130 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ENERGY CONVERSION, VOL 21, NO, 1, MARCH 2006

Control of Permanent-Magnet Generators Applied

to Variable-Speed Wind-Energy Systems
Connected to the Grid
Mónica Chinchilla, Member, IEEE, Santiago Arnaltes, Member, IEEE, and Juan Carlos Burgos, Member, IEEE

Abstract—Wind energy is a prominent area of application of

variable-speed generators operating on the constant grid fre-
quency. This paper describes the operation and control of one
of these variable-speed wind generators: the direct driven perma-
nent magnet synchronous generator (PMSG). This generator is
connected to the power network by means of a fully controlled
frequency converter, which consists of a pulsewidth-modulation
(PWM) rectifier, an intermediate dc circuit, and a PWM inverter.
The generator is controlled to obtain maximum power from the
incident wind with maximum efficiency under different load con-
ditions. Vector control of the grid-side inverter allows power factor
regulation of the windmill. This paper shows the dynamic perfor-
mance of the complete system. Different experimental tests in a
3-kW prototype have been carried out to verify the benefits of the
proposed system.
Index Terms—Permanent-magnet generators, pulsewidth-
modulated (PWM) power converters, wind energy.
I. INTRODUCTION
ARIABLE-SPEED power generation enables operation of
V the turbine at its maximum power coefficient over a wide
range of wind speeds, obtaining a larger energy capture from
the wind. One of the problems associated with variable-speed
wind systems today is the presence of the gearbox coupling the
wind turbine to the generator. This mechanical element suffers
from considerable faults and increases maintenance expenses.
To improve reliability of the wind mill and reduce maintenance
expenses the gearbox can be eliminated.
Permanent magnets can be used to replace the excitation
winding of synchronous machines because of due to mag-
net price reduction and magnetic material characteristic im-
provement [1]. Permanent-magnet excitation allows us to use
a smaller pole pitch than do conventional generators, so these
machines can be designed to rotate at rated speeds of 20–200
r/min, depending on the generator rated power [2].
Several wind generator manufacturers incorporate multipole
permanent-magnet generators into their wind turbines (e.g.,
Jeumont, Lagerwey).
The overall system (see Figs. 1 and 3) consists of a surface
mounted permanent-magnet generator with a frequency con-
Manuscript received December 17, 2002; revised May 4, 2004. This work
was supported by the Spanish government under the PB98-0032 project of the
“Programa Sectorial de Promoción General del Conocimiento” of the MEC.
Paper no. TEC-00281-2002.
The authors are with the Electrical Engineering Department, Universidad
Carlos III, Leganes 28911, Spain (e-mail: mchin@ing.uc3m.es; arnalte@ing.
uc3m.es; jcburgos@ing.uc3m.es).
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TEC.2005.853735
0885-8969/$20.00 © 2006 IEEE
Fig. 1. Rectifier control schemes.
verter which allows variable-speed operation. By adapting the
turbine speed to wind variations, it is possible to obtain maxi-
mum power from the incident wind. The main aim of this work
is the precise selection of the system components (generator,
converter, grid filter) as well as the control loop design and
implementation, in order to extract maximum power from the
wind. To achieve this objective, appropriate active generator
current components are imposed [3], [4].
Variable-speed wind-energy conversion systems have been
widely discussed in the bibliography. In [3], the control of a
variable-speed wind-turbine with a doubly fed induction gener-
ator is presented with experimental results. The power converter
in such generators needs only to be rated to handle rotor power
(power converter rating is related to speed range). In [4], the
control of a variable-speed permanent-magnet generator with
a diode rectifier followed by a dc chopper is shown. With this
configuration the control of the generator power factor is not
possible, which in turn, affects generator efficiency. Also, high
harmonic distortion currents are obtained in the generator that
reduce efficiency and produce torque oscillations.
In [5], three different alternatives for generator power fac-
tor rating are given in order to obtain an optimum rating of a
permanent-magnet generator and its power converter.
In [6], the optimal magnetizing current leading to the highest
efficiency of an induction generator is obtained online through
a fuzzy system.
The main difference between these works and the work pre-
sented in this paper is that, in this paper, the generator reactive
current component is calculated and imposed on the generator
in order to minimize power losses, both in the generator and
power converter, along the whole operating range. In this paper,
an active and reactive power control for the inverter used for
CHINCHILLA et al.: CONTROL OF PERMANENT-MAGNET GENERATORS
grid connection is also provided. The power capability of such
an inverter is also discussed. A deeper study of inverter opera-
tion may be found in [7]. Different experimental tests in a 3-kW
prototype system have been carried out. A digital signal pro-
cessor (DSP)-based board has been used to implement control
algorithms.
II. PROTOTYPE DESCRIPTION AND CONTROL IMPLEMENTATION
A. Permanent-Magnet Generator and Grid Connection
The permanent-magnet synchronous generator used was
3 kW, 220 V (wye three-phase stator winding), and 375 r/min
(16 poles). NdFeB magnets provide proper flux density in the air
gap. The winding resistance and inductance (obtained through
laboratory tests) are, respectively, RS = 2.4 Ω and LS = 51 mH.
Rotor position is obtained through an encoder giving 1500
pulses per revolution.
The frequency converter consists of two back-to-back insu-
lated gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs) bridges; the one connected
to the generator works as a pulse rectifier; the other one, con-
nected to the grid, works as a pulsewidth-modulation (PWM)
inverter. Both of them have six IGBTs (600 V, 15 A). The dc
link incorporates a 600-µF, 800-V capacitor.
An inductive filter has been designed to limit harmonic cur-
rent injection into the grid complying with IEC 61000-3-2 reg-
ulations. The switching frequency was 3 kHz. A transformer
(400/230 V) was used for grid connection to allow the oper-
ation of the inverter with leading power factor. The resulting
inductance in the grid connection, including the transformer
short circuit reactance, was 4 mH.
B. Wind Turbine Emulation
The emulation of the wind turbine is implemented by means
of a dc motor drive with torque control. In the prototype, a
4.4 kW, 1980 r/min dc motor was used. A computer program
reads the wind input file, which has been obtained in different
test conditions, and calculates the wind turbine torque, by taking
into account wind velocity, turbine rotational speed, and the
wind turbine power coefficient curve (a lookup table in the
computer was used).
The control algorithms for turbine emulation are implemented
in a control board dSPACE DS1102. This board is a commercial
system designed for rapid prototyping of real control algorithms;
it is based on the Texas Instruments TMS320C31 floating-point
DSP and includes four A/D input channels, 16 digital I/O chan-
nels, an eight-channel capture/compare unit, and a six-channel
PWM generation module. The DS1102 board is hosted by a
personal computer.
C. Power Converter Control
Real-time control was implemented in two dSPACE boards,
one for each power converter. The sampling time for generator
control (175 µs) is longer than that of the grid inverter con-
trol, as the former provides the turbine torque reference besides
the corresponding PWM pulse signals. Also, the generator con-
troller board has to obtain the reference angle position and the
131
generator speed from the pulse encoder signals. Inverter control
calculations are simpler, as the reference angle needed for vec-
tor control is obtained from the line voltage zero crossing, that
allows a reduction of the sampling time (130 µs). Hall sensors
are used to capture necessary current and voltage signals.
III. CONTROL OF THE PERMANENT-MAGNET
GENERATOR-SIDE CONVERTER
In order to get a dynamical model for the electrical genera-
tor that easily allows us to define the generator control system,
the equations of the generator are projected on a reference co-
ordinate system rotating synchronously with the magnet flux.
The dynamic model of the surface-mounted permanent-magnet
generator in the magnet flux reference system is
diS d
uS d = −RS iS d − LS + LS ωiS q
dt
diS q
uS q = −RS iS q − LS − LS ωiS d + ωΨ (1)
dt
where LS and RS are the generator inductance and resistance,
respectively, ω is the generator speed, and Ψ is the magnet flux.
The above equations show how to control current components
by means of the applied voltage. The electromagnetic torque is
given by
3
Te = pΨiS q (2)
2
where p is the pole pair number. Equation (2) shows that the
generator torque may be controlled directly by the quadrature
current component. Fig. 1 shows the schematic diagram of the
control loops of the permanent-magnet generator-side converter.
direct-axis current component reference is obtained through a
calculator f (Ω), in order to minimize power losses.
The required d–q components of the rectifier voltage vec-
tor are derived from two proportional plus integral (PI) current
controllers: one of them controlling the d-axis component of the
current and the other one the q-axis component. Compensation
terms are added to improve the dynamic response. The con-
trol requires the measurement of the stator currents, dc voltage,
and rotor position. Space-vector modulation (SVM) is used to
generate the switching signals for the power converter semicon-
ductors.
A. Efficiency Optimization
In a variable-speed wind turbine, maximum power is a cu-
bic function of rotational speed. To maximize efficiency, losses
for a given load must be minimized. A stator q-axis current
component is used to develop generator torque, but a freedom
degree remains to set direct current. A direct-axis current com-
ponent can be set at zero to minimize current for a given torque,
and therefore, minimize resistive losses [8], but d-axis current
component can also be used to reduce stator flux as


ΨS = (LS iS q )2 + (Ψ + LS iS d )2 (3)
and minimize core losses.
132 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ENERGY CONVERSION, VOL 21, NO, 1, MARCH 2006

The optimum value for iS d is obtained offline from

 
min Ploss = min(PFe + PCu + Pmec + Prectifier ). (4)

The value of iS d resulting from (4) is tabulated as a function

of generator speed, which is expressed as the function f (Ω) in
Fig. 1.

B. Control-Loop Design
From (1), the transfer function of the stator winding is
IS d (s) IS q (s) 1
F (s) = =
= (5)
US
d (s) US q (s) RS + LS s



where Usd and Usq are the voltage components in the d–q axes
that control the corresponding current components, and s is the
Laplace operator.
The converter can be modeled as a pure delay of one sampling
period. Conventional design techniques are used to calculate Fig. 2. Real-time response of generator current components.
√ the
controller parameters. Choosing a damping factor ξ = 1/ 2 to
maintain overshooting lower than 5%, the resulting controller D. Experimental Results
transfer function is
Fig. 2 shows generator current response under a quadrature
0.0201s + 1
R(s) = 46 . (6) current step at 185 r/min. A fast and decoupled response is
0.0201s obtained. For the test, zero d-axis current command is set. Fig.
Cross frequency of the current control loops is 1414 Hz. 2 shows that the response of the q-axis current does not affect
In the experimental rig, a sampling frequency of 3 kHz is used, the d-axis current response.
which is not high enough, so continuous Laplace domain design
is not justified. The current controller in the z domain for the IV. CONTROL OF THE LINE-SIDE CONVERTER
aforementioned sampling frequency results as follows:
The dynamic model of the grid connection when selecting
46z − 45.2 a reference frame rotating synchronously with the grid voltage
R(z) = . (7)
z−1 space vector is
C. Rectifier Operating Limits did
ud = uid − Rid − L + ωLiq
As said, to achieve maximum efficiency for each load, the dt
proper direct current must be injected. Nevertheless, some lim- diq
uq = uiq − Riq − L − ωLid (10)
its exist on the controller rectifier. These limits are due to the dt
following. where L and R are the grid inductance and resistance, respec-
1) Maximum Current Limit: It is due to the generator rated tively, and uid and uiq are the inverter voltage components. If
current or admissible IGBTs current. the reference frame is oriented along the supply voltage, the grid
2) Maximum Voltage Limit: To achieve a given direct and voltage vector is
quadrature current a certain armature voltage is needed. So cur-
rent component limits may be expressed as a function of the u = ud + j0. (11)
maximun allowable rectifier voltage. Maximum rectifier voltage Then active and reactive power may be expressed as
U1 lim depends on dc voltage and on the amplitude modulation
3
index. With SVM, the rms voltage value of the fundamental P = ud id . (12)
voltage component can be expressed as 2
3
1 Q = ud iq . (13)
U1 = √ √ ma Udc (8) 2
3 2
Active and reactive power control can be achieved by control-
where ma is the amplitude modulation index [7]. When choos- ling direct and quadrature current components, respectively. The
ing ma = 1, the maximum voltage is 0.408 times the maximum control of this converter is quite similar to that of the generator.
dc link voltage. Neglecting RS in (1), it follows that in steady Two control loops are used to control the active and reactive
state, the rectifier current limit may be expressed by power, respectively [3] (Fig. 3).
 2  2 An outer dc voltage control loop is used to set the d-axis
E U1 lim
2
IS q + − IS d = (9) current reference for active power control. This assures that all
XS XS
the power coming from the rectifier is instantaneously tranferred
where E is the generator electromotive force (EMF). to the grid by the inverter.
CHINCHILLA et al.: CONTROL OF PERMANENT-MAGNET GENERATORS
Fig. 3. Inverter control schemes.
The second channel controls the reactive power by setting
a q-axis current reference to a current control loop similar to
the previous one. The current controllers will provide a voltage
reference for the inverter that is compensated by adding rota-
tional EMF compensation terms.
All controllers are PI and are tuned using the symmetrical
optimum method.
A. Mathematical Formulation of the Inverter P-Q Capability
The inverter operating limits represent the maximum active
and reactive power inverter capability. These limits depend on
the following constraints.
1) The rated current of the power switches or any other lim-
iting element in the grid interface (Imax )
P 2 + Q2 = (3U Imax )2 . (14)
2) The maximum root mean square (rms) voltage of the fun-
damental component of the inverter voltage, which in turn
depends on the dc-link voltage, on the modulation tech-
nique used and on the maximum amplitude modulation
index allowed in steady-state conditions. Once the last
two are fixed, the reactive power capacity depends on the
inverter dc-link voltage.
Neglecting grid resistance in (10) and taking into account (12)
and (13), it follows that in steady state, the resulting inverter
limits may be expressed by the circumference [7]

2
 2 3 that leads to maximun power coefficient (cp max ). From (16)
2 UDC ma
2
3U
P2 + Q + =  (15)
X X
where X is the grid reactance. This situation is quite similar to
that of a synchronous machine, in which the active and reac-
tive power capability limits depend on the field current. In the
inverter, for a given dc-link voltage, the amplitude modulation
index plays the role of the field current.
Power references laying out of the converter domain will
produce highly distorted current waveforms.
133
B. Inverter Sizing
The inverter P-Q capability depends mainly on the following:
1) converter dc-link voltage;
2) grid filter inductance;
3) grid rms voltage.
Of course, the rating of the power switches or any other
physical devices, like the filter, will limit the power capability
of the grid connection.
For sizing the inverter, the following considerations have to
be taken into account.
1) The maximum active power the inverter can inject into the
grid, for a given power factor, increases with dc voltage.
2) The inverter may be used as a reactive power compensator.
The maximum reactive power the inverter can inject into
the grid, with a certain power factor, increases with dc
voltage.
3) Higher inductance of the filter leads to lower current total-
harmonic distortion (THD) values, but the inverter power
capability decreases.
4) Grid voltage plays an important role in the inverter op-
erating limits. Sometimes, it could be useful to connect
the inverter to the grid through a step-up transformer.
The maximum active power that the inverter can inject
into the grid, with unity power factor, increases as the
turn ratio increases. The same is true for reactive power
capability.
V. MAXIMUM POWER TRACKING
A. Wind Turbine
The mechanical power delivered by a wind turbine is ex-
pressed as
1
Pmec = ρAcp vw3 (16)
2
where ρ is the air density, A is the area swept out by the turbine
blades, vw is the wind velocity, and cp is the power coefficient
defined as the ratio of turbine power to wind power; cp is a
function of the pitch angle β and of the tip speed ratio λ defined
as the ratio of turbine speed at the tip of a blade to wind velocity
(vw )
ΩRt
λ= (17)
vw
where Rt is the turbine radius, and Ω is the turbine speed. In a
wind turbine, there is an optimum value of tip speed ratio λopt
and (17), we get [9]
1 5
2 ρπRt cp max 3
Pmax = Ωopt . (18)
λ3opt
This equation shows the relationship between turbine power
and turbine speed at maximum power. When regulating the
system under the specification of maximum power, it must be
taken into account that turbine power must never be higher than
generator rated power. Once generator rated power is reached
134 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ENERGY CONVERSION, VOL 21, NO, 1, MARCH 2006

Fig. 4. Regulation stages.

Fig. 5. Wind velocity v (in meters per second).

at rated wind velocity (vr ), output power must be limited. For

variable-speed wind turbines, a mechanical actuator is usually
employed to change the pitch angle of the blades in order to
reduce power coefficient (cp ) and maintain the power at its
rated value. In some wind turbines, when working with the
maximum power coefficient, rated speed is obtained at a wind
velocity lower than that of generator rated power, because the
choice of the generator rating is an optimization process between
energy capture for the wind system and system cost [10]. When
rated turbine speed is reached at a wind velocity vW 1 , control
strategy must be changed so that a higher wind velocity no
longer increases turbine speed but increases generated power
until generator rated power; increases in rotor speed of about
10% are allowed during transients because of the slow pitch
control response.
To prevent structural damage, the turbine is shut down over the
so-called furling wind speed (vcut−off ). Also under cut-in wind Fig. 6. Experimental results. (a) Generator speed n (in revolutions per minute).
speed (vcut−in ), the turbine is shut down because the power is so (b) Actual power P (in Watts). (c) Reference and actual q-axis current compo-
low that it is hardly worth working with. So in order to regulate nent iS q (in Amps). (d) Power coefficient cp .
CHINCHILLA et al.: CONTROL OF PERMANENT-MAGNET GENERATORS
the system, different stages can be distinguished, depending on
the wind velocity (Fig. 4).
Taking into account these stages, the control strategy is the
following
1) When Wind Velocity Is Between Cut-In and vw 1 : An op-
timal speed reference is applied in order to obtain maximum
power from the incident wind. Speed reference is obtained from
measured power taking into account (18). A speed control loop
provides quadrature axis current reference as this current is pro-
portional to generator torque. The blade pitch angle is set at an
optimal value that allows the turbine to extract maximum en-
ergy from incident wind. Speed control loop bandwidth must be
as low as possible (around 2 rad/s) in order to obtain a smooth
power output [11].
An efficient generator control means also minimizing the
power losses. To achieve this objective, not only active but re-
active generator current component is imposed by the power
converter (Section III).
2) When Wind Velocity Is Greater Than vw 1 : Generator
speed is held at its rated value by limiting speed reference.
The speed control loop will act on the quadrature-axis current
component (proportional to generator torque) to achieve this
objective. Rated torque is obtained at rated wind velocity.
3) When Wind Velocity Is Higher Than Rated: Power is lim-
ited by pitch control. To avoid over rated power excursions due
to wind gusts, a constant power reference is obtained by reduc-
ing torque (with the increase of rotational speed).
B. Experimental Results
Fig. 6 shows experimental results for the wind velocity shown
in Fig. 5. Fig. 6(a) shows shaft speed; it can be observed that
the system tracks the maximum power point until rated gen-
erator speed is achieved. Fig. 6(c) shows reference and actual
values of quadrature axis current, which is proportional to gen-
erator torque. Note that the speed control loop does not impose
any abrupt change in torque reference, resulting in low-power
fluctuations [see Fig. 6(b)]. Power coefficient cp [see Fig. 6(d)]
is close to its maximum value until the generator gets its rated
power; then, the pitch angle is changed to limit power and speed.
VI. CONCLUSION
This work shows the performance of a direct-driven
permanent-magnet synchronous generator used in variable-
speed wind-energy systems. When exciting the system with
a real wind profile, the system is able to track maximum power
using generated power as input. The speed controller sets the
generator torque command, which is achieved through a current
control loop. An efficient generator control has been proposed.
To achieve this objective, the optimum generator d-axis current
component is imposed by the power converter, i.e., the current
that leads to the minimum losses. The proposed system has
been implemented in a real-time application, with a commer-
cial permanent-magnet synchronous generator and a dc drive
that emulates the wind turbine behaviour. The real-time pro-
cess is running in a dSPACE board that includes a TMS320C31
135
floating-point DSP. Experimental results show the appropriate
behavior of the system.
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Mónica Chinchilla (M’02) was born in 1970. She
received the degree in industrial engineering and the
Ph.D. degree from the Universidad Carlos III de
Madrid, Leganes, Spain, in 1995 and 2001, respec-
tively.
Since 2001, she has been an Associated Pro-
fessor in the Electrical Engineering Department,
Universidad Carlos III. Her main area of interest
is permanent-magnet synchronous generator control
and wind energy.
Santiago Arnaltes (M’02) was born in 1963. He
graduated in 1984 and received the Ph.D. degree in
1989 from the Escuela Técnica Superior de Inge-
nieros Industriales de Madrid, Madrid, Spain.
Since 1997, he has been an Associate Professor
at the Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Leganes,
Spain. His main area of interest is the control of ac
electrical machines, mainly for applications of wind
energy.
Juan Carlos Burgos (M’01) was born in 1955.
He graduated in 1980 and received the Ph.D. de-
gree in 1987 from the Escuela Técnica Supe-
rior de Ingenieros Industriales de Madrid, Madrid,
Spain.
In 1980, he joined the Escuela Tecnica Superior
de Ingenieros Industriales as an Associate Profes-
sor. Since 1994, he has been an Associate Professor
at the Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Leganes,
Spain. He has been the Director of the Electrical En-
gineering Area since 2003. His main area of interest
is transformer fault prevention, but he also works in dynamic control of ac
electrical machines and control of variable-speed electrical generators for wind
turbines.