Chapter 7: Plane Electromagnetic Waves and Wave Propagation: An Historical Perspective

Chapter 7: Plane Electromagnetic Waves
and Wave Propagation
Radio wave: 3u103–3u1011 Hz Visible: 4.3u1014–7.9u1014 Hz

Microwave: 3u108–3u1011 Hz UV: 7.5u1014–3u1016 Hz
THz wave: 1011–1013 Hz X-ray: 3u1016–3u1019 Hz
1
IR: 3u1011 Hz–4.3u1014 Hz Ȗ-ray: >1019 Hz
An Historical Perspective:
Faraday烉Time-varying magnetic
field generates electric
field.
Maxwell烉Time-varying electric
field generates magnetic
field.
Hertz discovered radio waves; Einstein's

special theory
Maxwell's theory accepted of relativity
1791 1831 1865 1879 1887 1905

Faraday Faraday's law;
born Maxwell Maxwell died;
Maxwell born equations Einstein born
2
A Note about Oscillatory Behavior:
energy energy
Common feature of oscillatory behavior:
type 1 type 2
Oscillations require ^energy storing mechanisms

energy exchange mechanism(s)
energy storing energy exchange
example medium
mechanisms mechanism(s)
mass-spring system 1 mv 2 , 1 kx 2 restoring force mass & spring
2 2
LC oscillator B2 , H E 2 Q, I L, C , & wire

2P 2
EM wave B2 , H E 2 dB , dE not required

2P 2 dt dt
3
Organization of Lecture Notes on Ch. 7:

In Jackson, plane waves in dielectric media are treated in Secs. 7.1
and 7.2. Various special cases (plasma medium and high-frequency
limit) are treated in Sec. 7.5. Plane waves in conductors are treated in
Sec. 5.18 [e.g. Eqs. (5.163)-(5.169)] and Sec. 8.1 [e.g. Eqs. (8.9),
(8.10), (8.12), (8.14), and (8.15)] by methods different from those in
Secs. 7.1 and 7.2.
Here, we will cover these sections with a unified treatment of plane
waves in both dielectrics and conductors, and at all frequencies.
Equations in Jackson will be examined in detail, but in somewhat
different order. So the first three sections of lecture notes are
numbered Secs. I, II, and III rather than following Jackson’s section
numbers. However, Secs. 7.3, 7.4, 7.8, and 7.9 of Jackson will be
followed closely in subsequent lecture notes.
We begin with a derivation of the generalized dielectric constant
H/H0, which is applicable to both dielectric and conducting media.
4
I. Derivation of the Generalized Dielectric
Constant H/H0 [Sec. 7.5 (part A)]
Dipole Moment of a Single Electron : The equation of motion
for both bound and free electrons with mass m and charge e in an
external E-field E(x,t) is [Neglect the small force due to B (x,t)]
restoring force; Z0 0 for free electrons F (x ) restoring
2

m d 2 x eE(x, t ) J m dt d x mZ 2 x
0
force (7.49)
dt
x
0
displacement of J : electron collision
the electron from frequency F ( x) N F (0) N
F' (0) x "
its equilibrium J m dt
d x : damping force
0 mZ02
position x 0 (rate of change of
As in Sec. 4.6, we neglect
electron momentum higher-order terms.
due to collisions)
Note: 1. The damping force ( J mv) is always opposite to v. It
converts the e energy into thermal energy (random kinetic energy).
F c(0)
2. Z0 ( m ) is the natural oscillation frequency of the e . 5
I. Derivation of the Generalized Dielectric Constant H /H0 (continued)

2 F (x )
m d 2 x eE( x, t ) J m dt d x mZ 2 x [(7.49)]
0 restoring
dt force
2
m( d 2 x J dt d x Z 2 x) eE( x, t )
0 x
dt 0
Let* E(x, t ) = E(x)eiZt and expand E(x) about the equilibrium
position x 0. E( x) E(0) ( x )E( x) x 0 " | E(0), (1)

of the order of O E(0) if Ox 1

x
where O is the scale length of E(x). For example, if E(x) is a wave

field, then O | wavelength. By neglecting ( x )E( x) x 0 , we have
assumed that the electron displacement is too small for the electron
to see the spatial field variations. Thus, we assume that the electron
is acted on by a spatially uniform field:
E( x, t ) | E(0)e iZt (LHS Re[RHS]),
where E(0) is the field amplitude at the location of the electron.
*This is equivalent to a Fourier trnasformation to the Z space
and E(x) is a complex quantity called the phasor [see Appendix A] 6
Let x(t ) x0 e iZt and substitute

x(t ) x0 e iZt d 2 x J d x Z 2 x) eE( x, t ),
® iZt
into m (
dt 2 dt 0
¯E(x, t ) E(0)e
E(0)
we obtain m( Z 2 iZJ Z02 ) x0 eE(0) x0 m e
Z0 Z 2 iZJ
2
iZ t
x(t ) m e E(0)e (LHS Re[RHS]),
Z02 Z 2 iZJ
which represents the forced oscillation of a simple harmonic oscillator.
The natural oscillation frequency is Z0 (see Exercise below).
The time-dependent x(t ) results in a time-dependent dipole moment
at x 0 given by p(t ) p 0 e iZt ,
2 E(0) ª e2E(0) º
where p 0 ex0 em 2 2 p [(4.72)] if Z 0
Z0 Z iZJ «¬ 0
mZ02 »¼
Questions: 1. If Z0 0, p 0 o f as Z o 0. What's the problem ?
2. If E(0) 0, under what condition can we still have a solution?
7

2
Exercise: Obtain the solution of m( d 2 x J dt d x Z 2 x)
0 0.
dt
Let x(t ) x0 eiZt m( Z 2 iZJ Z02 ) x0 0
For x0 z 0, the only possibility is Z 2 Z02 iZJ 0
Assume J Z and use the method of iteration :
°To 0-th order, Z 2 Z02 0 Z | Z (binding frequency)
® J 1/ 2 J
°̄To 1st order, Z Z0 iZJ | 0 Z | Z (1 i Z ) | Z (1 i 2Z )
2 2
J 1J t
Z | Z i 2 x(t ) x0 e iZt | x0e 2 eiZ0t >J / 2 : damping rate @
This is the damped oscillation of a simple harmonic oscillator with
natural frequency Z0 (see Halliday, Resnick, and Walker, Sec.16.8).
Discussion: This exercise shows:
(1) The method of iteration is a useful and systematic way to solve
an equation containing a small term.
(2) Z can be a complex number.
(3) Collisions (J ) are responsible for damping. 8
E(x, t ) E(0)eiZt x m e E(0)

° ° 0
Z0 Z 2 iZJ
2
Go back to ®x(t ) x0e iZt with ® 2 E(0)
°p(t ) p e iZt °p 0 ex0 em 2 2
¯ 0 ¯ Z0 Z iZJ
In these equations, E(0), x0 , and p 0 are phasors containing the
phase & amplitude information of E(0, t ), x(t ), & p(t ), respectively.
The subscript "0" in x0 and p 0 indicates that the oscillation is
centered at x 0, where E( x, t ) is approximated by E(0)e iZt (its
value at x 0). If the oscillation is centered at an arbitrary point x,
the only difference is that the electron would see a sptially constant
field given by E(x)e iZt .
Thus, in general, p(t ) pe iZt with p em 2 2
2 E( x )
(7.50)
Z0 Z iZJ
a microscopic quantity
Note : In (7.50), x is a spatial coordinate (not the electron
displacement), and p and E(x) are phasors (complex numbers). 9

The Generalized Dielectric Constant : Assume there are N
molecules per unit volume and Z (bound free) electrons in each
molecule ( nuclear charge). Divide the electrons in a molecule into
groups, each with electron number f j ( ¦ f j Z ), binding frequency
Z j (Z j 0 for free electrons), and collision frequency J j . Then, the
electric polarization (total dipole moment per unit volume) is
2 fj
P ( x) N ¦ f j p j Ne
j
m j Z j Z 2 iZJ E(x) H 0 F eE( x)
¦ 2
a macroscopic
j (4.36) a spatial
quantity (7.50) H 0 Fe
variable
Extending the definitions of the static electric displacement (D)
D(x) { H 0E(x) P (x) H E(x) (4.34) (4.37)
and permittivity (H ) : ®
¯H H 0 (1 F e ) (4.38)
to fields with exp( iZt ) dependence, we obtain D(x) H E(x) (2)
with HH 1 HNem ¦ 2 2
2 fj ªH : generalized permittivity º (7.51)
0 0 j Z j Z iZJ j « ¬ with free-electron effect »¼ 10
bound electrons: Z j z 0
Divide the e's into ®
¯free electrons: Z j 0, f j f 0 , J j J 0
2 fj Ne2 f 0
(7.51) H H 0 m Ne ¦ i (7.56)
j (bound) Z j Z iZJ j
2 2 mZ (J 0 iZ )

Hb VZ
Hb i V
Z V is due to free electrons.
(7.56)
short form
f Ne2 ª Drude model for the electrical º

where V { m(J0 iZ ) «conductivity. See Appendix B» (7.58)
0 «¬for a direct derivation of V . »¼
Note : J 0 | 4 u 1013 /s for Cu (p. 312)
Questions :
1. H o f as Z o 0 The derivation breaks down. Why?
2. A medium is said to be dispersive if its H
is a function of Z (p. 323, top). What causes the
medium to be dispersive ? Ans : electron inertia 11

Discussion :
e2 E( x )
(i) The linear relations, p m Z02 Z 2 iZJ [(7.50)] & D(x) H E(x)
[(2)], result from the approx. that x (e displacement) is small so
f (x) v x [(7.49)] See Eq. (A.9) for the meaning
that ® .
¯E(x) | E(0) [(1)] of a linear relation in t -space.
(ii) When E is comparable to the interatomic E -field (105 -108 V/m),
"f ( x) v x " is no longer valid. Then, the p-E and D-E relations
become nonlinear (Thus, laser the birth of nonlinear optics).
(iii) In the time-varying E-fields, free e's oscillate about an equilibrium
position just like bound e's. Hence, both types of e's can be treated
on equal footing. This makes it possible to obtain the generalized
H in (7.51) or (7.56), which is applicable to both dielectric and
conducting materials.
The generalized H allows a unified treatment of EM waves in
both dielectric and conducting media (as will be shown later). 12
2 fj Ne2 f 0
(iv) H H 0 Ne ¦ i [(7.56)]
m 2 2 mZ (J 0 iZ )
Hb due to free e's
Let H H c iH cc [H c Re(H ), H cc Im(H )]. From (7.56), we see

that H cc is due to J of (both bound and free) electrons. Since J is the
2
damping term in m d 2 x d x mZ 2 x [(7.49)], H cc
eE( x, t ) J m dt j
dt
accounts for EM wave damping in dielectric and conducting media.
Useful algebra : If X 1 ( a ib ), then Im( X ) b
a ib a 2 b 2 Re( X ) a
Bound e's are restrained by the binding force, which gives the Z j
term in the denominator of H b to dominate the J j term ( ' Z j J j ,
see p. 310). Thus, H bcc H bc
Free e's are not restrained by the binding force. There is no binding
force term in the free e part of (7.56). Hence, H cc(due to free e's) H bcc
EM waves damp much faster in a conductor than in a dielectric.
13

(v) In Z -space, only those quantities tranformed from t -space,
such as E, have a counterpart in t -space. Since H is a derived
quantity in Z -space, it has no conterpart in t -space. So, the
constitutive relation D(Z ) H (Z )E(Z ) [(2)] is an Z -space relation.
However, since D(Z ) v E(Z ), D(Z ) has a counterpart in t -space,
which may be obtained by an inverse Fourier transform :
1 f D(Z )e iZt d Z
2S ³f
D(t )
1 f H (Z ) E(Z )e iZt d Z
2S ³f N
(3)
2 fj Ne2 f 0
H (Z ) H 0 m
Ne ¦ i [(7.56)]
2 2 mZ (J 0 iZ )
z H E(t ) [E(t ) 21S ³f E(Z )e iZt d Z ]

f
in general
However, there are 2 special cases where (3) gives D(t ) H E(t )
in t -space for a dielectric medium [see items (vi) and (vii) below]. 14
1 f D(Z )e iZt d Z 1 f H (Z )E(Z )e iZt d Z

2S ³f 2S ³f
(vi) Rewrite D(t ) [(3)]
Consider a static E (i.e. Z 0, E const ) in a dielectric medium
with no free electrons (f 0 0). We have
E(Z ) ³ f E(t )eiZt dt E ³ f eiZt dt 2S EG (Z )
f f
°
° 2 fj Ne2 f 0
° H (Z ) H Ne ¦ i [(7.56)]
m j (bound) Z 2j Z 2 i Z J j mZ (J 0 iZ )
0
®
°
° 2 fj
°̄ m j (bound) Z 2j H b > Note : H b is real.@
H 0 Ne ¦
In t -space, we have a static D given by

1 f iZt Hb f iZt
D 2S ³f H (Z )E(Z )e dZ 2S 2S E ³f G (Z )e dZ H bE
So we have recovered the static relation D H b E [(4.37)] without
making any approximation.
15
(vii) Let E (Z ) be a signal with Z Zs r 'Z. Assume H (Z ) E (Z )

1. H (Z ) | const for Z within Zs r 'Z. So the
°
® medium has negligible dispersion to the signal. Z Z
°2. The medium has negligible loss (i.e. J j | 0). s
¯
Then, for this signal, we may let Z Zs & J j 0 in (7.56).
2 fj ªfor dielectrics, J of free º
H (Zs ) H 0 Ne ¦
m j (bound) Z 2j Zs2 iZs J «¬es is non-negligible. »¼
j
2 f j
| H 0 Ne ¦ a real const
m j (bound) Z j Zs2
2
H (Z ) f
D(t ) 21S ³f H (Z )E(Z )e iZt d Z | 2Ss ³f E(Z )eiZt dZ H (Zs )E(t )
f
This explains the assumption made on p. 259 : "The macroscopic

medium is linear in its electrical properties, with negligible dispersion
or negligible losses". Under this assumption, we have D(t ) H E(t ),
which is used in (6.105) to derive (6.107) in t -space.
Question: Why is the "negligible loss" assumption also required? 16
(viii) In general, we cannot neglect dispersion and losses. Such cases
must be treated in Z -space (see Parts II and III below and Sec. 6.8).
A note about terminology : In general, the electric permitivity is a
I
tensor (denote it by İ ) and we may write
ª H11 H12 H13 º
I I «H
D İ E, where İ H 22 H 23 »
« 21 »
«¬H 31 H 32 H 33 »¼
The electrical property
if
of the medium is
I
uniform (or homogeneous) İ is indept. of x
I
linear İ is indept. of E
I
nondispersive İ is indept. of Z
H11 H 22 H 33 ,
isotropic
H ij 0 if i z j
17

A note about notations:
The notation H is commonly used to denote the permittivity of
a dielectric medium, where bound electrons contribute to H . The
The notation V is commonly used to denote the conductivity
of a conducting medium, where free electrons contribute to V .
For harmonic fields, we have derived a generalized H [(7.51)]
contributed by both bound & free electrons. For a clear distinction,
we have denoted the commonly used permittivity (due to bound
electrons only) by H b [as in (7.56)] and reserved the notation H
for the generalized permittivity. Thus, there are 2 definitions for D :
°D H E (H b i V Z )E [(2)]
® V (4)
°̄D H b E [(2) without the free-electron term i Z ]
These 2 definitions of D will be in no contradiction because D
has no physical significance. We only need to choose a defintion
suitable for the conditions under study [see (6) below].
18
II. Plane Wave Equations in Dielectrics and
Conductors - A Unified Formalism
Basic Equations: We start from the macroscopic Maxwell eqs. in
(6.6), in which D, H contain effects of bound electrons, and U , J are
due to free electrons [U , J in (6.6) are denoted by U free , J free here].
D(x, t ) U free (x, t ) U free , J free here are
° B(x, t ) 0 neglected in (7.1).
°
® u E(x, t ) w B(x, t ) E(x, t ), D(x, t ), B(x, t ), (6.6)
° wt and H ( x, t ) here are E, D,
° u H ( x , t ) J ( x , t ) w D( x , t )
¯ free wt B, and H in (7.1).
Equation of continuity (conservation of free charges):
w U (x, t ) J free ( x, t ) 0
wt free
As discussed earlier, D H bE (for bound electrons) and D H E
(for both bound and free electrons) are in general applicable only in
the Z -space. Similarly, B P H and J V E are also Z -space relations.
To utilize these relation, we need to first go to the Z -space. 19
II. Plane Wave Equations in Dielectrics and Conductors… (continued)

Assumption 1 : Harmonic time dependence (go to Z -space)
E ( x, t ) ½ E ( x ) ½
° D ( x , t ) ° ° D( x ) ° By convention, the LHS is
° B ( x, t ) ° ° B ( x ) °
° ° ° ° iZt the real part of the RHS.
Let ® H (x, t ) ¾ ® H (x) ¾ e
° J ( x, t ) ° ° J ( x ) ° E(x), B(x) here are E, B
° free ° ° free ° in (7.2) and (7.3)
U
°¯ free ( x , t ) U
° ° free ° ( x )

¿ ¯
¿
real complex phasors (Z -space quantities)
D(x, t ) U (x, t ) D(x) U free (x)
° free
° B(x) 0
° B(x, t ) 0 °
® w B ( x, t ) (6.6) ® (5)
° u E ( x , t ) ° u E ( x ) iZ B ( x )
wt
° u H (x, t ) J (x, t ) w D(x, t ) °̄ u H (x) J free (x) iZ D(x)
¯ free wt
wU (x, t ) J free (x, t ) 0 iZU free (x) J free (x) 0
wt free
Question: What information have we lost in Assumption 1?
20
Assumption 2 : Linear and isotropic medium, i.e.

D( x) H b E( x), B( x) P N H (x), J free ( x) V
N E( x ) (6)
N
due to bound e's due to bound e's due to free e's
Note: For (5), we must use the definition D H bE, because free-e
effects are included in U free , J free [see discussion below (4)].
Rewrite iZU free ( x) J free ( x) 0 [conservation of charge]
iZU free (x) V E(x) 0 Letting J free (x) V E( x) implies
V E(x) the only J free and U free are due
U free (x) iZ to E in (6), i.e. no external J free
Sub. U free into D( x) U free and U free (e.g. an electron beam).
V E(x)
H b E( x ) iZ (H b i V
Z ) E( x ) 0 H E( x ) 0, (7)
where H Hb i V
Z [same form as (7.56)] (8)
21

Similarly, u H ( x) J free ( x) iZ D( x) H
u H (x) V E( x) iZH bE( x) iZ (H b i V
Z )E( x) (7.57)
u H (x) iZH E( x) (9)
Thus, H b and V are again combined into H H b i V Z as in (8).
Note: This is an alternative derivation of the generalized H , by
applying Maxwell eqs. [(6.6)] to harmonic fields (assumption 1) in
a linear and isotropic medium (assumption 2). (8) has the same
form [H H b i V Z ] as (7.56). However, (7.56) contains the explicit
expressions for H b and V , which will turn out to be very useful.
(7) and (9) give the macroscopic Maxwell equations in terms of
phasor fields and the generalized H :
H E(x) 0
°° B(x) 0 ªfor harmonic fields in º
® «a linear and isotropic » (10)
° u E ( x ) iZ B ( x ) « »
¬ medium ¼
°̄ u H (x) iZH E( x) 22
II. Plane Waves in Dielectrics and Conductors (continued)
Note : (i) Bound and free electrons are separated in (6.6) and (5):
D(x, t ) U (x, t ) D(x) U free (x)
° free
°
° B(x, t ) 0 ° B(x) 0
® w B ( x, t ) (6.6) ® (5)
° u E ( x , t ) ° u E ( x ) iZ B ( x )
wt
° u H (x, t ) J (x, t ) w D(x, t ) °̄ u H (x) J free (x) iZ D( x)
¯ free wt
where D(x) H bE(x) and J free (x)=V E(x ). H b and V account for the
effects of bound and free electronics, respectively.
(ii) Bound and free electrons are combined in (10):
H E(x) 0
° B(x) 0
°
® (10)
° u E ( x ) iZ B ( x )
°¯ u H (x) iZH E(x)
where H ( H b i V
Z ) includes the effects of both bound & free electrons.
23
Assumption 3 : Uniform medium (i.e. H , P independent of x)

H E(x) 0 E(x) 0 (11)
°° B(x) 0 °° B(x) 0 (12)
® (10) ®
° u E(x) iZ B( x) ° u E(x) iZ B(x) (13)
¯° u H (x) iZH E(x) ¯° u B(x) iZPH E(x) (14)
u ^ `
(13)
(14)
2 ^ `
E( x )
B( x)
PHZ 2 ^ `
E( x )
B ( x)
0 (15)
(15) has the same form as (7.3), which is derived from the source-
free Maxwell equations [(7.1)] for a non-conducting medium (V 0).
However, (15) is applicable to both dielectric and conducting media.
In (7.3), H H b . In (15), H H b i V
Z . The solution of (15) takes the
same algebraic steps as (7.3). But with H H b i V Z , the solution of
(15) will be applicable to both dielectric and conducting media.
24
^ `^ `
Assumption 4 :
E( x )
B ( x)
E 0 ik x
B0
e
E0, B0 here are E, B
in (7.8)-(7.12)
2 ^ ` PHZ ^ `
E( x )
B ( x)
2 E( x )
B ( x)
0 k 2 PHZ 2
E0
B0
0 k r PHZ. ^ `
The r signs represent waves traveling in opposite directions. For an
isotropic medium, we may choose the + sign without loss of generality.
Thus, k PHZ [dispersion relation, same as (7.4)] (16)
2 2
Note: 1. k 2 { k k ; k { k k *; k 2 z k and k z k unless k is real.
2. k can be complex, but k is always real and positive.
k E0 0 (17)
°k B 0
(11)-(13) ® 0 (18)
°B 0 1 k u E0 k uE
¯ Z PH k 0 (19)
(14) gives E0 ZPH 1 k u B , which is implicit in (17) and (19).
0
Question: What information have we lost in Assumption 4? 25

In Sec. 6.9 of lecture notes, we have derived the relation
E ( x, t ) u H ( x , t ) 1 Re[E ( x) u H ( x)] [valid for real Z ]
t 2
S t
time-averaged power flow per unit area (called intensity)
E ( x, t ) u H ( x, t ) t E(x) E0eikx
H 0eik x P0 eikx
real quantities phasors B
H ( x)
1 Re[E ( x) u H ( x)] H kuE0 ikx [Use (19)]
2 P k e

1 Re[ H 1 E u k u E ei (k k )x ]
2 Pk 0 0
E0 { E0 E 0
2
1 Re
°2 ^ H 1 [k E 2 E (k E )]ei (k k )x
Pk 0 0 0 ` (20a)
®
° 1 Re
¯ 2Z ^P1 [k E 0
2
E0 (k E 0 )]ei (k k

)x
` (20b)
26
k PHZ (dispersion relation) [(16)]

°
°k E0 0 [(17)]
Discussion: Rewrite ®
k B0 0 [(18)]
° k uE
°B 0 Z
¯
1 k uE
0 PH k 0 [(19)]
(i) Assume P , H are given, so (16)-(19) are conditions imposed on
Z , k , E0 , B0 by the Maxwell eqs.
(ii) The derivation of (16)-(19) only requires P , H , Z , k , E0 , and B 0
to be constants, but not necessarily real. Thus, any set of complex
P , H , Z , k , E0 , and B0 can be a valid solution of the Maxwell eqs.
provided they satisfy (16)-(19).
(iii) H is complex [as in (7.56)]. P can also be complex. A complex H
or P can lead to complex solutions for Z , k , E0 , and B 0 . Even
if H and P are real, boundary conditions (if any) can also lead to
complex k , E0 , and B0 [to be shown in Sec. 7.4]. 27
(iv) Under Assumptions 1 and 4, the fields ( e iZt ikx ) form a

plane wave, i.e. the surface of constant phase (at the same t )
is a plane. We may construct 2 types of plane waves, both of
which satisfy (16)-(19).
Type 1. Homogeneous plane wave :
E0e x
This is the most familiar plane wave
k ke z
° ° B0 PH E0 ke z
given by ®E0 E0e x with ® (21)
°B °¯k PHZ B 0e y
¯ 0 B0e y
where e x , e y , & e z are real unit vectors, but E0 , B0 , & k can all
be complex due to complex P or H . Clearly, (21a) satisfies (16)-(19).
Example : If P & H are real, E0 , B0 , & k are also real. Then,
E(x, t ) Re[E0eik x eiZt ] E0 cos(kz Zt )e x
in t -space, ® ik x iZt
(22)
¯ B ( x, t ) Re[ B 0 e e ] B 0 cos( kz Z t )e x
Any plane A to the z -axis is a constant-phase plane.
28
Type 2. Inhomogeneous plane wave (surface wave) :

Construct another solution satisfying (16)-(19): [derived in (85)-(88)]
k k xe x ik z e z k 2 k k k x2 k z2 PHZ 2
° °
®E0 E0 xe x iE0 z e z with ®k E0 k x E0 x k z E0 z 0 (23)
°B iB e °B
¯ 0 0y y ¯ 0 y ( k x E0 z k z E0 x ) / Z
where Z , k x , k z , E0 x , E0 z , and B0 y are all real constants.
k k xe x ik z e z defined here can be converted to the form
k kn k (n R in I ) as used on p. 298 of Jackson. Here,
we reserve the notation n for later use as a real unit vector.
(23) is an Z -space solution. Its physical meaning becomes
clear when we convert the E-field to t -space.
E ( x, t ) Re[E0eik xeiZt ] Re[( E0 xe x iE0 z e z )eiZt ik x x k z z ]
> E0 x cos Zt k x x e x E0 z sin Zt k x x e z @ e k z z (24)
29

Rewrite
E( x, t ) [ E0 x cos Zt k x x e x E0 z sin Zt k x x e z ]e k z z [(24)]
This represents a surface wave in the z t 0 half space, propagating
along e x with an amplitude decreasing exponentially along +e z . It is
also called an inhomogeneous plane wave
JJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJ JM (p. 298) because any plane
A to the x-axis is a plane of constant phase. Note that the exponential
decay is not due to any medium loss and it is in a direction A to e x .
The surface wave discussed
z inhomogeneous plane wave
here is a general phenomenon. (a surface wave)
In Sec. 7.4, we show that a 0 air x
plane wave incident from a water
dense to a tenuous medium incident reflected
(e.g. water to air) can be totally homogeneous homogeneous
plane wave plane wave
reflected. Due to b.c.'s at z 0.
Fields in the tenuous medium form a surface wave exactly as in (24).
The surface wave also plays a key role in fiber optics (Sec. 8.11). 30
(v) Orthogonality of vectors k , E0 , and B 0 in (17)-(19)

k E0 0 ½
° ° ªE , B , and k are algebraically º
(17)-(19) ®k B 0 0 ¾ « 0 0 »¼
°¯E0 B 0 0 °¿ ¬
orthogonal to one another.
E0e x
For the Type 1 (homogeneous) plane wave,
E0 ( E0e x ), B 0 ( B0e y ), and k ( ke z ) are also ke z
geometrically orthogonal. B0e y
For the Type 2 (inhomogeneous) plane wave, the algebraic ortho-
gonality of k ( k xe x ik z e z ), E0 ( E0 xe x iE0 z e z ), & B 0 ( iB0 ye y )
does not imply geometric orthogonality because k and E0 do not
have geometric directions (in Z -space). This is reflected in the
t -space expression for the E-field just shown:
E ( x, t ) > E0 x cos Zt k x x e x E0 z sin Zt k x x e z @ ekz z [(24)],
which is a wave propagating along e x , but with E not A to e x .
31
(vi) k E0 0 does not necessarily imply k E 0 0.

(A similar comment is made in Jackson, see footnote on p. 298.)
For the homogeneous plane wave : k ke z , E0 E0e x
k E0 0 E0e x
k E 0 0 ke z
But for the inhomogeneous plane wave: B0e y
k k x e x ik z e z
® [see (23)] z inhomogeneous plane wave
¯E0 E0 x e x iE0 z e z (a surface wave)
k E0 0 k x E0 x k z E0 z 0 0 air
x
water
k x E0 x k z E0 z
reflected
k E 0
incident
k x E0 x k z E0 z homogeneous homogeneous
2k z E0 z z 0 plane wave plane wave
Thus, at this point, the k E 0 term must be kept in (20a,b). 32

Assumption 5 : k kn (kr iki )n k : complex constant

Then, (17)-(19) can be written n : real unit vector
n E0 0 (16), (25)-(27) here are equivalent to (25)

° (7.9)-(7.11) when n in (7.9)-(7.11) is
®n B 0 0 (26)
°B a real unit vector and H in (7.9)-(7.11)
¯ 0 PH n u E0 is interpreted as the generalized H . (27)
and k E0 0 k E 0 0. The Poynting vector [(20)] reduces to
S 1 Re H 2 2 ki nx Exercise : Show

t 2 P E0 e n
k kn k E 0 0.
(28)
k k xe x ik z e z has no geometrical direction, but k ( kr iki )n

has the geometrical direction n. (25)-(27) is a Type 1 E0
plane wave with geometrically orthogonal k , E0 , & B 0 . kn
2S
In k (kr iki )n, kr ( O ) gives the wavelength, B0
ki gives the attenuation rate, and n gives the propagation direction.
Question: What information have we lost in Assumption 5? 33
Definition of impedance and admittance of the medium :

Rewrite B 0 PH n u E0 [(27)]
In engineering literature, this equation is often written
B nuE0
H 0 P0 Z
, (7.11)
P
where Z { H [impedance of the medium, Jackson, p. 297] (29)
The admittance of the medium is defined as Y { Z1 = P H.
Note: Z and Y are intrinsic properties of the medium.

E0 E0e x
Let E0 E0e x , B0 B0e y , & n e z Z .
H0
ke z
Z is the ratio of the wave amplitudes E0 and H 0
Be
in the medium. In general, Z is a complex number. 0 y
P0
376.7 : ª«
impedance º
For the free space, Z Z0 H0 (30)
¬of free space ¼»
34
k PHZ [(16)]
°°n E 0 [(25)]
A note about notations: Rewrite ® 0
°n B 0 0 [(26)]
°¯B0 PH n u E0 [(27)]
This set of equations is equivalent to (7.9)-(7.11) in Jackson, with
H in (7.9)-(7.11) interpreted as the generalized H . The difference is in
notation k. Both here and in (7.9)-(7.11), k kn. However, in (7.9)-
(7.11), k is a real number and n = n R + in I is a complex unit vector
subject to the conditions: n n 1, nR2 nI2 = 1, & n R n I 0 [(7.15)]
But elsewhere in Jackson, n is treated as a real unit vector [e.g.
Secs. 7.3, 7.4] while k as a complex number [e.g. (7.53)]. Here, for
consistency, we always treat k ( kr iki ) as a complex number
and n as real unit vector (with no additional condition on n). Thus,
kinx ikr nx iZt
ik x iZt e e [Lecture notes]
e ® kn I x ikn R xiZt
¯e e [Jackson, p. 298]
35
III. Properties of Plane Waves in Dielectrics and

Conductors [A unified treatment of Secs. 5.18, 7.1, 7.2,
7.5, and 8.1 using the generalized H in (7.51)]
In Sec. II, under Assumptions 1-5, we have obtained the familiar
plane-wave solution for a linear, uniform, and isotropic medium:
E(x, t ) E0eikxiZt k: wave vector or
° with k kn propagation vector
° ik xiZt n: direction of wave
® B ( x, t ) B 0 e
° propagation
°S 1 Re H E e 2 kinx n [valid for real Z ]
2
[(28)]
¯ t 2 P 0
where the complex constants P , H , Z , k , E0 , and B0 must satisfy
k PHZ > k : wave number or propagation constant @ [(16)]
°
°n E0 0 E0 [(25)]
®
°n B0 0 kn [(26)]
°̄B 0 PH n u E0 B0 [(27)]
36
III. Properties of Plane Waves in Dielectrics and Conductors (continued)
Below, on the basis of these equations, we consider 4 radically

different cases which are distinguishable by the wave frequency Z
and medium's H :
2 fj Ne2 f 0
H H0 m Ne ¦ i [(7.56)]
2 2 mZ (J 0 iZ )

H VZ
b
Case 1. Waves in a dielectric medium E0
Case 2. Waves in a good conductor
kn
Case 3. Waves at optical frequencies and beyond
B0
Case 4. Waves in a plasma
B0 PH n u E0 with E0 , B0 , n mutually orthogonal. For all
cases, we need n (e.g. e z ) & only one amplitude (e.g. E0e x ) to specify
°E( z , t ) E0e r ikz iZt e x ª upper sign: n e z º
a plane wave, e.g. ®
°̄B( z , t ) r PH E0er ikz iZt e y «¬lower sign: n e z »¼
37
Case 1: Waves in a Dielectric Medium

Ne 2 fj Ne2 f 0
H H0 ¦ i [(7.56)]
m j (bound) Z 2j Z 2 iZJ j mZ (J 0 iZ )

Properties of H : negligible ( ' f0 0 or | 0)

1. J j Z j (see p. 310) for most bound electrons. Im[H ] Re[H ].
2. When Z is near each Z j (binding frequency of the j -th group of
electrons), H exhibits resonant behavior in the form of anomalous
dispersion and resonant absorption.
3. Re[H ] decreases as Z increases above more and more Z j 's.
Re[H ]
index of
refraction
of water Im[H ]
vs
frequency 0 Z 38
Case 1.1 : Lossless dielectric (P and H are real. Secs. 7.1 and 7.2)
Plane wave propertities in a dielectric medium, governed by Eqs.
(16), (25)-(28), are most clearly illustrated by the simple case of no
medium loss (i.e. P and H are both real).
1. Time-averaged quantities:
(25) S t 12 PH E0 n ªintensity:
2 average power º
(7.13)
¬ unit area ¼
The time-averaged energy density is given by
u 1 [H E( x) E ( x) 1 B( x) B ( x)] HE 2 (7.14)
t 4 P 2 0

These 2 terms are equal [ ' B0 PH n u E0 (27)].

Equipartition of E-field and B-field energies
(7.13), (7.14) S t n u 1 ( 1 c in free space)

t PH PH
The concept of group velocity will be considered in Sec. 7.8. 39

2. Time-dependent quantities: To be specific, we let k ke z and
°E(x) E0eik x °E( z ) E0e e x
ikz
ªZ -space º ,
write ® as ®
°¯B(x) PH n u E0e ik x
¯°B( z ) PH E0e e y ¬«quantities ¼»
ikz
where E has a fixed direction (linearly polarized). E0e x

Let E0 E0 eiT and convert to t -space:
E( z , t ) Re[E0eikz iZt ] E0 cos kz Zt T e x z k ke z
° B0e y
ikz iZt
®B( z , t ) Re[ PH E0e ]e y v
° E z
¯ PH E0 cos kz Zt T e y
B
v ph Z / k (speed of const. phase point) field profile
°E( z , t ), B( z , t ) are in phase [ ' P , H are real] at a fixed t
°
°S( z , t ) E( z , t ) u H ( z , t ) instantaneous Poynting vector [(6.109)]
®
° H E 2 cos 2 kz Zt T e
P 0 z
° H
°̄At a fixed z , S varies between 0 and P E0 at frequency 2Z. 40
2
Two linearly polarized waves can be combined to give

E( z , t ) E1 ( z , t ) E2 ( z , t ) (e x E1 e y E2 )eikz iZt (7.19)
(7.19) consists of the following 3 cases:
1. (7.19) is a linearly polarized plane wave if E1 and E2 are in
phase, i.e. if E1 E1 eiT and E2 E2 eiT
2. (7.19) is an elliptically polarized plane wave if E1 and E2 are
not in phase, i.e. if E1 E1 eiT and E2 E2 ei T M .
3. (7.19) is a circularly polarized plane wave (a special case of
elliptical polarization) if E E ( E ) and M r S . Hence,
1 2 0 2
ikz iZt
E( z , t ) E0 (e x r ie y )e (7.20)
As is understood, in (7.20), LHS Re[RHS], i.e.
E( z , t ) Re[ E0 (e x r ie y )eikz iZt ]
E0 [cos(kz Zt )e x r cos(kz Zt S2 )e y ] (31)
41
Field rotation of a circularly polarized wave : Rewrite (31):

E( z , t ) E0 [cos(kz Zt )e x r cos(kz Zt S2 )e y ] y
Ex ( z , t ) E0 cos kz Zt E
® x
¯ E y ( z , t ) B E0 sin kz Zt
E( z , t ) rotates in t as shown to the right. E0 (e x ie y )eik xiZt
Exercise : Show that the instantaneous S of y
a circularly polarized plane wave is indep. of t . E
x
Medium property:
k PHZ [(16)] gives the phase velocity: E0 (e x ie y )eikxiZt
Z 1 PH
v c
n , where n P0H 0 >index of refraction @ (7.5)
k PH
Next, consider plane waves in a lossy dielectric, where E, B differ
only slightly from those in a lossless dielectric (e.g. E, B slightly out
of phase). However, there is a qualitative difference: the medium can
absorb the wave. So, our emphsis will be on the medium properties.
42
Case 1.2 : Lossy dielectric [P and/or H

complex, Sec. 7.5 (Part B)]
k PHZ Re PHZ i Im PHZ E i D2 , (7.53)
where E [ Re PHZ ] gives (for arbitrary P and H ) the
wavelength: O 2S See comment above (16) for the
° E
°phase velocity: v Z 1 sign choice of the root of HP .
® E Re PH
° PH
°̄index of refraction: n
c
Re P H
v 0 0
> used on p. 314@ (32)
To find the meaning of D , we set ki D and n e z in
2
1 H
S t 2 Re P E0 e
2 2 ki nx
n [(28)]
P S t n 12 Re P H E 2 eD z > average power/unit area @ (33)
0
Hence, D is the power attenuation constant given by
d P [The field attenuation constant is D .]
D P1 dz (34a)
2
From (7.53): D 2Im PHZ > used on p. 314@ (34b) 43

Problem : Assume P real , calculate the time-averaged power
loss per unit volume (ploss ) [of importance to microwave heating].
° average wave power : P 1 Re H E 2 eD z [(33)]
unit area 2 P 0
®
°¯power attenuation constant: D 2 Im PHZ [(34b)]
H E 2 e D z ª P : W/m º
2
ploss dP D P 2 Im PHZ 12 Re P 0 « 3»
dz ¬ ploss : W/m ¼
2 D z
Im H Re HZ E0 e [for real P & arbitrary H ]
Let H ( a ib) 2 2
a
b 2 i 2N
ab [a and b are real]
Hc H cc
Re H r a
H r(a ib) ®
¯I m H rb 12H cc
2 D z
P
Im H Re HZ E0 e ab Z E0 e D z
2
ploss
1 H ccZ E 2 e D z [no restriction on H c and H cc] (35)
2 0 44
Weak dielectric loss (for most dielectrics) : Let P real and

H c(1 i HHccc ) 2 | H c(1 i 2HHccc).
1
H H c iH cc with H c H cc. Then, H
P cc
k Re PHZ i Im PHZ | PH cZ i H Z [for real P & H c H cc]
2 Hc
E k | PH cZ PH c Z
P (propagation constant)
° 0H 0 c
r
°v Z | 1 c (phase velocity) E reduces to the
° E PH c n expression on
° PH c p. 311 if ȝ = ȝ0.
°n cv | PH cc P0H 0 (index of refraction)
°
® P H
°D 2ki | H cH ccZ H ccc E (power attenuation constant) (7.55)
°
° P 12 Re PH E0 e D z | 12 HPc E0 eD z (intensity)
2 2
°
°p average power lost to the medium
dP 12 H ccZ E0 eD z
2
°̄ loss unit volume dz
also derived in (35) with no restriction on H c and H cc
45
Loss tangent: In D H cc E [(7.55)], the factor

Hc
H cc ( { tanG ) (36)
Hc l
is commonly referred to as the loss tangent.
Below is a table of H c (Re[H ]) and loss tangent (tanG l or HH cc ) of
c
some dielectrics at different frequencies.
from Ramo, Whinnery, and Van Duzer, p.334. 46

III. Properties of Plane Waves in
Dielectrics and Conductors (continued)
A miraculous property of water

Upper figure: n (index of
refraction) of liquid water vs f
(wave frequency) in Hz.
Question: No data for f <105 Hz.
Why? Ans.: Water is a good
conductor at low f (no longer a
dielectric). See next 2 pages.
Lower figure: Į (absorption
coefficient) of liquid water vs f.
Į falls precipitously by a factor
of 107-8 in the visible light region!
“Mother Nature has certainly
exploited her window!” (p.315).
47

Case 2 : Waves in a Good Conductor [Secs. 5.18 and 8.1]
Applicable to waves in metals with f 1012 Hz
Criterion of a good conductor: Rewrite
fj Ne2 f 0
Hb i V
2
H H 0 Ne ¦ i Z [(7.56)]
m j (bound) Z 2j Z 2 iZJ mZ (J iZ )

j 0
H VZ
b
For bound ecs, we have J j Z j (p. 310) Re[H b ] Im[H b ]
° H | real. For Cu (p.312)
° b
1
THz
°For free ecs, assume Z J 0 ( 4 u 1013 / s ) or f ( Z ) 1012 Hz
® 2S
° V
2f 2
Ne n
0 | 0 e
m(J 0 iZ ) J 0m
[n0 Nf 0 free electron density]
°
° i.e. V | real and indep. of Z for f ( 2ZS ) 1012 Hz
¯
V
We define the good-conductor JJJJJJM as ZH b 1
criterion
JJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJ (37)
H Hb i V V
Z | i Z , i.e. free ecs dominate over bound ecs. 48
V 1 [good-conductor criterion, (37)]
Rewrite ZH
b
Examples (assume* H b H 0 8.85 u1012 farad/m):
*This assumption may be quite off in some cases (e.g. Fig. 7.9
shows H b | 80H 0 for liquid water at 105 Hz f 109 Hz)
Material V (/ ȍm) V V 10
ZH b (60 Hz) ZH b (10 Hz)
Copper 5.9 u 107 1.8 u 1016 1.1u 108
Graphite 6 u 104 1.8 u1013 1.1u105
Sea water 10 3 u 109 18
2
Ground 10 3 u 10 6
1.8 u 102
Pure water 105 3 u 103 1.8 u105
Glass 1012 3 u 104 1.8 u 1012
Air 5 u1015 6 u106 9 u1015
Teflon 1023 3 u 1015 1.8 u 1023
Note : Even insulators Question : Why is it dangerous if an
contain some free e's. electrical heater falls into your bath tub? 49
Skin depth in a good conductor :

V 1), we have
For a good conductor ( ZH
b
1 1
iS
(H b i VZ ) 2 | (i VZ ) 2 V 1 i i 12 1
H 2Z (e 2 ) 2 1
2
1 i (39)
PVZ 1i [for forward wave] (5.164) and (40)
k PHZ 2 1 i G
ªG : skin depth
JJJJJJJJJJM º
where G { PVZ
2
« P is real by assumption.» (5.165), (8.8), and (41)
¬ ¼
i z z
Thus, eikz e G e G , implying G is the field penetration depth into
a good conductor (E , B damp by a factor of e1 in a distance of G ).
0.85 cm at f 60 Hz (household current) (42a)
°
Examples : G copper | ®6.5 u 105 cm at f 1010 Hz (microwave) (42b)
Pcopper | P0 °¯6.5 u 106 cm at f 1012 Hz (THz wave) (42c)
50
Fields in a good conductor : Assume a plane wave is incident

normally (n e z ) from free space on the conductor. Most of it will
be reflected, but a small fraction will be transmitted (and dissipated)
into the conductor ( 'V z f).
Wave dynamics in the conductor is of physical and practical
importance. Here, we focus on properties of the transmitted wave
(Reflection/transmission will be treated in Sec. 7.3).
Using H 0 H / P n u E0 [(27)], we specify [E(z ), H (z )] of the
incident (n e z ), reflected (n e z ), and transmitted (n e z ) waves:
Free space : k0 P0H 0Z x
Conductor : k PHZ
incident wave ez (Z satisfies ZHV 1)
JJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJ
b JM
( E0i eik0 ze x , H 0 / P0 E0i eik0 ze y )
e z transmitted wave
reflected wave e z
r ik0 z r ik0 z (E0eikze x , H / P E0eikze y )
( E0 e e x , H 0 / P0 E0 e ey)
z
0 51
Free space : k0 P0H 0Z x

Conductor : k PHZ
incident wave ez V 1)
(Z satisfies ZH
JJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJ
b JM
( E0i eik0 ze x , H 0 / P0 E0i eik0 ze y )
e z transmitted wave
reflected wave e z
r ik0 z r ik0 z (E0eikze x , H / P E0eikze y )
( E0 e e x , H 0 / P0 E0 e ey)
z
0
Reflection/transmission amplitudes (E0r & E0 ) can be expressed in
terms of E0i by the continuity of E& & H & at z 0 [see (76a,b) below].
However, basic properties of the transmitted wave in the conductor
are indep. of its amplitude E0 . We only need its spatial field profiles:
z iz
ikz Ge Ge
° E ( x ) E ( z ) E0 e e x E0 e x (43a)
® z z
° H ( x) H ( z ) H E e eikz V 1 i E e G ei G e (43b)
¯ P 0 y 2 PZ 0 y
where we have used k 1Gi [(40] and H V 1 i [(39)].

2Z 52
z iz
E ( z ) E e G e G e [(43a)] ª Let E0 = real º
° 0 x
Rewrite ® z z « without loss »
V (1 i ) E e G eiG e [(43b)] «of generality »
° H ( z ) 2 PZ N 0 y ¬ ¼
¯ 2 exp(iS / 4)
iZt z
E ( z , t ) Re[ E ( z ) e ] E e G cos( z Zt )e (44a)
° 0 G x
®
Z V z S
°H ( z , t ) Re[H ( z )e G
PZ E0e cos(G Zt 4 )e y
i t z
] (44b)
¯
It has a wavelength O 2SG . E( z , t ) & H ( z , t ) are 45o out of phase
and damp by a factor of 1e in length G . It is a wave markedly different
from the EM wave in a dielectric, but x
conductor
with the key attributes of an EM wave:
1. E( z ) 0 (no U ) E(z ) : a strongly damped
sinusoidal function
2. k , E, H mutually orthogonal 0 z
3. Propagating and transporting G E reverses direction
at z O /2
energy O/2 53

Rewrite
z x
G cos( z Zt )e conductor
° E ( z , t ) E0 e G x [(44a)]
® z E(z )
°H ( z , t ) V G S
PZ E0e cos(G Zt 4 )e y [(44b)]
z
¯ 0 z
Examples: Let f 2ZS 1010 Hz (typical G
O/2
microwave frequency)
P
glass ( P | 1, HH c | 4, HH ccc | 2.1 u 103 )
0 0

copper G | 7 u 105 cm
O 2S 2S | 1.5 cm (Case 1.2) O 2SG | 4.4 u 104 cm
E PH cZ
D 2S H cc | 8.8 u 103 cm -1 (7.55) D P1 dP 2 | 4.5 u 10 3
cm -1
O Hc dz G
Question 1: G PVZ G sea water (at f

2 1010 Hz) | 0.16 cm. The
sunlight has f 1010 Hz. Why can it penetrate deep into sea water?
54
Question 2: E( z ) & H ( z ) in (43a,b) are & to the conductor surface.
Is this still true if the wave is incident obliquely on the conductor?
The wave propagates in the direction of field gradient [E (x)].
Since fields in the conductor vary rapidly along e z , the direction of
wave propagation is essentially along e z (at any incident angle).
x
free conductor k x E1 wwEx 1
space O O (free space wavelength)
k z E1 wwEz G (skin1depth) k x
Wave propagates essentially along e z .
0 z
Hence, E( z ) & H ( z ) are essentially & to the conductor surface.
(43a,b) is still valid even if the wave from
free space is incident at an oblique angle.
aluminium
Question 3: Does it make sense to use
a 60 Hz power cable of very large radius steel
(e.g. 5 cm) to transmit more power? power cable 55

Surface current K eff on a good conductor :
If G z 0, the "surface" current K eff is not exactly on the surface.
J ( z ) [ V E( z )] penetrates a depth of G . Hence, K eff (unit: A/m)
is an integrated value of J ( z ) (unit: A/m 2 ) over z. x
1 i z conductor
f f f
K eff ³0 J ( z )dz V ³0 E( z )dz V E0 ³0 e G dz e J (z ) V E(z )

x
z iz G G (1i ) (1i )
E( z ) E0e G e G e x (43a) 1i 2 2 PVZ
0 z
G
e z u H (0) ª
V (1 i ) E e "n " in (8.14) is º
2 PZ
(8.14) and (45)
¬«" e z" here. ¼»
0 x
Note : e z u H e z u H& (H& : the component of H parallel to x -y plane)

(45) shows that K eff depends only on the the surface H (not
on Z or V ). Physically, by Faraday's law, K eff is the conductor's
response to shield its inside from a time-varying H. Hence, K eff is
determined entirely by the surface H. This explains why Z and V
are cancelled out in the derivation of K eff e z u H (0) [(45)]. 56
Time-averaged power loss on the surface of a good conductor:
dPloss average power going into conductor
S( z 0) t e z
da unit area of conductor surface
1 Re[E(0) u H (0)] e E(0 ) E(0 ); H (0 ) H (0 )
2 z
(43b) E & surface H & surface
V 1 i E *e ] e
2 PZ
= 12 Re[ E0e x u 0 y z x & J (0) z f
conductor
V E 2
1 E(0)
(46)
2 PZ 0
2
H (0) < o S( z 0)
PZ t
(43b) E0 V H0 z (47)
0
H 0 ª Explanation of º (48)
dPloss PZ 2
Sub. (47) int (46) 1
2V
da 2 ¬« induction heating ¼»
1 PZG H 2 (45)
G PVZ
2
4 0 (8.12) and (49)
1 1 H 2 1 1 K 2 (8.15) and (50)
2 VG 0 2 VG eff
2 2
Note: H 0 H 0i (incident) H 0r (reflected)
57

dPloss /da in (8.12) is obtained by the Poynting vector method. Below
we show it is exactly the Ohmic power dissipated inside the conductor.
ohmic power deposited inside the conductor
Presistive ( z )
unit volume
1 Re[ J ( z ) E ( z )] 1 V E( z ) 2
2 2 x
conductor
2z 2z
1V E e G 2 1 PZ H e G
2 J (z ) V E(z ) (5.169) and (51)
2 0 2 0
(43a) (47) 0 z
dPloss f G
da ³0 Presistive dz
2z
2 f
1 PZ H 0 ³0 e G dz 1 PZG 2
2 4
H0 [exactly as (8.12) and (49)]
Question: How would you design an induction cooker?
58
Definitions: surface impedance Z s , surface resistance Rs , and
surface reactance X s of metal
(45) K eff V (1 i )E(0) VG E(0) E(0) ª Z s : ratio of E (0) º
2 PZ 1i Z s «¬ to K eff »
¼
(41)
where Z { 1 i > Jackson p. 356, bottom @ is called the surface
s VG
Z s Rs iX s ,
impedance. We may write ® (52)
where Rs X s 1
¯ VG
surface resistance surface reactance
Rs of copper | 0.026 : at 1010 Hz [microwave] (53a)
Examples: ®
¯ Rs of copper | 0.26 : at 10 Hz [THz wave] (53b)
12
Z s is an intrinsic (rather than surface) property of metal. It is in

fact the impedance Z [ { P / H , see (29)] of a good conductor:
P P P 1i 1i
Zs (54)
H (metal) V i1/ 2 V 1 i 2V VG
Z 2Z PZ 59
Case 3: Waves above Optical Frequencies [Sec. 7.5, Part D]

Case 3.1: Z >> J0 but Z< Zj for some of the bound electrons,
applicable to visible light and ultraviolet frequencies
2 f Ne2 f
H H 0 Ne ¦
j
i 0 (7.56)
2 2 mZ (J 0 iZ )
m j (bound) Z j Z iZJ j
Hb Ne2 f 0
|
mZ 2
Ne2 f 0 (' Z J 0 )
| Hb (55)
mZ 2
In Case 2 (Z <<J0), the free electron term is predominantly
imaginary. Here, we have Z >>J0 and the free electron term becomes
predominantly real. This is a qualitative departure from Case 2,
which will radically change the metal’s response to EM waves. See
examples below and in Case 3.2.
60
Light reflection off mirrors & ultraviolet transparency of metals

Ne2 f 0
Rewrite H H b [(55)]
mZ 2
Let n0 Nf 0 be the free electron density in the conductor
(f 0 a 1, i.e. each atom in the conductor contains on average
approximately one free electron, see p. 312), we obtain
Z 2p
H Hb 2 H0 (56)
Z
where Z p is the plasma frequency of the conduction electrons
n0e2
Z 2p
m*H 0 >See bottom of p. 313.@ (57)
and we have replaced m in (7.51) with the effective mass m * of
the conduction electrons to account for the effects of binding.
For simplicity, we assume H b to be real by neglecting the weak
damping effects of bound electrons. 61

Z 2p
Sub. H H b 2 H 0 [(56)] into k PHZ [(16)], we obtain
Z
Z 2pH 0
k P (H b )Z (58)
Z2
Hence, depending on the value of Z , k is either real (propagatng
freely) or purely imaginary (cutoff to the wave, total reflection).
1. Cutoff regime : light reflection off mirrors
Z 2pH 0 H
(58) k i P( H b )Z i k , if Z H 0 Z p [cutoff regime]
Z 2
b
x Metal
E( z ) E0e e x E0e
ikz k z Free
°
ex H0 (59a)
® space (Z Z
Hb p )
H H k z
°H ( z ) e u E( z ) i P E0e
P z
ey evanescent (59b)
¯
fields
(27) H H i H 0
z
Question: The fields in (59) no longer represent a wave. Why?
62
H
Rewrite E( z ) E0e k z e x ; H( z ) i E e k ze y
P 0
[(59a,b)]
E(z), H (z) are evanescent "fringe fields" in the metal left behind
by a totally-reflected incident wave. It carries no power because
Re[E(z) u H*(z)] 0. This explains the "light reflection off mirrors".
In comparison, in microwave reflection off a good conductor
(Case 2), E(z) and H (z) are "wave fields" 45o out of phase. Hence,
Re[E(z) u H*(z)] z 0 There is power flowing into the conductor.
2. Propagating regime : ultraviolet transparency of metals
Z 2pH 0 x
Rewrite k P (H b ) Z [(58)] Free Metal
Z2 H
H
space (Z ! H 0 Z p )
k real, if Z ! H 0 Z p ª propagating º b
b ¬« regime ¼»
propagating
Thus, the wave can propagate without wave
attenuation inside the metal. This explains z
0
the "ultraviolet transparency of metals".
63
Case 3.2: Z>>Jj and Z >> Zj for all electrons in the medium,
applicable to X-ray frequencies and beyond
Under the conditions Z >>Jj (including J0) and Z >>Zj, we may
neglect Jj and Zj in (7.51),
2 f Ne2 f
H H 0 Ne ¦
j
i 0 (7.56)
m j (bound) Z 2j Z 2 iZ J j mZ ( J 0 iZ )

2
| 2 ( ¦ f j Z )
NZ e
Z 2 mZ
HH 1 2 ,
p j ( all )
(7.59)
0 Z
2 ª NZ is the density of all electrons º
where Z 2p { NZe
mH 0 «¬(bound and free) in the medium. ¼» (7.60)
64
Zp 2
Sub. HH 1 2 [(7.59)] into k PHZ and assume P P0 ,
0 Z
2
P
1/ c
Z 2p 2
we obtain k 2
PHZ 2
P0H 0 (1 )Z
Z2
Z2 k 2c 2 Z 2p (7.61)
Although (7.61) predicts evanescent fields Z
for Z Z p , the validity of (7.61) requires
Z J j , Z j for all electrons in the medium. Zp
This results in Z Z p , H | H 0 , and Z | kc. k
Thus, in this ultra-high-frequency regime, x
the wave can not only propagate freely, but
Free Any medium
also be 100% transmitted into the metal space (Z J j , Z j )
due to H | H 0 (good impedance match).
Case 3.2 above applies to both dielectric z
0
and conducting media. 65

Discussion :
(i) To see the physical reason why we may neglect collisions and
binding forces in (7.51) under the conditions Z J j and Z Z j ,
we go back to the eq. of motion for the electrons.
2
Rewrite m d 2 x(t ) eE(x, t ) J j m dt
d x(t ) mZ 2 x(t ) [(7.49)]
j
dt
Let x(t ) x0e iZt and E(x, t ) E(0)eiZt :
iZt iZt
x(t ) m e E(0)e v (t ) d x(t ) e iZE(0)e
Z 2j Z 2 iZJ j dt m Z 2 Z 2 iZJ (60)
j j
Thus, when Z J j and Z j , we have x v 12 and v v Z 1 (60c)
Z
For sufficiently large Z , the displacement (x) and velocity (v ) are
so small that the electrons are essentially stationary with negligible
binding force (mZ 2j x) and damping force ( J j mv ).
(ii) In deriving the generalized H , we have assumed x O [see (1)].
(60c) shows x O is even more valid for smaller O (or higher Z ).
66
(iii) Unattenuated propagation of X- and Ȗ-rays in materials in

Case 3.2 is a good approximation based on classical
electrodynamics. However, this is not quite true if we consider
complicated non-classical effects, such as absorption and
scattering of energetic photons by electrons in different quantum
states. These effects are in fact responsible for the detection of
metal objects by X-ray scanners.
67
Case 4 : Waves in Plasmas [Sec. 7.5, Part D]

The plasma is a partially ionized gas (e.g. ionosphere) or fully
ionized gas (e.g. fusion plasmas). In general, effects of neutral gas
(if present) and collisions can both be neglected. There is an equal
number of ions. At ufficiently high frequencies, the ions can be,
the ions can be assumed to be stationary (as is the case here). Thus,
N e 2 fj Ne2 f 0
H H0 ¦ i (7.56)
m j (bound) Z 2j Z 2 iZJ j mZ (J 0 iZ )

2
Ne f 0
negligible | (J 0 o0)
mZ 2
Z 2pªsame equation as (7.59) but with º
HH 1 «a much smaller Z than in (7.59) » (61)
0 Z2 ¬ p ¼
where Z p is the plasma frequency defined as
2 ª n Nf0 plasma electron density, normally º
Z 2p { Hnem «¬ much smaller than the density of solids. (62)
0 ¼» 68
H Z 2p
Sub. H 1 2 [(61)] into k PHZ , we obtain
0 Z 2
P
1/ c
Z 2p 2
k 2
PHZ P0H 0 (1 2 )Z (P P0 for plasmas)
2
Z
ªsame equation as (7.61) but º
Z 2 2 2
k c Z 2p « with an arbitrary and usually » (63)
« much smaller Z 2 »
¬ p ¼
(63) is the well known dispersion Z
relation for electromagnetic waves in a
plasma in the absence of an externally Zp
applied static magnetic field (Sec. 7.6 k
considers the dispersion relation for a magnetized plasma). When Ȧ
is extremely large (such as the gamma ray), all materials have a
dispersion relation given by (63) (Case 3.2). But for the plasma, (63)
is valid for all frequencies (e.g. MHz). 69
Rewrite Z 2 k 2c 2 Z 2p [(63)] Free

x
Plasma
1. Cutoff regime: Z < Z p k is purely space (Z Z p )
imaginary (k = i | k | ). Hence, E( z ), H ( z ) evanescent
are evanescent fields (not a wave) given by fields
z
0
H
E( z ) E0e k z e x ; H ( z ) i E e k z e y
P 0
[as in (59a,b)] (64)
An incident wave with Z < Z p will be totally reflected.
Reflections of "short
waves" (approx. 3-30 MHz)
off the ionospheric plasma
(F-layer, ~200 km above Waves enter
the earth surface) are into a plasma of
exploited for long-distance increasing Z p
communications. before it is totally
reflected.
70
2. Propagating regime: x
Rewrite Z 2 k 2c 2 Z 2p [(63)] Free Plasma
space (Z ! Z p )
Z >Z p k real.
The wave can propagate freely propagating
with v ph Z / k ! c [see (63)]. wave
z
0
Z 2p
Rewrite HH 1 [(61)]
0 Z2 refracted wave
For Z >Z p and P P0 , the plasma n <1
x
index of refraction is n 1
PH
n Re P H = HH < 1 incident wave (65)
0 0 0
This explains the gradual
bending of the (refracted) short
wave in the ionosphere before
it is totally reflected.
71
7.3 Reflection and Refraction of Electromagnetic

Waves at a Plane Interface Between Dielectrics
Model: z Ec Ec0eik cx iZt
ez B' P cH c k cuEc
kc
refracted wave
P'H'
P',H' [n' P0H 0 ] (to be determined)
x
PH
P ,H [n P0H 0 ]
E E0eik x iZt Ecc Ecc0eik ccx iZt

B PH kuE Bcc PH k ccuEcc
k
incident wave (a known k cc
reflected wave
linearly-polarized plane wave
(to be determined)
with a known incident angle i )
In (32), we have n { c Re PH index of refraction
° v P0H 0 > @
Note : ®
°Here, n { P H ª«
PH complex index of refraction (see p. 306, º
¯ 0 0 ¬ top). It is useful for algebraic analysis »
¼ 72
7.3 Reflection and Refraction… (continued)
Kinematic Properties : i.e. relations between the directions of
incident, reflected, and refracted waves
Consider, for example, the b.c. that E& is continuous at z 0,
ik x ik y ik cc x ik cc y ik c x ik c y
i.e. [E0e x y
Ecc0e x y
Ec0e x y
]u ez 0
To satisfy this condition at any x and y, we maust have
k x k xcc k xc and k y k ccy k cy
Otherwise, the only solution is E0 Ecc0 Ec0 0 because eik x x ,
c cc ik y ik c y ik cc y
eik x x , eik x x , e y , e y , e y are linearly independent functions.
Without loss of generality, we may choose a
z kc
coordinate system in which k y k ccy k cy 0. n
ez
Then, k , k cc, and k c all lie in the x-z plane, r
P',H'
which is called the plane of incidence. x
P ,H
The incident and reflected waves are in rc
the same medium. Hence, k k cc PHZ , k i kcc
but k and k cc are in different directions. 73
H , H c, P , P c, n, & nc are in general z kc

complex (p. 306, top). For kinematic e nz
properties, we assume they are all real P'H' r
P',H' [n' { P0H0 ]
numbers. x
PH
k k sin ie x k cos ie z P ,H [n { P0H0 ] rc
°
Let ®k cc k sin r ce x k cos r ce z k i kcc
°¯k c k c sin re x k c cos re z
°k PHZ Zn
c ªc 1 PH c P cH c º
with ® ,n P0H 0 , n P0H 0 »¼ .
Z nc «¬ P0H 0
°̄k c P cH cZ c
k xcc i r c (angle of incidence angle of reflection)

° x
k
Then, ® kc nc (Snell's law)
°̄k x k xc sin
sin i
r n (7.36)
k
74
Dynamic Properties : i.e. magnitude, phase, and polarization of
Ec0 & Ecc relative to the E0 (polarization is driection of E-feild).
For the study of dynamic properties, we assume H , H c, P , and
P c (hence n and nc) to be complex numbers and H and H c to be the
generalized electric permittivity. Hence, the results derived below
apply to any medium. It's impractical to assume the lower (incident)
medium to be a conductor, but a conducting upper medium is a case
of general interest, which will be considered as an example later.
Dynamic properties are contained in the z
field amplitudes: E0 , Ec0 , & Ecc0 , which obey P c, H c kc
x
the following b.c.'s at z 0 [same as (7.37)]: P,H k k cc
DA continuous [H E0 Ecc0 H cEc0 ] e z 0 (66)
°
° BA continuous [k u E0 k cc u Ecc0 k c u Ec0 ] e z 0 (67)
® E continuous [E Ecc Ec ] u e 0 (68)
° & 0 0 0 z
° H & continuous [ 1 (k u E0 k cc u Ecc0 ) 1 (k c u Ec0 )] u e z 0 (69)
¯ P Pc 75

Case 1: E0 A plane of incidence (x -z plane) z
k k xe x k z e z ez
°
®k c k xe x k zc e z P '
P',H' [n' { P H ] H ' (70)
°¯k cc k xe x k z e z 0 0
x
PH
E0 E0e y P ,H [n { P H ]
0 0
°
®Ec0 E0c e y " u " implies a direction (71)
°Ecc E cce pointing into paper.
¯ 0 0 y
Note :1. In (70), (71), k , k c, k cc, E0 , Ec0 , and Ecc0 are based on their
"reference directions" specified in the above figure.
2. Reference directions are often needed to apply certain laws, e.g.
i1
i3 i2 i1 i2 i3 0 If i1 i2 1 A, then i3 2 A
i3
i1
i2 i1 i2 i3 0 If i1 i2 1 A, then i3 2A
In these 2 figures, reference directions are specified differently, but
the law of conservation of charge gives the same physical results. 76
[H (E0 Ecc0 ) H cEc0 ] e z 0 [(66)] is satisfied ( ' E0 , Ecc0 , Ec0 A e z ).
Rewrite the b.c. [E0 Ecc0 Ec0 ] u e z 0 [(68)]
E0 E0cc E0c 0 [also given by b.c. (67)] (72)
Rewrite the b.c. [ P1 k u E0 k cc u Ecc0 P1c k c u Ec0 ] u e z 0 [(69)]
P1 k x E0e z k z E0e x u e z P1 k x E0cce z k z E0cce x u e z
P1c k x E0c e z k zc E0c e x u e z 0 P1 k z E0 E0cc P1c k zc E0c 0
kz k cos i Z n cos i
Pn E0 E0cc cos i Pncc E0c cos r
c
0 k zc k c cos r Z nc cos r (73)
c
E0c 2n cos i
° E0 P
n cos i P c nc2 n 2 sin 2 i
(72) ½ °° ª For E0 A plane º
¾ ® P (7.39)
(73) ¿ ° Ecc n cos i P c nc2 n 2 sin 2 i «¬of incidence »¼
0
° E0 P
°̄ n cos i P c nc2 n 2 sin 2 i 77

Case 2: E0 & plane of incidence (x -z plane)
z
k k sin ie x cos ie z
°
®k c k c sin re x cos re z ez (74)
°k cc k cc sin ie cos ie P c, H c, nc
¯ x z x
E0 E0 cos ie x sin ie z P , H , n
°
®Ec0 E0c cos re x sin re z (75)
°Ecc Ecc cos ie sin ie " x " implies
¯ 0 0 x z
pointing out
Similarly, sub. (74)-(75) into b.c.'s (66)-(69) yields of paper.
E0c 2nnc cos i
° E0 P 2 ª Note: Components º
c c «of k , k c, k cc, E0 , Ec0 , »
P c n cos i n n n sin i
2 2 2
°
° «& Ecc in (74),(75) are »
® P 2 « 0 » (7.41)
° E0cc P c nc cos i n nc n sin i «
2 2 2 specified by the »
°E P 2 « reference directions »
°̄ 0 P c nc cos i n nc n sin i ¬in the above figure. ¼
2 2 2
Note : (7.39) and (7.41) apply to complex H , P , and n (p. 306, top) 78
Normal incidence (i 0) : Cases 1& 2 are identical. (7.39) reduces to
E0c 2 2n z
o (76a)
° E0 PH c P P c n nc
° 1 P cH e z
°
® PH c (7.42),P sign P c, H c, nc x
° E0cc 1 P cH P ,H , n
o n nc (76b)
° E0 PH c P P c n nc reference reference
°̄ 1 P cH direction direction
and (7.41) reduces to same results*
z
E0c 2 2 n
° E0 o n n (77a)
PH c P P c c ez
° P cH 1 P c, H c, nc
° (7.42), sign P , H , n x
® PH c P
° E0cc P cH 1
° E0 o ncn reference reference (77b)
PH c P P c nc n direction direction
°̄ P cH 1
*For i 0, reference directions of E0 & Ecc0 are the same for (76b)
and opposite for (77b). Hence, (76b) & (77b) should differ by a sign. 79

Reflectance and transmittance [for normal incidence (i 0)] :
Either Case 1 or Case 2 applies. Define a reflection coefficient (*):
PH c ª Note : For normal incidence, (76b) and (77b) º
E0cc 1 P cH «differ only by a sign due to opposite reference »
* (78)
E0 PH c «directions. Here we use (76b), for which E0 »
1 P cH « »
¬and Ecc0 have the same reference direction. ¼
z P
reflected power (Pr ) * 2 [reflectance] P c, H c t
° incident power (Pin ) P ,H
x
® (79)
transmitted power (Pt ) 2
° 1 * [transmittance]
¯ incident power (Pin ) Pin Pr
* is applicable to all materials if we use the generalized H (or H c) :
V n0e2 ª(7.58) º
H H b i Z [(7.56)] with V
m(J 0 iZ ) «¬ n0 : free electron density »¼
n e2
Define V DC m0J [DC conductivity, values given in handbooks]
0
V DC
H Hb i [applicable to all materials at any Z ]
Z (1i JZ ) 80
0
Example : Normal incidence of a wave from free space to copper
°H b | H 0 ; P | P0 ; J 0 | 4 u 1013/s [p. 312]
For copper, ® 1
°̄V DC 5.9 u 10 (ȍm) [handbook value]
7
V DC 5.9u107
H c Hb i | H i [for copper at any Z ] (80)
Z (1i JZ ) 0 Z (1i Z 13 )
0 4u10
1 1 i 5.9u107 ªfor a wave incident º

Hc H 0Z (1i Z 13 ) «along e from free »
E0cc 1 H 0 4u10
* | z
«space to copper »
E0 1 H c 5.9u107
H0 1 1 i « »
H 0Z (1i Z 13 ) ¬at any Z ¼
4u10
H c H 0 i 5.9u10Z
7
Below we plot and interpret the
Z (1i )
reflectance ( *
2
Pr / Pin ) and the P c P0 z 4u1013
2 Pt
transmittance (1 * Pt / Pin ) as a copper
x
function of f ( Z / 2S ) over a broad free space
range of f (1 Hz o 1024 Hz). P0 ,H 0 Pr
Pin 81
Taken from M. K. Shen and K. R. Chu, Am. J. Phys. 82, 110 (2014)
2
[(77b) is used for * in this paper, which gives the same * .]
2
In the "good conductor" regime (Sec. 3, Case 2), * | 1, but there
2
is still some absorption (given by 1 * ). Copper absorbs 50 times
more IR radiation (1012-14 Hz) than 2.45 GHz P -waves. This is why
walls of a P -wave oven are much cooler than a conventional oven. 82
f( Z ) 6.4 u 1012 Hz H | H 2.36u1021 H (1 6.8u1030 )

2S 0
Z2 0
f2
H 0, if f 2.6 u 1015 Hz "light-reflection-off-mirror" regime
®
¯H ! 0, if f ! 2.6 u 10 Hz "transparency-of-metal" regime
15
83
In the "light-reflection-off-mirror" regime (Sec. 3, Case 3.1), theory

predicts total reflection if copper had no loss, and there is evanescent
fields inside copper. In reality, copper has a very small resistivity. This
results in 0.5% absorption of the evanescent fields by copper.
84
In the "transparency-of-metal" regime (Sec. 3, Cases 3.1 and 3.2)

applicable to ultraviolet waves, X-rays, and J -rays, theory predicts
almost total transmission. However, the small difference in H between
the two media results in a negligibly small reflection.
85

Problem 1 : Show that, in the above example, the high reflectance
in the good-conductor regime is due to a poor impedance match.
P
In terms of the impedance : Z H [(29)], we obtain from (76b)
PH c Ec( z ) E0c eik cz e x
E0cc 1 P cH z
* transmitted wave
E0 PH c Zc
1 P cH x
Z 0
Pc P
Hc H Z c Z incident wave reflected wave
(81)
Pc P Z c Z E( z ) E0eikz e x Ecc( z ) E0cce ikz e x
Hc H
Cu at 10 GHz : Z c Z s (0.026 i 0.026) : [(53a)]
Impedance of ®
¯free space : Z Z 0 376.7 : [(30)]
a poor impedance match between copper and free space.
* | 1 (or E0cc | E0 ) Most of the incident E is reflected with
a phase reversal of Ecc at z 0 , i.e. Ecc( z 0 ) | E( z 0 ) (82)
Note : Ecc and E have the same reference direction: e x . 86
Problem 2 : We find in Problem 1 that, due to a poor impedance
match, almost all of the incident wave (from free space to copper) is
reflected at z 0 with a phase transmitted
z
reversal of the reflected wave,
copper Ec( z 0 )
i.e. Ecc( z 0 ) | E( z 0 ). <
<
< x
free space 0
Give a physical interpretation E( z 0 ) Ecc( z 0 )
in terms of Faraday's law. incident reflected
f z
Rewrite (45) : K eff ³0 J ( z )dz e z u H (0) [J ( z ) V Ec( z ) v e G ]
By Faraday's law, K eff is to shield the conductor from a time-
varying H by causing an exponential decay of H at z t 0 [discussed
below (45)]. Since V (z t 0) is very large, only a small Ec(z t 0) is
required to drive K eff to the value in (45). The result in Exercise 1
(Ecc | E at z 0 ) implies a small net E-field at z 0 . Since the
net E at z 0 is & the z 0 plane, where J (z 0) z f ( 'V z f), it
is continuous across z 0. Thus, Ec(z 0 ) is also small, as required.
87
7.4. Polarization by Reflection and Total

Internal Reflection
Brewster's Angle iB (for E0 & plane of incidence): Rewrite (7.41)
z
E0c 2nnc cos i
°E P 2 ez
°° 0 Pc
nc cos i n nc2 n 2 sin 2 i
P c, H c
x
® P 2 P, H
° E0cc Pc
°E P 2
°̄ 0 Pc
Assume H , H c, P , P c, n, and nc are all real and P P c. (7.41) gives
E0cc 0 (no reflected wave) if i iB , where iB satisfies
nc2 cos iB n nc2 n 2 sin 2 iB (83)
Hence, for incident waves with mixed polarization (e.g. sunlight),
only the portion with E0 A x-z plane is reflected and the reflected Ecc0
is A x-z plane. This is a way to produce linearly-polarized waves.
88
7.4. Polarization by Reflection and Total Internal Reflection (continued)
Calculation of iB :
Rewrite nc2 cos iB n nc2 n 2 sin 2 iB [(83)]
nc4 cos 2 iB n 2 (nc2 n 2 sin 2 iB )
nc4 (1 sin 2 iB ) n 2 nc2 n 4 sin 2 iB
(n 4 nc4 ) sin 2 iB nc2 (n 2 nc2 )
sin 2 iB nc2 z
Refracted wave
n2 nc2
tan iB nnc kc (7.43)
nc
Typical example : x
n k iB iB k cc
iB 56o if nnc 1.5
Incident wave Reflected wave
ª mixed polarization º ªlinearly polaried º
nc «¬E0 A and & x-z plane »¼ «¬ E0 A x-z plane »¼
iB
n 89

Total Internal Reflection : z
Assume (i) real H , H c, P , P c, n, & nc; (ii) n ! nc r
P c H c c kc
k k sin ie x k cos ie z , ,n x
Let ® P , H ,n
c c c
¯k k sin re x k cos re z k i k cc
1 nc
Define i0 (critical angle) sin n [ 2 , ' n 1] S nc i
surface wave
Then, sin i nnc [(7.36)] sin r sin i (not shown)
sin r sin i0 light
If i ! i0 , we have sin r sin i ! 1 air drop
water
total
sin i0
internal
cos r [1 sin 2 r ]1/ 2 i[( sin i )2 1]1/ 2 reflection
sin i0 rainbow
k c k c sin re x k c cos re z k c sin i e x i k c[( sin i ) 2 1]1/ 2 e z (84)
sin i sin i0

0
a more convenient form

{ k xc { k zc
or k c k xc e x ik zc e z real and positive (85)
k c[( sin i )2 1]1/ 2 z ik c sin i x ªsurface º
e ik cx
e k zc z eik xc x e sin i0
e sin i0
¬« wave ¼» (7.46)
90
Determination of Ec0 and Bc0 of the refracted surface wave :
Rewrite k c k xc e x ik zc e z z refracted (85)
c c c
where k xc k c sin i and k zc k c[( sin i ) 2 1]1/ 2 P c, H c k ,E0 ,B0 x
sin i0 sin i0 P,H
are real and positive numbers. inci. refl.
Note : k c in (85) satisfies k c k c k xc2 k zc2 k c2 P cH cZ 2 [(16)]

To determine Ec0 and Bc0 , we consider the case of Ec0 & x -z plane.
Let Ec0 E0c xe x iE0c z e z (86)
Ec k zc
Then, k c Ec0 0 [(17)] k xc E0c x E0c z k zc 0 E0c x (87)
0z k xc
Since k xc and k zc in (87) are real and positive, we may let E0c x and
E0c z be real and positive without loss of generality (field amplitudes
are relative).
k cuEc0 k c Ec k c Ec
Bc0 P cH c [(19)] Bc0 i x 0 zZ z 0 x e y (88)
kc
(85), (86), (88) are in exactly the same form as constructed in (23).
91
7.8 Superposition of Waves in One Dimension; Group Velocity

Superposition of 2 Waves: Consider 2 waves (Fig. 1), cos(Z1t k1x)
and cos(Z2t k2 x), in a dispersive medium characterized by Z Z (k ).
Z Z
Assume Z1 | Z2 and k1 | k2 , then k1 | k 2 is approximately the phase
1 2
velocity (v ph ) of the superposed wave (see Fig.2). The difference in
wavelengths results in alternating regions of constructive/destructive
interferences, or spatial modulations of the superposed wave (Fig. 2).
As the 2 waves propagate with different phase velocities, regions
of constructive interference (which carry the field energy) will also
propagate with at a velocity called the group velocity (vg ).
cos(Z1t k1 x ) o
Fig. 1
cos(Z2t k2 x ) o
constructive destructive
o vg interference p interference
^cos(Z1t k1 x)
cos(Z2t k2 x)
o

v
o
ph
p
Fig. 2
92
7.8 Superposition of Waves in One Dimension; Group Velocity (continued)
The above qualitative picture can be analyzed as follows.

cos(Z1t k1x) cos(Z2t k2 x)
Z Z2 k1 k2 Z Z k k
2cos( 1 2 t
2
x) cos( 1 2 2 t 1 2 2 x)
constructive destructive
Z1 Z2 k1 k2 o vg interference p interference
| 2cos( 2 t 2 x) cos(Zt kx), p

(A) (B)

v
o
ph
Fig. 2
Z1 Z2 k1 k2
where Z 2 | Z1 | Z2 and k 2 1
|k | k2 .
Factor (A) is the envelope function of the modulated wave (Fig. 2),
which divides the wave into packets, each propagating at the speed:
Z1 Z2
Z1 Z2 dZ ªgroup velocity : speed º
vg 2
k1 k2 k1 k2
| dk «¬of energy transport »¼
2
Factor (B) gives the phase speed of the wave within each packet:
v Z [phase velocity]
ph k 93
Superposition of an Infinite Number of Waves :

When an infinite number of waves are superposed, interferences
can result in cancellation everywhere except for a region of finite
length called a wave packet, a pulse, or a wave train.
94
Consider an infinite number of waves in k -space centered around

k0 with a spread of 'k (see Fig. 4). Assume they are destructively
superposed in x-space everywhere except for a region of length 'x.
A wave packet is thus formed in the region (see Fig. 3).
Assume that k and Z (k ) are
both real (no dissipation). We can
construct a wave packet by a linear
superposition of waves of different k .
1 f A( k )eikx iZ ( k )t dk
u ( x, t ) ³
2S f
(7.80)
If the field profile at t 0 is
1 f A( k )eikx dk .
u ( x,0) ³
2S f
1 f u ( x,0)e ikx dx,
Thus, A(k ) ³
2S f
(7.81)
In general, 'x'k t 12 [see example in (94)] (7.82)
95
Expand Z (k ) about k0 Plasma: Example of

Z
Z (k ) Z (k0 ) dZ (k k0 ) ... a dispersive medium
N dk k0
Z0
| Z0 vg (k k0 ), (7.83)
Zp
where vg { dZ k0
(7.86)
dk k0 k
1 f A( k )eikx iZ ( k )t dk
Sub. (7.83) into u ( x, t ) ³
2S f
(7.80)
i ( k0 vg Z0 )t f ik ( x vg t )
u ( x, t ) | e 1
³ A(k )e dk (7.84)
2S f

ª In u ( x,0) 1
³
f
f
A( k )eikx dk [(57)], º
u ( x v g t ,0) « 2S »
¬« change x to x vg t ¼»
i ( k0 vg Z0 )t
u ( x vg t ,0)e (7.85)
(7.85) represents a wave packet propagating at vg with its shape
unchanged in time [ ' high order terms in (7.83) are neglected]. 96
Discussion :
(i) The pulse shape give by (7.85) is undistorted in time. However, if
high order terms (e.g. d Z2 ) are included in the expansion of Z ( k )
2
dk
[(7.83)], the pulse will broaden with time. Z Plasma
Reason: d Z2 z 0 d vg z 0 Waves with
2
dk dk
Zp
different k travel at different vg . k
Example : A light pulse consists of a continuous distribution of
frequencies. When it propagates in glass, we have vg (red) ! vg (blue)
ªfrom º
« Del Mar »
«¬ Photonics »¼
(ii) 'k 'x t 12 [(7.82)] A shorter pulse has a greater spread in k

(and vg ). Hence, it broadens faster than a longer pulse.
(iii) A pulse in vacuum remains undistorted (Z kc d Z2 0).
2
dk 97
7.9 Illustration of the Spreading of a Pulse as It

Propagates in a Dispersive Medium
Here, we give an analytical treatment of the wave packet including
the effect of pulse broadening.
Rigorously, the real quantity u ( x, t ), which we expressed in (7.80)
f ikx iZ ( k )t
as u ( x, t ) 1
2S
³f A(k )e dk , should be written:
f ikx iZ ( k )t complex
u ( x, t ) 1 1
³f A(k )e dk c.c. c.c. conjugate (7.90)
2 2S
u ( x, t ) 1 1 ³ f A(k )eikx iZ ( k )t dk 1 1 ³ f A * (k )eikx iZ ( k )t dk
° 2 2S f 2 2S f
°w
iZ (k ) A(k )eikx iZ ( k )t dk Assume Z* Z
f
® u ( x, t ) 1 1 ³f
wt 2 2S
° f ikx iZ ( k )t
and k * k , i.e.
°
¯
21 1
³ iZ (k ) A * (k )e
2S f
dk no dissipation
Note: A(k ) is not the Fourier transform of u ( x, t ) because, in (7.90),
ikx iZ ( k )t
e is not of the simple eikx form. Hence, the "realty condition"
A(k ) A * ( k ) [see Sec. 2.8 of lecture notes] is not applicable here.
98
7.9 Illustration of the Spreading of a Pulse… (continued)
u ( x,0) 1 1 f [ A( k )eikx dk A * ( k )e ikx ]

° 2 ³
2S f
At t 0:®
w 1 1 f [iZ ( k ) A( k )eikx iZ ( k ) A ( k )e ikx ]dk
°̄ wt u ( x,0) 2 2S ³f
where wwt u ( x,0) w u ( x, t ) . We may evaluate A(k ) as follows:

wt t 0
ik cx 1 1 f f [ A( k )ei ( k k c) x A * (k )ei ( k k c) x ]dkdx
f
³f e u ( x,0) dx 2 2S ³f ³f
1 f ei ( k k c) x dx G (k k c); 1 f e i ( k k c) x dx G (k k c) [Ch. 2]
2S ³f 2S ³f
2S
2
[ A(k c) A * ( k c)] (92)
Similarly,
f ik cx w
³f e u ( x,0)dx 2S
[iZ (k c) A(k c) i Z ( k c) A ( k c)] (93)
wt 2
(93) Assume isotropic medium

(92) iZ ( k c) to eliminate A * ( k c)
Z ( k c) Z (k c)
A(k ) 1 f e ikx [u ( x,0) Z (ik ) wwt u ( x,0)]dx
³
2S f
(7.91)
where we have changed the notation k c to k . 99
u ( x,0) exp( x2 ) cos k x u ( x,0)

(7.92)
° 2L 2 0
Example : ® x
w u ( x,0)[ w u ( x, t )
°̄ wt wt t 0
] 0 L
(7.93)
A(k ) 1 f e ikx[u ( x,0) i w u ( x,0) ]dx [(7.91)]

2S ³f Z (k ) wt
1 f e ikx e x 2 / 2 L2 cos k xdx
2S ³f
A( k )
0
backward forward
L2 ( k k )2 L2 ( k k )2 branch branch
L [e 2 0
e 2 0
] o 'k m o 'k m (7.94)
2 k
A(k ) has 2 branches, each with a k0 0 k0
Gaussian profile of width 'k given by 'k L 1. Since the pulse

width 'x L, we have 'k 'x 1 [in agreement with (7.82)] (94)
Assume Z ( k ) Q [1 a k ] ªdispersion relation º
2 2
(7.95)
2 «¬of the medium »¼
d v g d Z2 Q a 2 z 0 v g is a function of k .
2
dk dk
Pulse broadening is expected, as shown on next page. 100
1 f A(k )eikx iZ ( k )t dk c.c. [(7.90)]
2 2S ³f
Rewrite u ( x, t )
1 Re f ikx iZ ( k )t
u ( x, t ) ³f A(k )e dk
2S
(7.94) o
L2 ( k k )2 L2 ( k k )2 ikx iQ t (1 a2 k 2 )
f
(7.95) L Re [e 2
³f
0
e 2 0
]e 2 dk
2 2S
1 ( x Q a 2 k 0t ) 2 a 2 k02 ½
° 1
exp[ 2Q t ] exp[ik 0 x Q
i (1
2
)t ]°
°
1 Re (1 ia Q t ) 2
2 2 L (1 2 )
2 ia °
2 ® L 2 L n ¾ (7.98)
° a wave packet propagating forward °
°¯ (k0 o k0 ) m a wave packet propagating backward °¿
It can be shown that the k0 L 1 k0 L d 1
spatial width of the pulse is
given by [see (7.99)]:
xo xo
L(t ) [ L ( a LQ t ) 2 ]2 ,
2 1
2
vg t vg t
which increases with t .
101
Appendix A. t-space and Z-space

E Z f iZt
³f E t e dt (A.1)
°
° 1 f E Z e iZt d Z
®E t 2S ³f
°
1 f ªE Z e iZt E Z eiZt º d Z
2S ³0 ¬
° ¼ (A.2)
¯
Note: If E t is real (a physical quantity in t -space must be
a real quantity), then,
E Z E Z (A.3)
102
Appendix A. t-space and Z-space (continued)
phase constant
Example 1: E t E0 cos(Z
t T) (A.4)
a single-frequency amplitude phase angle
real quantity (real vector)
f iZt
Sub. (A.4) into E Z ³f E t e dt
E Z c ³f E0 cos Zt T eiZ ct dt
f
1 f [E eiT ei Z cZ t E e iT ei Z cZ t ]dt

2 ³f 0 0
S [EZG Z c Z EZ G Z c Z ]
where EZ { E0e iT (A.5)
f iZ ct
(A.2) E t 1 S
2S ³f Z
[E G Z c Z EZG Z c Z ]e dZ c
1 [E e iZt E eiZt ] Re[E e iZt ] (A.6)
2 Z Z Z
In linear equations, we may omit the "Re" sign and write (A.6) as
E t EZ e iZt ( LHS Re[RHS]) (A.7) 103
Rewrite E t EZ eiZt ( LHS Re[RHS]) (A.7)

Thus, by writing E t E0 cos Zt T as E t EZ eiZt . We
have entered from the t -space into the Z -space. Equations derived
by using (A.7) are thus Z -space equations, e.g.
DZ H EZ [derived in Sec. I of the main text] (A.8)
E0 in (A.4) is a real t -space quantity. EZ ( E0e iT ) in (A.4) is
a complex Z -space quantity and is called a phasor.
To convert a phasor back into the t -space, we multiply it by
iZt
e and take the real part [as shown in (A.6)]. Thus
Dt Re[DZ e iZt ] Re[H EZ eiZt ]
Re[ H eiM E0eiT eiZt ] H E0 cos Zt T M (A.9)
Note : The "linear" relation in (A.8) and (A.9) means the relative
amplitude, phase, and direction between D and E are indep. of the
absolute amplitudes of D and E, either in Z -space or t -space.
104
Discussion :
(i) A complex number carries twice the information as a real
number, e.g. E0 in (A.4) gives the amplitude of E t , whereas
EZ ( E0eiT ) in (A.7) gives both the amplitude and phase
angle of E t . Hence, the algebra is simpler in the Z -space.
This is the reason why we often work in the Z -space.
(ii) In (A.8), DZ and EZ are phasors. But H [derived in (7.51)] is
a complex number derived in the Z -space. It is not a phasor.
Hence, Re[H eiZt ] is not a corresponding t -space quantity.
(iii) The same mathematics can be found in circuit theory:
ªV , I D, E º
V IZ in circuit theory D H E here « »
¬ Z H ¼
105
Example 2: a rotating vector

E t E0 cos Zte x sin Zte y (A.10)
Following the same procedure leading to (A.6), we obtain
iS
E t Re[( E0e x E0e 2 e y )e iZt ]
Re[EZ e iZt ] (A.11)
where EZ { E 0 (e x ie y ) (A.12)
106
Discussion:
Examining the phasors EZ { E0eiT (A.5) and EZ { E 0 (e x ie y )
(A.12), we find that the phasor, an Ȧ-space quantity, may or may
not have a clear geometric direction. For example, EZ in (A.5) has
the same geometric direction as E0 , but EZ in (A.12) does not
have a clear geometric direction. The reason is that, in the time
space, E(t ) E0 (cos Zte x sin Zte y ) has a geometric direction
which rotates with time. When E(t) is transformed into the Ȧ-
space, in which t is no longer a variable, we obtain a phasor EZ
without a clear geometric direction.
107
Appendix B. Electrical Conductivity of Metals

The current density J at any point in a conductor is given by
J (t ) n0 ev (t ),
where n0 is the free electron density, and their velocity v obeys
dv (t )
m eE(x,t ) mJ 0 v(t ) [J 0 : average collision frequency]
dt
Assume the electron displacement is too small see the x-variaton
of E(x,t ). Hence, E(x,t ) | E0 eiZt . Let
°E(t ) ½° °E0 °½ iZt
® v (t ) ¾ ® v 0 ¾ e imZ v 0 eE0 mJ 0 v 0
°¯J (t ) °¿ °¯J 0 °¿
v0 e E0 J 0 n0 ev 0
n0e2
E
m(J 0 iZ ) m(J 0 iZ ) 0
J 0 V E0
n0e2
where V { [electrical conductivity]
m(J 0 iZ )
With n0 replaced with f 0 N , this is the same V as in (7.58). 108

Chapter 7: Plane Electromagnetic Waves and Wave Propagation: An Historical Perspective

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Chapter 7: Plane Electromagnetic Waves and Wave Propagation: An Historical Perspective

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Chapter 7: Plane Electromagnetic Waves

and Wave Propagation

Radio wave: 3u103–3u1011 Hz Visible: 4.3u1014–7.9u1014 Hz

Hertz discovered radio waves; Einstein's

1791 1831 1865 1879 1887 1905

 Oscillations require ^energy storing mechanisms

LC oscillator B2 , H E 2 Q, I L, C , & wire

EM wave B2 , H E 2 dB , dE not required

Organization of Lecture Notes on Ch. 7:

I. Derivation of the Generalized Dielectric Constant H /H0 (continued)

of the order of O E(0) if Ox  1

where O is the scale length of E(x). For example, if E(x) is a wave

Let x(t ) x0 e iZt and substitute

I. Derivation of the Generalized Dielectric Constant H /H0 (continued)

­E(x, t ) E(0)eiZt ­x m e E(0)

I. Derivation of the Generalized Dielectric Constant H /H0 (continued)

f Ne2 ª Drude model for the electrical º

I. Derivation of the Generalized Dielectric Constant H /H0 (continued)

Hb due to free e's

Let H H c  iH cc [H c Re(H ), H cc Im(H )]. From (7.56), we see

I. Derivation of the Generalized Dielectric Constant H /H0 (continued)

z H E(t ) [E(t ) 21S ³f E(Z )e iZt d Z ]

1 f D(Z )e iZt d Z 1 f H (Z )E(Z )e iZt d Z

 In t -space, we have a static D given by

I. Derivation of the Generalized Dielectric Constant H /H0 (continued)

(vii) Let E (Z ) be a signal with Z Zs r 'Z. Assume H (Z ) E (Z )

This explains the assumption made on p. 259 : "The macroscopic

I. Derivation of the Generalized Dielectric Constant H /H0 (continued)

II. Plane Wave Equations in Dielectrics and Conductors… (continued)

Assumption 2 : Linear and isotropic medium, i.e.

II. Plane Wave Equations in Dielectrics and Conductors… (continued)

II. Plane Wave Equations in Dielectrics and Conductors… (continued)

Assumption 3 : Uniform medium (i.e. H , P independent of x)

Question: What information have we lost in Assumption 4? 25

II. Plane Wave Equations in Dielectrics and Conductors… (continued)

­k PHZ (dispersion relation) [(16)]

II. Plane Wave Equations in Dielectrics and Conductors… (continued)

(iv) Under Assumptions 1 and 4, the fields (  e iZt ikx ) form a

Type 2. Inhomogeneous plane wave (surface wave) :

II. Plane Wave Equations in Dielectrics and Conductors… (continued)

(v) Orthogonality of vectors k , E0 , and B 0 in (17)-(19)

II. Plane Wave Equations in Dielectrics and Conductors… (continued)

(vi) k  E0 0 does not necessarily imply k  E 0 0.

Thus, at this point, the k  E 0 term must be kept in (20a,b). 32

Assumption 5 : k kn (kr  iki )n k : complex constant

­n  E0 0 (16), (25)-(27) here are equivalent to (25)

and k  E0 0  k  E 0 0.  The Poynting vector [(20)] reduces to

S 1 Re H 2 2 ki nx Exercise : Show

k k xe x  ik z e z has no geometrical direction, but k ( kr  iki )n

II. Plane Wave Equations in Dielectrics and Conductors… (continued)

Definition of impedance and admittance of the medium :

Note: Z and Y are intrinsic properties of the medium.

III. Properties of Plane Waves in Dielectrics and

Below, on the basis of these equations, we consider 4 radically

III. Properties of Plane Waves in Dielectrics and Conductors (continued)

Case 1: Waves in a Dielectric Medium

Properties of H : negligible ( ' f0 0 or | 0)

These 2 terms are equal [ ' B0 PH n u E0 (27)].

(7.13), (7.14)  S t  n u 1 ( 1 c in free space)

III. Properties of Plane Waves in Dielectrics and Conductors (continued)

where E has a fixed direction (linearly polarized). E0e x

Two linearly polarized waves can be combined to give

III. Properties of Plane Waves in Dielectrics and Conductors (continued)

Oscillations require ^energy storing mechanisms

of the order of O E(0) if Ox 1

Let x(t ) x0 e iZt and substitute

E(x, t ) E(0)eiZt x m e E(0)

Let H H c iH cc [H c Re(H ), H cc Im(H )]. From (7.56), we see

z H E(t ) [E(t ) 21S ³f E(Z )e iZt d Z ]

1 f D(Z )e iZt d Z 1 f H (Z )E(Z )e iZt d Z

In t -space, we have a static D given by

k PHZ (dispersion relation) [(16)]

(iv) Under Assumptions 1 and 4, the fields ( e iZt ikx ) form a

(vi) k E0 0 does not necessarily imply k E 0 0.

Thus, at this point, the k E 0 term must be kept in (20a,b). 32

Assumption 5 : k kn (kr iki )n k : complex constant

n E0 0 (16), (25)-(27) here are equivalent to (25)

and k E0 0 k E 0 0. The Poynting vector [(20)] reduces to

S 1 Re H 2 2 ki nx Exercise : Show

k k xe x ik z e z has no geometrical direction, but k ( kr iki )n

(7.13), (7.14) S t n u 1 ( 1 c in free space)

where we have used k 1Gi [(40] and H V 1 i [(39)].

Question 1: G PVZ G sea water (at f

Rewrite Z 2 k 2c 2 Z 2p [(63)] Free

E E0eik x iZt Ecc Ecc0eik ccx iZt

k xcc i r c (angle of incidence angle of reflection)

1 1 i 5.9u107 ªfor a wave incident º

f( Z ) 6.4 u 1012 Hz H | H 2.36u1021 H (1 6.8u1030 )

Note : k c in (85) satisfies k c k c k xc2 k zc2 k c2 P cH cZ 2 [(16)]

(A) (B)

(ii) 'k 'x t 12 [(7.82)] A shorter pulse has a greater spread in k

u ( x,0) 1 1 f [ A( k )eikx dk A * ( k )e ikx ]

u ( x,0) exp( x2 ) cos k x u ( x,0)

A(k ) 1 f e ikx[u ( x,0) i w u ( x,0) ]dx [(7.91)]

Gaussian profile of width 'k given by 'k L 1. Since the pulse

1 f [E eiT ei Z cZ t E e iT ei Z cZ t ]dt