PCM

Reference
– Chapter 12.1, Communication Systems, Carlson.

PCM.1
 Pulse-code modulation (PCM)
Pulse modulations
– use discrete time samples of analog signals
– the transmission is composed of analog information sent
at discrete times.
– The variation of pulse amplitude or pulse timing is
allowed to vary continuously over all values.

PCM
– the analog signal is quantized into a number discrete
levels.

PCM.2
Example:
Suppose that we wish to quantize a signal using eight
discrete levels. At each sample time we must decide which
of these eight levels is best approximation to the signal. We
choose the closest value and use this value until the next
sample time.
8
7
6
Quantization 5
4
noise 3 Digits
2
1
0
t PCM.3
This process of quantization introduces some fluctuations
about the true value; these fluctuation can be regarded as
noise and called quantization noise.

PCM.4
– The next step is to assign a digit to each level. This is
called digitization of the waveform. The digits are
expressed in a coded form. The most common code used
is a binary code. Binary
Digits code
0 000
1 001
2 010
3 011
4 100
5 101
6 110
7 111
PCM.5
 Quantization noise
Consider an input f (t ) of continuous amplitude in the range
( − f max , f max ).

Assuming using a uniform quantizer, the step-size of the

quantizer is ∆ = 2 f max / L where L is the total number of
representation levels.

2 f max

PCM.6
For a uniform quantizer, the quantization error q is bounded
by .
− ∆/2 ≤ q ≤ ∆/2

If the step-size is sufficient small, it is reasonable to assume

that the quantization error is a uniformly distributed random
variable, and the interfering effect of the quantization noise
on the quantizer input is similar to that of thermal noise. We
may express the probability density function of the
quantization error as:

 1 ∆ ∆
− <q<
p(q) =  ∆ 2 2
 0 otherwise
PCM.7
Therefore, the average power of the quantization noise is
∆/2
n = ∫
2
q q 2 p (q )dq
−∆ / 2

1 ∆/2 2
= ∫
∆ −∆ / 2
q dq

∆2
=
12

PCM.8
Example:
Consider a full-load sinusoidal modulating signal of
amplitude A, which utilizes all the representation levels
provided.

A2
The average signal power is P =
2

The total range of the quantizer is 2A because the

modulating signal swings between -A and A. Therefore, if it
is a 4-bit quantizer,
2A A
∆= 4 =
2 8
PCM.9
and the quantization noise is
∆2
A 2
n2 = =
12 768

The S/N ratio is

( A2 / 2) ( A2 / 768) = 384 = 25.8dB

PCM.10
 Nonuniform quantizing

Uniform quantizaiton
– The S/N ratio is low for low level signal

In telephone system,
– nonuniform quantizers are used
• Increase the S/N ratio for low level signal

Smaller range
Example:

2 f max

PCM.11
 Nonuniform quantizing

Nonuniform quantizer
– Equivalent to passing the baseband signal through a
compressor and then applying the compressed signal to a
uniform quantizer.

output Compressor for the uniform quantizer

≡
input

For uniform quantizer

PCM.12
 Nonuniform quantizing

Compressor law
– µ-law
log(1 + µ m )
v =
log(1 + µ )
v
µ =5
1

µ =0

0 m
1
PCM.13
 Nonuniform quantizing

Compressor law
– A-law
 Am 1
 0≤ m ≤
 1 + log A A
v =
1 + log( A m ) 1
≤ m ≤1
 1 + log A A

At the receiver
– An expander is used to restore the signal.
– The combination of a compressor and an expander is
called a compander

PCM.14
 Advantages of PCM (digital communications)
In long-distance communications, PCM signals can be
completely regenerated at intermediate repeater stations
because all the information is contained in the code.
Essentially a noise-free signal is retransmitted at each
repeater. The effects of noise do not accumulate and one
need to concerned only about the effects of transmission
noise between adjacent repeaters.

Modulating and demodulating circuitry is all digital, thus

affording high reliability and stability, and is readily
adapted to integrated-circuit logic design.

PCM.15
 Signals may be stored and time scaled efficiently.
Transmit time=0.1s
100Mbps link
music
100 kbps source for 100 seconds = 10 Mbps Playback time = 10s

Efficient codes can be utilized to reduce unnecessary

repetition (redundancy) in messages. (source coding)
1 000
01 001
001 010
0001 Source 011
00001 Encoder 100
000001 101
0000001 110
0000000 111 PCM.16
Appropriate coding can reduce the effects of noise and
interference. (channel coding)
• Example: 1 encoded as 111 and 0 encoded as 000

101 111000111
Channel
Encoder

Noisy
Channel

Receiver 110010111
101
The errors are removed Errors PCM.17