Context and Contextualized Language Practice in Foreign Language Teaching

Author(s): Joel Walz

Source: The Modern Language Journal, Vol. 73, No. 2 (Summer, 1989), pp. 160-168
Published by: Wiley on behalf of the National Federation of Modern Language Teachers
Associations
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 Context and Contextualized Language
Practice in Foreign Language Teaching
JOEL WALZ
University of Georgia
RECENT LITERATURE ON LANGUAGE TEACH-
ing has contained much information on and
support for language "practice," especially in
exercises that have been contextualized (Bene-
vento; Bragger: 7; Omaggio: 48). The purpose
of this article is to examine this technique as
it appears in college-level French language text-
books published in the United States and as it
fits into classroom instruction using a com-
municative approach and to suggest improve-
ments. I
Many exercises that allow for language prac-
tice are mechanical; the textbook (or teacher)
presents a sample phrase or sentence in the
target language, then requires that the learner
make changes that may be automatic. Other
exercises and activities necessitate an under-
standing of the sentences by the learner or even
permit a certain amount of free response. Gen-
erally, the range of language forms is very
limited so that the learner will "see" the mor-
phological or syntactic pattern, understand,
practice, and learn it. Drills of this type have
long been a staple of foreign language teach-
ing. A product of the audio-lingual method and
the habit theory of language learning (Cook),
the idea of practicing language has survived
almost thirty years of upheaval in the profes-
sion, virtually intact in some teaching mate-
rials. Originally designed to be the primary
focus of classroom teaching, drills have now
assumed a secondary role, at least as described
in theoretical treatises. Several textbooks on the
market still limit exercise material to mechani-
cal drills in which students have no choice in
their answers; many do not.
One of the most important justifications for
the use of exercises is to provide a very eco-
nomical presentation and use of all forms of the
The Modern Language Journal, 73, ii (1989)
0026-7902/89/0002/160 $1.50/0
?1989 The Modern Language Journal
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language feature being taught. A natural pre-
sentation approximating true discourse would
require a substantial amount of time and text
to introduce, for example, the six persons of
eight to ten verbs of a class of present-tense
regular verbs. Furthermore, the additional lan-
guage forms needed to make communication
natural would likely obscure the very pattern
that makes "regular" verbs regular. Thus, for
pedagogical reasons, teachers and materials
writers have judged it worthwhile to "postpone"
for a short time communicative language use,
when students will express original ideas while
perhaps making more grammatical errors, until
students are able to manipulate the feature
under consideration. Ariew (p. 25) refers to this
as doing enough "calisthenics" to identify neces-
sary forms before using the forms in authentic
communicative activities. Omaggio recom-
mends moving from drill to communication "as
soon as possible" (49: p. 96).
The contrast between drill and communica-
tive language use is best summed up by terms
made popular by Rivers (56): "skill-getting" and
"skill-using." Before students can use the for-
eign language in a communicative way, they
must learn the forms that make up its various
parts. A problem with this approach to lan-
guage teaching is ascertaining what will lead
students through the "skill-getting" stage most
efficiently. Cook has pointed out that the in-
formation processing required by a structure
drill is not at all the same as that of a conver-
sation (p. 323). Others suggest doing away with
this type of activity altogether (Terrell: 76;
Krashen: p. 26; Chastain).
One answer to the question of "skill-getting"
currently recommended is to contextualize text-
book exercises. The idea of providing a con-
text for drills has a long history. Bruton re-
ported twenty years ago that the technique was
in vogue in Great Britain. In the United States,
the first French textbook to contextualize is
probably the first edition of Valette & Valette
 Context & Contextualized Language Practice 161
(1976). Some scholars have emphasized that
sentences within a drill should be related
(Galloway: p. 46; Rivers, 59: p. 110). Uncon-
nected, non-contextualized sentences give
strange juxtapositions making meaning harder
to grasp because of what Hieke calls "semantic
disorientation" (p. 210), as in this example:
A. Placez l'adverbe dans la phrase.
3. Ily a un examen le vendredi. (gineralement)
4. Tout le monde a un nez. (naturellement)2
Connecting sentences with the same situation,
theme, or semantic field may help students re-
tain the material better:
B. Vie quotidienne. Faites des phrases completes. Utilisez
les verbes indiquis au temps convenable.
1. Le dimanche, nous / se reveiller / tard. Mais le
week-end passi, nous /se lever /assez tot /et nous /
se promener / le parc.
2. Autrefois (Formerly) ma soeur /se coucher / avant
minuit. Maintenant elle / se prdparer / d passer /
examen.
A context provides additional information:
people and activities or descriptions.3
C. A la plage. Your group went to the beach last
Saturday. Tell what happened by putting the
following sentences in the passi compost Be sure
to use the correct reflexive pronoun in each
sentence.
1. Nous / se reveiller / tdt
2. Meme (even) mes camarades de chambre /se lever
/ vite
3. On / s'habiller
4. Hilhne / se dipecher / pour prendre l'autobus
Students completing this exercise would not
only practice reflexive verbs, but would also
create a ten-sentence story in chronological
order.
Another use of contextualization not fre-
quently mentioned is the possibility of combin-
ing culture with other aspects of the curricu-
lum (here, language practice), as Lafayette
(p. 9) recommends. For example:
D. In France the week begins on Monday; in the
U.S. it begins on Sunday. Say where the fol-
lowing days fall (in the week) in the country
given in parentheses ...
1. Monday (United States)
3. Sunday (France)
The latest impetus for contextualizing exer-
cises has come from the proficiency movement,
where it is given as a basic rule for developing
oral proficiency (Bragger, 7: p. 66; Omaggio,
49: p. 51). Benevento has described non-con-
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textualized exercises as "passe" (p. 129). Few
have disagreed. Stevick points out that per-
sonalized exercises, which have a type of con-
text involving students in the class, take more
time and may seem artificial (p. 71), while
Chastain objects (p. 163) that a context does
not necessarily force the learner to make choices
as true communication does.
One problem in this area is that the defini-
tion of context seems to have changed over the
years. Context is the situation in which com-
munication is taking place: the who, what,
when, where, why (Scott) of basic journalism.
A context is crucial to understanding in the
domain of reading, for example (Phillips: 52;
Schulz: 67). As Frank Smith writes, ". . . what
makes meanings and individual words become
transparent to us is context, which means the
general sense in which the element is em-
bedded" (p. 111). Even in science fiction,
potentially the most decontextualized of all
forms of communication since authors can
invent any reality they choose, readers find
themes and myths familiar to their own culture
and thus understand more easily (Scholes-&
Rabkin). Likewise, a context is absolutely
essential with the other receptive skill, listen-
ing comprehension (Byrnes; Rivers, 57: pp.
162-65). Another area where a context is ex-
tremely useful is vocabulary learning (Rivers:
58; Rosenthal; Wallace), although it may not
be essential (Cunningsworth).
When one suggests that contextualizing a
mechanical exercise is the same as adding a
context as defined above, the meaning of the
term has changed. The frequent references
(e.g., Oller: 45; Slager) to Jespersen's 1904
lament about unrelated sentences in textbooks
of his time cannot be taken as an argument for
contextualization of grammar drills because he
was referring to reading passages, not gram-
mar drills (31: p. 11). At the time, readings
were strings of sentences designed to show mor-
phological variations. Since they carried no
content, they had no context. His contempo-
rary, Gouin, would be a better example since
his Series Method relies on sentences that are
not only related, but that must be in chrono-
logical order.
Littlewood recommends contextualization,
but does not refer to the creation of imaginary
people and events. For him, drills should take
the form of a conversation between students,
but with predetermined answers. In this way,
the functions of asking and answering questions
 162 Joel
exist in a context of the classroom and specific
students, but the content of the exchange does
not necessarily have a context. When Omaggio
(49) recommends a drill of the subjunctive
using various made-up political figures because
"the use of the subjunctive . . . is . . . bound
to occur naturally in a political context" (pp.
94-95), she separates context from contextuali-
zation. Frank Smith gives the ambiguous sen-
tence --"The police were ordered to stop drink-
ing after midnight" (cited in Kellerman: p.
32)- to show how it is impossible to understand
what you are reading without a context.
Omaggio (49) states that her example "links
forms with meanings" (p. 95), but the link is
weak because no inherent relationship exists be-
tween the context of politics (and especially
imaginary politics) and the subjunctive mood
in French as there does with a natural text and
its content. Contextualization in this case
makes thematically related sentences, but it
does not force students to understand (Chas-
tain; Ellis & Roberts; Scott).
Contextualization, especially with respect to
mechanical drills, does not seem to be the same
as creating a context, which is the topic and
situation of a communicative act that are neces-
sary for understanding. To evaluate the prac-
tice of contextualizing exercises, I analyzed
twenty-five textbooks for the teaching of begin-
ning French on the college level published or
re-issued between 1984 and 1988.4 I assume
that any situation at the beginning of an exer-
cise created by textbook authors that goes
beyond simple directions and that attempts to
add realism is a contextualization. While some
of the examples below may be criticized as not
having true contexts, I believe that the authors
intend for us to interpret them as contexts.
Three of the twenty-five textbooks examined
contextualize virtually all drills, thirteen con-
textualize many or most, and nine had none
at all.
In contrast with the positive aspects of con-
textualized exercises mentioned above, I find
seven problems with them. I will discuss each
finding in order of increasing importance in my
opinion and provide examples.5
First, Omaggio (49) states that non-contex-
tualized exercises would be improved if the sen-
tences were "connected to one another in a logi-
cal sequence or relationship" (p. 94). The ability
to connect sentences is an important criterion
in the ACTFL scale, indicating the difference
between the intermediate and advanced levels
(20: p. 134). This analysis shows that textbook
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Walz
exercises are series of isolated sentences on the
same topic; the sentences may be related, but
they are almost never connected. Connected dis-
course involves a logical progression, a reprisal,
and a continuity of thought. On a grammatical
level, one often finds an elaborate system of
pronouns and also connecting words, such as
conjunctions. Some sentences in connected dis-
course are not even comprehensible without in-
formation that precedes or follows. On the
other hand, textbook sentences, even related
ones, if produced by a testee, would be rated
intermediate, not advanced. Of course, the stu-
dents are not producing these sentences; they
read or repeat them. But these exercises rarely
represent connected discourse:
E. Habitudes matinales. Chacun a ses habitudes le matin.
Faites des phrases compltes pour les dicrire.
1. Sylvie / se regarder / longtemps / dans / le miroir
2. tu / se brosser / dents / avec / dentifrice
3. nous / se lever / du pied gauche
Even example C above, which contains a recog-
nizable chronology, does not show connected
discourse. Rare exceptions exist, of course,
such as the traditional passages used to test the
differences between the passe compose and the
imperfect. There nevertheless seems to be a
misuse of the idea of connectedness; instead of
developing an idea through natural discourse,
most exercises present groups of non-isolated
sentences.6 Since true first-year students could
not hope to produce advanced-level speech, this
problem is one of theory rather than
practicality.
Second, contextualization seems to have re-
introduced repetitiveness in drills since it has
the potential of limiting an exercise to one sub-
ject or one subject and verb:
F. Quels pays visiter? Agnes is talking about the
countries she would like to visit. What does she
say?
Moddle: Italie Je voudrais aller en Italie.
1. Portugal; 2. Grice; 3. Mexique; 4. Japon; 5.
Chine; 6. Norveige; 7. Canada; 8. Tunisie; 9. Russie;
10. Sindgal; 11. Egypte; 12. Etats-Unis
Although students may appreciate the isolation
of elements because the drills are much easier
to do than when two or more elements change,
highly repetitive drills do not correspond to the
integrative nature of language emphasized by
proficiency theorists.
Third, because a context limits each exercise
to a specific topic, the writer may have to
stretch the limit of the students' vocabulary.
 Context & Contextualized Language Practice 163
G. D'autres questions contemporaines. Composez un
slogan pour exprimer votre opinion sur les sujets
suivants selon le moddle.
MODELE: . . .
1. l'alcoolisme au volant* (drunk-driving) 2. la
faim dans le monde 3. l'analphabitisme (illiteracy)
4. la riduction des impdts (taxes) 5. I'essor (soaring)
du budget militaire 6. I'ouverture des frontieres
(borders) aux immigrants 7. la ligalisation de la
marijuana 8. la course aux armements (arms race)
9. le sexisme
*le volant (steering wheel)
While this exercise is meaningful and even
communicative if students give true opinions,
six of the nine suggestions have to be translated,
with one having a translation in parentheses
and another partial one as a footnote.
Fourth, even though a context creates mean-
ing, it does not change the nature of a mechani-
cal drill. Jeffries' statement that "mechanical
drills can be made more meaningful by adding
a context and a sentence combination task"
(p. 18) is questionable. According to the clas-
sification system developed by Paulston (50 &
51), a drill is only meaningful if one has to
understand it to accomplish the task. Hosenfeld
demonstrates that students will do the absolute
minimum to get the right answer including not
even reading the entire sentence (much less the
directions). Cohen discovers that, at any given
point in class, half the students are not even
paying attention (he uses the more diplomatic
"attending to content"). To counteract these
problems, a context must do more than embel-
lish. The following exercise has a long context,
but the answers are automatic:
H. II a seche" (cut) le cours. Marc a seche" le cours de
philosophie hier matin. II vous demande de lui preter
votre cahier, vos notes de classe, etc. Comme vous etes
une personne ginereuse, vous voulez bien l'aider. Avec
un(e) camarade de classe, jouez les deux roles. Suivez
le moddle.
MODELE: Marc: Tu me prites tes notes de classe?
Vous: Oui, je te les prite.
Marc: Alors, prete-les-moi.
1. Tu me pretes ton cahier?
2. Tu me donnes ta copie de la confirence?
Students do not need to listen to or read the
directions (or context) to give a correct answer.
Even at Paulston's meaningful level, students can
often perform the task without the context:'7
I. Cours de Traduction. Le professeur a demand6 a ses
itudiants de traduire les phrases suivantes. Comment
faut-il les traduire?
4. I stayed in the sun for two hours.
5. They got married a week ago.
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Chastain points out that contextualization
often does not force students to make choices,
as one must in communicative situations. To
test this statement with respect to French text-
books, I examined twenty contextualized drills
(mechanical and meaningful) chosen at random
from five of the most widely-sold books. I found
two drills where outside information (realia ac-
companying the exercise) was essential in order
to give the right answer, but this type of ac-
tivity is not very different from comprehension
questions on a reading passage. With only one
of the one hundred exercises did the context
force the student to make a choice (it is example
D above). I will cite additional examples below.
Fifth, Stevick mentions that non-contextual-
ized exercises take less time than ones that have
a context. With many exercises, the context
places a true burden on the class:
J. Diffirences. Laurent aime icouter de la musique en
faisant autre chose. Colette priferefinir son travail pour
pouvoir mieux se concentrer. Quant a Nadine et Paul,
ils sont trop impatientes pour attendre. Quand Laurent,
Colette, Nadine et Paul ecoutent-ils de la musique?
Moddles faire mes devoirs
Laurent icoute de la musique en faisant ses
devoirs.
et Colette icoute de la musique apres avoirfait ses
devoirs.
et Nadine et Paul icoutent de la musique avant de
faire leurs devoirs.
1. lire lejournal 2. aller a l'universiti
If the goal of this exercise is to enable students
to use present participles and infinitives in
order to talk about what they themselves like
to do, then we need a quicker route to that skill
than this exercise provides.
Sixth, contextualization can mask the dis-
tinction between mechanical, meaningful, and
communicative activities. I first noticed this
problem when observing beginning teachers
using a textbook that had non-contextualized
mechanical drills, contextualized meaningful
drills, and communicative activities. The teach-
ers consistently spent their time (after grammar
discussions) on the mechanical and meaningful
ones with no time left for communication. The
reasons they gave were that they thought they
had to do the exercises in order and that they
did not realize the difference in importance in
talking about imaginary people and talking
about the students in class. Deyes finds through
an analysis of his own teaching that students
have very little time to speak during class. After
analyzing the interaction in 864 middle and
high school foreign language classes, Nerenz
 164 Joel
reports that only 0.4 percent of available time
is spent on communication.8 Nunan analyzes
the instruction of several highly trained, experi-
enced ESL instructors who thought they were
engaged in communication when they actually
spent more time on drill. He cites five other
studies that found the same problem. Rogers
agrees that beginning teachers often fail to dis-
tinguish between mechanical and communica-
tive exercises.
The problem of untrained teachers on the
college level is enormous. One large, midwest-
ern university reports that forty-one percent of
the students taking the first course in beginning
French in the fall of 1987 had teachers with no
pedagogical experience or training (other than
an orientation program).9 In the author's de-
partment, the figure was sixty-one percent. Al-
though this problem would not be as great at
the school level because of required practice
teaching nor in small colleges where faculty
teach the elementary levels, it is cause for con-
cern. Many teachers still do not use communi-
cative methods in class, and teacher trainers
will have to renew efforts to help novice teach-
ers recognize what is communicative and what
is not. Rogers describes one successful ap-
proach, which I will discuss below.
Seventh, contextualization frequently im-
poses a false reality or situations that are con-
trary to fact, thereby contradicting any notion
of authentic communication. Rivers (59) points
out that traditional exercises "often show dis-
regard for reality" (p. 108), or what Wolfe less
charitably calls "forc[ing] students to lie" (p.
175). Contextualization often does not correct
this fault, but can aggravate it by adding a false
notion of reality. For example:
K. Your tour group has had one week for indi-
vidual travel. Members of the group are now
returning to Paris. Say where each one is re-
turning from by filling in the blank with the
correct form of revenir.
1. Jacqueline de Rome.
2. Vous d'Amsterdam.
We often hear the statement that teachers
should not ask students to put the same sen-
tence in the affirmative and negative, because
it is unrealistic to do and not to do the same
thing at one time (Schulz: 68; Slager: p. 39).
So if the reason for adding a context is to in-
crease meaning and realism, how can we ignore
the fact that the meaning of exercises such as
K is often wrong? No one is named "Jacqueline"
who is returning from Rome, and the "Vous"
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Walz
of sentence two (teacher or student) is obviously
not returning from Amsterdam.
Another example:
L. Je viens de . . . Use elements from each column
to tell ten things that you have just done.
Moddle: Je viens d'arriver a Chicago.
changer de 1'eau
voyager d Chicago
The model sentence, which means "I have just
arrived in Chicago," is not only not a context,
it is semantically impossible and destroys the
meaning of the expression being practiced, venir
de--to have just. In fact, few of the eleven pro-
posed actions in this exercise are even remotely
possible.
In conclusion, the notion of context as back-
ground information essential for understanding
comes from theories of reading, listening compre-
hension, and vocabulary building. When changed
to the contextualization of practice exercises,
which represent morphological changes pri-
marily, it is simply added on. In other words,
having several lexical items for different parts
of a car in the same exercise makes the items
easier to learn. Knowing the mechanics of how
a car works makes it easier to understand a
reading passage or a conversation on the topic,
but no evidence exists that any specific context
makes morphological changes, such as verb
endings, easier to remember.
Nevertheless, we have just seen that French
textbooks and the broader-based pedagogical
literature place considerable emphasis on con-
textualized language practice. For example,
Omaggio presents a sample lesson plan to teach
partitive and indefinite articles in the negative.
She recommends twenty-seven minutes of con-
textualized manipulation and only eight min-
utes of conversational practice (49: pp. 420-
21). Surely this plan is out of balance in a pro-
gram designed to develop oral proficiency.
I would like to recommend a two-part ap-
proach to improve the teaching of foreign lan-
guages with respect to drill and communication
in the areas of teacher (re)training and peda-
gogical materials. Regarding teacher training,
supervisors need to emphasize the importance
of communication in the classroom. Rogers de-
scribes a situation where detailed explanations
are necessary and recommends providing les-
son plans with that type of activity prepared
in advance along with furnishing cultural mate-
rials, all to be followed by informal discussions
with the supervisor about what worked in class.
Experienced teachers need not be convinced of
Context & Contextualized Language Practice 165
the necessity of including communication ac-
tivities in classroom teaching. Instead, more
information is needed on why many teachers
do not seem to use them. Perhaps more self-
analysis would help. Moskowitz describes train-
ing beginning teachers in interaction analysis
to sensitize them to what is going on in class,
including obtaining original responses from stu-
dents. Medley describes other strategies for
self-evaluation.
With experienced teachers in in-service
courses and seminars, it would be appropriate
to re-examine the value of contextualized exer-
cises. Unless the context forces students to
choose among alternative responses, it does not
increase the meaning of the items (Chastain;
Stuart Smith). It is quite surprising that so few
textbook drills require such a choice since they
are easy to create. Abbs co-authored textbooks
ten years ago that contain many such drills.
Omaggio (48) gives an example of verbal
expressions as appropriate or inappropriate
conduct for guests in someone's home, which
permits students to practice affirmative and
negative commands (pp. 56-57). Chastain rec-
ommends (p. 164) giving students verbal ex-
pressions and having them indicate which ones
are commonly done in class, thereby practicing
verb morphology and negation. Stuart Smith
suggests listing foods and having students indi-
cate whether a vegetarian would eat them,
which allows students to practice partitives.
The "forced choice" is essential to requiring
comprehension, and it makes an excellent ac-
tivity for teacher training classes, seminars at
professional meetings, or Academic Alliance
gatherings. Teachers can pick a few contex-
tualized exercises in the textbooks they use and
determine how to change the directions to force
the students to listen or read for meaning. For
example:
M. Longe'viti. Quel est le secret des centainaires
(100-year-old persons)? Jouez le role de Jean
Laviolette, un centainaire, et donnez des conseils aux
gens qui veulent vivre longtemps. Suivez le modle.
Modle: Il est important de bien manger. Il est impor-
tant que vous mangiez bien!
1. Il faut prendre un peu de vin a chaque repas. 2.
Il est essentiel de ne pas fumer. 3. Il est necessaire
de rester calme en toutes circonstances.
The exercise is mechanical according to Paul-
ston's classification system because all the
advice is good, thereby permitting students to
convert the sentences without having to under-
stand them. A forced choice would be possible
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if one or two of the sentences gave bad advice
(deleting the ne pas from sentence two, for
example). In an annotation to this exercise, the
authors recommend asking students to formu-
late their own advice, which is the best way of
eliminating mechanical responses because it
allows the class to progress smoothly from a
meaningful to a communicative activity. It is
an activity that will take more time and be more
interesting than the original exercise, and it will
probably increase understanding. But teachers
believe in drills also. Therefore, they must be
made aware of the distinctions between drills
and communication.
Since the contextualization of mechanical
drills can mask their true nature, we need con-
texts that must be understood to accomplish the
task, as in the revision of example M; such
exercises are currently almost impossible to find
in college French textbooks. Pedagogical mate-
rials would profit most from the following for-
mat: 1) sentences in mechanical drills should
be related in meaning and introduced with a
brief title in the directions, as several books now
do (see examples B and E above); 2) contex-
tualized meaningful drills must have very short
directions and must force students to make a
choice when providing a response. By Paul-
ston's definition, a meaningful drill must
require comprehension. This improvement
would take advantage of the potential for in-
creased meaning for some students; 3) most of
the activities should be neither of the above,
but should be communicative, where the con-
text is the students' experience and opinions.
Since the textbook cannot predict student
answers, annotations for the teachers can sug-
gest avenues to follow to elicit natural ex-
changes and encourage interaction among stu-
dents. Several books do this now, but the class-
room interaction studies mentioned above do
not show that foreign language classes have
availed themselves of these opportunities.
Almost twenty years after the profession
began discussing communicative competence,
very few textbooks have enough activities to
allow communication to dominate class time.
One reason is the time in class/space in text-
books that drills take up. Contextualization, as
it is currently done, is not an adequate solu-
tion to the need for more realism because many
of the drills take too much time, confuse drill
and communication, and encourage inappro-
priate meanings or no meaning at all. Higgs
and Birckbichler point out that no textbook can
 166 Joel
interact in a communicative manner with stu-
dents as the other people in the same class can.
Teachers have the responsibility for creating
NOTES
1This is a revised and amplified version of part of my
talk, Grammar vs. Proficiency-Based Syllabi: Is There a Differ-
ence?, given at the annual meeting of the American Council
on the Teaching of Foreign Languages, Atlanta, GA,
November 1987. Throughout this article, I will follow the
common practice of using the term exercise to refer to mate-
rial designed to help students practice language forms, and
activity to refer to material that allows them to use the lan-
guage communicatively.
2As I explain later in this article, all the examples I use
are taken from the current editions of textbooks designed
to teach elementary French on the college level. I will fol-
low the policy of my earlier article (81) of not identifying
the exact source because this is to be an evaluation of a
teaching technique as much as an evaluation of textbooks.
I have shortened the exercises because of space limitations,
but have not changed their basic nature. The numbers of
individual sentences within each example are the original
ones, as are any translations.
3See, for example, Bialystock; Bragger, 8; Jeffries; Oller,
44; Slager; Clyde Smith; Stevick.
4See the following references in the bibliography: 4, 9,
10, 13, 19, 24, 25, 26, 30, 33, 39, 41, 46, 53, 54, 55, 60,
61, 64, 65, 74, 77, 78, 79, and 82.
5I would like to emphasize that the exercises quoted below
are offered only as examples of my findings and not as proof.
By reading a corpus of this size and choosing selectively,
one could demonstrate many points. On the other hand,
I did not read the ten to fifteen thousand pages contained
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