Last week

• Historical overview
• Try an provide a big picture (a context)
• Societal/Economical impact of data comm &
networking

16/10/2007 1

The OSI and TCP/IP models

or how to achieve order over chaos
Dr Boris Grémont

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 A View of Chaos

Branch
office

The Internet POP

ISP
SOHO
MAN

LAN
Router
Main Office PBX

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How do Engineers Work?

• They use modular approach
• module = smallest logical unit of a product.
Modules can generally be bundled in larger groups
to create a new bigger product.
• modular design = engineer breaks a big
problem into a set of smaller independent
problems that can be solved independently and
separately. Each module is small and therefore it is
easier to build and test. Once two or more modules
have been successfully implemented and tested,
they can be bundled together
• Why do engineers do it that way? Modular
design is a layered approach, which minimizes the
chances of not achieving anything. It is much
easier to build simple things than large
complicated ones. Furthermore, all modules that
have already been implemented can be re-used
later in other future project or product
developments.

http://www.port.ac.uk/departments/academic/ece/whystudyengineering/
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Why the OSI and TCP/IP models?

• Communication over networks is broken

into 7 or 5 independent tasks called
layers.
• Each task/layer solves a particular
problem
• This is a modular approach!!!!
approach
• Otherwise the implementation of
communication over networks would be
too complicated or intractable for any
engineer to design!!!!!
• Two different implementations by two
engineers of the same module/layers
can be inter-changed. The system will
still work!!

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OSI (Open Systems Interconnection)

• describes how info in a software

application in one computer moves
through a network to another
software application
• Developed by ISO (Int. Organisation
for Standardisation) in 1984
• Divides tasks in moving info. into 7
tasks each forming a layer in the OSI
model
http://www.cyberarmy.net/files/arts/osi-01.gif?action=view

OSI is a conceptual framework for communication between

computers by using communication protocols

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What is a Protocol?

• A protocol is a set of rules that govern the

operation of functional units called entities to
achieve communication

–Entities=user applications, eg: file

transfer programs, database
management system etc...
–Communication between entities
require that they speak the same
language. What is communicated,
how it is communicated and when it is
communicated must conform to some
agreed conventions. These
conventions are referred to as a
protocol

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Key Elements of a Protocol

1. Syntax: Data format (packet structure) and

signal levels
2. Semantics: Includes Control information for
coordination and error handling
3. Timing: Includes speed matching and
sequencing

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Protocol Architecture

• There must be a high degree of cooperation

between remote computers. Instead of
implementing the logic for communication in a
single module, the task is broken into
independent subtasks, each of which is
implemented separately. Example:

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The OSI 7 layer model

• Upper Layers: Deal with

application issues,
Implemented in software
• Lower Layers handle data
transport issues (hardware
and software). Part of the
operating system (e.g.
windows XP, linux etc..)

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 Communication between layers
• A given layer in the OSI model communicates
with 3 other layers. Communication between
Adjacent layers (Top and bottom) and Peer-to-
peer layer (Same Layer in each of the
computers)

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Communication between adjacent

layers 1/2
• A service user may request a
lower layer to provide a
service (going down the model)
via a service access point (SAP)

• A lower layer may provide a

service to an upper layer via a
SAP.

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Communication between adjacent
layers 2/2 – 4 primitives
• Request: An entity (i.e. A Service
User) issues a primitive to invoke a
service from a service-provider
(lower layer) and passes some
parameters required to fully specify
the requested service.e.g.: Prime
minister asks secretary to send
letter to French president
• Indication: A service-provider
issues a primitive to the service-
user either to:1. indicate that a
procedure has been invoked by the
peer-service user on the connection
and to provide the associated
parameters, or 2. notify the service-
user of a provider initiated-
actione.g. Indicate to the PM that
the letter has been posted first class
since the matter is urgent
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Peer to Peer Communication
• OSI layers use headers and trailers to communicate
with peer layer between two entities. Headers and
trailers are passed down to the lower layer using a
process called encapsulation.
Two peer layers
16/10/2007
• Response: The service-user issues
a primitive to acknowledge or
complete some procedure
previously invoked by an indication
made to the service-user.e.g. PM
thanks secretary for his/her
initiative
• Confirm: A service provider issues
a primitive to acknowledge or
complete some procedure
previously invoked by a request
from the service-user.e.g.
Confirmation from the secretary
that the letter has been passed to
the postman. Hopefully, this should
mean that the letter should get to
France.
13
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 I only talk
with my
peers
Encapsulation: What for? across a
• For example, Layer 3 adds
network!!
header/ trailer for its peer layer.
Header/Trailer and data are passed
to layer 2. At layer 2, all data coming
from layer 3 is treated as data. Thus
the data portion at any particular
layer can contain header and trailers
from upper layers.
• Each layer in the source system (A)
adds control information for its peer
layer in destination system (B). On
reception, B processes the
header/trailer, then it removes
control information and passes data
to the upper layer.
• Header/trailers are for peer-to-
peer comm
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Example: The French-British Analogy

For example, the British secretary
may attach a note destined to
the French secretary (=peer 2
peer) giving the FAX number of
the British president for a faster
response.Upon reception of the
letter, the French secretary
keeps the note but passes the
letter bearing the message to
the French president
along with an indication that a FAX can be sent back to the British PM.
If the French president wants to respond promptly, he may issue a
request to his secretary that the response be faxed. The French
secretary then retrieves the FAX number from the note and sends the
response to its peer (the British secretary). The British secretary may
inform her peer (French secretary) that she has received the fax
alright.
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OSI Layer 1: Physical Layer

• defines the electrical, mechanical, procedural

and functional specifications for activating,
maintaining and deactivating the physical link
between communication network systems
• The Physical Link layer is concerned with
transmitting a stream of bits over a
communication channel without any regard to
their meaning or structure.

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OSI Layer 2: The Data link layer

• Provides reliable transfer of

data over one physical link.
Data is broken into sequenced
frames. Data Link layer
processes these frames.

• Addition of header/trailer to detect whether frame is

good/bad and number the frames. The Rx issues
ACK/NACK to the Tx. Retransmission of faulty frames is
possible.
• Makes sure that a fast Tx will not swamp a slow Rx with
too much data

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 OSI Layer 3: Network Layer
• Provides Routing and related functions enabling
transport of data across a whole network or
internetworks (Interconnections of networks):
Achieved by logical addressing (as opposed to
physical addressing, e.g. IP addresses)

• The network layer may

provide connection-
oriented or
connectionless service to
layer 4 (Transport layer)

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OSI Layer 4: Transport Layer

• Implements reliable or unreliable internetwork data transport
services that are transparent to the upper layer. Example:
TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) provides a reliable
connection-oriented service, UDP (User Data Datagram)
provides an unreliable connectionless service.
• Data from the upper layer (layer 5) is cut into portions called
segments. The transport layer adds its own header/trailers
for peer to peer control communication
• Reliability a bit like data link layer but for the whole
path across the network

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 OSI Layer 5: Session Layer
• Allows users on different
machines to establish
sessions between them.
• A session provides transport
services with enhanced
services. For example:
– Dialogue Discipline: e.g. full or half duplex
communication
– Recovery: Session layer can provide a
checkpointing mechanism so that if a failure
occurs between checkpoints, the session
entity can retransmit all data since the last
valid checkpoint
–Grouping: The flow of data can be marked to define groups of data. For example,
if a retail store is transmitting sales data to a head office, the data can be marked to
indicate the end of the day sales for that department. This would signal to the host
that to finalise the running account for that department and start new running
counts for the other departments.

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OSI Layer 6: Presentation Layer

• Provides a variety of coding

and conversion functions
ensuring that the
information sent from the
application of one system is
readable by the application
layer of the receiving
application.
• Examples includes
conversion of standard
sound/image/video format
e.g. conversion of .gif
pictures into JPEG pictures

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 OSI Layer 7: Application Layer
• Closest to the end user i.e. user
interacts with a software
application which has a
communication component.
These programmes fall outside
the OSI model, only the
communication part is relevant.
Application layer functions include
– Identification and testing the
availability of communication
partners
– Synchronisation between Tx and
Rx
– Test whether there is enough
network resources to provide
network service to the
application

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TCP/IP Model

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TCP/IP

• Dominant commercial protocol architecture

• Specified and extensively used before OSI
• Developed by research funded US Department
of Defense
• Used by the Internet
• Is the de-facto standard (NOT OSI)

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TCP/IP Protocol Model

• 4 Layers
– Application Layer
– Transport Layer
– Internet Layer
– Network Layer
• Easy correspondence with the
OSI layers

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TCP/IP model's Application Layer

• Provides Communication between applications

or processes on separate hosts
• Essentially combines the functionality of layers
6 and 7 of the OSI model (Application &
Presentation)
• Two types of Applications
– Internet User Protocols: e.g. FTP, HTTP, SMTPD
– Support Internet Protocols: e.g. SNMP, DNS

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TCP/IP Model's Transport Layer

• Provides end-to-end communication

– Corresponds to layers 4 and 5 of the OSI model
• Two main transport protocols
– TCP=Transport Control Protocol
For Reliable connection-oriented protocol
– UDP= User Datagram Protocol
For Unreliable connectionless protocol

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TCP/IP's Internet layer

• IP=Internet Protocol (IPv4 or IPv6)

– Concerned with routing packets through internets
– Equivalent to OSI layer 3 (Network)
• Three main functions:
– Discovering of the topology of the Internet
(interconnection of the nodes in the net)
– Selection of an optimum path according to a metric
– Actual switching of packets across the Internet

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IP Internet Protocol

• is a connectionless (or datagram) internetwork service

– No end-to-end delivery guarantees
– IP Packets may not arrive or arrive damaged
– IP Packets may arrive out of order
– IP is thus a best-effort protocol
• It is up to the transport layer to ensure reliability
– TCP= reliable service
– UDP=unreliable service
• This is decided depending on the type of application

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Network Interface/Access Layer

• In charge of placing/retrieving IP packets

on/off the transmission medium
• Thus the TCP/IP model can connect to any
type of physical network (e.g. Ethernet, FDDI,
ATM)
• Equivalent to layers 1 and 2 of the OSI model
(Physical and data link)

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Conclusions

• Definition of what is a protocol

• Notion of SAP (service access point)
• Adjacent layer and peer layer communications
(encapsulation and primitives)
• A description of the seven layers making up
the OSI protocol stack
• Description of the 5 layers of the TCP model
• Correspondence between OSI and TCP/IP
models

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 Thank you!

Any questions?

Next Week

• An introduction to physical layer technology

– Modem?
– Line codes? Bit rates
– Wireless comm and cables
– Radio propagation
– Multiplexing and Multiple access
– Spectrum management

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