EXPLORATION

3.1 GENERAL
Mining is a venture, which carries with it comparatively higher risks, because of the uncertainties of
the reserve and the mining ground. It is not rare to find, after a mine has been opened out, that the earlier
assumptions about the characteristics of a mineral deposit are very much in the error. Coal seams otherwise
considered to be of normal occurrence have been found later after mining has started to have been badly
faulted or affected by igneous intrusions, or suffered other geologic abnormalities, e.g., splitting, thinning,
washouts, etc. It is, therefore, necessary to do intensive" exploration before the opening out of a mine is
authorised so as to be sure that adequate mineable reserve exists and the coal seams are amenable to mining
by the present day technology. In the UK, for opening out deep mines which may need a capital investment
of 25-35 million pounds for pits producing 1½ - 2 million tonnes of coal per annum, generally, about 50
million tonnes of extractable coal is required to justify sinkings (Rees, 1975). In the case of surface drifts,
however, with their much lower investments, a lower proving, say 10 million tonnes could be adequate to
justify opening out of the mine. In Indian coal mining practice, the reserve should last at least about 30
years to give the planned production which may be up to one million tonnes per year for underground
mines. For larger mines, proportionately larger reserves are necessary.
In order to fully discover the area so that planning could be done on surer grounds in the United
Kingdom the cost of exploration for planning a 2-million tonnes per annum deep mine may work out to be
about 2% of the capital investment (Rees, 1977). The expenditure on exploration in Indian coal projects
averages below 1% of the capital expenditure.

3.1.1 Information Sought Through Geological Exploration

The information which should be obtained before a large capital sum is expended on major
development can be divided into two main categories: (a) proof of workable coal reserves adequate in
quantity to provide a daily output and colliery life compatible with the capital cost, and of suitable quality to
warrant the development, and (b) information to permit the mine to be planned with a reasonable degree of
assurance that development to full output will proceed quickly, and that the cost of coal production will be
economic. Accordingly, the following information are sought through geological exploration (Fenton,
Adams and Rumsvy, 1962):
1. Reserve, structure and thickness of coal seams.
2. Extent of coal seams as a workable deposit.
3. Identification and correlation of the seams and the leaves of the complex seams.
4. Nature of the pure coal and various parameters of the rank, e.g.
(i) calorific value
(ii) moisture content
(iii) carbon content
(iv) hydrogen content
(v) volatile matter (vi) caking properties.
5. Amount and nature of impurities in coal: the incombustible materials that on heating give ash and
deleterious volatile products containing:
(i) Sulphur
(ii) Phosphorus
(iii) Fluorine
(iv) Arsenic, etc.
6. Other characteristics:
(i) Mechanical strength
(ii) Cleat and other natural fractures
(iii) Firedamp content
(iv) Fusibility of ash
(v) Pressure gasification
(vi) Fluidised carbonisation
(vii) Slagging combustion.
7. Detailed seam section showing the banded features:
(i) Bright coal
(ii) Dull coal
(iii) Cannel, etc.
(iv) Vertical distribution of ash, with brief lithological description of the associated roof and
floor strata, and
(v) In seams with high sulphur contents the vertical distribution of this constituent.
8. 'Iso-lines' by iso-structure, iso-ash, iso-vol, iso-moisture, etc.
9. Contours of the depth of three or four seams at key positions in the vertical sequence
10. Isopachyte maps
11. Hydrology
 12. Nature of roof and floor and their rock mechanical properties and preferably of the full column
of strata; and
13. Geothermal gradient.
Seam thickness maps give broad picture ot the resources of coalfield. Regional changes in section of
the seams, which may have an important bearing on the practical value of a seam in areas to be developed
become apparent.
Sulphur occurs in two forms in coal seams: (i) as organic sulphur, and (ii) as pyritic sulphur. A map
of the tolal sulphur content of a seam gives a very good first guide to the sulphur contents of commercial
products that can be obtained from the seam, but it does not enable a full appraisal of the possibility of
decreasing sulphur content by cleaning process. In some seams pyrite is associated with inferior coal and it
has been found useful to prepare separate maps for "seam excluding dirt1' and "seam excluding dirt and
inferior coal". A comparison of maps will indicate the possibility of lowering sulphur content by
preparation. A study of vertical distribution of sulphur in a seam, which can be indicated along side the
typical seam sections included in the folio, may show means of eliminating notable sulphurous top or
bottom coal by modifying the section worked at the face, though modern mining does not lend itself to
preferential mining of parts of a seam.
Tables 3.1 and 3.2 give the contents and main features of typical geological exploration report.

Table 3.1: Contents of a geological report

Preamble
Acknowledgment
1. INTRODUCTION
General, Location, Communications, Physiography and Drainage, Previous Work, Present Work,
Geological Mapping, Surveying, Exploratory Drilling, Core Logging and Sampling, Physico-Mechanical
Properties, Hydro-geological Investigations, Gassiness, Status of Mining.
2. HYDROGEOLOGY
Drainage, Climate, Rainfall, Temperature, Wind Velocity and Direction, Humidity, Hydrogeology,
Water Sample analysis.
3. GEOLOGY AND STRUCTURE
Seneral; Geology of the Coalfield: Basement rocks; Carboniferous formations; Structure and
Tectonics; Coal Seams; Geology of the concerned Block — Isometric Panel; Geophysical investigations.
4. DESCRIPTION OF COAL SEAMS
General, Statistical Analysis, Thickness Computations, including-band, excluding-band, Quality of
Coal Seams, Grading of Coal, Roof Rock Fence Diagrams. Depth, Thickness, Quality of Roof and Floor of
the Coal Seams. Petrographic Studies.
5. PHYSICO-MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
Introduction, Results and Discussions, Borehole No. 1, 2, etc.
6. RESERVES
General, Sectors, Methodology, Categorisation of Reserves.
7. CONCLUSIONS

Table 3.2: Salient features of geological report'

1. Name of the block

2. Location
3. Area
4. Seams present
5. Seams assessed
6. Strike and dips
7. Number of faults and throw range
8. Seams under exploitation/virgin
9. Quality of coal (air dried basis)

Seam Thickness Moisture % Ash %

range, m Including bands Excluding bands Including bands Excluding bands

10. Reserves
Category (Proved)
Seam Reserves in Million tonnes
Including bands Excluding bands

Total

3.1.2 Types of Exploration

 Exploration falls into two categories, namely:
1. The type that provides geological information only; such as carefully cored and logged
boreholes, seismic surveys, the collection of all available geologic data from previously recorded sources;
and in recent times the possibility of data from the interpretation of satellite surveys, and multidisciplinary
techniques, e.g., geophysical, geochemical, etc.
2. The type that provides in addition to geologic data, access and routes of production capacity. It is
what is known in mining parlance as pit development and comprises in effect the driving of "proving"
roadways. Sustaining production will always involve such drivages, but the geography and likely
geology will always be, vital factors in determining their position, alignment and phasing.
In hard rock mining, driving of 'proving' roadways has been a common practice for exploration of
the ore deposit. In coal mining also driving of 'proving' roadways or working of short faces has become
equally important these days in order to eliminate that risk in highly capital intensive longwall mining
3.1.3 Procedure for Coal Exploration
The procedure of coal exploration will depend on whether the exploration is done in a virgin area or
in areas with workings. In virgin areas the exploration is done from the surface which comprises (i)
geological mapping; (ii) geophysical surveying, and (iii) drilling. The exploration may also be
supplemented by aerial photographs and surveying.
To begin with, following steps will be helpful in the exploration process:
1. Study the general topography of the area.
2. Look for the outcrop of the coal in the hill sides, roads or railways cuttings, river beds. These
features indicate the presence of coal bearing strata or even the outcrops of the coal seams.
3. Look for fossils which will help in determining the age of rocks and also if coal is likely to exist
in the area or not.
4. Sometimes the names of certain localities are indicative of their association with coal, e.g.,
names like Angarpathra in Jharia coalfield, Kalipahari in Raniganj coalfield, etc. Also the inhabitants of the
area may give useful information.
In developed areas the methodology will depend on whether it is a worked coal seam or unworked
seam. In worked seams the exploration is done by (i) cross measure drivages; (ii) advance faces, and (iii)
retreat faces. In unworked seams the exploration may be done by (i) wireline drilling, and (ii) rockbit
drilling. Table 3.3 summarises the coal exploration methods in different situations (Nithack, 1984).

Table 3.3: Coal exploration methods (After Nithack, 1984)

Regional exploration
Application Virgin deposits
Task Basic knowledge on
possibilities of deposit
utilization; basic data for
pre-planning mining activities
Techniques 1. Surface drilling
2. Drilling core tests
3. Borehole geophysical
surveys
4 Surface seismic
techniques
5. Combination 1-4
Production area exploration Forefietd reconnaissance
Chiefly unknown tectonic
elements
Determining layout : long
term production scheduling
1. Exploration roadways
2. Drilling underground,
vertical, inclined,
horizontal
3. Borehole geophysical
surveys
4. Tectonic indices
Areas within mine working
complex hitherto only
insufficiently known
Confirmation of short term
operation planning and
continuity of production
1. Exploration roadways
2. In-seam drillings.
horizontal, inclined
3. Borehole geophysical
surveys
4. In-seam seismic survyes
5. Structural statistics

3.2 EXPLORATION IN VIRGIN AREAS

Figure 3.1 (Mukherjee et. a/, 1983) shows the different stages of exploration of coal deposits in
virgin areas. Broadly the steps are geological mapping, regional drilling and detailed drilling supplemented
by borehole logging and geophysical surveying.

3.2.1 Geological Mapping

The first stage in coal exploration is to prepare a geological map of the area where exploration is to
be done. In India, earlier mapping of the coalfields was done generally on I" to I mile Topn sheets (RF =
1/63,360) prepared by the Geological Survey of India. After the Second World War all the important
Damodar Valley coalfields were aerially photographed for preparation of large scale Topo maps and maps
on the scale of 4" 10 1 mile (RF =1/15.840) were prepared for Raniganj, Jharia and Bokaro coalfields. In
recent years Topo sheets on still larger scale, 1 : 10.000 have been made

3.2.2 Drilling
The only direct method of exploration in undeveloped area is the cored borehole. This may be done
to evaluate the feasibility of exploitation in a region and, subsequently, by closer drillings to have a full
picture of coal seams for planning for exploitation.
 Figure 3.1: Different stages of exploration (After Mukherjee, Chandra and Thpathi. 1983)

Regional Drilling
Regional Drilling is done to establish the occurrence of the deposits, their general nature, lay and
disposition of the coal seams and their broad quality and quantity. For regional exploration the boreholes are
generally placed one kilometer apart depending upon the broad structure of the coalfields. In the case of
highly faulted coal area, close spaced boring may be necessary. On the basis of regional drilling potential
areas are identified for detailed exploration and planning and exploitation depending on the (1) reserve
potential; (2) structural complexity; (3) type and quality of coal required; (4) infrastructure facilities, and (5)
market potential.
To start with boreholes are placed 4 km apart and subsequently the spacing is brought down to 1 km
apart. The data thus obtained could be utilised for creating a shelf of reports based on which preliminary
perspective feasibility studies are made for detailed drilling and mine planning.

3.2.3 Detailed Exploration

In India, most of the detailed exploration work is done by Mineral Exploration Corporation Ltd., a
Government of India Undertaking. The operation startegy followed by Mineral Exploration Corporation
Limited for detailed exploration of coal has three distinct phases, viz., (i) Formulation of project proposal;
(ii) Field level operation, and (iii) Preparation of geological report. For the formulation of the project
proposal the major successive steps are:
— Identification of block for detailed exploration
— Consultation of latest geological maps
— Collation of available data particularly on mining activity within and adjacent to the block
— Correlation and interpretation of earlier data
— Working out tentative approach to exploration followed by ground checks
— Drafting of project proposal in consultation with concerned disciplines
— Vetting of proposal by concerned experts especially with regard to time schedule and cost factor
— Finalisation of project — proposal. Field level operations comprise the following:
— Surveying
— Geological mapping
 — Drilling and recording of borehole data
— Analysis of borehole data and interpretation of results. The geological report broadly deals with
the following:
— Structural delineation and correlation of coal seams
— Reserve and quality of the coal seams
— Hydrogeology
— Geotechnical properties of the lithic units.
For detailed exploration, large-scale Topo sheets are necessary with details like outcrops, associated
sandstone and shale beds, faults, igneous intrusions, etc. plotted accurately. After making geological maps
on 1:10,000 or 1:15,000 scale incorporating all geological features, detailed exploratibn grids are planned
across the strike of the beds, keeping the grid lines generally parallel. The first set of boreholes are widely
spaced so as to cover major pan of this area both along the strike and along the dip. Based on the results
obtained from the first set of boreholes and taking into consideration the broad geological structure and the
degree of variation in seam thickness and quality further strategy of detailed exploration is decided. If the
area is found structurally disturbed and also there is variation in the thickness of seams, the borehole,
spacing is placed at closer intervals.
Normally for underground mining 6-8 boreholes per km2 are needed for detailed exploration; for
opencast mine planning 10-12 boreholes per km2 are necessary. These are broad norms which have been
varied considerably in the exploration of certain areas. For instance, for opencast mining project in Singrauli
coalfield 18-22 boreholes per km2 were put and for underground mine planning in the Jhanjra Block of
Raniganj coalfield 10-12 boreholes per km2 were suggested. In the United Kingdom, a 1½ --2 ½ million
tonnes per annum mine requires some 20 to 30 boreholes with the total coal measure fully cored to discover
the field and ensure that it extends sufficiently to justify the costs of providing access which in the 1970s
cost could be of the order of 25-35 million pounds (Rees, 1975).
At Parkside colliery, the UK, to prove an area of 20.7 km2, 26 shallow boreholes with a total
meterage of 6315 m and 6 deep boreholes with a total meterage of 4844 m were drilled (Johnson and Sinar,
1962). The drilling pattern is shown in Figure 3.2. At Chasnalla colliery, India to prove an area of 4.42 km2
for planning purpose 24 boreholes were drilled (Figure 3.3). At Moonidih colliery, India 31 boreholes were
drilled to prove an area of 14 km2.
Figure. 3.2: An example of pattern of
exploratory drill-holes in a virgin area, Parkside
Colliery, U.K. (After Johnson and Sinar, 1962)

Figure 3.3: An example of exploratory

drill hole pattern in a previously worked coal
mine,
Chasnalla Colliery, Jharia coalfield

Figure 3.4: Scheme of direct exploratory drilling supplemented by geophysical prospecting.

(After Bornemann, 1982)
 According to Indian Standard Procedure, boreholes should be put on a grid of 400 m to prove the
area. However, as said earlier, this figure can be varied according to circumstances. The number of
boreholes may be reduced if the structure is simple and without any complication and all the boreholes need
not be drilled through the complete sequence of formations, a combination of shallow and deep boreholes
may be used. Normally for every 5.18 km2, 1 pilot borehole is required.
Now-a-days direct drilling method of exploration is supplemented by ge6physical prospecting.
Figure 3.4 (Bornemann, 1982) gives an example. Geophysical surveys have become more accurate in recent
years and it is now possible to distinguish faulting down to a throw of 5 metres at 1000 m, depth. Further
the geostatistical technique can help in reducing the total number of boreholes to be drilled.
By partial non-coring coupled with geophysical logging the rate of exploration could be speeded up
with much lower cost. For most of the part the borehole may not be cored, coring being done when the
borehole passes through the seam and the immediate roof and floor. Also, all the boreholes need not be
cored. Initially, some 30% of the boreholes may be non-coring and when the structure becomes known, this
figure may be increased to 50%.

3.3 MAIN METHODS OF EXPLORATORY DRILLING

There are two principal subdivisions of drilling methods:
1. Percussive method, and
2. Rotary method.

3.3.1 Percussive Drilling

It is the oldest method of drilling. In this method a great variety of bits suspended from cables or
rods have been used to bore through different kinds of rock. Rope boring was widely used for oil well
drilling in which they raised a heavy blunt chisel type of bit jumping on the end of a cable. This enabled a
great speed in fairly hard rocks. This blunt type chisel bit is not suitable for clays and soft marls which not
only cushion the blows but ball up the bit until it attains a sucking action that renders the bit almost useless.
For soft mudstones and shales a long heavy and narrow tool -proved successful. In some cases, a bit of fish-
tail pattern was used in soft but less sticky formations. But for harder rocks the chisel type bit or blunt faced
heavy chisel bit was the one most used today in percussive drilling. Figure 3.5 shows different types of bits
used in percussion drilling.

1. T. CHISEL 2. FLAT CHISEL 3. V. CHISEL 4. C CLAY AUGER

Figure 3.5: Different types of drill bits used in percussive drilling

Percussive method of boring is particularly suitable for drilling in heterogeneous glacial deposits and
other stony overburden, or where hard .quartzite pebbles are so loosely set in a matrix of soft sand that they
become like a broken ball rock and are often very destructive of any kind of rotary bit, diamond or
otherwise. This method is at its best in rocks which fragment well under blows. It requires less quantity of
water, just sufficient to make the debris into a slurry which can be removed by a sludger. But with this
method of boring samples are often contaminated by a portion of higher strata dislodged during the drilling
process.
3.3.2 Rotary Drilling
Rotary drilling has two classes:
(i) Depending on a scraping or tearing action, as exemplified by drag bits and roller bits and (ii) The
pipe, armoured or otherwise which cuts its way downwards.

Rotary drilling bits

The different types of bits used in rotary drilling are drag bit, roller bit, diamond bits, etc. (Figure
3.6).
 (i) Drag bits: They scrape their way through the strata, which should be of soft nature. They may be
of two bladed, three bladed or four bladed patterns with various curves or cutaways. In the centre of the bit a
jet is provided which directs drilling fluid through the hollow drill stem to the face.
If the bits torn off are too large they may float upwards only a short distance and so jam the tool. On
the other hind, comminution in certain clay beds leads to excessive stickiness with the result that, even if the
bit is not balled up and so made useless, the tools as a whole may be glued into the hole.
(ii) Roller bits: The roller bit usually takes the form of three cone shaped rollers rotating on ball-
bearings and armed with teeth which interdigitate to some extent and so assist in keeping the bit clean. The
action depends on crushing and tearing so that considerable weight has to be applied and great strength is
provided to withstand these strains, not only in the bit but also in the rods and driving mechanism. The
outfit, therefore, has to be robust.
The shape and length of teeth are dependent upon the type of the rock being drilled through. For
instance, long-teeth bits are preferred for softer formations and short and stout-teeth ones are preferred for
harder measures. But in most cases, compromise is necessary to meet varying conditions, for bits cannot be
changed economically every few metres especially in deep holes.
Initially, teeth and rollers were of ordinary steel; then came the practice of using harder teeth as
inserts or welded tips of such substances as tungsten carbide, stellite and other alloys. Conventional roller
bits wear out quickly in drilling hard rocks. Hemispherical ended cylinders of smtered carbide in place of
usual teeth gave 10-15 times the normal total meterage and 2 to 3 times the normal cutting rate (Payne,
1952). Tungsten carbide inserts have given 4 to 8 times the normal in chert and 15 to 20 times the normal
service in hard quartzile (Boice, 1952).

Fast drilling is possible with roller bits but samples produced are small fragments and do not give
satisfactory information. They are suitable for oil well drilling. In coal measures the barren rocks may be
drilled with the roller bits and coring bits may be provided for proving the coal seam.
Other variants of roller bits are cruciform four roller types and some wheels that have wobbling
motion. The bits are provided with orifices for passing jets of water to dislodge ground ahead of the bit, to
wash fragments out of the way of the bit and to keep them clean.
(iii) Diamond bits: For the purpose of obtaining core a bit or crown armoured with diamonds, bort or
carborundum is employed. The cutting may be done by a few fairly large stones of which about half will be
set squarely in the middle thickness of the pipe metal while the others are set on the inner and outer edges in
order to obtain clearance of both hole and core or by a large number of small but similarly disposed stones.
Large stones are usually set in a series of holes drilled into the crown and lined with copper or bronze,
though some are set by powder metallurgical methods.

Figure. 3.6: Different types of drill bits used in figure 3.7: Voldrill 300 {Courtesy: Voltas Ltd.) 80
rotary drilling (After Weiss and Eastwood, 1954)
Large stones are considered suitable for drilling in soft rocks and for hard rocks such as quartzite
numerous small stones say 7-50 per carat are preferred. In this connection inserts of metal carrying
numerous very small diamonds are sometimes used in place of large stones.
 Diamond powder is also a suitable cutting medium employed in drill crowns and when set in a
suitable matrix is often used in hard and broken formations.
Tungsten carbide is an artificial product and is used as a substitute for diamond. Its price is low but
in use diamond has always proved superior. Norbide, a boron carbide, made from coke and borax is the
hardest artificial abrasive.
3.3.3 Core Drills
The basic design of the core drill has not changed very much during the last 50 years, although there
have been modifications and improvements. Modern machines are more versatile, less heavy and more
easily transported and have much greater capacity. For example, drills of 5,000 m depth capacity have been
developed and with wireline drilling much faster drilling rates have been achieved. In one case with
wireline drilling core drilling down to a depth of 4,030 m could be done in 152 days as compared to the
average drilling time of 3-4 years for reaching such depths (Hodge and Oldham, 1983). In coal drilling,
however, rarely drilling to depths in excess of 1,800 m is done.
Drilling holes and taking cores in waterless areas has been facilitated by the technique of air flush
core drilling. Besides, some special purpose core drills have been developed to meet specialised demands.
Figure 3.7 shows Voldrill 300 diamond core drill manufactured by Voltas Limited for deep drilling.
This drill has a rated capacity of 914.4 m with N.W. rods with sufficient reserve capacity to drill deeper. The
drill has a swivel head with either HW 98 mm I.D. or the larger HX 116 mm I.D. swivel head permitting
drilling by larger rods or casings. The drill is powered by water cooled diesel engine. The engine power is
transmitted to the drill through a propeller shaft power take off arrangement and a six speed gear box. The
hoist has extra heavy duty clutch and brake which are capable of handling, the complete weight of the drill
string to the full rated capacity with single line pull. The hydraulic pump drive is through PTO and clutch
mounted on the main transmission. A built-in heavy duty wire-line hoist rated for rope capacity of 1524 m
of 4.76 mm wire rope may be provided on Voldrill 300. The drill has extra heavy duly rigid skid base with
built in hydraulic retreat arrangement. It can be fitted with HW-HY swivel head with a hydraulic chuck and
with a hydraulic system to suit it. The chuck jaws are operated by 4 double acting hydraulic cylinders
operating at 35.15 kg/cm2 and providing a slip proof grip on the rods.

3.3.4 Core Barrels

Core barrels are normally of two types: (i) Single tube core barrel (ii) Double tube core barrel.
Single tube core barrels (Figure 3.8) are used for coring hard compact formations. This barrel is not
recommended for drilling friable or easily eroded formation since the core is continually washed by the
drilling fluid.
The double tube core barrel (Figure 3.9) may be of rigid type or swivel type. The double tube rigid
design core barrel is used for a wide range of core drilling conditions. Because of its narrow kerf bit, it will
give good performance and core recovery in medium hard to extremely hard formations where it ranges
from consolidated and compact to somewhat fractured. It will also give good core recovery in fairly soft
formations provided it is relatively compact and unfractured. With this type of core barrel, the inner tube is
attached rigidly to and rotates with the core barrel. The drilling fluid passes from the core barrel head to the
bit through the annular space between the inner and outer tubes. Only a short section of the core from a
point near the front end of the inner tube to the face of the bit is subjected to drilling fluid. The W.T. design
of core barrel features the use of narrow kerf bits thus reducing diamond content, increasing the core size
and reducing the torque required to drill in hard formations. The double tube swivel design core barrel is
used for a wide range of core drilling conditions. This design of core barrel features a narrow kerf and larger
core and gives a good performance in drilling hard, dense formation, and friable and shattered'rock
formations. It will also give good core recovery in fairly soft formations provided it is relatively compact
and unfractured. Used in these conditions the swivel-type core barrels will outperform rigid types. The core
barrel head is equipped with bearings which allow the inner tube to remain stationary, while the outer tube
rotates, resulting in greater core recovery.
The other types of core barrels are (i) Tripple tube core barrels; (ii) Split barrels, and (iii) Hadgeman
barrels.
Tripple tube barrels are standard double tube core barrels with the inside diameter of the bit reduced
to allow for the insertions into the inner tube of a thin sheet of plastic for preserving the core. Split barrels
are double tube core barrels, in which the inner tube is split longitudinally in two halves held together
during coring. Hadgeman barrels are percussive arrangements able to drill and take core up to a depth of 91
m.
3.3.5 Retrieving Cores
Retrieving of the core is achieved by a special core catcher. This is normally a ring of steel of wedge
form cut into vertical stripes which encircles and rides on the core when drilling is in, progress, but jams or
wedges the core barrel when drilling ceases and the rod begins to be lifted out of the hole. Core barrel is
usually 152 cm - 304 cm long, but occasionally it may be 1,524 cm or more; but about 609 cm may be taken
as the limit if high recovery of core is desired.
3.3.6 Drilling Fluids
Water has been in use for drilling since time immemorial. Its function is to keep the bit cool and
clean, and to make a sludge with the rock detritus so that it could be bailed out of the hole. Nowadays water
is used in conjunction with some mud, the function of the mud being to keep the hole open. When water is
not available or where water has deleterious effects on the rocks being bored, air or steam may be used.
Where the loss of mud circulation is severe owing to fissured formations and the water supply is inadequate,
air can compete with ordinary means of cooling the bit and removing drilling debris. It will, of course, not
afford any protection to the walls. Air is suitable for shallow bore-holes. The effect of water on minerals like
gypsum and anhydrite may be noted, for the drilling debris is converted to plaster of pans if the circulation
fails. With sodium or potash deposits also water is deleterious to cores and the drilling fluid may be
saturated with similar or associated salts. Alcohol for drilling in ice and oil for drilling oil well may merit
consideration.
3.3.7 Keeping the Hole Open
Any hole made into rock is liable to close. Boreholes in massive limestones and sandstones with few
joints will stand for a long time though the same rocks shattered by fissures or by bedding will give trouble
soon after drilling. Hard mud stones or binds stand fairly well but clays and soft shales require supports
almost immediately.
In order to save the hole from caving-in use of steel casing pipes has for long been the standard
method. It may be used to seal off fissured ground or old workings which would lead to loss of all the
drilling mud, or to prevent ingress of strong flows of water or gas. In these circumstances the casing has to
be cemented in by forcing cement into the annular space between the natural walls and the casing.
The disadvantages of steel casings are:
1. Its initial cost is high.
2. It is costly to set and recover.
3. A very larger diameter borehole must be drilled to start with. It was by no means uncommon for
a hole to start 254 mm or 305 mm in diameter and to end at 304.8 or 457.2 m with a core less than 25 mm in
diameter because of difficult strata calling for repeated casing.
4. Recovery of the casing which is against the walls of the borehole is difficult, for some beds such
as clays may swell and so squeeze the casing that even jacking to the limits of casing strength will not
release it.
5. If electrical logging has not been done, it will be imperfect if it is done in the parts where the
casing has not been recovered.
Casing may be flush both inside and outside, or it may be flush inside and coupled outside. Flush
jointed casing may be either screwed or welded. Coupled casing takes more space than the flush jointed
types and consequently there are fewer sizes available between the starting and finishing diameters of the
hole.
The deep holes demanded by petroleum engineers led to trials and researches whereby the use of
casing could be obviated to a considerable extent by the use of mud for plastering the sides of hole. Mud
was tried as early as 1900 but became standard practice around 1930s.
Mud should have the following properties:
1. It should be very fluid in the holes, while drilling is going on.
2. It should form a thin cake on the walls strong enough not only to remain in place and support the
walls but strong enough to prevent or mitigate loss of fluid from the hole into the surrounding strata, or the
influx of gas, oil or water into the hole.
 3. It should cool the drilling bit without impeding it and float the cuttings other than cores to the
surface. The last quality is enhanced, by increasing the specific gravity of mud by the addition of such
things as baryles or hematite.
4. A good mud will remain fluid as long as it is agitated, e.g., when drilling or pumping is in
progress but will 'gel' quickly without any settling when quiescent; such properties determine its
'thixotropic' character.
5. Mud should not be affected by the mechanical mixing of debris, sand, etc., or by chemical
effects of saline or gypsaceous strata.
The tests applied to mud cover specific gravity, viscosity and "gelling", wall building and 'ph' value.
In general, however, the basis of the special mud is one of the fullers earth group of rocks and
minerals which fall to pieces readily in water, and moreover, the consequent mud particles remain dispersed
for a considerable time.
Oil-based muds are restricted to special oil field work. The water-based muds using clay and
bentonite predominate in coalfields. If there is som.e contamination due to salt, gypsum or anhydrite, which
cause fluctuation and increase viscosity, starch is usually added and since, starch is organic some germicide
is added to prevent mould. When drilling beds of sodium or potassium salts the water is replaced by a
saturated solution of the appropriate chemicals. Where clays and shales prove difficult, sodium silicate may
be used. Since all these invite chemical reactions in addition to the mechanical ones produced by the
addition of debris from the hole itself, the mud must receive constant attention and frequent testing, at least
once per shift. Starch, sodium bicarbonate and tannin products are used to mitigate the increased viscosity.
With the use of mud, oil wells have been drilled to depth over 3,048 m without casing. This could be
possible in homogeneous strata but in coalfields where the strata change frequently use of mud alone may
not be helpful. When drilling through porous strata such as sandstones, large quantities of mud are lost due
to cracks and crevices in the walls. To remedy mud losses chopped straw, hay, rope bark and paper, or seed
such as peas, rice and beans, or fibrous or platy material such as mica or cellophane are added to the mud
with the object of blocking the fissures. These materials may be used while drilling is in progress.
Thick limestones and dolomites especially the harder varieties and particularly those liable to
solution along joints are very difficult to drill because the resultant cavities may be of enormous size. Core
drilling under such conditions is almost impossible and often percussive drilling is used until the dolomite is
bottomed when diamond coring may be done (Weiss and Eastwood, 1954).
3.3.8 Wireline Core Drilling
This is a method where the rods are of wide
internal diameter and the narrower inner barrel is so fitted
that it can be caught by a specially designed latch
on the end of a wire, and pulled out of the hole without
having to uncouple the string of rods. It was originally
recommended for holes not less than 457.5 m in depth in
which bit life was good, and for saving time and energy
in making round trips. But nowadays wireline is used for
short holes, as well as under a great variety of conditions
(Allonby, 1967).
Figure 3.10 shows the main features of a wireline
drilling equipment. The equipment consists of the
following:
1. Diamond drill bit
2. Diamond set reaming shell
3. Outer core barrel complete
4. Inner tube assembly
5. Overshot assembly
6. Wireline cable
7. Drill rod string
8. Wireline hoist.

+Figure 3.10: Wireline drilling equipment (Courtesy :

J.K.Smit & Sons)
The advantage of wireline core drilling compared with conventional core drilling is that the inner
tube assembly (4) with the core can quickly be lifted to the surface level through the drill rods (7) which
together with the outer barrel (3) and diamond bit are left in the hole.
 The lifting is carried out by the wireline cable (6) and the overshot assembly (5) which when
lowered inside the drill string, catches on to the inner tube assembly (4). The inner tube core assembly with
the core is then hoisted to the surface by the wireline hoist (8) and a spare inner tube assembly is dropped
provided the drill hole is filled with water/or lowered with the help of the overshot assembly (no water in
the drill hole) back down through the entire rod string to the outer core barrel and the bit. With the inner
tube assembly in position the drilling continues while the first inner tube assembly is being emptied.
The inner tube does not rotate during drilling and can be supplied with hard chrome plating on the
inner surface to reduce wear and friction between the core and the inner tube lessening the frequency of core
blockage.
To adjust the distance between the core lifter case and the drill bit, the length of the inner tube head
assembly is increased or decreased by unlocking the nut between the latch body and the spindle assembly,
the required length is adjusted and the nut is relocked.
Horizontal or up-holes are drilled with the O-U series wireline core barrels. The inner tube assembly
may be pumped into any angle position even against drill hole hydraulic back pressures.
As for core barrels, simple and good designs are available which offer the facility of working with
light mud circulation and give the biggest core size consistent with strength and durability of the cutting
head. In the field, the positive indication that the driller receives when the inner tube is full or when
blockage occurs, is seen on the water pressure gauge. Sometimes this pressure gauge is supplied with a
slave hand to retain the top pressure reading in case the operator did not see it. There are adjustments by a
change of spring or movement of a screw, to cope with cores cut in either very soft or very hard formations.
The inner barrel can be pumped into the hole, even horizontally or upwards, to make a positive and sure
lock into position under-the latch. Another spring transfers the pull of the core lifter from the delicate inner
tube to the stronger outer tube. All these developments have widened the usefulness of the wireline systems
of core drilling. It is now available in sizes ranging between AWL and PWL (121 mm) hole diameter.
The largest wireline system for coring in soft to medium hard formation gives a core diameter of 85
mm which is quite adequate for geological purposes. The system has been used with great success in holes
drilled out at Selby, UK, where consistently high core recoveries down to 609.6 m and more have been
obtained and the rate of drilling has been 50% in excess of that obtained by conventional drilling in the
same area.
A triple tube wireline core barrel has been shown in Figure 3.11. This is the latest development in the
field of drilling. In the triple tube core barrel the third tube is added to the two tubes of the normal wireline
barrel. This tube is split lengthwise and fits snugly inside the inner tube. Its inside surface is plated with
hard low friction chrome for smooth core entry. The purpose is to allow the recovery of the core from the
inner tube in one piece by allowing the third split tube to be hydraulically pumped from the inner tube, once
clear, the upper half is carefully lifted, leaving the core in the lower half in a virtually undisturbed condition.
Advantage of wireline core drilling
As said earlier, the wireline core drilling is favoured these days in exploration. The following
advantages arc claimed for this type of drilling (Rees, 1975; Nithack, 1984):
1. It eliminates many pulls of the drill string, the core, in fact, being removed in minutes through
the drill string, and the drill rod remains in the hole until the bit needs to be replaced. In softest strata, such
as the mudstones and shales of the coal measures, this is a decided advantage.
2. The bit life is increased since the bit remains at the bottom of the hole during successive core
runs, and the drilling of caved "debris", a common cause of bit damage and often experienced in coal
measures, is substantially reduced.
3. Premature core blocking due to not having to drill 'debris' is also lessened, and even when it does
occur the barrel can be quickly retrieved, emptied and returned.
4. By the adaptation on some wireline barrels of a dual rubber shut-off valve, which expands when
the core block itself applies an upward pressure to the inner tube and so causes a noticeable increase in the
pressure of the circulating water or drilling mud, the driller is immediately warned of a core block. Drilling
can then be stopped before grinding of core takes place.
5. Drilling muds can be used without excessive pump pressures — an asset in the deeper holes.
6. The surveying of holes is speeded and simplified by using the wireline to run the survey
instrument through the hole.
7. The core recovery rate in coal also is high (more than 99 per cent).
8. The use of low weight rods results in the lower weight of the drill string. The same depth can,
therefore, be achieved with lighter drilling machine.
9. The cost of drilling machine and drilling is less.

Disadvantages of wireline core drilling

1. Since heavy rods are absent, drilling can only be carried out with a low thrust, which if
necessary, can be compensated for by higher r.p.m.
2. Cheap, clay-water circulating media cannot be used. Owing to the narrow clearances, stoppages
occur in the case of standard heavy clay circulation, and in the case of high r.p.m. it leads to depositions in
the drilling rod which prevent the passage of overshot.
For this reason the fluid employed must be an extremely light CMC-medium. This circulating
medium is not only considerably more expensive, it also leads to an undesirable reduction in the hydrostatic
pressure in the fluid column, so that the stability of the borehole walls is diminished in non-stable sections.
Any caving that may occur necessitates redrilling work and leads to hindrances in the geophysical borehole
surveying.
3. With the PQ wireline coring rod only coring can be carried out. For drilling with roller bits a
further drilling string composed of API rods has to be used. This disadvantage could be eliminated by using
a drilling machine with 124 mm bit diameter, 79 mm core diameter and a corresponding rod.

Figure 3,11: Triple tube wireline core barrel (After Rees, 1975)

3.3.9 Core Drills for Special Purposes

Specialised demands have resulted in the development of following core drills: 1. Lightweight core
drills; 2. Multipurpose drills; 3. Tractor mounted drills; and 4. Underground core drills.
Lightweight drills are easily transportable core drills which can be dismantled in three or four main
components for movement into remote areas over difficult terrain. Voldrill 35 diamond drill (Figure 3,12)
manufactured by Voltas Limited is one such lightweight drill capable of drilling and soil sampling up to
152.4 m of NX size. The drill with power unit is mounted on a lightweight strong structural steel skid frame
provided with a set of properly aligned sheaves and rollers to enable the drill to move itself forward under
its own power for short distances by the use of its hoist and cable. It is powered by a diesel engine of 15 h.p.
(for'mark I) or 19.6 h.p. (for Mark II).

The multipurpose drills follow a general pattern in

that they are:
1. lightweight and suitable for mounting in a
variety of ways;
2. hydraulic in operation;
3. make use of a form of power swivel mounted
on a slide
4. can be adjusted to drill angle holes, and
5. can be used for
(i) open hole drilling;
(ii) coredrilling;
(iii) auger drilling, and
(iv) down-the-hole hammer drilling.
Tractor mounted drills use very large section, low
pressure tyres which spread the load over a large surface
and enable the drill to move without causing damage to the
ground. Such drills have been in operation in Jordan in
sandy terrain and in Cornwall in the china clay area.

Figure 3.12: Voldrill 35 (Courtesy: Voltas Ltd.)

The underground core drills are usually compressed-air driven, column mounted screw feed, hollow
spindle drills. Some machines are designed to drill horizontal, long holes for methane drainage as well as
for core drilling. The separation of these machines into three assemblies namely, an electro-hydraulic pack
with oil tank, a control consol on a tubular framework; and a slide type, hydraulically actuated drill is well
suited to underground operations.
 3.3.10 Airflush Core Drilling
The technique of core drilling with compressed air as the circulating medium instead of water or
mud is practised in hole sizes of 102 mm and larger. In order to provide sufficient annular area within the
core barrel to pass an adequate quantity of air to cool the bit and to provide a good upward current of air in
the hole for disposal of cuttings, the core diameter is somewhat restricted. An example of this is the well-
known 412 Boyles core barrel which cuts 114 mm hole and gives a 76 mm diameter core.
Air flush drilling can be practised in arid areas in which it is easier to low in a portable compressor
than to haul water. It works very well in waterlogged ground, although the operation is dirty and unpleasant.
It is not successful in damp or sticky situations as the cuttings cannot be lifted to hole top. but tend to ball-
up and to become too heavy to lift. The rapid removal from the hole bottom of all cuttings tends to speed up
penetration because there is no regrinding of the cuttings, and if adequate expansion takes place as the air
passes over the bit cutting face a cooling effect is imparted to the diamonds or tungsten carbide cutting
plates of the bit. It is customary to use at least an air velocity of 914.4 m/min for the removal of cuttings,
though some manufacturers use higher velocities of up to 1,524 m/min. On the practical side, a 412-core
barrel with HW rods 83 mmod and drilling at fast penetration rates is serviced by a 10 nWmin compressor
with supply at about 5.62 kg/cm2. However, it is important to have 10.55 kg/cm2 available for blowing out a
wet hole or for blasting a blockage if necessary (Morgans, 1970).

3.3.11 Layout of Exploratory Drilling Sites

Figure 3.13 shows the layout of a diamond boring site for drilling a 45 mm diameter borehole
through coal measures as common in 1950s. The essential requirements are provision of power and water.
Arrangements for the recirculation of water has been made otherwise there will be excessive consumption
of water. For the storage of cores and boring rods a distinct separate place is provided in the layout.
In this particular case, steam power was used for driving the boring machine. The progress per 8
hours shift was 4.57 - 6.1 m. The crew comprised 7 persons as below; master borer 1, clampman 1,
swivelman 1, rodsmen 2, fireman 1, and oil man 1. In addition, some casual labourers were employed for
the supply of coal, etc.

Figure 3.13: Layout of an exploratory drilling site as of the fifties

Figure 3.14 shows a modern layout of an exploratory drilling site in Manuguru area of Godavari
Valley coalfield. The equipment comprise a boring machine and water pump; both run by diesel engines of
about 49 BMP each and have the capacity to drill up to 500 m depth. It is so arranged that the overflow
water runs back to a water tank so that the loss of water is kept to the minimum.
The arrangement provides for the stacking of drill rods over a trestle close to the boring machine and
for the stacking of cores in core boxes kept in a shed. On the other half side of shed tool boxes and drill bits,
etc., are stored and a small working bench is provided to carry out odd repairs.
 Figure 3.14: Layout of a modern exploratory drilling site

The drilling crew, if single shift operation is done, comprises six men as follows: driller 1, rigman 1
and mazdoors 4. If the operations are done in two shifts the crew comprises six men in the first shift and
five men in the second shift as follows: first shift: driller-1, rigman-1, and mazdoors-4 and second shift;
senior rigman-1, and mazdoors-5. The driller is expected to attend to problems if any, in the second shift
also. With the above crew the target for boring is kept as follows: 120 m per month with single shift
working and 180 m per month with double shift working. The average cost of boring in 1980s worked out to
be Rs. 550 per m for drilling up to 500 m depth.

3.4 SAMPLES—THEIR EXAMINATION

In percussive drilling samples are taken from the hole in a bailer 304 - 366 cm long fitted with a
valve at the end. By opening the valve the contents of water and sand are discharged to a screen. The
samples are then washed, dried, bagged or bottled and labelled. Such samples may be taken at known depths
but contamination of samples from above cannot be eliminated.
Cores are the best method of obtaining samples, and efforts should be made to get maximum
information from them.
The core should be shoved out of the core barrel with care so that it does not break. Of course, with
the use of split core barrel most of these difficulties have been removed. By placing a properly designed
metal cover over the core in the half tube and inverting it, the core can be transported exactly as recovered
for whatever examination it has to undergo.
The core should be photographed in the normal way and X-ray apparatus examination of the fossils
and lithology should be done on the spot.
Macrae and Leighton (1953) have suggested the radiographic examination of coal core. Since the
amount of X-radiation absorbed by an element depends on (amongst other factors) a power of the atomic
number, coal substance is much more transparent to X-radiation than is the associated mineral matter. It is,
therefore, possible to discover the presence and mode of distribution of mineral matter in a specimen of coal
by radiographic examination. They reveal the degree and mode of dissemination or concentration of mineral
matter to an extent which no normal analysis, but only the most laborious and destructive visual
examination, could accomplish. They can convey to a coal preparation engineer a much more vivid picture
of the material which he may be called upon to process than any thing else.

3.5 INDIRECT METHODS USED IN BORHOLES—BOREHOLE LOGGING

In order to reduce the amount of coring required in boreholes, while still obtaining the required
geological information, various logging devices for use in boreholes are now available. Besides providing
information in those parts of the borehole which are not cored, these devices can record features such as
water content of the strata and caving of the borehole sides which are not evident from the cores themselves;
also they provide check on the nature and amount of core lost during drilling.
The key, in all geophysical methods, is that the logging sondes do not record coal or sandstone or
faults as such, they record differences in the electrical conductivity of the strata in the walls of the hole, the
natural radioactivity of the strata and the extent to which it reflects back unnatural or introduced
radioactivity (which depends on its density), etc. Caving for instance, can look the same as coal on a density
log, but not when it is considered in conjunction with the conductivity, or considered the other way round as
resistivity. Thus, only coal has both low density, low natural (gamma) radioactivity and high resistivity. The
same strata can have one or two physical properties in common and each method measures only one of
them. Thus to read coal or sandstone or faulting in a hole, a combination of tools has to be run.
A brief description of the common borehole logs is given below:
1. The Resistivity Log
This log is always run first to test conditions in the borehole. In the absence of caliper log, the
resistivity log is used to investigate caving in the low-density parts of the borehole, i.e, it is used to
distinguish between coal and cavings. It is also used to investigate water conditions in the hole. The scam
definition is poor and this tool cannot be used through casing or in boreholes without fluid. The caliper log
(for borehole diameter) is superseding the resistivity log in surface boreholes.
2. The Caliper Log
The caliper log indicates variation in borehole diameter, thus locating zones of caving. The primary
use of this leg is to assist in the accurate interpretation of some other logs, e.g., density log, gamma-ray log,
neutron log, in some of which the record is distorted by caving. It also has secondary uses as it helps the
drilling engineer to know which particular strata are likely to give rise to caving problems and it seems
likely to infer that seams whose roof and floor cave badly during drilling are those most likely to give
support problems during mining operations.
3. The Gamma-ray Log
This log shows coal, mudstone and sandstone throughout the boreholes. It records the natural
gamma-ray emission from the strata; high counts in mudstone and shale, low counts in clean coal, medium
counts in sandstone. The detailed log is used for interpretation; the points of evaluation are one-third from
the root of the curve and two-thirds from the peak, the rate of change of radiation is at a maximum at the
coal/mudstone boundary, and therefore, a point of inflexion or flat at about two-thirds from the peak (from
left of chart) is selected. This log is used for accurate definition of coal seams and can be used through
casing or in boreholes without fluid. Care in interpretation should be taken, however, where a seam has a
sandstone roof.
4. The Density Log
These logs require the use of radioactive source (Caesium 137), screwed on to the bottom end of a
gamma-ray sonde. Bodi logs Long Spacing Density (LSD) and High Resolution Density (HRD) are used for
surface holes; only the HRD log is used for underground holes.
The LSD Log
The source and detector are 0.4 - 0.5 m apart. This log is a measure of the back scatter radiation from
the walls of the boreholes, high count rates being obtained over a coal section. The LSD log is not greatly
affected by small caves, but lacks sharp boundaries between coal and other rocks.
The HRD Log
The source and detector are close together and scattering is scanned over a very short vertical
distance, This log shows very good bed definition but is affected by caving (coal and caving deflection can
be very similar). Caves should be identified by other logs. Casing and lack of fluid can give rise to problems
in interpretation. The HRD log is interpreted from points half-way from the root of the curve; the LSD logs
use points at one-third from the root; two-third from the crest. In both cases the points of inflexion (flattest
point on the curve) is used, The logs also give information about the condition of the borehole walls. The
conditions reflect the effect upon the wall materials of intense washing and destressing, i.e., of influences
similar to some of those to which these materials might be subjected during coal extraction or coal
preparation. If the roof and floor of a seam in the borehole collapse or cave, they are weak, and the depth of
caving and the thickness of the affected section can be determined from the logs.
5. The Neutron Log
The Neutron Log has been used for some time as part of the wireline logging package. It measures
hydrogen density and gives comparative readings on water content, hence, in theory on porosity. Coal seams
give a good response on this log due to their low porosity. Recently very interesting correlation between
neutron logs and rock strength properties have been established.
A Fracture Spacing log has been developed which plots on a logarithmic scale the incidence of all
fractures, natural and induced, seen in the core on its removal from the core barrel. The amount of fracturing
is used as the index of the strength of the rock and its reaction to the coring process.
Figure 3.15 (Hoare, 1979) shows the correlation between the fracture spacing log and the BPB
neutron log. It indicates that the neutron log gives a comparative reading of the strength of the borehole
wall, by measuring the water content of the micro-fractures resulting from the change of stress induced by
the action of drilling the borehole. By extending and confirming these studies there are good prospects that
the neutron log will become a useful tool to predict and assess in situ rock strength and maintenance
conditions for roadways and shafts, and for seam roofs and floors
 Figure 3.15: Correlation between fracture tog and BPB neutron log (After Whitworth, 1979)

6. The Sonic Log

Seismic surveys have given rise to the need to relate the vertical section of strata, as proved in
borehole, to the seismogram produced by the survey. The sonic log measures variations in sonic velocities
in the wall of the borehole. Thus, acoustic impedance can be related to a portion of the seismogram through
the borehole site, and the vertical strata section formed in the borehole. In some cases a synthetic
seismogram is prepared from the sonic log, following check shots into geophone lowered into the borehole
for calibration purpose.
3.5.1 Scope of Borehole Logging
Boreholes with no drilling fluid or containing casing can be effectively logged by a combination of
gamma, density and neutron methods, although the quality of the record may not be equal to those obtained
in uncased holes. The high resolution density log together with caliper log can usually define the thickness
of a coal seam to within 25 mm and will also give a broad indication of ash content.
In practice only those parts of the boreholes may be cored where potentially workable seams occur
and to rely on the above logs for strata identifications in the remainder of the borehole. Detailed logs are run
as a check against core loss or incorrect marking up of the cores.
3.5.2 The Future Trend
The application of neutron logging offers good prospects of gaining the required information on rock
strength data for designing mining techniques and systems. The attempts todate to achieve the required
standards of chemical data from the coal seams without a core have not yielded positive results. It may be
that in the coming decades interpretation of multiple wire logs may achieve the required standard, but in the
medium term a more feasible approach to this problem is likely to be in the development of sidewall
sampling tools, in particular the side wall sheer. In the mean time coring of the coal seams will continue to
be essential for all save exceptional cases (Hoare, 1979).

3.6 DEVIATION OF BOREHOLES

The amount of strata dip, not its direction, can be measured from a borehole core—apparently—
assuming that the borehole is vertical. However, experience with the holes in which deviation surveys have
been made show that verticality is the exception rather than the rule. This leads to errors in the dips
measured from the core, which then do not correspond with the apparent dips recorded on the line of the
seismic profiles. For all these reasons, Dipmeter/Deviation Surveys are now recommended in all major
boreholes so that the three-dimensional geometry of the geological structure, and of the borehole itself, can
be defined and incorporated in the record.
There is always a tendency at shallow angles of strata dips for the hole to migrate up-dips and at
steeper strata dips approximately exceeding 40°, the hole has a tendency to migrate down dip. In addition, a
slow spiral has also been observed which combined with the up-dip direction produces a rather complex
picture (Hoare, 1979-a).

3.7 LIMITATIONS OF CORE DRILLING IN EXPLORATION

Until recently the cored-boreholes were the only means of obtaining structural information in an
undeveloped area but in the more geologically disturbed areas they are not very effective. A borehole will
provide a spot level in a seam, dip measurements of dubious value owing to the extremely small area on
which they are based, and if it intersects a fault, its position, sometimes its throw, but not its direction. To
provide the amount of spot level control to make reasonably accurate structural plans under the complicated
geological conditions would require a borehole density which would be prohibitive in terms of both cost and
time.
3.8 INDIRECT METHODS USED ON THE SURFACE—GEOPHYSICAL SURVEYING
A combination of drilling to demonstrate the vertical sequence and composition of the measures and
the geophysical surveying to indicate the degree of continuity and the conditions of the measures over a
wider area gives the three-dimensional picture of the ground to be mined. It must, however, be understood
that geophysical methods record only the one or two physical aspects of the ground that each method is
designed to record. For example, gravity contrast surveys record only contrasts in density of the strata;
electrical surveys, electrical contrasts; seismic surveys, seismic contrasts and so on. Some of the methods
which have been tried out for coal exploration are given below;
1. Electrical resistivity
2. Gravitational method
3. Seismic method, and
4 Magnetic method,

3.8.1 Earth's Resistivity Surveying

The greatest variable among the electrical characteristics of the earth is its resistivity. The resistivity
of a completely dry rock will be infinite (except for a few metallic ores), but in nature, rocks contain water
which provides the conducting medium for electrical current. The resistivity of the rock will thus be
dependent on the amount of water in it, which in turn, depends on the porosity of the rock, and also on the
composition of this water as far as it affects the electrical properties.
The resistivity of the ground is measured by passing a current supplied by a hand-driven generator
through the earth via two electrodes while the potential across two other electrodes is balanced on a
galvanometer against the potential produced by an auxiliary winding on the generator. The potential from
the auxiliary winding is applied to the deflection coil of an ohmmeter, and the current to the control coil,
giving a direct reading in ohms.
The most popular electrode configuration is that due to Wenner in which the four electrodes are
equidistant and co-linear, the two outer ones being current electrodes and the two inner ones potential
electrodes. If the electrode interval is 'a' cm and the ohmmeter reading 'R1 ohms then the resistivity ρ of a
homogeneous earth would be ρ = 2 π a R Ohms - cm
In practice, this quantity is known as the apparent resistivity. This electrode set-up may be applied to
geological problems in two different ways, the first being analogous to boring and the second to traversing.
The first method is known as depth probing and in this the electrodes are arranged symmetrically about a
point and readings are taken as the electrodes are expanded outwards from this point which remains at the
centre of the system. As electrodes are expanded, deeper layers are included in the resistivity
determinations, and by plotting apparent resistivity against electrode interval one can obtain a curve which
represents the change of resistivity with depth. Interpretation of this curve will give the depth and resistivity
of horizontal layers provided there are no more than two or three layers and there are only small variations
laterally. The traversing method is designed to elucidate changes in resistivity in a horizontal direction by
moving the electrodes bodily forward, maintaining the electrode interval constant. There are two variations
of this method — longitudinal traversing wherein the line of electrodes is parallel to the lines of traverse and
transverse traversing in which the line of-electrodes is perpendicular to the line of traversing.
Depth of probing is used to determine depth of alluvium or surface drift, whilst traversing may be
useful in the delineation of buried channels or in proving large faults and dykes. Resistivity surveys will
give valuable preliminary information and will indicate where boreholes may be put down to obtain the
maximum information and will invariably reduce the number of boreholes (Burnett, 1955).
3.8.2 Gravitational Method
The gravitational methods are useful to search for coal, oil, natural gas, salt, ores, etc. In this method
gravity variations are measured using either a pendulum, torsion balance or gravimeter. The values of
gravity 'g' can be determined at various points of the surface by a pendulum and these values are plotted on
a map showing lines of equal gravitational force.
As a result of unequal distribution of different types of rock mass with substantially different
specific gravities, value of 'g' differs from the normal for a particular latitude and this is called gravity
anormaly. Where there in a mass of higher density than the surrounding rock, a 'gravity high' or positive
anormaly will be registered and vice-versa. This enables detection of structural differences. It is not
necessary to know the absolute value of *g', a knowledge of the variations in the direction and magnitude of
the attractive force as a result of variation in densities is sufficient to discern the rock types. These
differences are measured by the torsion balance. Coal has relatively small density in comparison with its
surroundings and so the gravitation method might be expected to be suitable for locating coal deposits. A
very thick coal seam may be detected by the diminution in the gravitational force. Either the faulted edges
of the deposit or the outcrop area will be very easily detected. Where, however, folding occurs the
gravitational effect of folding may mask that of coal seams. In cases, where the coal seam is inclined, it may
be detected even if it does not outcrop.
A gravimeter is a light weight instrument which can measure very small differences in 'g' to 0.01
milligals (I milligal - 0.001 cm/sec/sec.). By the use of this instrument small changes in gravity of structures
in coal measures can be detected.
3.8.3 Seismic Method
The seismic methods are of two types: (1) the seismic reflection method, and (ii) the seismic
refraction method. The seismic reflection method has been used as a tool for the detailed mapping of the
subsurface because of its high resolving power. In British coalfields, by seismic reflection method in 85 %
of the cases faults upwards of 15 m throw have been located and in half the cases faults above 7.5 m throw.
The plotting of the faulting detected depends very much on the spacing of grid lines. A 0.8-2.4 km spacing
would be most suitable for coalfields (Rees, 1975).
The seismic refraction method was developed in 1920 as a prospecting tool and was originally used
for the location of salt domes and then for the profiling of different horizons at depth (Brown and
Robertshaw, 1953, Domzalski, 1953; Drysdale, 1956). This method is based upon the fact that the speed of
propagation of elastic waves varies in different geological formations and consequently the procedure in the
field involves the determination of these velocities. The elastic waves are generated by the detonation of an
explosive charge at a shot-point. The waves are picked up at observation points along a straight line through
the shot-point by means of seismometers in which the vibrations are transformed into electric oscillations.
These are conducted by means of insuluted cables to a central recording station where they are amplified
and photographically recorded on a sensitised paper. Time lines at intervals of 0.002 sec., produced by a
very accurate tuning-fork timing device, are simultaneously recorded with the instant of the explosion. From
this record or seismogram the time which elapses between the shot instant and the arrival of first impulses at
the observation stations can be accurately determined. The traval-times;are plotted as functions of the
distances between the shot-point and the travel time graph. If the formation is horizontally stratified, the
travel-time graph consists of a number of straight lines which intersect each other. The slope of these lines
indicates the velocity of propagation of the elastic waves in the corresponding layers in the ground. For
dipping layers apparent velocities are obtained from which the true velocities can be calculated. The
velocities thus obtained allow conclusions to be drawn regarding the material of the individual layers. The
depth to the interfaces between the layers can be calculated or obtained by graphical methods.
3.8.4 Magnetic Surveying
The magnetic methods of geophysical surveying depends on local variations in earth's magnetic field
due to changes in the magnetic susceptibility of rocks, and this in turn is governed by the percentage of
ferro-magnetic minerals in the composition of the rocks.
The practical unit of magnetic intensity used in geophysical surveying is the gamma which is
1/1,00,000th part of the oersted, (a magnetic field is having the strength of one oersted when it exerts a force
of one dyne on a unit magnetic pole). The usual surveying practice is to make traverse at right angles to the
strike of the feature taking readings at intervals, and thereafter to plot these in profile. In other cases it is
often preferable to take readings at points on a grid in order to plot contours of equal vertical force.

3.9 EXPLORATION IN DEVELOPED AREAS

The means available for exploration in underground working are (Barnsley and Rix, 1975):
(i) Worked seams
1. Cross-measure drivages
2. Advance faces
3. Retreat faces.
(ii) Unworked seams
1. Wireline drilling
2. Rock-bit drilling.
3.9.1 Worked Seams
Cross-measure drivages
They provide some additional information when examined in detail but it is hard to detect the
smaller geological details.
Advance faces
An advance face, particularly, when it is the first face in an area, provides new geological facts by
contacting them during production operations. By recording these a geologist can be able to extrapolate it
on to adjacent planned faces but unless successful proving operations are carried out, he will only be able to
guess at the extent of the disturbances.
Retreat faces
These provide the best possible conditions to assess any difficulty likely to be encountered during
production operations on the face. The in-seam roadways required to establish a retreat face provide access
to observe in detail the behaviour of the seam and its immediate floor and roof over continuous section of
several hundred metres in a single visit, and enable sections to be taken for analysis of any unusual features
in the coal. Contours, dips, etc., are readily obtained from observations taken by the colliery surveyor.

3.9.2 Unworked Seams

In many developed areas there are worked seams which must be worked to meet the future energy
requirement. But often full details of the seam characters, the roof and floor and their lateral variation is not
easy to determine since the study of many of those characters requires that samples be obtained and
analysed or tested. To speed up underground drilling operations for exploration, the following developments
have taken place.
Wireline drilling
In this method, the core barrel is recovered through the drill rods by means of a steel rope, thus
avoiding the time consuming process of withdrawing and uncoupling the drill rods which is necessary in
conventional drilling.
Rockbit drilling
In cases where a sample for analysis is not essential, a borehole drilled by rock-bit and then logged
by a suitable device gives adequate information. Methane drainage holes can sometimes be used for this
purpose, provided they have a diameter of over 51 mm and are inclined downwards at a high angle. The
device records natural gamma-ray and density logs. A device developed by MRDE in cooperation with
British Plasterboard Industries can reach a depth of 183m. The equipment contains a small radioactive
source and, therefore, there are certain formalities to be complied with before it can be taken underground.
The device has been successfully used in Staffordshire Area. In addition to eliminating the need for coring
in some types of investigations, it is an extremely valuable 'back-up' facility for checking seam thickness in
cases where full recovery of cores has not been obtained.

3.9.3 Underground Seismic Reflection

In-seam Radar and seismic techniques could be utilized to explore ground ahead of the working
face. Radar actually works up to 30 m or so in front of a face. (Rees, 1975), whereas one would like to know
the ground up to 305 m or so. But the trouble is that when using the scam as a seismic wave guide, the pulse
echoes are spread out in transit and form a "group of spread" which travels at different speeds from the
normal echo received from strata above and below and no satisfactory means of filtering them exist and all
in-seam seismic records look confusing.

3.10 CORRELATION AND PORTRAYAL OF STRUCTURE

The sinking, development and equipment of a large modern pit is so costly today, that the reserves of
coal available must be substantial before sinking can be justified. Reliable knowledge of the geological
structure of the area is also necessary to locate a favourable sinking site and to enable the arterial roads
being planned to the best advantage. In order to envisage the main locomotive routes to the pit bottom, the
available reserves in each seam should be delineated within reasonable limits—both vertically and
horizontally. Information regarding the probable depth and dip of the workable seams is also vital in order
to trace the estimated coal seam contours. The depth and trend of these contours will govern the position of
horizons and layouts of the laterals, crosscuts and staple pits to work the seams. To enable this important
phase of the work to be planned on scientific lines, a complete picture of the geological structure in all its
aspects is a basic requirement.
The majority of the problems of a geologic nature, met with in coal mines, can be solved
satisfactorily by correct identification and correlations of the seams and associated sediments. In mines of
normal dimensions with no major disruptions the rocks may be correlated by reference to their lithe-logic
character and their stratigraphic sequence.
Since coal seams occur almost invariably in coal measures these formations constitute an ideal
stratigraphic guide.
A reliable correlation of the principal coal seams in an area is an essential preliminary to any
elucidation of coalfield structure and also to many aspects of the origin of coal. Although the thickness of
the key seam may vary, it still forms a valuable datum or horizon for correlation work. However, the
composition and rank of the seams may vary across the coalfield but these changes are not variable within
the boundaries of one colliery.
Borehole data give useful information to correlate rock formations. The various methods which may
be employed for correlating the borehole samples are: (i) comparison of lithologic characters by
macroscopic and/or microscopic examination; (ii) by micro-palaeontology; (iii) by examination of elastic
grains or of heavy mineral grains, and (iv) by water analysis.
Having identified the principal rock groups or distinctive bands, these can then be linked up from
hole to hole and the geological structure gradually built up as borehole evidence accumulates.
If boreholes are judiciously positioned, accurately surveyed and the samples properly diagnosed, the
structure can then be portrayed with reasonable exactitude and possibly "new" faults or other deformities
may be disclosed. Sometimes additional boreholes are necessary to give the three dimensional picture of the
structure in depth. But as boring becomes deeper, the elucidation of structure becomes more complicated,
due partly to unexpected deformation at depth and also to the difficulties of controlling drilling at such
depths.
 There are some geologic structure which need special consideration. In the correlation of structures,
intersecting perhaps several mines, their width or magnitude, attitude (dip), trend and alignment are all
important. For example, it is possible to correlate faults and folds, structures of major continuity and
alignment, by their trend and attitude. The strike and dip of a fault, as observed along exposures in the mine
or elsewhere, are used in determining the continuity of the structure. Other avidences such as the striae,
width and nature of clay or fault breccia should also prove useful. In fact, these features are viewed as
fundamental criteria in correlation together with those of trend and attitude. In undeveloped regions, the
degree of sinuosity of the fault trace on •he surface offers a clue to the dip of the fault. The traces of high-
angle fault are more or less straight as observed on a geologic map of that region, whereas low angle fault
usually are sinuous in their traces and are more amenable to topography.
When complex faulting structure is intersected underground, the amount and direction of
displacement may be determined by structure considerations and correlation.
A more intelligent and practical approach to faulting problems is based on the axiom that 'older
rocks are in the relatively upthrow side of the fault'. Therefore, the problem resolves itself to one of
identification and correlation of the dislocated strata. The seam is then recovered by driving in the indicated
direction of displacement (Figure 3.16). But there are exceptions to this rule. For example, if the fault dips
in the same direction as the displaced beds, but at a lesser angle, the older rocks are not on the relatively
upthrow side of the fault block; in fact, the converse would be true. Similarly if the strata had been inverted
before being faulted, then the interpretation would be on the converse, though the axiom would still be true
in principle (Nelson. 1954).

Figure 3.17: Portrayal of structure and

correlation in faulted zones. (After Nelson, 1954)

A knowledge of the relative geologic structure is frequently helpful in their diagnosis. For example,
in the case of faults it can be demonstrated that if a given fault displaces particular feature, that fault is
obviously 'younger' than those features which it has dislocated. Each subsequent fault develops
displacement of previously formed structures. If the relative ages of the major fractures can be determined
in this manner, the complex structure may be solved progressively by "unfaulting", the area or in other
words, by replacing the fault blocks in their original and undisturbed positions. In some cases a graphical or
block method may be applicable, wherein the rocks are free to move into any position along the fault
surface or plane.
Boreholes put down in virgin coal measures may penetrate faults at depth which are unmapped and
which give no surface indications of their presence. In such areas, portions of the normal stratigraphic
sections may be repeated or on the other hand may be missing in certain boreholes. A rational understanding
of the strata repetitions or ommissions is essential for structural portrayal and this rests almost wholly on an
accurate correlation of the cores and borehole samples. For example, Figure 3.17 is a vertical section of
inclined coal measure strata which have been displaced by a reverse fault 'XY' at deeper depths; the fault
'XY' dies out upward. The normal succession of the strata is shown in borehole 'D' with coal seam I, II and
III in descending order. Bore 'A has missed seam I and bore 'B1 has passed through seam III twice.
In this case the structure may be wrongly protrayed as indicated by the dotted lines if the seams are
not correctly identified and correlated. Borehole 'B' is critical. A correct correlation of the lower seams
proved in bore 'A' with the third and fourth seams in bore 'B1 would elucidate the fault line and repetion of
seam III. Similarly, the establishment of the fact that the third and fourth seam in bore 'B' were identical will
disclose the presence of a reverse fault.

3.11 ESTIMATION OF COAL RESERVES

Estimation of coal reserves is one of the most important objectives of exploration. The success of a
mining enterprise is dependent on how reliable the coal reserve estimates are. In India, reserve estimates are
based on the guidelines provided in the Indian Standard Procedure for coal reserve estimation.
 The basis of calculations of all coal reserve is the geological map and the data available from the
same. The latest available geological map should, therefore, be used in each case.
Reserves are reported according to (A) the amount of overburden on the coal; (B) according to the
depth from the surface, and (C) according to the thickness of the seams as given below;
A. Ratio of overburden: Coal
1. For the ratio of thickness of coal seam/seams: thickness of overburden =1:1
2. For the ratio of thickness of coal seam/seams: thickness of overburden = 1:2
3. For the ratio of thickness of coal seam/seams: thickness of overburden =1:3
4. For the ratio of thickness of coal seam/seams: thickness of overburden =1:4
5. For the ratio of thickness of coal seam/seams: thickness of overburden =1:5
B. Depth of the seam from the surface
1. Zero metres to 150 m
2. > 150 metres to 300m
3. > 300 metres to 600 m
4. > 600 metres to 1200m
C. Thickness of the coal seams
(a) 0.5 m to 1.5 m
(b) >1.5mto 3.5 m
(c) >3.5 m to 5.0 m and
(d) >5 m to 10 m
(e) Above 10 m
In arriving at the figures within the specified limits of overburden and depth of the seam, the
dislocation caused by faults should be taken into account and their effects eliminated while delineating the
sectors under different categories for the purpose of calculations.
Reserves in virgin seams are calculated in the case of flat seams on the basis of area, the thickness of
the coal seams and in the case of seams dipping at an angle greater than 5°, the product obtained by
multiplying the area and thickness of the seam is multiplied by the secant of the dip of the seams. In
computing thickness of the seams, all bands (if they exist in the seam) in excess of 5 cm are excluded and
only seams 0.5 m and above are taken into computation. Seams less than 0.5 m thick are ignored.
The cubic content of the coal seams as calculated above are converted into tonnage by multiplying
the cubic content by the density of coal seams. Table 3.4 gives the specific gravities for different classes of
coal.
Table 3.4: Specific gravity of different classes of coals

Type of coal Class of Definition of Class Specific

coal gravity
A. Low or medium Class I Ash not exceeding 17 % 1.40
volatile coal or Class II Ash exceeding 17 % but not exceeding 24 % 1.47
coking coals Class III Ash exceeding 24 % but not exceeding 35 % 1.57
Class IV Ash exceeding 35 % but not exceeding 50 % 1.70
B. High volatile high Class I Ash and moisture not exceeding 19 % 1.40
moisture coals Class II Ash and moisture exceeding 19 % but not exceeding 28 % 1.45
Class III Ash and moisture exceeding 28 % but not exceeding 40 % 1.55
Class IV Ash exceeding 40 % 1.70
C. High sulphur coals - Ash content 0-5% 1.30
- Ash content 5-10% 1.34
- Ash content 10-15 % 1.38
D. Unclassified coals - - 1 .50
(assumed)
The reserves for each individual seam in a sector or part of the coalfield are given separately. Both
in situ and recoverable reserves are estimated for each seam separately. For estimating recoverable reserve
the following losses in working are deducted from the in situ reserve.
1. Losses due to geological features;
2. Losses due to coal locked below rivers, railways, roads, etc.,
3. Coal lost in barriers, and
4. Mining losses.
In a working mine, the coefficient of recovery can be estimated by the total production obtained and
the area worked out. But where no reliable data are available the recovery may be assumed to be 50 % of
the minerable coal reserve. Estimation of reserves in workings mines is rather easy as the coefficient of
recovery can be fairly accurately determined
Figure 3.18 (Nithak, 1984) shows the procedure for calculating the production reserves as followed
in West Germany. In this calculation the following losses are excluded from the geological reserve:
1. Losses due to the abandonment of unworkable areas for quality reasons on account of high faults
intensity, poor seam structures, etc.
2. Losses due to the layout of the panel geometry: losses in the barriers, etc.
3. Tectonic losses.
 4. Losses due to the abandonment of areas which are not economically workable.

Figure 3.18: Procedure for establishing production reserves (After Nithack, 1984)

3.11.1 Classification of Coal Reserves

According to Indian Standard Procedure the coal reserves are classified in three classes; (i) Proved
reserve; (ii) Indicated reserve, and (iii) Inferred reserve. The basis for this classification is the relative
reliability of the coal reserve data obtained by different techniques.
Proved reserves
In this case the reserves are estimated from dimensions revealed in outcrops, trenches, mine
workings, and boreholes and the extension of the same for a reasonable distance not exceeding 200 m on
geological evidence. Where little or no exploratory work has been done and where the outcrop exceeds one
kilometer in length, another line drawn roughly 200 m from the outcrop will define a block of coal that may
be regarded as proved on the basis of geological evidence.
Indicated reserves
In the case of indicated reserves the points of observations are 1,000 metre apart but may be up to
2,000 metre apart for beds of known geological continuity. Thus a line drawn 1.000 to 2,000 metres in from
the outcrop will demarcate a block of coal to be regarded as indicated.
Inferred reserves
This refers to coal for which quantitative estimates are based largely on broad knowledge of the
geological character of the bed, but for which there are no measurements. The estimates are based on an
assumed continuity for which there is geological evidence, and more than 1,000 to 2,000 m in from the
outcrop.
3.11.2 Reserve and Risk
The factors affecting the reserve estimates fall into two categories (i) the natural geology of the
seams and their associated rocks, and (ii) the economic or engineering factors which control their
exploitability. The reliability of the reserve estimates will, therefore, depend on the accuracy in our
knowledge of the above two factors.
There are two aspects of natural geology and associated strata; e.g., (i) stratigraphic environment,
and (ii) tectonic setting. The Stratigraphic environment includes the following: (I) the nature and variation
of seam thickness; (ii) dirts bands; (iii) floor and roof beds; (iv) hardness and chemical analysis; (v) local
depositional wants; and (vi) strata containing gas and water, etc. The Tectonic setting includes the following:
(i) the direction and variation of dip, and (ii) the position, and intensity of faults (both major and minor),
joints and cleats. All these affect exploitation of the seam.
The exploration and estimation has to be sa designed as to reduce the uncertainties of the quantity,
and quality of the coal deposits and the natural geology of coal seams to the barest minimum. Provided the
technology for mining such deposits exists it should be reasonably correct to assume that the assessment of
the reserve is reliable and the risk factor has been reduced to the minimum. It is unlikely that the various
parts of the reserve field will be equally suitable for economic working or be of similar geological status.
All the same, a knowledge of their relative value and reliability is required in order to select the optimum
balance of production units. Since the value of the reserve and the balance can change within short period of
time specially in these days of fast changing technologies, detailed knowledge of only such areas which is
scheduled to be worked in the near future, say within five years is needed. It will be sufficient if details of
the other bulk of reserve is well known to justify their inclusion in the first category of reserve and a less
detailed knowledge of the reserve is required which will support the long-term requirements. It may be
emphasised here that the process of appraisal of reserves must be constantly continued when the mine is
working so that unforeseens are not encountered and this is how risk factor commonly associated with
mining can be reduced. For every reserve which is put in class I, (i) the workability of the seams must have
been established in similar geological environment, and (ii) the geologic uncertainties must have been
reduced to such a degree that unforeseen changes are not likely to materially affect the planned rate of
extraction, the quality of the product nor the quantity of the reserve,.
Geological risks — their prediction and reduction in mining operations The modern mechanised
coal faces are highly capital intensive; about ISO to 200 million rupees are needed to equip 130-150 m-long
mechanised longwall faces with powered supports. They, therefore, must run smoothly and continuously. To
ensure their uninterrupted operation the geological risks must be foreseen and contingent action taken. Table
3.5 lists the coalfaces and roadways problems (Elliott, 1974). The general problems encountered are: fail of
roof, excessive weighting, excessive convergence, floor heave, hard roof, soft floor, local seam undulation,
seam thinning, inferior scams, intrusions, hard abrasive rocks, large strong debris, steep gradients, gumming
up, corrosion, nuisance water, flooding oil shows, gas emissions, high temperature sparking, excessive dust,
convergence in roadways and bend in the face. The mine geologist has to foresee these problems and advise
the manager on the action to reduce the risk. The approach to the problem can be as below;
(a) determine the plan to be analysed; and obtain seam layout, action programme and proposed face
design,
(b) focus on the critical parts of the plan; list coalfaces and any drivages likely to meet significant
hazards.
(c) anticipate potential production difficulties and specify their causes,
(d) asses the threat of each difficulty in terms of likelihood and seriousness,
(e) recommend preventive actions which modify the plan in a way intended to reduce or eliminate
the likelihood of specific difficulties arising,
(f) recommend contingent actions to reduce the seriousness of the effects of potential difficulties
likely to remain after the plan has been revised under (e) above.
(g) management assesses which preventive and contingent actions are economic.
(h) layout and action programme revision is implemented in accordance with decisions under (g),
(i) facilities are provided for the implementation of the contingent actions if and when necessary, in
accordance with decision under (g),
(j) lay on the means of review of critical underground zones where contingent action may be
required and also the means of getting that action in motion, and
(k) contingent action is implemented if it becomes necessary.

Table 3.5: Coalface and roadway problems (After Elliot, 1974)

Potential difficulties General problem Some geological causes

1. Mechanical Bend on face Many of the causes listed below when affectinq one part
inefficiency or strain of the face
2. Operations (i) Fall of roof Combination of natural joints or faults and induced
impeded; clearance breaks; seat earths; naturally disturbed and distorted
gives, somewhat roofs; each especially in mudstone.
reduced vend (ii) Excessive Sandstone with widely spaced joints or joints set at
Weighing obtuse angle to the face.
(iii) Excessive Well developed natural joints or other breaks parallel to
converaence the face.
(iv) Floor heave Thick mudstone or fine siltstone seat-earth in zone of
compression
Floor heave As for 2 (IV)
3. Coal getting
machine slowed down;
vend significantly
reduced:
(a) machine tilted Floor heave As for 2 (iv)
towards face cutting (i) Hard-roof Sandstone, siltstone washout or sill, or 'quartz larger', in
more floor top part of the seam
(b) machine cutting at (ii) Soft floor Mudstone, seat-earth, especially if weakened by water
a lower horizon than (iii) More roof coal As for 2 (i)
planned and cutting required
floor 'dirt' at least (iv) Local seam Topography upon which seam was deposited,
along part of the face undulations differential compaction; small faults and folds
(v) Seam thinning Thinning regionally or over a palaeotopographic high
such as a 'swilley' bank
4. Efficiency of gate- (i) Hard abrasive rock Sandstone; well cemented silts tone and sandstone
and, or face machinery (ii) Large strong debris Rocks with few fractures; the thicker sandstones; well
reduced cemented rock masses
 (iii) Steep gradient Flank of anticlines; monoclines associated with faults
(iv) "Gumming up" Mudstone softened by water
(v) Corrosion Alkaline water, drained by induced strata movements or
direct tapping, from faults of natural joints leading to
reservoir rock
5. Environmental (i) Nuisance water Small quantities derived as for 4 (V)
hazard (ii) Flooding Large quantities of water ususally derived from surface
or near-surface deposits
(iii) Oil shows Small quantities usually derived from sandstone
reservoirs as for water; 4 (V)
(iv) Gas emissions Released from coal by mining, via induced or open
fractures, particularly in mudstones and fine siltstones.
(v) High temperature Rocks with high quartz content; sandstones; coarse
sparking siltstones with sand content, "quartz-larger"
(vi) Excessive dust Often as for 5 (v)
6. Inadequate access Convergence in Incompetent strata, usually thick mudstones with many
to working area roadways surfaces of weakness, especially in the deeper mines.

The following measures may be built in the exploration programmes to prevent or reduce the
potential difficulties:
1. Drilling boreholes to locate significant geological features.
2. Development preparatory to retreat working including blocking-out by headings to locate
significant geological features.
3. Drilling
(a) to locate horizons beyond unpredkted faulting or other incompletely known features;
(b) to check approach of cross-measure drift to new seam;
(c) to check cover below water bearing strata, superficial deposit, etc., and
(d) to check width of unpredicted barren ground.
The above exploration if systematically done, will enable arriving at appropriate layout, selection of
coal getting machines and equipment, support system and rate of advance, etc., and a successful risk
reduction can be established.