatpur
Atinder 04 BCA sawanchak
Amarjeet 30 BCA airwan

6 rows selected.
 SQL> SELECT * FROM STUDEN ORDER BY roll_no desc;

NAME ROLL_NO CLASS ADDRESS

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Kishore 01 BCA Nagri
Atinder 04 BCA sawanchak
Prabhat 06 BCA Hatlimore
Vinay 08 BCA barnoti
Amarjeet 30 BCA airwan
Dushyant 34 BCA jagatpur

6 rows selected.

6) MODIFYING THE STRUCTURE OF TABLES: -

The structure of a table can be modified by using the ALTER TABLE

command. ALTER TABLE allows changing the structure of an existing table.
With ALTER TABLE it is possible to add or delete columns, create or destroy
indexes, changes the data type of existing columns, or rename columns or the
table itself.

(a) ADDING NEW COLUMNS

Syntax:-
ALTER TABLE <Table name> ADD(<New column Name><data type> (<size>),<new
column name><data type>(<size>));
(b) DROPPING A COLUMN FROM A TABLE
Syntax: -
ALTER TABLE<TABLE NAME> DROP COLUMN <COLUMNNAME>;
Example:-
alter table prabhu drop column name;

(c) MODIFYING EXISTING COLUMNS

Syntax: -
ALTER TABLE<Table name> MODIFY (<COLUMN NAME> <NEWDATATYPE>
(<NEW SIZE>));
Example:-
alter table prabhat modify(name varchar(22));

7) RENAMING TABLES: -

Oracle allows renaming of tables. The rename operation is done atomically,

which means that no other thread can access any of the tables while the rename
process is running.
Syntax:- RENAME <Table name> to <New Tablename>
Example:-
SQL> rename student to candidates;

Table renamed.

8) DESTROYING TABLES:-
1. DROP COMMAND: -
By using the DROP TABLE statement with the table name we can destroy a specific table .
Syntax: -
DROP TABLE <table name>;
 Example:--
SQL> Drop table student;

Table dropped.

2. TRUNCATE COMMAND:-
The truncate command is much faster in comparison to delete statement but similar to the
drop command as to destroy a specific table.
Syntax:- TRUNCATE table <tablename>
Example:- SQL> truncate table employees;
Table truncated.

9) DISPLAYING THE TABLE STRUCTURE:-

To display information about the columns defined in a table use the following syntax.
Syntax: - DESCRIBE <table name>

This command displays the columns names, the data types and the special attributes
connected to the table.
Example:- SQL> describe employees;

Name Null? Type

---------------------------------- -------- -----------
EMP_ID NUMBER(5)
EMP_NAME VARCHAR2(20)
DEPT_ID NUMBER(10)
DEPT_NAME VARCHAR2(12)
 SALARY NUMBER(21)

10. UPDATING THE CONTENTS OF A TABLE: -

The update command is used to change or modify data values in a table. The verb
UPDATE in SQL is used to either all the rows from a table or a select set of rows from a
table.
1. UPDATING ALL ROWS:-
The update statement updates columns in the existing table’s rows with new values .The
SET clause indicates which column data should be modifying and the new values that they
should hold. The WHERE CLAUSE specifies which rows should be updated. Otherwise
all table rows are updated.
Syntax: -
UPDATE < Table name> SET <column name1>=<expression1>
,<columnname2>=<expression2>;

2. UPDATES RECORDS CONDITIONALLY:-

Syntax:-
UPDATE <table name> SET <columnname1> = <expression1>, <columnname2>
=<expression2> WHERE <condition>;
 CONSTRAINTS

1) NOTNULL:-
The NOT NULL column constraint ensures that a table column cannot be left empty. When
a column is defined as not null, then that column becomes a mandatory column. It implies
that a value must be entered into the column if the record is to be accepted for storage in the
table.
Syntax:- <Column Name><data type>(<size>) NOT NULL ;
Example:- name varchar2(22) not null;

2) THE PRIMARY KEY CONSTRAINT: -

A primary is one or more column in a table used to identify each row in a table. None of the
fields that are part of the primary key can contain a null value. A table can have only one
primary.
 Syntax:- <Column name><data type>(<size>) PRIMARY KEY
Example:-

SQL> create table student name varchar2(12), roll_no number(12) primary key,
class varchar2(21) NOT NULL, dob date);

or

SQL>create table student(name varchar2(12), roll_no number(12)

constraint pk_roll primary key , class varchar2(21) not null, dob date);

3) THE FOREIGN KEY (SELF REFEREN CE) CONSTRAINT:-

Foreign key represent relationships between tables. A foreign key is a column (or a group of
columns) whose values are derived from the primary key or unique key of some other table.
The table in which the foreign key is defined is called a FOREIGN TABLE or DETAIL
TABLE. The table that defines the primary or unique key and is referenced by the foreign
key is called the PRIMARY KEY or MASTER KEY.

Syntax: -
Foreign key (<column name>) REFERENCES <table name>(column name);

Example:-
SQL>create table department(dept_no number(10)primarykey, dept_name
varchar2(25), dept_loc char(5,e_nonumber(11), foreign key(e_no) references
employee (e_no);
 Table created

SQL> describe department;

Name Null? Type
DEPT_NO NOT NULL NUMBER(10)
DEPT_NAME VARCHAR2(25)
DEPT_LOC CHAR(5)
E_NO NUMBER(11).

4) THE UNIQUE KEY CONSTRAINT:-

The unique key constraint permits multiple entries of NULL into the column. These NULL
values are clubbed at the top of the column in the order in which they were entered into the
table. This is the essential difference between the primary key and the unique constraints
when applied to table column(s).

Key point about UNIQUE constraint:

1. Unique key will not allow duplicate values.
2. Unique index is created automatically.

A table can have more than one unique key which is not possible in primary
key.

Syntax:-
CREATE TABLE Table name (<columnName1><datatype>(<size>),<columnName2><
data type>(<size>), UNIQUE(<columnName1>, <columnName2>));
 Example:-

SQL> create table student1(roll_no number(12) primary key, dob date, name
varchar2(20),class varchar2(2),e_mailvarchar2(20) constraint un_st unique);

Table created.

To see the description of the table.

SQL> Describe student1;

Name Null? Type
ROLL_NO NOT NULL NUMBER(12)
DOB DATE
NAME VARCHAR2(20)
CLASS VARCHAR2(20)
E_MAIL VARCHAR2(20)

ORACLE FUNCTIONS

Oracle functions serve the purpose of manipulating data items and returning a result.
Functions are the programs that take zero or more arguments and return a single value.
Oracle has built a no. of functions into SQL. These functions can be called from SQL
statements.

1. COUNT (expr) function :- Returns the number of rows where expression is not null.

Syntax:- COUNT ([<distinct>[<all>] <expr>)

Example:-
EMP_ID NAME DEPT_ID SALARY
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1 sourabh 21 55000
2 sonu 22 55000
 3 anku 4 55000
5 anku 21 55000
3 panku 22 75000

SQL> select count (distinct name) from employees;

COUNT (DISTINCTNAME)
-------------------
4
SQL> select count (salary) from employees;

COUNT (SALARY)
----------
5

2. COUNT (*) function: - Returns the number of rows in the table, including duplicates
and those with nulls.

Syntax : - COUNT(*)

Example:-
SQL> select count(*) from employees;

COUNT (*)
--------------
5
SQL> select count (*)"salary" from employees;

Salary
----------
5

3. THE SUM FUNCTION: - Returns the sum of the values of n.

Syntax: - SUM ([<distinct>][<all>] <expr>)

 Example:-
SQL> select sum (salary) from employees;

SUM(SALARY)
-----------
295000

4. THE MAX FUNCTION:- Returns the maximum value of expression.

Syntax: - MAX([<distinct>][<all>] <expr>)

Example:-

SQL> select max(salary) from employees;

MAX(SALARY)
-----------
75000

5. THE MIN FUNCTION: - Returns the minimum value of expression.

Syntax : - MIN ([<distinct>][<all>] <expression>)

Example:-

SQL> select min (salary) from employees;

MIN(SALARY)
-----------
55000

6. THE AVG FUNCTION: - Returns an average value of n, ignoring null values in a

column.

Syntax: - AVG ([<distinct>][<all>] <n>);

Example :-

SQL> select avg(salary) from employees;

AVG(SALARY)
-----------
59000
7. LIKE OPREATOR :- The LIKE predicate allows comparison of one string value with
another string value, which is not identical. This is achieved by using wildcard
characters. Two wildcard characters that are available are:
 % allows to match any string of any length(including zero length)
 allows to match on a single character.

Example:-

SQL> select emp_id, name, dept_id, salary from employees where name like
'a%';

EMP_ID NAME DEPT_ID SALARY

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3 anku 4 55000
5 anku 21 55000

8. NOT LIKE OPERATOR:-

Example:-

SQL>select emp_id, name, dept_id, salary from employees where

name not like 'a%';

EMP_ID NAME DEPT_ID SALARY

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1 sourabh 21 55000
2 sonu 22 55000
3 panku 22 75000

SQL>select emp_id, name, dept_id, salary from employees where name like
'_n_u';

EMP_ID NAME DEPT_ID SALARY

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
 3 anku 4 55000
5 anku 21 55000

9. IN OPERATOR: - In case a value needs to be compared to a list of values then the

IN predicate is used. The IN predicates helps reduce the need to use multiple OR conditions.

Example:-

SQL> select emp_id, name, dept_id, salary from employees where dept_id in
(20, 22);

EMP_ID NAME DEPT_ID SALARY

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2 sonu 22 55000
3 panku 22 75000

10. NOT IN OPERATOR:-

Example:-

SQL> select emp_id, name, dept_id, salary from employees where dept_id not
in (20,22);

EMP_ID NAME DEPT_ID SALARY

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

1 sourabh 21 55000

3 anku 4 55000

5 anku 21 55000

11. BETWEEN OPERATOR:-

 SQL> select emp_id, name, dept_id, salary from employees where dept_id
between 22 and 30;

EMP_ID NAME DEPT_ID SALARY

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2 sonu 22 55000
3 panku 22 75000

SQL> select emp_id, name, dept_id, salary from employees where dept_id
between 11 and 21;

EMP_ID NAME DEPT_ID SALARY

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1 sourabh 21 55000
5 anku 21 55000

STRING FUNCTIONS

1. UPPER function :- Returns char, with all letters forced to uppercase.

Syntax : -UPPER(char)

Example : -

SQL> select upper (name) from employees;

UPPER (NAME)
--------------------
SOURABH
SONU
ANKU
ANKU
 PANKU

2. LOWER function : - Returns char, with all letters in lowercase.

Syntax: - LOWER(char)

Example:-

SQL> select lower (name) from employees;

LOWER (NAME)
--------------------
sourabh
sonu
anku
anku
panku

3. INITCAP function: - Returns a string with the first letter of each word in upper case.

Syntax :- INITCAP(char)

Example:-SQL> select initcap (name) from employees;

INITCAP(NAME)
--------------------
Sourabh
Sonu
Anku
Anku
Panku