CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Very large amount of waste substances and by-products are produced from manufacturing
processing units, municipal solid wastes and industries. For this reason, strong waste
administration has turn out to be one of the important parameter to be considered as a protective
measure to environment in the world. As the increasing cognizance about the surroundings, less
availability of land-fill area and because of its continually growing cost, waste substances and the
products usage has emerge as an appealing substitute to disposal. Excessive using up of natural
sources, enormous quantity construction of factory made wastes and environmental desecration
feel necessity for thinking new options for a renewable progress.

In the recent years, growing attention towards environment and demand to energy security has
made to increase in demand for inexhaustible energy resources and to modify current methods of
energy production. In the available sources, biomass (products from forest and wastes obtained as
a by product of agricultural) becomes a promising renewable energy resource. In the current trends
of energy production, power plants which run from biomass have continuous supply of renewable
fuel and low operational cost . It is suggested that these energy resources will be the CO2
(greenhouse gas emissions) neutral energy resource when the consumption rate of the fuel is lower
than the growth rate.

Generally, small scale boiler units in manufacturing process of products developed from timber
develops wood waste exerted in the processing time and here timber is used as a fuel in large
quantity to produce thermal energy. The energy produced from those units are used in processing
of timber based products like removing of sap content in the wood i.e., drying for the finished
products. Commonly, wood wastes are preferred as fuels over other herbaceous and agricultural
wastes as their incineration produces comparatively less fly ash particles and other unconsumed
material.

Concrete is widely used as construction material for various types of structures due to its durability.
For a long time it was considered to be very durable material requiring a little or no maintenance.
Many environmental phenomena are known significantly the durability of reinforced concrete
structures. We build concrete structures in highly polluted urban and industrial areas, aggressive
marine environments and many other hostile conditions where other materials of construction are
found to be nondurable. In the recent revision of IS: 456-2000, one of the major points discussed
is the durability aspects of concrete. So the use of concrete is unavoidable. Ordinary Portland
cement is recognized as a major construction material throughout the world. Portland cement is
the conventional building material that actually is responsible for about 5% - 8% of global CO2
emissions. This environmental problem will most likely be increased due to exponential demand
of Portland cement. Researchers all over the world today are focusing on ways of utilizing either
industrial or agricultural waste, as a source of raw materials for industry. This waste, utilization
would not only be economical, but may also result in foreign exchange earnings and environmental
pollution control. Several researchers and even the Portland cement industry are investigating
alternatives to produce green building materials. Industrial wastes, such as blast furnace slag, fly
ash and silica fumes are being used as supplementary cement replacement materials At the same
time the scarcity of aggregates are also greatly increased nowadays. Utilization of industrial soil
waste or secondary materials has been encouraged in construction field for the production of
cement and concrete because it contributes to reducing the consumption of natural resources.

The use of pozzolanic materials is found in many ancient civilizations. Pozzolans were used to
improve the properties of lime, and many structures are still extent as a testament to the durability
of lime–pozzolan mortars and concrete. More recently, in Europe and the USA, there have been
numerous high rise buildings, highways, dams, bridges, harbours, canals, aqueducts and sewer
systems built with the use of pozzolan-cement mixtures. Ketkukah and Ndububa (2006) and some
of the notable researchers who have demonstrated the use of ashes of rice husk, sugar cane straw
and groundnut husk as pozzolan in concrete. They have shown that compressive strength of
concrete incorporating these ashes increases while the workability is enhanced at a considerable
percentage. In the works of previous researchers, the use of rice husk ash reduces the effects of
alkali-silica reactivity as well as drying shrinkage. Nehdiet. al (2003) and Mehta and Monteiro
(2004) reported that the performance of these materials, as pozzolans, depends on the type and
amount of amorphous silica content they contain which further depend on duration and
o
calcinations temperature. Ramezanianpour et al. (2009) suggested burning temperature of 650 C
o o
for 60 minutes in the case of rice husk ash while between 800 C and 1000 C was used for sugar
cane straw ash.
 CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE SURVEY

2.1 Cement

Cement is used right from ancient periods in construction industry. In the most general sense of
the word, cement is a binder, a substance which sets and hardens independently, and can bind other
materials together. The word “Cement“ traces to the Romans, who used the term “opus
caementicium” to describe masonry which resembled concrete and was made from crushed rock
with burned lime as binder. Te volcanic ash pulverized brick additives which were added to the
burnt lime to obtain a hydraulic binder were later referred to as cementum, cimentum, cament and
cement. Cements used in construction are characterized as hydraulic or nonhydraulic. The most
important use of cement is the production of mortar and concrete – the bonding of natural or
artificial aggregates to form a strong building material which is durable in the face of normal
environmental effects.

Cement Properties and Strength Analysis

The physical properties of cement are Setting Time, Soundness, Fineness, and Strength.

Setting Time

Cement paste setting time is affected by a number of items including: cement

fineness, water-cement ratio, chemical content (especially gypsum content) and
admixtures. Setting tests are used to characterize how a particular cement paste sets. 


For construction purposes, the initial set must not be too soon and the final set
must not be too late. 


Initial set. Occurs when the paste begins to stiffen considerably. 


Final set. Occurs when the cement has hardened to the point at which it can
sustain some load. 


Setting is mainly caused by C3A and C3S and results in temperature rise in the
cement paste. 


False set :No heat is evolved in a false set and the concrete can be re-mixed
without adding water 


Occurs due to the conversion of unhydreous /semihydrous gypsum to hydrous

 gypsum(CaSO4.2H2O) 


Flash Set: is due to absence of Gypsum. Specifically used for under water repair.



Soundness 


When referring to Portland cement, "soundness" refers to the ability of a hardened

Cement paste to retain its volume after setting without delayed expansion. This Expansion
is caused by excessive amounts of free lime (CaO) or magnesia (MgO). Most Portland
cement specifications limit magnesia content and expansion. 


The cement paste should not undergo large changes in volume after it has set. However
when excessive amounts of free CaO or MgO are present in the cement, these oxides can
slowly hydrate and cause expansion of the hardened cement paste. 


Soundness is defined as the volume stability of the cement paste. 


Fineness

Fineness or particle size of Portland cement affects Hydration rate and thus the
rate of strength gain. The smaller the particle size, the greater the surface area-to- volume
ratio, and thus, the more area available for water-cement interaction per unit volume. The
effects of greater fineness on strength are generally seen during the first seven days. 


When the cement particles are coarser, hydration starts on the surface of the
particles. So the coarser particles may not be completely hydrated. This causes low strength
and low durability. 


For a rapid development of strength a high fineness is necessary. 


Strength 


Cement paste strength is typically defined in three ways: compressive, tensile and
flexural. These strengths can be affected by a number of items including: water cement
ratio, cement-fine aggregate ratio, type and grading of fine aggregate, curing conditions,
size and shape of specimen, loading conditions and age.
Siliceous particles of finer size is used as mineral based admixtures to substitute as cementitious
material, percentage of replacement levels varies 20% to 70% than that of mass of the cementitious
material going to be used in manufacturing of concrete.

Disposal of waste materials are by products produced from various industries is became a big task
facing now days, several scientists and research persons are working on to overcome it by choosing
the possible ways to utilize the waste products in a proper way without creating more problem.
Construction industry is one of the best options that the research people had to utilize the by-
products from various industries as a partial replacement to their traditional materials by which
they can give a solution for all problems caused due to improper disposal methods to the
environment. Utilization of industrial by-products not only gives the solution to disposal problem,
it also serves as a alternative choice in reduction of expenditure to be spent on production of cement
and cement based products such as mortar, concrete etc., and by using as a partial replacement
material in construction, we can reduce the expenditure to be spent on landfill deposit, as a energy
saver and also helps in protecting environment. By utilizing these siliceous material as a additive
in the manufacturing of concrete, it not only reduces the cost and also increases the mechanical
properties due to the enhancement of microstructure level properties in concrete. Due to the
enhance of microstructure in concrete, it also develops durability character much easier than the
concrete produced from the OPC.

Agro-based wastes are the most ready and commonly available materials that can be used as
replacement to cement in partially without large economic implications. They are rice husk ash
(RHA), bambara ground shell ash (BGSA), groundnut husk ash (GHA), wood ash (WA), Acha
husk ash (AHA), bone powder ash (BPA), palm oil shell ash (POSA), periwinkle shell ash, etc.
Main advantage of using agro-wastes as partial replacements for cement in construction industries
is low capital cost per ton production, compared with the production cost of producing same
quantity of cement. Not only capital cost it also reduces pollution and increase the economy of
peasant farmers from selling the above mentioned agro wastes by which farmers are more
beneficiary and makes to improve their production. By using these agro based waste materials as
a cement replacement material, there will be conservation of lime stone for future generation and
reduction during manufacturing of cement

From the past studies it is revealed that POSA can be used as supplementary cementitious
material, due to its good pozzolanic property to produce durable concrete From the past
studies it is revealed that POSA can be used as supplementary cementitious
material, due to its good pozzolanic property to produce durable concrete