Copper and other metals used in

telecommunications
List the mechanical and physical properties that would be important in
telecommunications conductors.
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________

Did you list the following?

Low resistivity, suitable strength, ductility and ease of joining.

The lower the resistivity of a material, the smaller the amount of

material that is needed to carry current. It also means there are less
insulating materials needed because the wires are thinner, sheathing costs
are lower and transport costs are lower.

To allow the material to be made into wire, it must exhibit ductility.

The material must be able to withstand the tensile stresses applied during
manufacture, extrusion of the insulation and the installation of the cable.

Joining the conductors may be achieved through twisting, soldering or

welding. Some materials are easier to join than others!

In modules that you studied during the preliminary HSC course, you
looked at the structure and atomic bonding of materials. Using this
knowledge, explain why metals are normally conductors and why copper
is an excellent conductor of electricity.
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________

Did you answer?

Did you discuss the metallic bond that has the valence electrons in a cloud
surrounding the ions and that conduction is due to the migration of these
electrons? Did you mention how these ‘free’ electrons easily transmit the
‘flow’ of current?

8 Telecommunications
 Metal ion (positively charged)

Electron (negatively charged)

Figure 3.5 Simple representation of the metallic bond

Of course this theory of current ‘flow’ is a bit too simplistic and further
development in wave theories has allowed a much clearer understanding
of conductivity. While the individual valence electrons are involved in
the movement of a current, the current moves in the form of a wave and
these waves will move much more easily through a regular arrangement
of obstacles. The regular arrangement of ions in the crystal lattice
structure of an annealed metal, such as the face centred cubic
arrangement of copper, provides little resistance to the passage of the
current waves. Any amount of cold working or the introduction of
alloying elements that sit in the spaces between the ions will increase the
random nature of the obstacles and will increase the resistance of the
material. Heating will cause the ions to vibrate and will increase the
possibility of the migrating electrons hitting an ion and thus being slowed
down. This explains the increase in resistivity noticed when the
temperature of a conductor is raised.

Copper
Copper is the metal that has been traditionally used for communications
wires and cables. It is ductile, has suitable tensile strength and is a very
satisfactory conductor. As a conductor it is second only to silver and if
the conductivity of silver is 100 units then pure copper would measure 97
units. Electrolytic tough pitch copper is used for wires and this grade of
copper has a minimum copper content of 99.9 per cent with around 0.04
per cent of oxygen in the form of an oxide. This level of purity is
essential as the introduction of some alloying elements or impurities can
greatly reduce conductivity. For example only 0.04 per cent phosphorus
will reduce the conductivity by 25 per cent. Other alloying elements, like
cadmium, have little effect on the conductivity. The presence of
cadmium, dissolved in the copper, increases both the strength and wear
resistance of the transmission cable, so it is actually a favourable alloy in
this application.

The manufacturing process used to produce copper wires could easily

induce stress and reduce the conductivity. To overcome this problem,
the cables are cold drawn into wire then the roll of wire is fully annealed.

Part 3: Telecommunications engineering – materials 9

 Copper is also an essential part of coaxial cables that are still used for
some applications in telecommunications.
Copper braid
Solid copper

Polymer layer
Polymer skin

Figure 3.6 The structure of coaxial cable

In previous modules you looked at some of the alloys of copper. Some of

these alloys have properties that make them suitable for use in
telecommunications devices.

Name some of these alloys, state the alloying element/s and suggest at
least one use for each.
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________

Did you answer?

Did you suggest sheet cartridge brass (copper with 30 per cent zinc) that could
be used as contacts and cartridge brass cold formed screws and rivets. Even
bronzes (copper with up to 11 per cent tin) could be used where extra strength is
needed. Non-corroding nuts and bolts could be made in bronze.

Aluminium
Aluminium has three advantages over copper when used as conducting
wires. It is lighter, less expensive and more abundant in nature than
copper. With a density of only 2.7g/cm3, compared to 9g/cm3 for copper,
aluminium is specially suitable for aerial power transmission cables.
Only half the quantity of aluminum, by weight, is needed for conductors
with the same resistance. However, it does not conduct as well as copper
(only about 60 per cent of the conductivity of copper) so larger diameter
cables are needed. The larger amount of insulation sheathing needed
offsets some of the savings made on the conductor material.

10 Telecommunications
 On the other hand, aluminium has some inferior properties to those of
copper. These include marginally poorer ductility, tensile strength,
jointing properties and corrosion resistance. This fact has retarded
aluminium’s general use in communication cables.

Aluminium alloys are sometimes used for cables. A common alloy

contains 0.5 per cent iron and 0.5 per cent cobalt. These alloying
elements distort the normal aluminium structure and while this increases
the strength of the cable, the conductivity is reduced.

Gold
The conductivity of gold is around that of copper and it is used for the
linkage ‘wires’ in some semiconductor devices. It is suitable for this
application because while it is very expensive, only small quantities are
used in these miniature circuits. The gold is ductile, doesn’t oxidise and
bonds easily to other metals such as aluminium and copper.

Lead
The outer layer on telecommunications cables is known as the sheath and
is designed to create a stable environment for the cable core. Lead was
once used extensively as it has good corrosion resistance, adequate
strength and flexibility and is easy to join. It has been replaced with
polymers because lead suffers from fatigue failures, is heavy and is
relatively expensive. Lead alloys containing antimony and tin were used
to reduce fatigue failures.

Turn to the exercise sheet and complete exercise 3.2.

Part 3: Telecommunications engineering – materials 11

 Ceramics as insulation materials
From the information available in previous modules, define a ceramic and
explain why ceramics are often used as electrical insulators.
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________

Did you answer?

Did you mention that ceramics contain both metal and non-metal phases? Did
you also discuss that they often contain both ionic and covalent bonds and that
both these types of primary bonds do not have free valence electrons to allow
for the ’flow’ of electrons?

In insulating materials, there is a large gap between the full valence band
and the next electron energy level. For an electron to be free to transmit
a current, it must move up to this next energy level. Under normal
conditions, the gap is so large that electrons are unable to cross.

At high temperatures there is a greater chance that an occasional electron

will possess the energy needed to cross the gap and allow some
conduction.

In ionically bonded materials, ions may migrate, rather than electrons.

This will provide a small degree of conductivity. At elevated
temperatures, ions can become more mobile and conductivity may
increase.

Very high voltages may cause the break-down of some insulators. This
occurs because the electric field is sufficient to raise the energy of some
electrons and ‘free’ them across the gap allowing electron flow.

Surface breakdown is more common and the presence of moisture or

accumulation of dirt may allow conduction. The glazing of ceramic
insulators helps eliminate moisture because water runs off easily. It also
is less susceptible to dirt build up because it is smooth. The use of a
corrugated design greatly increases the length that the current must
travel.

12 Telecommunications
 Semiconductors
Some materials are known as semiconductors because the gap between
the filled valence band and the empty conduction band is relatively small.
Conduction can occur through two mechanisms. Heating for intrinsic
semiconductors, and doping in extrinsic semiconductors.

Intrinsic semiconductors
Silicon and germanium are semiconductors due solely to the distribution
of electron energies within the pure material. When one valence electron
is freed to cross the energy gap it will mean that one atom within the
crystal lattice only has three bonds as shown in figure 3.7. This gap is
known as an electron hole. The freed bonding electrons are constantly
moving and can even switch from one atom to another. This movement
of the electron in one direction means that the hole ‘moves’ in the
opposite direction. This could be considered as a positively charged
carrier. Both these movements allow the material to conduct.

Heat may be used to provide the initial energy to free the electron. So, in
contrast to metals, increasing the temperature of an intrinsic
semiconductor will increase conductivity.

B B C

A A

An electron is freed from Electron transfer to A from Electron transfer from C

a covalent bond creating adjacent site,B. Hole to B. Hole moves to C.
an electron hole at A. effectively moves to B.

Figure 3.7 Electrical conduction by the movement of ‘holes’

Extrinsic semiconductors
Silicon and germanium have four outer shell electrons per atom but if an
‘impurity’ element, that only has three outer electrons is introduced, there
will be electron holes left in the lattice structure. Conduction due to these
holes can occur, and the majority carriers in this type of semiconductor,
are these positive electron holes. Aluminium in silicon is an example of
this type that is commonly known as a p-type semiconductor (p- for

Part 3: Telecommunications engineering – materials 13

 positive). These ‘dope’ atoms are introduced in the ratio of around one
atom to a million base material atoms.

Alternatively, if an element like phosphorus, that has five electrons in its

outer shell, is added to the silicon structure there will be an extra electron
for each phosphorus atom added. Only four of the electrons are bonded
to both the phosphorus and the silicon so the fifth valence electron can
easily move in the conduction energy band and allow conduction to take
place. The electrons are the majority carriers in this type of
semiconductor, so it is known as an n-type semiconductor.

Turn to the exercise sheet and complete exercise 3.3.

The p-n junction

When a piece of n-type semiconductor is joined to a piece of p-type
semiconductor a type of ‘one way’ valve results. The normal method is
to introduce p-type and n-type impurities into opposite ends of a crystal
of silicon or germanium. At the junction of the two types of materials,
the positive holes in the p-type are filled with electrons from the n-type.
In this region the p-type atoms have gained an electron and are
negatively charged and the n-type atoms have lost an electron and
become a positive ion. This ‘depleted’ zone has a positive charge on one
side and a negative charge on the other.

When a voltage is applied across the component containing the p-n

junction, it will either conduct or insulate. If the p-type end is made
positive compared to the n-type end then the current will flow easily. If
the voltage is reversed, the positive holes and electrons are attracted
away from the depleted layer and it becomes very hard for charged
particles to move across the junction.
Depletion layer

Forward bias Reverse bias

Figure 3.8 A p-n junction exposed to a voltage

14 Telecommunications
 This simple type of semiconductor device is known as a diode. When
three layers of semiconductor material are combined, npn or pnp, a
transistor is formed. Now you will have an idea of how they work.

These semiconductor devices form the basis of the integrated circuits that
‘drive’ the modern telecommunications industry. These devices are
made from wafer thin layers of pure silicon into which the many
individual microelectronic circuits are formed. This ‘chip’ is then
packaged so that it can be fitted into a printed circuit board and used in
different electronic applications.

Polymers as insulation materials

Drawing on knowledge and understanding that you gained in previous
modules, briefly explain why polymers are insulators. You should refer
to the type of primary bonds found in polymers.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________

Did you answer?

Did you talk about the covalent bonds normally found in polymers and the fact
that all the valence electrons are involved in the bond and are therefore not free
to ‘transmit’ electrical ‘flow’?
Nucleus

Electron

Cl + Cl = Cl2
Figure 3.9 Simple representation of the covalent bond

Many of the insulating materials in personal telecommunication devices

are made from polymers. They are subject to low voltages and low
temperatures and are therefore quite suitable for these applications.

Part 3: Telecommunications engineering – materials 15

 If you can find an old broken telephone, pull it apart! If you don’t have
an old phone, look at the one in your home and answer the following
activity.

Suggest those parts of the telephone that are made from polymer.
Indicate with an ‘I’ those parts that must be insulators.
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________

Did you answer?

The body, buttons/dial, receiver are all moulded in polymer. They could
possibly be high impact polystyrene which is a copolymer of polystyrene and
the rubbery polymer, polybutadiene. It doesn’t break when you drop it on the
floor! Other tough polymers that would be used for telephone bodies are ABS
(acrylonitrile butadiene styrene) and polycarbonate.
The printed circuit boards (epoxy resin), wire insulation (polyethylene),
integrated circuit bodies (polyurethane) and transistor bodies are all polymer so
that they insulate.

In telecommunication cables, an insulating layer covers the surface of the

conductor material. Traditionally, paper was used to insulate
telecommunication cables and while it has high insulation resistance, if it
gets wet, immediate and complete failure usually results. Paper contains
a high proportion of the polymer, cellulose. Various polymers are
currently used in place of the traditional paper.

Polyethylene
Polyethylene has superior insulation resistance to paper, is suitable for
high frequency cables, can be accurately made to size in a variety of
colours, has good jointing properties and maintains good electrical
properties under humid conditions. Its main disadvantages are cost and
low softening temperature.

When used as an outer sheathing on groups of cables, polyethylene

allows water vapour to penetrate and is difficult to join. For these
reasons it is only used for interior cables or as the outer layer on sheaths
with a wound aluminium foil inner and polyethylene outer.

16 Telecommunications
 Polyvinyl chloride
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) has poorer electrical properties than either
paper or polyethylene but is tougher, withstands higher temperatures and
survives better in a fire. Under extreme temperatures and combustion,
hydrogen chloride fumes are liberated and may cause corrosion
problems. It is a suitable alternative to polyethyelene.

Polypropylene
Polypropylene has similar electrical properties to polyethylene but is
tougher and has a higher softening temperature. It is not as flexible and
is more expensive than either PVC or polyethylene.

Nylon
Nylon is often used as an insect resistant outer layer or sheath on cables
that are used underground. The hard, smooth surface of the nylon makes
it difficult for an insect or termite to grip the cable.

Turn to the exercise sheet and complete exercise 3.4.

Part 3: Telecommunications engineering – materials 17

 Fibre-optics
Light has been used throughout history to convey messages over long
distances.

Identify historical long-distance communication methods that have used

light.
__________________________________________________________

Did you answer?

Did you suggest bonfires and mirrors (using the sun)? What about smoke
signals?

History
Up until the 1840s, both bonfires and mirrors were used to relay
messages from one hilltop to the next. The electric telegraph quickly
replaced these simple ‘light’ methods as the wires carried the message
regardless of the weather or the terrain.

Light travels very fast, around 300 000 kilometres per second, and it has
long been known that the shorter the wavelength, the more information a
wave could carry. Light waves are only millimetres to nanometres long
and can carry a huge amount of information. Early experiments saw
lasers being fired between towers but fog or rain blocked the message
and it quickly became obvious that the light beam should be guided
through a cable or pipe. Optical fibres were chosen for this purpose.

Typical optical fibres are very fine fibres of glass – ‘hairs’ made of pure
silica. The method of manufacturing optical fibres had been patented
back in the 1930s ‘just in case someone ever finds a use for it.’ Initially
it was difficult to keep the transmitted light inside the glass fibre but
eventually the glass core was enclosed in a glass sleeve or cladding. The
cladding has a different refractive index to the core and causes the light
energy to be reflected back off the core-cladding interface. This total
internal reflection means that all the light is reflected and continues to
zig-zag along the core of the fibre.

The optical fibres guide the light beam so wherever the fibre goes, the
light follows. These fibres can be made to make the light bend around
corners. Materials used for optical fibres must:
• be able to be formed into long thin structures
• be flexible enough to go around bends

18 Telecommunications
 • allow light to travel through them and so need to be transparent.

Only silica glass and some polymers have these properties.

Buffer coating

Core

Cladding
Figure 3.10 The structure of fibre-optic cable

The light source

The ‘light’ used in fibre-optic systems is either at or just beyond the red
end of the visible light spectrum. This length of wave is less susceptible
to attenuation in the glass. The light is generated by a little
semiconductor laser (Light Amplification by the Stimulated Emission of
Radiation) made from gallium, aluminium and arsenic. This device
produces a stream of electromagnetic radiation, light, at a constant
frequency. The pulses generated in the laser by the transmitter are sent
down the glass fibre and converted back to electrical impulses by the
receiver.

Movement of light in the fibre

As light beams move down the core of the glass fibre they bounce from
side to side. As long as they only hit the junction between the core and
the cladding at a low angle the total energy of the light rays is reflected
back into the core and none escapes into the cladding. The rays bounce
to the other side and again, as long as the angle is low, bounce back and
continue to be transmitted to the end of the fibre.

Part 3: Telecommunications engineering – materials 19