Behaviour of Reactive Powder Concrete Columns without Steel Ties

Adnan R. Malikl and Stephen J. Foster2

In this paper, an experimental and numerical investigation of six steel fibre reinforced reactive powder concrete (RPC)
columns with 150 mrn square cross sections is reported. The columns were tested in either concentric or eccentric com-
pression with varying initial eccentricities. The RPC mix contained 2% (by volume) of 0.2 mm diameter by 13 mrn long
straight steel fibres with concrete strengths ranging from 140 to 155 MPa. The columns contained either 4% or 7% of
longitudinal reinforcement but no tie reinforcement in the test region. Experimental data on the axial load and lateral
and axial deformations was obtained for each test, together with the failure mode. All the columns failed in a controlled
manner without observing spalling of concrete cover or buckling of the longitudinal reinforcement to well beyond the
peak load. The columns were further modelled using the finite element (FE) software DIANA, the results from which
reasonably correlate to test data.

During the past two decades, significant improvements

have been made in the physical and mechanical proper-
ties of reinforced concrete; high strength concrete
(HSC) is now being used in many parts of the world.
Many studies have demonstrated the economy of using
HSC in columns of high-rise buildings, as well as low
and mid rise buildings. It is shown in a number of stud-
ies (Cusson and Paultre, 1994; Foster and Attard, 1997;
Saatcioglu and Razvi, 1998; Liu et al., 2000) that the
failure of HSC columns is usually brittle and is charac-
terized by early spalling of the concrete cover (Foster et
a/., 1998; Foster, 200 I). After separation of the cover
concrete from the section, the load drops significantly
(Saatcioglu and Razvi, 1993; Cusson and Paultre, 1994).
Tests by Paultre et at. (1996), Foster and Attard (2001)
and Zaina and Foster (2005), amongst others, have
shown that the use of steel fibres in the mix design can
improve the ductility ofHSC columns. RPC is a special
concept for high performance concretes, whereby duc-
tility is achieved through incorporation of a large con-
tent of metallic fibres (Richard and Cheyrezy, 1994).
The inclusion of fibres delays the dilation of concrete by
acting as crack arresters and, thus, helps indirectly in
confinement of concrete under compressive loads.
In this study, six square RPC columns containing two
percent by volume of steel fibres are tested under con-
centric and eccentric loading. The columns had longitu-
dinal reinforcement but no tie reinforcement in the test-
ing region. The results of the tests and corresponding
1 Structural Design Engineer, Woolacotts Consulting
Engineers, Sydney, Australia.
E-mail: amalik@woolacotts.com.au
2Professor, Centre for Infrastructure Engineering and
Safety, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
The University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia.
2.1 Test specimens
Six fibre reinforced RPC columns of 150 mrn square
cross-section were constructed. Each end of the columns
was haunched to prevent premature failure at the col-
umn ends and to allow for eccentric loading to be ap-
plied. The longitudinal reinforcement consisted of either
eight 12 mm or eight 16 mm diameter hot rolled de-
formed (N-grade) bars giving steel reinforcement ratios
of 4.0% and 7.1%, respectively. No tie reinforcement
was used in the test region in any of the columns. The
concrete cover was 15 mm.
The columns are designated as RPCI to RPC6. The
columns RPCI, RPC2 and RPC3 contained eight 16
mm diameter (N 16) longitudinal bars and were tested
under an initial eccentricity of 20, 8 and 0 mm, respec-
tively. The columns RPC4, RPC5 and RPC6 contained
eight 12 mm diameter (N12) longitudinal bars and were
tested under an initial eccentricity of 20, 8 and 0 mrn,
respectively. The specimen dimensions, reinforcement
arrangements and loading plate arrangement are pre-
sented in Fig. 1.
2.2 RPC materials
The constituent materials making up the RPC were as
follows: 1050 kg/m3 Kandos Type I general Portland
cement manufactured to AS3972 (1997); 221 kg/m3 of
undensified silica fume produced in Western Australia;
and 795 kg/m3 of Sydney sand with particle size range
between 150 /lm and 400 /lm. The steel fibres used were
13 mm long by 0.2 mrn diameter straight fibres with a
tensile strength of 1800 MPa. Glenium 51 super-
plasticizer was used to improve the flow of the RPC mix
and the water-binder ratio was 0.17.
2.3 Concrete mixing and properties
All the dry constituents of the RPC were batched by an I 300 't

electronic balance. The dry constituents were then

mixed in a horizontal pan concrete mixer for about 10 ~rrn
minutes. Water and superplasticizer were mixed and ~4@40
added gradual1y until the materials were uniformly
mixed. The fibres were introduced last, dispersed uni-
formly using a sieve and mixed for a further 10 minutes.
The mixing procedures proved satisfactory in that the N 16 for RPC I, RPC2, RPC3
N 12 for RPC4, RPC5, RPC6
dispersion of fibres were found to be uniform and there
was no evidence of fibre balling. Flow table tests as per
ASTM C230 were undertaken before casting of the
specimens to assure that the fibre reinforced concrete ~
mix had achieved a flow of between 160 and 220 mm
for the selected mix.
Compression strength tests were undertaken on
200 mm high by lOa mm diameter cylinders with three
°[0"
V) • •

[
cylinders tested from each batch. The tensile strength
(fdp) was determined using a standard double punch test
on 200 mm high by 100 mm diameter cylinders using a
pair of 25 mm high by 25 mm diameter rigid circular I
I e
steel punches on the top and bottom surfaces of the ~
specimens (see Fig. 2). The tensile strength was then
determined using the Chen and Yuan (1980) equation.
The flexural tensile strengths (fcr) were obtained from
lOa x 100 mm high
notched three point bending tests. The specimens used
strength steel pin ---
in this test were 100 mm square prisms spanning
400 mm with a notch depth of being 25 mm. The
notches were formed by a 3 mm wide saw cut across the ~
full width of the specimen. The specimens were counter 200 x 200 x 70 mm
balanced to eliminate the effect of the self-weight on the high strength steel
fracture measurement. The notched specimens were plate
controlled using the crack mouth opening displacement
(CMOD). The control specimen properties are given in
Table 1 where Ec is the Young modulus of elasticity, v is
the Poisson's ratio,fcm is the mean cylinder compressive
strength and Gf is the fracture energy. Figure 3 presents (b) Details of loading plates and bearing pins
a typical stress strain curve obtained from testing a Fig. 1 Specimen details and loading plate arrangement.
200 mm high by 100 mm diameter RPC cylinder cast
with specimen RPCI. Figure 4 shows a typical graph
for load versus CMOD for the RPC mix.

2.4 Steel reinforcement

The reinforcement used for the longitudinal steel con-
sisted of 12 mm diameter (N12) or 16 mm diameter
(N16) bars with a nominal yield strength of 500 MPa.
The deformed steel bars were tested for the yield
strengthfsy (taken as the 0.2% proof stress), modulus of
elasticity Es and ultimate tensile strength fsu' The rein-
forcing steel properties are presented in Table 2 and the
stress-strain curves for the reinforcement used are
shown in Fig. 5.

2.5 Fabrication
The columns were cast in reusable steel forms and, due
to the limited capacity of the concrete mixer, each col-
Fig. 2 Experimental setup for double punch tensile
umn was cast separately. To reinforce each haunch, four
strength test.
N12 comer bars were cut to length and shaped to the
haunches. Two sizes of 4 mm diameter wire ties (W4) 160

used in the end haunches were fabricated and delivered 140

to the testing laboratory; 120 mm square ties and 270 x
120 mm ties. Additional ties for the transition regions ~ 120
os
Il.
were fabricated and fitted on site. No ties were placed in ~ 100
the central test region of the specimens (see Fig. la). VI
VI
The steel cages were tied together and placed in the 80
~
moulds with 15 mm clear cover to the longitudinal rein- u;
os 60
forcement.
~ 40
2.6 Instrumentation and casting
20
After fabricating the reinforcement cages, 6 mm diame-
ter steel lugs, used to measure axial strains in the rein- 0
forcement, were welded onto the comer longitudinal ~.03 ~.02 ~.01
bars. Strains and curvatures at the mid-height of the
columns were calculated from the change in displace-
ments measured between the lugs using linear variable
displacement transducers (LVDTs). An additional LVDT
was placed at the mid length of the specimens to meas-
ure lateral deflections. The locations of LVDTs used to
measure deformation are shown in Fig. 6.

2.7 Testing procedure

The columns were tested vertically in a stiff testing
frame. For the eccentrically loaded tests, high strength
steel pins and bearing plates were placed at the desired
eccentricity at each column end to allow free rotation of
the ends and to distribute the load (see Fig. Ib). For the
concentrically loaded columns, the rotational pins were 4 6 8
removed from the test setup. CMOD(mm)
Testing was undertaken using a closed loop servo-
control system. The lateral displacement was used as the
control for the eccentrically loaded specimens and the
axial displacement, via LVDTl (see Fig. 6b), for the
concentrically loaded specimens. Undertaking this pro-
cedure enabled the descending load curves of the RPC
columns to be obtained. The test was started under ram Bar diameter fsy !su Es
displacement control to 40% of the predicted column (mm) (MPa) (MPa) (GPa)
capacity. This allowed a check on the electronic data 16 552 646 202
acquisition system that was used for recording the data
input and to monitor the behaviour of the test control 12 545 635 199
parameter. When all indicators showed that the system
was operating within control limits, control was trans-
ferred to either the axial strain at a rate of 2 mm/hr for

Specimen fcm V
Ec fdp f cf Flow Gf
(MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (mm) (N/mm)
RPCl 155 0.12 44150 7.8 15.3 195 10.8
RPC2 153 0.09 41670 6.9 35.6 195 32.8
RPC3 154 0.12 41600 7.6 10 210 21.5

RPC4 152 0.10 39920 7.4 18.6 175 12.9

RPC5 140 0.12 40140 7.5 23.2 185 19.1
RPC6 154 0.11 43370 7.7 28 195 22.7
the concentrically loaded columns or lateral deflection
control, at a rate of 10 mm/hr, for eccentrically loaded
columns. The testing of the columns is shown in Fig. 7. The peak loads (P,,), moments at peak load (M,,) and
corresponding lateral displacements at the mid height of
the specimen (Llmid), axial displacement measured over
the full height of the specimen (Lla<ial), initial target load
eccentricities and the actual initial eccentricities as post
evaluated from the LYDTs data are presented in Table 3.
~ 600
c..'" For the eccentrically loaded columns, the failure of
::E the specimens was initiated by crushing of concrete at
- 450
the extreme compressive fibre at approximately the
~
iil 300 mid-hight of the specimens. With increasing displace-
•• ment further cracking appeared while existing cracks
~ 150 widened. When the peak load was reached one or more
cracks in the critical zone (in compression) widened and,
with increasing lateral deflection, tensile cracks were
observed. Finally the columns failed by crushing of con-
crete.
Figure 8 shows the failure zone and failure type for
specimen RPC I and is typical of the eccentrically
loaded columns. During the tests, the sound of popping
~ 600
of fibres pulling out of concrete could be heard. How-
~
::E ever, no loud noises were heard during the failure of the
- 450
RPC columns for the eccentrically loaded columns. For
~
iil 300 the concentrically loaded columns, the initiation of fail-
•• ure was sudden with the appearance of one or two major
~ 150 cracks near the peak load. The cracks widened as the
testing continued. The concrete cover region did not
spall for any of the tests (eccentric and concentric) and
there was no evidence of buckling of the longitudinal
reinforcement. The load versus mid-height lateral de-
(b) N16 deformed bars flection diagrams for the eccentrically loaded columns
Fig. 5 Stress-strain curves of reinforcing steel. is presented in Fig. 9. In Fig. 10 the curves for load ver-
sus axial strain (measured using LYOTl) are plotted for
the eccentric and concentrically loaded specimens.

axis of
rotation

Lvon
LVDT2
m I

LVOTI
L VOT4
LVOT5

Section A-A LYDTl (used to

control the ram
movement)
Fig. 7 Observed behaviour of RPC columns: (a) eccentrically loaded column at the start; (b) during the test and (c) con-
centrically loaded column.

-1 Target Initial Eccentricity

Specimen
P II i1mid I M" i1a<ial
eccentricity
I LVDTs
(k ) (mm) (kNm) (mm)
(mm) (mm)
RPCI 2772 8.4 79.0 1.60 20 18
RPC2 3791 4 45.5 1.94 8 7
RPC3 3493 # # # 0 -
RPC4 2282 7.7 63.2 1.29 20 18
RPC5 3184 4.2 38.8 1.61 8 7
RPC6 2428 - - 2.48 0 -
 The ultimate load N for columns loaded in axial
llo

compression can be calculated by the expression:

where fcp is the strength of the in-situ concrete, Ag is the
gross column cross sectional area, As is the total cross
sectional area of steel reinforcement in the column cross
section and Is", is the steel yield strength. When only the
core of the cross section is considered to be effective,
the ultimate load Nc is given by:
where Ac is the column cross sectional area taken as the
area bounded by the outer limits of the longitudinal bars.
Table 4 compares the experimental results for the con-
centrically loaded specimens with the theoretical predic-
tions of ultimate load based on Eqs. I and 2 with the in-
situ strength taken as fcp = 0.9 j~lII. The ratio between the
theoretical loads considering only the core concrete area
and experimental results is greater than 1.0 for column
RPC3 with N 16 bars and is equal to 0.84 for RPC6 with
N 12 bars. It is seen that the loads for the concentrically

4000

3500

3000
z~ Z2500

1j
2500 ~
1j 2000
~ 2000 ~
iij ~ 1500
~ 1500
~ 1000
1000

500

o
o 10 20 30 40 5 10 15 20 25
rrid-height lateral displacement (nro) rrid-height lateral displacement (nro)

(a) Specimen with 16 longitudinal reinforcement

Z 2000
3000
~
1j
Z ~ 1500
~ 2500
1j
iij
~ 2000
...J
~ 1000
iij 1500
~

0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006

Axial Strain

Specimen N llo (kN) Nc (kN) Exp. (kN) Exp./ N llo

Exp./Nc

RPC3 3783 3191 3493 0.92 1.09

RPC6 3486 2893 2428 0.70 0.84

loaded specimens were lower than the theoretical
squash load, and for specimen RPC6, less than the theo- 4500
retical strength of the core. During the testing of these 4000
specimens, however, significant crushing of the concrete 3500
was observed on one side of the specimen before the Z
other, indicating a sizeable applied eccentricity of load- :::. 3000
'tl
ing. For specimen RPC6, the initial crushing was ob- ns 2500
0
..J
served to be in one comer or the specimen indicating 2000
(ij
biaxial loading eccentricity. With these accidental, un- 'x 1500
<
measured, eccentricities, no statements of the squash 1000
loading can be made. However, it can still be said that, 500
in each case, no spalling of the cover concrete or buck-
ling of the longitudinal reinforcement was observed
throughout the test.
In Fig. 11 the load paths for the eccentrically loaded Moment (kNm)

columns are plotted together with the axial force- (a) Specimen with N 16 longitudinal reinforcement
bending moment interaction diagram. The interaction
diagram was obtained by using an elastic-perfectly plas-
tic stress-strain model for the concrete with an elastic 4000
modulus of 43 GPa, compressive failure strain of 0.005
3500
and with kjvalues of 1.0 and 0.9, where kj is the in-situ
strength factor and is given by kj =fc/f;'/11 . Figure 11 3000
shows that the peak load is greater than the theoretical Z
:::.
2500
model and it is suggested that the fibres provide some 'tl

confining effects to the section. ~ 2000

(ij
~ 1500
1000

To compliment the experimental tests, 3D nonlinear FE

analyses of the columns were undertaken using the com-
puter software DIANA. To reduce computational cost, 20 40 60 80
two-fold symmetry was used so that only quarter of the Moment (kNm)
tested columns were modelled with the boundary condi-
tions set to satisfy the symmetry conditions. In the nu-
merical simulation, loading was applied by two vertical (b) Specimen with N 12 longitudinal reinforcement
line loads, P] applied along the centre/ine of the speci- Fig. 11 Load path for eccentrically loaded RPC columns.
men and P2 applied eccentrically to the centreline by
25 mm (Fig. 12). The values of PI and P2 were adjusted
so that their resultant is equivalent to the externally ap-
plied experimental load. Geometric non-linearity was
taken into account using a total Lagrange formulation.
The FE mesh for the RPC columns tested is shown in
Fig. 13. The concrete was modelled by 20-node
isoparametric brick elements on a 3x3x3 numerical in-
tegration scheme. The reinforcing bars were modelled
as embedded reinforcement bars with perfect bond as-
sumed between the reinforcement and the concrete. The
concrete in the haunched region was modelled as an
isotropic elastic material. An elasto-plastic model in
conjunction with the Drucker-Prager (D-P) yield locus
was used with a tension cut-off (Fig. 14a) for describing
the behaviour of concrete. The tensile behaviour of con-
crete was modelled using a linear tension softening rela-
tionship (Fig. 14b) with the maximum tensile strain (&,,)
derived from the yield stress of the reinforcement in the
square column section. In Fig. 14, fcp and j; are the in-
situ compressive and tensile strength of the concrete, Fig. 12 Numerical simulation of loading for eccentrically
respectively. A crack band width h equal to the volume loaded columns.
of element V raised to the power of 1/3 (h = V 1/3) was measured load-deflection response for the eccentrically
adopted. A smeared fixed-crack model (De Borst and loaded columns. It is worth mentioning, however, that a
Nauta, 1985; Rots, 1988) was used for modelling the converged numerical solution could not be found for the
behaviour of the cracked concrete and a shear retention post-peak softening response for the columns tested and
factor of 20% of the uncracked shear stiffness was
adopted for the post-cracked state. The material proper-
ties used in the FE analyses for the concrete and the
reinforcing steel are given in detail in Table 5.
In Fig. 15 the experimental load-deflection behaviour
of RPCl, RPC2, RPC4 and RPC5 columns are com-
pared with the results of the FE analyses. In all cases,
the numerical model is in reasonable agreement with the

ft -------
fsy
Es

(b)
Fig. 14 (a) Concrete failure surface using Drucker-Prager
Fig. 13 FE mesh used for modelling the RPC columns plasticity model in principal stress space with tension
tested. cutoff and (b) Linear softening model in tension.

Concrete in the haunched region Reinforcing steel

Yield stress fsy 550 MPa

Young's modulus Ec see Table 1
Young's modulus Es 2000Pa

Poisson's ratio v see Table 1 Yield criterion Von-Mises

Parameters for concrete plasticity model Parameters for modelling tensile cracking

Yield criterion Drucker-Prager Tension stiffening ell f,JEs

Friction angle ¢ in D-P

37 degrees Shear retention factor fJ 0.2
model
Dilation angle '1/ in D-P 90 degrees
17 degrees Threshold angle (J.
model (fixed crack)

Young's modulus Ec see Table 1 Tensile strength}; = jdp see Table 1

is a limitation of the DIANA model. other, indicating bi-axial applied eccentricities of load-
The concentrically loaded columns were modelled ing. With these accidental, unmeasured eccentricities,
similarly to the eccentrically loaded columns but with no statements could be made in regards to the squash
P I and P2 replaced by an axial pressure applied concen- load capacity. The load versus axial strains measured
trically to the specimens. In the experimental program, from the experiments is compared with FE results in Fig.
it was observed that the failure loads for the concentri- 16. As expected, the load capacities obtained using
cally loaded specimens were lower than the theoretical DIANA show higher values than obtained from the ex-
squash loads (see Table 4). During the testing of these periments for the concentrically loaded specimens and
specimens, however, significant crushing of the concrete is consistent with the theoretical expectations. The acci-
was observed on one side of the specimen before the dental eccentricities in the loading are clearly seen in

3000 4000
- Experiment - Experiment
2500 - FE analysis - FE analysis
3200
Z Z
~ 2000 ~
"0
I'll "0 2400
0
..J
1500 I'll
0
..J
(ij 1600
1000 (ij

~ ~
500 800

0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 0 1 2 3 4 5
mid-height lateral deflection (mm) mid-height lateral deflection (mm)
(a) RPCI column (b) RPC2 column

2500 3500
- Experiment
- Experiment 3000 - FE analysis
2000
~ FE analysis Z 2500
Z
~ ~
"0 1500 "0 2000
I'll I'll
0 0
..J
..J
1500
(ij 1000 (ij
1000
~ ~
500
500

0 0
0 2 4 6 8 0 .1 2 3 4 5 6
mid-height lateral deflection (mm) mid-height lateral deflection (mm)
(c) RPC4 column (d) RPC5 column

4000 4
Z
3600 Strain at
location 2
Strain at
location 4
30
2 '
4
5

Z
.ll:
3000
30
2 '

C'.L.
5 ~
"0
I'll
2700
\ &
\'
C.L
"0
I'll
0
..J 1800 Axis of rotation
0
..J
2000 & Strain at location 1
\ Strain at location 4 Ax is of rotation 900
1000
Strain at location 3
0 0
0 0.004 0.008 0 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005

Strain (E) Strain (E)

(a) RPC3 column (b) RPC6 column

Fig. 16 Comparison of load versus axial strain measurement for the experimental and FE analysis.
 Construction Research, Delft, The Netherlands.
Foster, S. J., Liu, J. and Sheikh, S. A. (1998). "Cover
spalling in HSC columns loaded in concentric
compression." ASCE, Journal of Structural
Six high strength steel fibre reinforced RPC square col- Engineering, 124(12), 1431-1437.
umns without steel ties were tested in combined com- Foster, S. 1. and Attard, M. M. (1997). "Experimental
pression and bending. The tests showed that inclusion of tests on eccentrically loaded high-strength concrete
high volumes of steel fibres is an effective way of pre- columns." ACI Structural Journal, 94(3),295-303.
venting both spalling of the cover concrete and buckling Foster, S. J. (2001). "On behavior of HSC columns:
of the longitudinal reinforcement. A considerable reduc- cover spalling, steel fibers and ductility." ACI
tion or, perhaps, elimination of tie reinforcement for Structural Journal, 98(4), July-August, 583-589.
RPC columns might be possible which could lead to an Foster, S. 1. and Attard, M. M. (2001). "Strength and
increase the speed of construction with an associated ductility of fiber-reinforced high-strength concrete
potential reduction in construction costs. More test data, columns." Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE,
however, is required to fully justify this conclusion. 127(1),28-34.
Using conventional approaches for determining the Liu, J., Foster, S. 1. and Attard, M. M. (2000). "Strength
axial force-bending moment interaction diagram gives of tied HSC columns loaded in concentric
conservative results for sections loaded with greater that compression." ACI Structural Journal, 97(1),
the minimum loading eccentricity. Due to flaws in the 149-156.
testing set-up for the concentrically loaded specimens, Paultre, P., Khayat, K. H., Langlois, A., Trudel, A. and
however, no conclusions can be drawn in regards to the Cusson, D. (1996). "Structural performance of some
squash load capacity. special concretes." Proceedings of the 4th
International Symposium on the Utilization of High
Acknowledgements Performance Concrete, Paris, France, May, 787-796.
This project was supported by Australian Research Richard, P. and Cheyrezy, M. H. (1994). "Reactive
Council (ARC) Discovery Grant. The support of the powder concretes with high ductility and 200-800
ARC is acknowledged with appreciation. MPa compressive strength." ACI, SP-144(24), San
Francisco, CA, 507-518.
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