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Dynamic process intensification
Michael Baldea1,3 and Thomas F Edgar1,2
Most process intensification research and its applications have
focused on process and equipment design modifications. In
this paper, we present an overview of existing developments
and opportunities in dynamic process intensification (DI), which
comprises changes to dynamics, operational and control of a
chemical process, that result in substantial efficiency
improvements. After reviewing a series of examples, we identify
several fundamental principles underlying DI, including
equipment design and operational approaches. We conclude
with a number of challenges and opportunities related to DI
system design, operation and control, and fault detection and
isolation.
Addresses
1
McKetta Dept. of Chemical Engineering, The University of Texas at
Austin, Austin, TX 78712, United States
2
Energy Institute, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712,
United States
3
Institute for Computational Engineering and Sciences, The University of
Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712, United States
Corresponding author: Baldea, Michael (mbaldea@che.utexas.edu)
Current Opinion in Chemical Engineering 2018, 22:48–53
This review comes from a themed issue on Process systems engi-
neering: advanced manufacturing
Edited by Karen Fletcher, Jim Bielenberg, Mahmoud El-Hawlwagi
and Ka Ming Ng
For a complete overview see the Issue
Available online 5th October 2018
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coche.2018.08.003
2211-3398/ã 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Introduction
Process intensification is defined as ‘any chemical engi-
neering development that leads to a substantially smaller,
cleaner and more energy-efficient technology’ [1]. While
this definition has been interpreted relatively broadly
[2,3], to date, most developments in this field have been
at the design level, focusing on new process and/or device
configurations. Such systems typically bring together
multiple phenomena (usually associated with individual
unit operations) and seek to minimize transport limita-
tions, such that processes are governed by their intrinsic
rates. Further, it is typical for such systems to be operated
at steady state, largely due to the fact that this approach to
intensification leads to a loss of degrees of freedom
available for control [4].
Current Opinion in Chemical Engineering 2018, 22:48–53
We posit that intensification can also be achieved by
making operational and control changes to a process
(whether conventional or intensified by design). In this
context, we define dynamic process intensification (DI) as
‘any change to the dynamics, operation strategy and/or control of
a conventional or intensified system, that leads to a substantially
more efficient processing path.’ [5].
The purpose of this article is to systematically review
existing DI approaches, define future directions and
research targets, as well as potential challenges and road-
blocks to achieve them. A set of structural/operational
process features and elements of DI will be identified,
which will then serve to construct a taxonomy of pro-
cesses and technologies that fall within the realm of DI.
Motivating examples
The focus of this paper is on continuous (rather than
batch) processing, implying that the product(s) must be
made in a continuous stream. Thus, the dynamically
intensified processes considered here operate in a peri-
odic/cyclical fashion. They reach a periodic steady state
which, on the average, corresponds to the desired produc-
tion rate(s) and/or product quality. To achieve this, a
storage ‘buffer’ may be required to attenuate any fluctua-
tions in these performance indicators that are associated
with the periodic operations. Further, it is expected that
some figure of merit (e.g. energy use per unit product) is,
all other things being equal, better for the dynamically
intensified process than for a conventional process of
equal capacity, if the latter exists. We begin with review-
ing existing dynamically intensified systems and subse-
quently use this information to extract some generic
features of DI systems.
Periodic operation of continuous chemical reactors
The possibility of improving the performance of reaction
systems via periodic variation of operating conditions has
been observed as early as the 1960s. For example, it was
shown that varying the temperature of a CSTR (following
either sinusoidal or square-wave patterns) for multiple-
reaction systems of the type:
2A ! B ð1Þ
A!C ð2Þ
can improve the time-average yield of a product of
interest (in this case, B) [6,7].
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While it was surmised that this mode of operation exploits
the nonlinear influence of temperature on the rates of
competing reactions, initial reporting of these improve-
ments was largely based on empirical observations. Fur-
ther work concentrated on identifying first, the generic
conditions that a system must fulfil in order for periodic
operation to be beneficial and second, determining the
optimal parameters of the cyclic forcing function (i.e.
amplitude and period) for maximizing this benefit [7–11].
Cyclic distillation
Research carried out in the 1960s [12–15] also revealed
the possibility of operating distillation systems in a cyclic
fashion. Cyclic distillation in this case involved segregat-
ing the fluid traffic in the distillation column, with fast (i.
e. in the order of seconds) switching between (downward)
liquid flow and (upward) vapor flow. Segregation reduces
unnecessary mixing between the vapor and liquid phase,
and between the liquid material on adjacent trays. Lit-
erature reports claim increases in stage efficiency and
throughput compared to conventional columns [13–15],
as well as improvements in energy use [16]. Columns
intended for cyclic operation use customized/dedicated
internal components (including special trays that have no
downcomers). The concept of cyclic operation was also
applied to extraction columns [17]. In general, adding
such technology to a chemical plant is likely acceptable
for new investments, but retrofits of existing distillation or
extraction towers may prove costly and problematic.
Periodic distillation based on output multiplicity
Early research [18,19] demonstrated that (binary) distil-
lation columns exhibit steady-state multiplicity. Of par-
ticular interest is output multiplicity, where a column
can produce distillate of two different purities with the
same reboiler duty. A recent development in the
dynamic intensification of distillation processes relies
on exploiting this nonlinearity [5] to lower column
energy use (defined as the sum of reboiler and condenser
duties) for a distillate stream of desired purity. This
dynamic intensification approach relies on the observa-
tion that the target product can be obtained as a blend of
two auxiliary products (one of higher purity, the other of
lower purity than desired), both of which have lower
specific energy consumption. Thus, the operating con-
ditions (column pressure, boilup rate) are periodically
switched between the operating points corresponding to
the two auxiliary products, and the distillate stream is
collected in a buffer tank whose average composition
equals that of the desired product. The control signals
may be continuous or step-wise, with periods in the
order of magnitude of the time constant of the column
itself (minutes to hours). Importantly, this concept relies
on a conventional distillation column and does not
require any dedicated hardware.
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Dynamic process intensification Baldea and Edgar 49
Reverse-flow reaction systems
Reverse-flow reactors (RFRs) have been proposed as an
intensified design for carrying out endothermic reactions
[20]. The system comprises a tubular reactor whose
operation consists of two separate, discrete steps: a heat-
ing step, whereby a fuel is (catalytically) combusted to
heat the catalyst bed, and a reaction step, where the
process stream (typically fed to the reactor at he opposite
end) passes over the hot catalyst and undergoes the
desired reactions. Pressurization/depressurization, purg-
ing, or other steps can be inserted in the operating cycle as
needed, and multiple reactors can be operated in parallel
to ensure a (relatively) constant flow of product. The
reaction system reaches a cyclic/periodic steady state,
rather than having a single steady-state operating point
as is the case with most continuous processes. Several
applications of reverse flow reactors have been reported,
including the production of syngas [21], SO2 oxidation
[22], and the mitigation of volatile organic compound
emissions [23]. Operational complexity notwithstanding,
it is argued that reverse-flow systems have capital expen-
diture advantages compared to a conventional system of
equivalent capacity. The latter would require, for exam-
ple, a separate heating furnace and a feed-effluent heat
exchanger to maintain the required thermal regime.
Oscillatory baffled reactors (OBRs)
OBRs are tubular reactors that diverge from the conven-
tional plug-flow design in two important ways. From a
design perspective, the flow encounters resistances (baf-
fles) placed at equally spaced intervals along the flow
path. From an operational perspective, an oscillatory
motion is imposed over the net flow by means of a
secondary pump/actuator. Combined with the baffled
structure, the oscillatory fluid motion simulates the oper-
ation of a cascade of CSTRs, effectively achieving a
desirable plug flow profile. OBRs provide an intensifica-
tion opportunity for reactions that require long residence
times and where a conventional plug-flow reactor would
have an impractical length. We note that the idea of
oscillatory mixing has been used for the intensification
of other processes; see Ni et al. [24] for a review.
Cyclic adsorption processes
Pressure swing adsorption (PSA) is a widespread tech-
nique for separating gas mixtures, and has been applied
to, for example, air separation (to generate oxygen or
nitrogen) and the separation of hydrogen from syngas.
Fundamentally, PSA relies on the difference in adsorp-
tion rates between the components of the mixture on a
given solid adsorbent, as well as on the influence of
pressure on the amount of adsorbed component. A PSA
system comprises of two (or more) adsorbent-packed
beds, which are operated in a cyclic fashion, in a carefully
choreographed sequence of discrete steps that are imple-
mented in practice by changing the positions of several
automatic valves that control the flow and feed/extraction
Current Opinion in Chemical Engineering 2018, 22:48–53
50 Process systems engineering: advanced manufacturing
points of the process streams. PSA operations reach a
periodic (cyclic) steady-state, akin to the reverse-flow
reactor described above. It is noteworthy that, were it
to be placed in a single bed — irrespective of its quantity
— the adsorbent present in the system would allow for
on-stream operation for a finite amount of time before
reaching saturation. By dividing the adsorbent between
two (or more) beds, each of which are successively in on-
stream duty and regeneration phases, the PSA structure
achieves intensification as it enables the use of a finite
amount of adsorbent material in a near-continuous fash-
ion and in a smaller physical unit.
PSA is part of a broader class of cyclic adsorption pro-
cesses, including vacuum pressure swing adsorption
(VPSA), where the pressure-swing range is extended
by operating under vacuum in part of the cycle, tempera-
ture swing adsorption (TSA), where beds are heated/
cooled rather than pressurized/depressurized, etc. The
reader is directed to the text by Ruthven [25] for an
extensive discussion of the topic. Sorption-enhanced
processing (SERP) is a closely related concept, which
combines reaction and the separation of products via in-
situ adsorption/desorption [26,27].
Simulated moving bed (SMB) chromatography
SMB chromatography is a key technology for the separa-
tion of high-value products in the food and pharmaceuti-
cal industries [28]. In principle, continuous chro-
matographic separation can be achieved by a
continuous counter-current movement of the solid parti-
cle bed and the liquid process stream. SMB systems
emulate a moving bed using a set of stationary chro-
matographic columns arranged in a cycle and switching
the feed and outlet points. This cyclic arrangement
achieves process intensification by reducing the volume
of the stationary phase and extending the length of the
column practically indefinitely. As for cyclic adsorption
processes, SMB chromatography systems rely on an elab-
orate switching logic, and reach a periodic steady state in
operation.
Elements of dynamic intensification
The examples described above show that DI systems
comprise a sequence of discrete steps and/or follow a
periodic target/forcing signal that is continuous in time (e.
g. sinusoidal). The operating cycle aims to change the
process state in time such that, on the average, a more
advantageous operating regime (e.g. a favorable product
distribution) is reached and/or inherent system limita-
tions (e.g. saturation, mixing or lack thereof) are over-
come. On this basis, we identify the underlying principles
of dynamic intensification, as well as delineate several
design and operational features of dynamically intensified
processes.
Current Opinion in Chemical Engineering 2018, 22:48–53
Underlying principles
DI systems rely on one or more of the following
principles:
 Parallelization: in a DI system, parallelization consists
of carrying out in parallel, on multiple identical units, a
series of steps that would be carried out in sequence on
a single unit. This is the case with, for example, the
SMB and PSA plants described above.
 Functionalization consists of building multiple func-
tionalities into the same unit. The unit then per-
forms/exploits these functionalities in sequence, based
on appropriately switching operating conditions. This
is the case with the RFR systems described above. It is
worth noting that many PI approaches rely of building
multiple functionalities/operations in a single device.
However, in most circumstances, these functionalities
are active and available simultaneously, rather than
being activated in sequence.
 DI may exploit system nonlinearity to reach favorable
operating regimes which can only be achieved during
the transient operation of the system. Nonlinearity can
be static and/or dynamic, with the former affecting only
the gain of the system, and the latter typically impact-
ing both the gain and the time constant. The periodic
operation of CSTRs and the periodic distillation exam-
ples discussed above fall in this category.
 Via a combination of system design and operating
approach, DI processes may promote mixing or
segregation. For example, the baffles placed in OBRs
act as a ‘catalyst for mixing,’ while the separate flow of
the liquid and vapor phases in cyclic distillation has the
opposite effect of preventing unnecessary mixing in
the column.
These principles may be scale-dependent. On the one
hand, RFRs and PSA clearly rely on macroscopic proper-
ties and phenomena. On the other hand, the implemen-
tation of the periodic distillation concept is a function of
the molecular properties of the mixture.
Equipment design
The choice of physical equipment is evidently crucial for
dynamic intensification strategies, with two main classes:
 ‘Standard’ processing equipment, which in this case we
define as DI equipment that can operate (likely with a
performance penalty) in a conventional continuous
fashion (i.e. at a steady-state point) with little or no
modification. The periodic operation of CSTRs reflects
this situation. It is important to note that the converse
possibility of using ‘standard’ (and likely existing/
already installed equipment in a dynamic intensifica-
tion strategy is extremely attractive from a practical
standpoint, as this may yield (potentially substantial)
performance improvements with no (or minimal)
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capital expenditure. For such equipment, periodic
operation can be regarded as a sufficient condition for
(dynamic) intensification.
 In many circumstances (as is the case for cyclic distil-
lation, reverse-flow reaction systems and SMB chroma-
tography), the equipment used in a dynamically inten-
sified process is customized/dedicated and cannot operate
in a conventional continuous fashion. Such inherently
dynamically intensified systems must be designed
simultaneously with their operating strategy, which
requires significant more effort than in the case of
standard equipment meant for steady-state operation.
In this case, periodic operation is a necessary condition
for intensification. For such systems, an ‘equivalent’
continuous process (using ‘standard’ equipment) capa-
ble of making the same products at the same rate may
or may not exist. The former is true in the case of, for
example, cyclic distillation, OBRs and RFRs, while the
latter applies to the PSA system. When available, the
continuous equivalent constitutes a useful baseline for
estimating the economic benefits of dynamic
intensification.
Operating strategy
As pointed out above, there is an intimate connection
between the choice of equipment for DI and the choice of
periodic operating strategy, whether the latter is a neces-
sary or a sufficient condition for intensification. We iden-
tify three classes of periodic operating strategies below:
 Continuous, which involves using periodic control sig-
nals that are continuous in time, such as sine waves.
The periodic operation strategies described in Sections
‘Periodic operation of continuous chemical reactors’,
‘Periodic distillation based on output multiplicity’, and
‘Oscillatory baffled reactors (OBRs)’ fall under this
category.
 Discrete/discontinuous, whereby the control signals are
discontinuous and based on a switching logic (e.g. on/
off or step sequences), and their implementation is
associated with changes in the configuration or state of
the physical equipment (e.g. change in flow direction,
changes in the nature of the feed). Reverse-flow reac-
tors, PSA and SMB separations, and cyclic distillation
columns belong to this category.
 Finally, a hybrid operating strategy is possible, whereby
the control signals are discontinuous but are applied to
a systems whose states are continuous and whose
structure does not change. This is the case, for exam-
ple, with the periodic operation of CSTRS when the
control signals are discontinuous.
The choice of equipment and operating strategy is then
reflected in the structure of the mathematical model of
the system, and has a significant impact on applicable
design and operational optimization techniques, a matter
that will be discussed later in this article.
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Dynamic process intensification Baldea and Edgar 51
Challenges and opportunities for future
research
Conceptual system design
A key challenge for process intensification in general, and
for DI in particular, is finding a systematic methodology
for identifying candidate systems [27,29,30]. While the
underlying principles listed above provide some guid-
ance, there is — to our knowledge— no rigorous means
for functionalization and for systematic generation of
periodic intensified device designs. This task becomes
even more arduous given that the design of the physical
system must be coupled with the design of a dynamic
operating policy. While outside the scope of the present
paper, we note that a further complication can arise when
semicontinuous periodic processes are considered (e.g.
[31]), where a longer-term, batch dynamic must taken
into account in addition to the (short-term) periodic
fluctuations.
Design optimization
Once a DI concept has been identified, the system must
be modeled, simulated and optimized. The models of DI
systems often include discontinuities, and system simu-
lation and optimization must deal with changes in model
structure (which reflect, e.g. changes in flow direction or
system connectivity). Furthermore, system models have
to accurately represent multiple phenomena occurring
over spatially distributed domains, and are thus often of
considerable size. A first difficulty is thus related to
simulation and identifying the cyclic steady state, a task
that is currently largely accomplished by simulating a
large number (hundreds or thousands) of operating cycles,
often in conjunction with some convergence acceleration
techniques [32]. In turn, this complicates the simulta-
neous optimization of the system design and its operating
policy. The latter is typically carried out using a full
discretization of the time and spatial domains, which
results in a large-scale mixed-integer nonlinear program
(MINLP) [33], although the use of sequential methods
[34,35] and of surrogate, grey-box models [36] has also
been reported. The development of efficient methods for
solving the simulation and optimization problems that
pertain to DI systems remains an open topic for research
[37,38].
System operation and control
Periodic operation is inherently dynamic and presents
new operational challenges in addition to the careful
coordination of the switching logic. The optimal control
of periodic systems has received significant attention in
the past, with research concentrating on extending the
model predictive control (MPC) paradigm [39,40], includ-
ing economic MPC [41]. The development of methods
for operation fault detection for periodic systems is at a
relatively early stage [42]. While both model-based and
data-driven methods are appropriate for this class of
systems, we believe that data-driven methods deserve
Current Opinion in Chemical Engineering 2018, 22:48–53
52 Process systems engineering: advanced manufacturing
attention — noting, however, that they will require a
departure from existing established methods, such as
those based on principal component analysis.
Conclusions
Dynamic process intensification holds significant promise
in terms of improving process performance. There are,
however, several challenges for fully realizing this. First, a
systematic framework for identification and conceptual
design/synthesis of dynamically intensified processes is
needed. Second, there are mathematical and numerical
challenges related to modeling, simulation and optimiza-
tion of DI systems, particularly related to computing and
optimizing the cyclic steady state. Finally, while good
progress has been made on optimal control of periodic
processes, fault detection for such systems offers consid-
erable opportunities. Newly developed techniques in
these areas should be implemented in intuitive software
tools and packages that can be distributed and used
widely in both academia and industry.
Conflict of interest statement
Nothing declared.
Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge funding from AIChE RAPID, a DOE
Manufacturing Institute. MB was partially supported by the National
Science Foundation (NSF) through the CAREER Award 1454433 and
Award CBET-1512379.
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Dynamic process intensification Baldea and Edgar 53
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Current Opinion in Chemical Engineering 2018, 22:48–53