Economic Geology

Vol. 56, 1961, pp. 488-508

BRECCIA AND PEBBLE COLUMNS ASSOCIATED WITH

EPIGENETIC ORE DEPOSITS

LEONID BRYNER

CONTENTS
PAGE
Abstract ............................................................. 488
Introduction .......................................................... 489
Terminology ...................................................... 2.. 490
Generalfeaturesof brecciaand pebblecolumns............................ 491
Form and dimensions .............................................. 491
Rock fragments .................................................... 491
Matrix ............................................................ 492
Relationshipto other geologicfeatures .............................. 492
Pre-hydrothermalbrecciaand pebblecolumns............................ 493
Tectonic types ..................................................... 493
Igneoustypes ...................................................... 493
Effusive columns ................................................ 493
Non-effusive columns ............................................ 496
Filled sink-structuresand circle deposits............................. 497
Co-hydrothermal brecciaand pebblecolumns............................ 497
Pebble dikes ...................................................... 498
Brecciaand shatterpipes ........................................... 499
The porphyrycopperdeposits........................................ 502
Summary and conclusions............................................. 504
Problemsrelatingto brecciaand pebblecolumns.......................... 505
References ........................................................... 506

ABSTRACT

Columnsof rock fragmentsshow a wide variety of form and structure

and are associatedwith many different kinds of ore deposits. The frag-
ments range from angular to rounded and from blocks weighing many
tons to the particles that constitutea matrix of rock paste. The columns
generallydevelop
onplanarstructures
or at structuralintersections
mostly
in competent rocks.
Two broad divisionsof mineralizedrock fragment columnsare pro-
posed,namely pre-hydrothermaland co-hydrothermal. In the pre-hydro-
thermal type the spatialcoincidencebetweenthe columnand the ore shoots
in most casesis poor becausethe column developedprior to and inde-
pendentlyof mineralization, and other controls besidesthe configuration
of the columnwere operativein localizing the ore. In the co-hydrothermal
type there is closer coincidencein time and generally in space between
ore and the column because the column results from the corrosive action
of the hydrothermal fluids.
Tectonic breccias,volcanic vent fillings, intrusive igneousbreccias,and
filled sink and circle depositsformed by ground water leachingof carbonate
rocks, generallycome under the headingof pre-hydrothermalstructures.
488
 BRECCI.d AND PEBBLE COLUMNS 489

Other breccia columns, hydrothermal pebble dikes, and probably most

porphyry copper depositscome under the heading of co-hydrothermal
structures.
The incidenceof ore most likely is higher in co-hydrothermalthan in
pre-hydrothermalstructuresthough important ore depositsoccur in both
types.
INTROI)UCTiON

Linty.many of the problemsin the field of ore deposits,brecciaand pebble

columnshave long receivedsporadicand inconclusiveconsideration.The
subjectis broaderthan the name impliesand the many possiblemodesof
brecciapipe origin complicatetheir study. The associatedrock types vary
widely and so do the ore deposits. For example,suchcolumnsoccurin or
nearthe nickeldeposits of Sudbury,the porphyrycopperdepositsof the Basin
and Range Province,lead-zincdepositsin Yugoslavia,the Oruro silver-tin
districtof Bolivia,the uraniumdepositsof• the ColoradoPlateau,the gold-
copperdepositsof Queensland,the diamonddepositsof Kimberly, and the
gold depositsof CrippleCreek, Colorado.
This article is written with the purposeof clarifyingpresentinformation
on brecciaand pebblecolumns,synthesizingthis information,and calling
attentionto the geologicproblems. Most of the materialin the article comes
from a review of the literature on brecciapipesand similar structuresand
on their relationshipto ore deposits. Most of the examplescitedare in the
westernUnited Statesthoughreferencesto other areas are included. Em-
phasisis placedon thosebrecciaand pebblestructuresthat showthe most
directrelationship to ore depositionand whichappearto be an outgrowth
of hydrothermalactivity. This group of brecciaand pebblestructuresis
referredto as "co-hydrothermal."Brecciaand pebblestructuresthat origi-
natedindependently of hydrothermalactivity,and referredto as "pre-hydro-
thermal,"are treatedseparatelyand lesscompletely becausethey comprise
a muchmorevariedgroupof structures that canbe treatedindependently of
ore-formingprocesses, as problemsin structuralgeologyand volcanology.
They are importantas ore solutionconduitsand hoststo ore depositsbut
do not presentthe sameenigmaas do co-hydrothermal
brecciaand pebble
structures. Furthermore,this investigationdid not includethe variety of
pipe-likeoredepositsreferredto in suchtermsas"manto,""massive-pipe de-
posit,""pipe-likepegmatite," etc. The writer believesthat someof these
deposits,asfor example,the O.K. pipein Utah (6, fig. 12), andpipeswith
quartzcoresin easternAustralia(3) may haveoriginatedas brecciapipes
but passed overinto massive bodiesby complete replacement of the original
breccias.
The investigation
of brecciaandpebblecolumns
wasundertaken
for the
Southwest
Districtof Bear CreekMining Companyand the followingarticle
is published
with the company's
permission.
ThomasN. Walthier,Ray-
mondF. Robinson,and othersof the SouthwestDistrict proposedthis sub-
ject. The writeracknowledges hisindebtedness
to thosewhoreadhis report
andofferedsuggestionsfor its improvement,
particularly
JohnW. Vander-
wilt, TrumanH. Kuhn,RudyC. Epis,WilliamR. Jones,Frank Simons, and
490 LEONID BRYNER

Donald G. Bryant. In its presentform the report doesnot necessarilyre-

flect the views of these critics.

TERMINOLOGY

The term "brecciapipe" as usedin the geologicliteraturerefersin most

cases,to a crudelycylindrical,highly inclinedor verticalstructuralunit com-
posedwhollyor partly of angular,or rounded,rockfragmentswith or without
a matrix. "Breccia chimney" is a synonymousbut less popular term.
Though "brecciapipe" is not broad enoughto be descriptiveof the wide
variety of form and structurethat characterizes thesebodies,the term is
retainedhere because of its well establisheduse. In this report it is usedin
a broadenoughsenseto includeformswidely divergentfrom that of a pipe
and to include.rounderconstituents than implied by the word "breccia".
In describing
the intrusivet2reccias
at Toquepala,Peru, Richardand
Courtright(44, p. 264) state:"restrictthe term brecciato formationscom-
posedentirelyof fragmental materialin whichthefragments havebeenrotated
anddisplaced, in contrastto rockthat hasbeenmerelyintricatelyjointedand,
also,to rock that was emplacedin a fusedcondition." They apply the term
agglomerate to an intrusivebrecciahaving a fusedmatrix. This is not
appropriatein viewof the extrusiveconnotationusuallyattached to "agglom-
erate." In thepresentreport"brecciapipe"is considered to includebreccias
eitherwith or withouta fusedmatrix. The pipescomposed of "intricately
jointed"rockhavebeenreferredto by Lacy (31, p. 105) as "shatterpipes"
andthis term is adoptedhere. Accordingto Bateman(2, p. 133), Currier
distinguishes between"rubble"breccias,and "shatteror cracklebreccias"
amongtheAppalachian zincdeposits.This is essentially
thesamedistinction
asbetween. breccia
pipesandshatterpipes. Lacy (31) applies"breccia
pipe"
to a pipe-likebodyof brecciated
rockin whichtherockfragments havemoved
generallyupwardand havebeenrotated." This stipulationas to movement
of rock fragmentsis too restrictivefor generaluse. In most referencesto
brecciapipes,like the lastonementioned,
thereis a geneticconnotation,
one
of the mostcommonbeingthat they are "explosionbreccias." There are so
manypossible
originsfor breccia
pipesthatthetermbyitselfshouldnotimply
any specificorigin.
The term "diatreme"is, in manycases,usedas an equivalentto "breccia
pipe." However,a diatreme(22, p. 80) is "a pipeor ventdrilledthrough
enclosing
rocks(usuallyfiat-lyingsedimentary
rocks)by theexplosive energy
of gas-charged
magmas," whereas in manypipesassociatedwith oredeposits
there is little evidencefor sucha dynamicorigin.
"Pebbledikes"connectedwith igneousor hydrothermal activityare tabular
bodiesin whichthe fragmentsare roundeddue to a millingactionand/or
corrosionby gaseousor aqueous fluids. Their origin,togetherwith other
characteristics
to be describedlater, distinguishes
themfrom the sedimentary
bodiesknownas "clasticdikes." In the AGI Glossary(22, p. 52, 214) no
geneticsignificance
is attached
to theterm"pebble dike." It is defined
simply
as a clasticdike"composed largelyof pebbles."The pebbledikesdescribed
in thisreportare the hydrothermal,not the sedimentarytype.
 BRECCI.4 AND PEBBLE COLUMNS 491

"Brecciadikes"are tabular,but unlikepebbledikes,the fragmentsmay be

angular as well as roundedand the matrix fused.
"Brecciareef" usuallyrefers to a silicifiedfault breccia.
Two terms introducedin this article are "co-hydrothermal"and "pre-
hydrothermal." Co-hydrothermalbrecciaand pebblecolumnswere formed
by "mineralizationstoping"which was at first localizedby some structure
such as a fault •intersection,an intrusive contact, or a zone of tectonic breccia.
In this type,brecciationoccursmainlybecauseof collapsetriggeredby volume
reductiondue to the corrosiveaction of hydrothermalfluids. The term co-
hydrothermalis appliedbecause brecciationwas moreor lesscontemporaneous
and coextensivewith mineralizationand an effect of the mineralizingfluids
themselves. A volcanic environment commonlyis absent or, if present,
showsno spatialrelationshipwith the pipes. Most porphyrycopperdeposits
probably belong in this category and some massive,pipe-like replacement
depositsmay haveoriginatedas co-hydrothermal brecciapipes.
Pre-hydrothermalbrecciaand pebblecolumnsare bodiesof locally min-
eralized fragmentalrock formed before and independentlyof mineralization.
In the pre-existingbrecciahost that was favorableto the transmissionof ore
solutionsadditional controlssuch as post-brecciastructuresor a subjacent
cupolaacted to localizeore deposition. In this type there is distinctlyless
spatial coincidencebetweenmineralizationand the brecciabody. Although
most pre-hydrothermalbrecciapipes are volcanicstructures,such as vents
or calderas,brecciasformed in other ways also localizeore. Pre- and co-
hydrothermalstructuresoverlap becausehydrothermalactivity can further
brecciatea pre-existingbreccia.

GENERAL FEATURES OF BRECCIA AND PEBBLE COLUMNS

Form and Dimensions.--Brecciaand pebblecolumnsshowa wide variety

of form. They may be dike-like, pipe-shaped,shapedlike an inverted cone,
or be so irregular as to defy verbal description. Many of them taper with
depthand becomedike-shaped. Those roughlycircular or ellipticalin plan
commonlyare severalhundredto severalthousandfeet across,and most of
them are severaltimes as deep as they are wide. Their vertical extent is
difficultto appraise,not only becauseof erosionbut also becauserelatively
few of them have been bottomedby mining operations.
Of the two main types of structurethat control ore deposition,as dis-
tinguishedby Butler (7, p. 3), namely,"shearbreaksand fractureor breccia-
tion breaks," breccia and pebble columnswould coincidewith the nearer-
surface, "brecciationbreaks." Other features that in many casessuggest
moderate to shallow, rather than great depth of origin, are (1) relative
scarcityof hypothermalmineralization,comparedto mesothermal
and (2)
distinct vertical zoning of minerals or metals.
Rock Fra#ments.mTheconstituentsof brecciaand pebblecolumnsrange
from angularto well-roundedand from minuteparticlesto blocksweighing
many tons. Many of the fragmentsare hydrothermallyaltered on the
surface and show evidence of corrosion.
492 LEONID BR YNER

Regardingmovementof fragmentsin mineralizedpipes,Joralemonstates,

(26, p. 255): "In most of the hundredor more chimneysI have seenthe
fragmentsare either of the adjoiningwall rock or of a rock that forms a wall
of a chimneyat a slightlydifferentelevation--usuallyhigher."
Matrix.raThe matrix is a rock pastecomposedessentiallyof the same
materialas the fragments,or an igneousrock representing a magmathat has
solidifiedaroundthe fragments. Where silicificationof the r6ck pasteforms
a firm vitreous-lookingmaterialit may be difficultto distinguishbetweenthis
cementedrock pasteand an igneousmatrix.
Somepipeshaveopencavitieswhichcontainmineraldruses. In others
the matrix and fragmentsare replacedand cementedby minerals.
Relationshipto Other Geolo#icFeatures.--Brecciaand pebblecolumns
generallyform in competent rocksand rocksthat do not have outstanding
directionalproperties. In many.casespipesshowa systemof spiralfractures
aroundtheir axis,for example,at Kidston,Australia(13, p. 4) in the Sho-
shoneRange,Nevada,(18, p. 807), and at Red Mountain,Colorado(5,
p. 175). They are controlledas.wellby faults,fissures,
contacts,
andstruc-
tural intersections.Somepipesdevelopin the zoneof arcuatebreaksthat
borderscalderas, as alongthe edgeof the SilvertonCaldera,Colorado(5,
p. 151). Some,like the Whim Hill breccia(27, p. 289) in the granodi-
oriteporphyrystockat SantaRita, New Mexico,haveno evidentstructural
control.
Manypipesareby-products ofhypabyssaligneousactivity,
andareapically
situatedwithrespect
to theintrusive.W.H. Emmons(13, p. 14) speculates
that brecciapipesdevelop aboveconicalcupolas whereasparallelveinsde-
velopaboveelongated cupolas.At Bagdad, Arizona(1, pl. 3) the breccia
pipesoverlieprojections
of elongate
outcropsof quartzmonzonite thatradiate
likefingersfromtheexposed massof quartzmonzonite,andat CopperBasin
nearPrescott,Arizona(25, pl. X) mostof the pipesare locatednearthe
southextremityof an elongated bodyof quartzmonzonite porphyry,espe-
dally nearits contactwith the rocksit intrudes.
Examples
of breccia
columns
situated
in theintrusive
itselfare foundat
Santa Rita, and at Bisbee,Arizona.
As a generalrule co-hydrothermalbrecciaandpebblecolumnsare more
or lesscontemporaneous with the closeof the magmatic
cycleandthe be-
ginningof hydrothermalactivity.
Brecciaandpebblecolumns
are like manyotherstructures
that serveto
localizeore--that is, only a smallpercentage
of thesestructurescarry ore
anda rel•ttively
smallpart of the structure
localizes
mostof the ore. For
brecciaandpebble columnsasa whole,Walker'sestimate (50) thatonlyone
percentare mineralizedseems reasonable
becausemanyof thesestructures
are tectonic
or volcanicphenomena andhaveno directgeneticrelationship
to oredeposits. On theotherhand,wherethesestructures occurin mining
districts,
theyarelikelyto be guides to oreeitherbecausetheyindicatea
buriedcupola or else,becausetheyserveaslociior thetransmissionor ac-
cumulation
of ore solutions,
as at Cananea,Mexico (41, p. 703). It appears
likelythattheco-hydrothermal
typeof breccia
or pebble
column,
beingdi-
 BRECCIA AND PEBBLE COLUMNS 493

rectly connectedwith hydrothermalprocesses,

showsa higher incidenceof
mineralizationthan do other types.

PRE-ItYDROTHERMAL BRECCIA AND PEBBLE COLUi•vlNS

Tectonic Types.---Brecciasdue to faulting and folding are numerous.

They usuallycan be recognizedas tectonicby their intimateassociation with
other tectonicfeatures. Their importancein ore depositionis well known.
Distensionof the crust due to doming (Noble, 39; Wisser, 54) might
be accompanied by pipe-likecollapsestructuresbut the writer foundonly one
accountof this in the literature (Paige, 40, p. 46) and this refersto someof
the ore depositsat Tyrone, New Mexico. Tectonic breccias,however,prob-
ably providethe rock fragmentslater incorporatedin many other breccias.
IgneousEffusive Columns.--Somemineralizedcolumnsof rock fragments
are partly the resultof volcaniceruption. The Cresson"blowout," Colorado,
probablyis of this type. Mineralized volcanicvents generallybelongto the
class of volcanoes known as diatremes. But even diatremes fall short of the
explosiveviolencefrequentlyattributed to brecciapipes. Diatremesprob-
ably did not emit much, if any, lava, and they were relativelyshort-lived.
Accordingto Howel Williams (52, p. 315) "accidentalfragmentsfoundin
most diatremesindicatedepthsof origin between2,000 and 10,000 feet al-
thoughsomefragmentsin the diamondpipesof SouthAfrica musthave risen
from very much greater depths." In someof the Navajo-Hopi diatremes,
Arizona, Williams believes(51, p. 171) the fragmentscamefrom lessthan
3,000 feet below the surface.
In the Navajo-Hopi diatremesShoemaker(47, p. 180, 182) observed
that fragmentslarger than 10 feet in diametergenerallyare found at some
level below their normal stratigraphicpositionand their net downwarddis-
placementis as great as 2,000 feet. Smaller fragments,on the other hand,
were displacedeither up or down. Many of thesediatremesare filled with
beddedtuff, someof which is water-lain. These tuffs commonlydip gently
towardthe centerof the vent, steepenwith depth,and "are commonlyvertical
or intenselydeformedin the deeplyerodedvents" (47, p. 180).
Rust (45, p. 61) in studyingthe diatremesin southeastMissouri, found
fragmentsof Devonianfossilsat levels3,000 feet belowtheir sourcebeds. He
alsofoundthat the peripheriesof manyof the diatremeswere intenselyshat-
tered and he explainedthis by "counterexplosion"(p. 73), due to gas pres-
suresbeingbuilt up in the poresof the wall rock surroundingthe tube and,
upon explosiveeruption,a correspondingly suddenexpansionof thesepore
gasestoward the open tube, shatteringthe tube walls. Possiblysuch a
processhelpedto preparethe groundfor mineralizationin somepipes.
The upper parts of diatremes,where they are relativelyunerodedflare
outward and the central portionsare cylindrical. The Navajo-Hopi dia-
tremes,accordingto Hack (19, p. 269) "appearto narrow downwardand
may evenmerge with a systemof narrow fractures."
The diatremesof southwest Missouriare believedby Rust (45, p. 70) to
representfinger-like upward extensionsfrom the hangingwalls of dikes.
494 LEONID BRYNER

Sucha relationship
might explainthe apparentlyrandomareal arrangement
of somediatremes;wherethe diatremesconnectdown-dipwith a dike there
mightbe no apparentspatialrelationship
to this dike at the surface. Daly
(11, p. 391) believedthat diatremesconsistentlyoverlie sills or laccoliths,
butHack (19, p. 370) presents
evidenceto showthat the Navajo-Hopidia-
tremesprobablyare not underlainby a laccolith. These diatremesoccupy
a shallowstructuralbasinwherethere is no evidenceof doming.
In somediatremesthe pressuresmayhavecomefroman advancing magma
column. In manyof them,depositsof tuff indicateexplosivevolcanismas a
drivingforce. Williams (52, p. 316) describesthe formationof diatremesas
follows:"Risinggases'lubricate'the roof rocks;pulsatingmagmabrecciates
the cover; repeatedexplosionscomminutethe cap rocks so that frothing
magmais intimatelymingledwith them and, near surface,steameruptions
causedby heatingof groundwaterfacilitatethe drillingprocess
whileslumping
of slabsfrom the conduit walls enlargesthe conduits."
Regarding the pebble-brecciabody at Toquepala, Richard and Court-
right (44, p. 265) say: "It would seemto have beenproducedby a milling
actionin which the rock fragmentswere activelysuspended in an actively
circulatingmediumsuchas water or gas. In this state this pebblebreccia
may have had an intrusivemobility, althoughportionsof it may also have
beenformedmore or lessin place."
The processknown in industryas "fluidization" (transportationof solid
or liquid particlesby gasflow) and proposedby Reynolds(43) as a geologic
processmight very well provide the churningaction neededto explain the
above-mentioned
pebble
breccia
andpebble
dikesin general. Reynolds
states
:'
"Experimentshave shownfor example that the agitationand turnover of
solid particlesby water is insignificantin comparison•vith the rapid rate
of circulationand mixing in the turbulent expandedbed of a solid-gassys-
tem" (p. 578). Fluidizationconceivably couldcauseupwardtransportation,
or selectivetransportationto allow subsidenceof larger fragmentsand ascen-
sionof smallerones--a processthat took placein somediatremesand pebble
dikes. By comparisonwith industrial fluidization, Reynolds believesgas
transportationcan be recognizedby: "The association of turbulentflow struc-
ture with abradedand well-roundedrock fragmentswhichhave not apparently
beentransportedawayfrom their sourcerocks,togetherwith lack of grading
of the fragmentsconcerned,
and the possiblepresence
of druses"(p. 579).
Exceptfor a lack of druses,the brecciabodiesat Sudburyand pebbledikesin
generalfit thesespecificationsquite well.
Some of the Red Mountain, Colorado,brecciapipes quite possiblyde-
velopedthroughfluidization,judging from Burbank'sdescriptionof their
textures(5, p. 174): "Texturessuggestive of flow structureor squeezing
in
the matrix of the breccia,togetherwith mineralogicalchanges,suggestthat
in the final stageof its formationthe brecciawas saturatedwith volcanic
gasesor vaporsandreactedto forcesby plasticflowratherthanby fracturing."
This was written beforeReynoldshad proposedthe fluidizationtheory.
It is reasonable to supposealso that water as well as gas might be a
mediumof transportation
for intrusivebreccias.In parts of somepebble
 BRECCIA AND PEBBLE COLUMNS 495

dikes(?) at Butte,stratification
is evident(46, p. 20). At the Stantrglead-
zinc brecciapipe in Yugoslaviathe ganguemineralsare mainly quartz and
carbonates,and at the surface,partly obscuringthe pipe, is a travertine de-
posit. "In the neighborhood of the ore body feedersof water aggregating
1,000 gallonsper minute issuefrom cavitiesand rissuresat 85ø F" (17, p.

6& iTRU$1VE
.•8RECC•P,

ISOMETRIC
DIAGRAM
CRESSON PIPE
CRIPPLE CREEK
COLORADO

I BASED ON DATA FROM

LOUGHLIN • HOSCHMANN,
CUT-OUTS
TWEEN CERTAIN LEVELS
ARE TO SHOW SHAPE OF
ß DISTRIBUTION
OF ORE AS INDICATED

THAT EXTEND
BEYOND THE PIPE INTD
ROCK
NOT SHOWN
SUCH AS
THAT INTERSECT

TO LOCALIZE SOME OF
THE ONE ARE NOT
SHOWN.

Fro. 1. A pre-hydrothermalbrecciapipe.

300); a highertemperature
of outflowthan in otherpartsof the district.
The unusualconcentrations
of phosphates
in some of the diatremesof the
Hopi Countryis suggestiveof thermalsolutions(47, p. 180).
The aboveexamples of depositionby waterimplya ratherquietwelling
action,butthequestion
shouldberaisedasto whetherthecriteriaadvanced by
Reynoldsfor recognitionof texturesresultingfrom fluidizationwould be
substantiallydifferent from those for textures due to turbulent water flow
496 LEONID BRYNER

suchas might occurin a boilingspring. This questionis suggested

by the
fact that Petershas proposedsuchan origin for the Bull DomingoPipe,
Colorado (42).
The Cressonpipe, Cripple Creek, Colorado, is a breccia column that
appearsalso to be a diatreme. It showsless evidencefor explosionand
collapsethan do most diatremes,and the brecciamatrix appearsto have been
at leastpartly fused. It is shownin Figure 1 as an exampleof a pre-hydro-
thermal pipe. The pipe has a diameterof 500 to 800 feet and has been
followed to a depth of 2,200 feet. It changeswith depth to two root-like
extensions.Loughlinand Koschmann(34, p. 255) saythat the "rootshave
evidentlydevelopedalong a fissurezone of eastnortheasttrend and steep
southerlydip, and they are localizedalongthe intersectionof that zone with
dike-filled fissuresof north-northwesttrend." According to Lovering and
Goddard (35, p. 293) the basalticbrecciathat fills the pipe "containsfrag-
mentsof brecciaof all the dike rocksin the surroundingground,besidesmany
fragmentsof dark-gray or greenishgray densebasalt in a densematrix of
basaltand basaltictuff." Though the brecciaresultedfrom an upward surge
of the underlyingmagmathe processperhapswas not as violentas in many
diatremes. Most of the explosivebrecciasthat fill the calderain which the
Cressonpipe is situated originatedat the beginningof volcanicactivity,
whereas,
theCresson
pipedeveloped
at theendofvolcanic
activity
after'many
interveningperiodsof intrusiveactivityand as the last episodebeforemin-
eralization.
Thoughthe greatmajorityof volcanicventscarry no importantmineraliza-
tion, somecontainimportantore deposits. At the Cresson"blowout,"ac-
cordingto LoughlinandKoschmann(34, p. 316): "A studyof the ore bodies
showsthat the positionsof the largestare controlledmainly by the junctions
of the rim of the blowoutwith mineralizedfissuresin the surroundingrock,
especiallythosealongand intersecting certaindikes. Someof the ore bodies
within the blowoutare controlledmainlyby fissuresthat borderlarge included
massesof latite phonolite,. . . but are also connectedwith fissuresalong
the rim." In the BassickMine, Colorado,the gold and silver mineralization
is confinedto a narrowpipe-likezonewithina columnof andesire agglomerate
havinghorizontaldimensions on the order of 1,200 to 1,500 feet (10, pl.
XXXIV). The ore body,accordingto Emmons(12, p. 431) is elliptical
with diametersfrom 20 to 100 feet and has beenfollowedto a depthof 1,400
feet. Emmonsstates(p. 438): "At the timeof (ore) deposition the agglom-
erate in what is now the ore channelwas probablyin no (way) essentially
differentfrom that in whichthe countryrockis now,exceptthat it may have
beensomewhat shatteredalongthe fractureplanesthat are supposed to have
determinedthe courseof the ore-bearingcurrents." In other words, the
mineralizationseemsto havebeencontrolledby fracturescuttingthe agglom-
erate rather than by the configurationof the agglomeratecolunto.
In both of theseexamplesthe agglomerate and brecciais a favorable
hostrockonlywhereadditionalcontrolshelpto localizeore deposition.
IgneousNon-effusiveColumns.--Amagma,in the processof intrusion,
mayentrainenoughsolidmaterialto forma breccia.Thismaterialcanbede-
 BRECCIA AND PEBBLE COLUMNS 497

rivedby magmaticstoping,by abrasionof wall rocks,if the magmais viscous,

or by theengulfment
of otherbreccias. An intrusivebrecciaalsocanoriginate
wherea chilledborderor front is brecciatedand then inundatedby a surge
of underlyingmagma. Sills of prophyrynear Pando,Colorado,were ac-
companiedby an "advanceguard" of intrusionbreccia,accordingto Tweto
(49, p. 527).
It is likely that intrusivebrecciasgenerallyfollowfaults and fissuresand
thereforeare less pipe-like in form than other brecciaor pebblebodies.
In some places,however, they fill vents or other pre-existingpipe-like
structures.

A magmaalso might form a brecciacolumnby withdrawal,causing

collapseof the overlyingrocks. This explanationhas been advancedfor
calderas,and somebrecciacolumnsshowa remarkablestructuralsimilarity
to calderas. The Pilares pipe in Sonora, Mexico, is one of these. The
brecciabodythereis ovalin plan, 1,000to 2,000feet across,andis developed
to a depthof 1,800 feet. "The latite-andesitecontact300 to 500 feet deep
outsidethe pipe, sagsinside as an invertedconeto the 900-foot level and
showsover the entireoval an averagesubsidence of 200 feet" (33, p. 436).
Locke comparesthe "crackling"of this subsidedbody to that at Bingham
Canyon,Utah, "thougha little coarser"(p. 433). The peripheryof the body
is composedof a sleeveof jumbled brecciain a zone about 50 feet thick.
Most of the ore lies in this breccia zone. Locke believed that the subsidence
at Pilares was due to a processwhich he named "mineralizationstoping,"
to be describedlater in this article. An alternativeexplanationwould be
that of magmasubsidence, embodiedin D. D. Smythe'sexplanation(48) of
the pipe. Smythe postulatesa pre-subsidence episodeof doming due to
magmaintrusion,becausein the lower levelsof the pipe there is a faulted
wedgeof dacitetuff 100 feet aboveits normal stratigraphicpositionoutside
of and adjacentto the pipe.
Filled Sink-Structuresand Circle Deposits.--Bretz (4) has described
pipe-likedepositsin Missouricausedby groundwatersolutionof limestone
and dolomite. Filled sinksare funnel-or bowl-shaped mass-subsidence
struc-
tures formed at depth when subsidence keepspace with solutionalremoval
of underlyingcarbonaterock. Circledepositsare cone-or bell-shaped bodies
of brecciaformed by progressiveroof-collapseof solutioncaves. Mineable
depositsof clay, coal,pyrite, hematite,lead and zinc, occurin someof these
structures. A discussionof these mineral depositsis beyond the scopeof
this report. However,collapsed bedsin diatremeshavea counterpart in the
filled-sinks,and somebrecciabodies,as at Bisbee,have a counterpartin
the circle-deposits.These similaritiessuggestthat subsidence and collapse
resultfrom igneousor hydrothermalas well as from sedimentary processes.
CO-I-IYDROTI-IERMAL BRECCIA AND PEBBLE COLUMNS

Many brecciaand pebblecolumnsappearto be so closelyconnectedto

hydrothermalactivity,both in spaceand in time, that they naturallycan be
termed"co-hydrothermal."
498 LEONID BRYNER

In somecasesthe distinctionbetweena co-hydrothermaland a prehydro-

thermal structuremay be difficultor impossibleto make, and the two types
probablyoverlapto someextent. For example,a collapsestructurelike the
Pilares pipe might be due either to magma subsidence or to the corrosive
actionof hydrothermalfluidsor to bothof theseprocesses.There are enough
pipe structures,however,that are clearly related to hydrothermalactivity
to justify this specialcategory.
PebbleDikes.--As Cook (8, p. 76) remarksof the Tintic District, "The
closetemporaland spatialassociation of the monzoniteintrusives,pebble
dikes,hydrothermalalterationand metallizationsuggests a commonorigin."
At the Plutus Mine in Tintic (15, p. 362) pebbledikes and bodiesof ore
are contiguousin the same fissures. However, the relationshipbetween
pebbledikesand ore commonlyis not so direct. Billingsley(20) believed
thatpebbledikesare an indication that fissures
persisted
to depthandtapped
igneousemanations.At Bisbee,pyrite pebblesin the pebbledikesand a
lack of any fragmentsof ore, indicatethat the dikesformedafter the early
surgeof pyrite mineralization but beforecoppermineralization(personal
communication, DonaldG. Bryant,July 8, 1959). Nevertheless, at Cananea,
according
to Perry (41), pebbledikesfollowpost-mineralization
fissures
and
cross-cut
bandsand zonesof mineralization. Where pebbledikesprecededthe
periodof oredepositiontheirlackof mineralization
probably is explained by
theirrelativeimpermeability.At Tintic,according to Kildale (28, p. 109),
"theywerefrequently tightlycemented by the earliestsolutionsthat carried
onlysilicaandpyriteandwerethussealedoff fromthe latersolutions carry-
ing mostof the valuablemetals." Also, at Tintic, somepebbledikesare
traceddownwardinto monzoniteporphyrydikes (38, p. 38), and suchdikes
mighthavesealedoff the ore solutions.
Many descriptions
of hydrothermal
pebbledikescompare
their appear-
anceto that of concreteaggregate. The fragmentsin pebbledikesare, in
mostplaces,wellrounded.At Tinticthepebbles have"onionstructureand
(15,p. 370)thesepebbles arefoundasmuchas6,000feetabove theirsource
as wellas adjacentto their source. Someof the breccias
at Bisbeeare in
late Paleozoicrocksand containpebblesof PrecambrianPinal Schist,indi-
catingan upwarddisplacement
of approximately
5,000feet (personal
com-
nmnication,
Harry E. Metz, Nov. 29, 1956).
A detailedstudyof structures
similarto theabovepebbledikeswasmade
at Sudbury, Ontario,by Fairbairnand:Robson (14). Thoughcalled"brec-
cias,"thefragmentstherearesubangular to rounded.Somefragments were
transportedthousands of feetandsomearequitelocalin origin.
Quotingthe writers (p. 1).
Aqueousfluidsat elevated
temperature
andpressure permeated
strikewise
fractures
alongwhichtherewasslightdislocation
of thewalls. Fragmentsweretornloose
and comminution
was aidedby actionof the fluids. This formeda mobilematrix
which in time attained sufficientvolume to transport the remaining fragments.
Low confining
pressure
permitted
easymovement of thebrecciaandprevented
the
development
of goodcrystallographic
orientation
in theminerals.The magmatic
fluids enrichedthe matrix particularlyin sodiumand in generalincreasedthe
 BRECCI.4 AND PEBBLE COLUMNS 499

amount of mica, chlorite sodic plagioclase,etc., over that found in the fragments
ß . . following thesechangescame the introductionof the nickeliferoussulphides.

The processof fluidizationdescribed under"IgneousEffusiveColumns"

seemsthe mostplausiblegeneralexplanationfor hydrothermalpebbledikes.
Like diatremes,pebbledikescontainfragmentsthat traveledconsiderable dis-
tances,as well as fragmentsthat are fairly closeto their placeof origin. The
lackof a fusedmatrix in pebbledikesindicatesan aqueousor gaseous medium
of transportation for the pebbles,and the roundingof the pebbleshowsthat
attrition and possiblychemicalcorrosiontook place. The dikes at Tintic,
Bisbee,and Sudburyappearto haveformedduring an early surgeof hydro-
thermalfluids,and representa sludgeformedby the flushingout of fracture
and fault fillings.
The resemblance of pebble-dikefillingsto that of somevents,like the
"pebblebreccia"at Toquepalafor instance(44), and the BradenFormation
(21, p. 874), suggestthat amongco-hydrothermal bodies,thesedikesrepre-
sentthe closestapproachto volcanicactivity,and can perhapsbe considered
as a link betweenpre-hydrothermal and co-hydrothermal.
Brecciaand Shatter Pipes.--Some brecciaand shattercolumnsin or near
plutonsshowno evidenceof volcanicorigin, muchless,of explosiveactivity.
Someof thesepipescontainore depositsor are associated with ore deposits.
They are numerousenoughcomparedto mineralizedvolcanicventsto justify
McKinstry's remark, (37), "the role of volcanicexplosionin creatingore-
bearingpipesseemsmuchlessimportantthan an uncriticalreadingof the
literature might suggest."
Someof thesepipesare intrusionbreccias, but mostof themshowevidence
of collapseand do not containa fusedmatrix like mostintrusionbreccias.
Locke (33, figs. 14, 15), picturesthe ideal brecciapipe as carrot shaped,
with the slenderend down. He says (p. 448) that the Southwestand the
Catalinapipesat Bisbeeshowa "rapid convergence of the walls forming a
rude keel below which the silicifiedbrecciadescendsonly in irregular pro-
tuberances.... The pipes merely end downwardas they do horizontally
againstfresher, lessfractured country rock."
Most brecciapipesare not uniformlybrecciated.Three concentric zones
of greateror lesserbrecciationoftencanbe recognized. Theseare (25, plate
VIII):

1. A core of well-brecciatedrock where the porosityis relatively high,

and roundedfragments abundant.
2. A less-brecciated sleeve surroundingthe core, with relatively low
porosityand little or no roundingof fragments.
3. A transitionzoneto normallyfracturedcountryrock. In zones1 and
2 there has beenrotationand somemixing of fragments,but zone 3 has the
characterof a shatterpipe. In other words,many column-likestructures
are combinationbrecciaand shatterpipes.

The Childs-Aldwinkle
copper-molybdenum-bearing
pipe, CopperCreek,
Arizona,shownin Figure2, hasbeendescribed
by Kuhn (29, p. 518, 520,
500 LEONID BRYNER

BLOCK DIAGRAM
CHILDS-ALDWlNKLE
OREDEPOSI•ARIZONA
(eASEDONOATAFROMKUHN1936 PLATEXXXlXa 1941
FIG,T). GROUND
O[TWEEN
•LTERNATE
LEVELS
•MITTED
ToSHDWS.•PEOr
ß GRANODIORZTEO.EP,P•S.
SHOWNONLYBYCO.T•CTSe[Twrr.
TRACEO• CLOCK e.gcc.•
SURFACE' ISOM ETRIC DIAGRAM
HIGHLYSCHEMATIC.FAULTSALSOSHOW• ONLYeY TRACE '
•THEe•oc. su..•c•.•.•cc,••.•..Ts •.• •.•.oo,o.,T.
•E IS M•NERALIZED eRECCIA
CACTUS ORE DEPOSIT• UTAH
(8•SED ON DATA FROM BUTLER,1913,PLAT[ •XXll, CuT'OUTS AT VARtDUS
LEVELS ARE TO SMOW SHAPE OF DEPOSIT FAULTS ARE NOT SHOWN,
eUT THEY HAVE SMALL DISPLACEMENTS ß HAVE NO DOMI•A•
OIRECTION

Fro. 2. A co-hydrothermalbreccia pipe.

Fro. 3. Possibleco-hydrothermalporphyry copperstructure.

521). This descriptionis quotedat somelengthbecausethe writer believes

that this pipe is a goodexampleof the co-hydrothermal
type. The pipe'
consistsof angular blocks of altered granodiorite cementedby gangue and ore
minerals. In places semi-roundedfragments of granodiorite show alteration
envelopes parallelingthe surfaceof the block.... In the central portion of the
breccia mass on the 820-foot level, the granodiorite blocks are entirely replaced
by sericite, quartz, and sulphides
.... The outline of the blocks can be seen.
The zone surroundingthe central core is composedchiefly of chlorite, quartz, and
orthoclasewith minor apatite and sulphides .... The cementingmaterial also
changesfrom principallychloriteand quartz at the bottomof the mine to serfcite
and quartz in the upper levels. At the borders,the breccia usually grades into
soft,muchalteredgranodiorite,and this, in turn, into hard jointedgranodiorite.
Exploration by winzes and diamond drilling strongly suggeststhat the area of
brecciationhas diminishedgreatly at 900 feet below the surface.
Three N.10øW. faults at the bottom of the mine suggest a fracture zone....
Minor displacements
have occurredafter the formationof the breccia
.... All
major faults containsulphides,indicatingpre-mineral origin.
Regarding
origin,Kuhn (29, p. 526) says'
At CopperCreekthe pipesare in strongfracturezonesor at intersections
of
fractures. Solutions that rose along these fractures altered and dissolved the
rocksand thus producedbreccia. Further brecciationmay have resultedfrom
slumping, similarto that described by Lockein the Pilaresmine. All gr•tdations
exist betweenpipesintenselyalteredand brecciatedto thosethat showa strong
fracture pattern with very little alteration.
 BRECCIA AND PEBBLE COLUMNS 501

Another exampleof a co-hydrothermal pipe is the pyrite-chalcopyrite-

hematite-bearing CactusPipe, Utah, shownin Figure 3. The ore bodies
seemto havebeencoextensive, in greatpart, with the brecciaexceptat the
surfacewherethe brecciatedzone,without wideningin one dimension,flares
in the other dimensionto a length of about 2,700 feet (6, p. 174), but the
oreshootwithinthiszoneextendsalongit for onlyabout700 feet. According
to Butler (p. 175): "the limiting of the ore bodyis doubtless due to two
influences--themassivecharacterof the monzonite,which preventedfree
circulationof solutionsin the early stagesof mineralization,and subsequent
to the faultingthe ganguehasstill furtherpreventedcirculation
.... "
Butler (6, p. 175) believedthat brecciationin the CactusPipe was"due
to slight movementsresultingfrom readjustments in the coolingmonzonite
body." Locke'sidea of mineralizationstopinghad not yet beenproposed.
Thoughmineralization in co-hydrothermalbrecciaandshatterpipesshows
a closercoincidence with the pipe boundaries than it doesin the pre-hydro-
thermalpipes,there are pipesthat probablyare co-hydrothermal, and yet
containvirtually no ore.
The brecciapipesnearthe disseminated
coppermineat Bingham,Utah,
are an exampleof this. Walker (50) speculates
that somepipesmay act
as ore-fluidconduitsbut do not containore becausetemperatures
in the pipe
weretoohighfor ore deposition duringthe periodof pebbleaccumulation;
but pipessuchas the onesat Binghamare at approximately the samelevel
as the ore deposits
thoughoff to one sideof the centerof porphyrycopper
mineralization.It seemslogicalto assumethat suchpipesare barrensimply
because theyare not closeenoughto the mainchannels of ore deposition.
Somepipesmayof course simplybepost-ore-fluid,butgenerallythisis not
the case.
Anotherexplanationfor barrenpipesnearoreis containedin Burbank's
description
(5, p. 183) of the volcanic
pipesat Red Mountain,Colorado,
whereore bodiesare foundwithinthe pipesand alsoexteriorto the pipes.
Thepipesnotplugged byporphyry generally
containore,whereas,
theplugged
pipesgenerallydo not,although oremayoccurin the surrounding ground.
Thissameprinciple,namely, thesealingoff of breccia
by magmamayapply
elsewhere.
Whileit appearsthatco-hydrothermal
breccia
andpebble columnsdevelop
towardthe closeof magmaticactivityand the beginningof hydrothermal
activity,
thesetwoperiodscommonly overlap
andtherefore brecciapipesin
anylocalitymayshowa varietyof timerelationships
to theassociatedrocks.
The brecciapipesat Bingham,
according to Hunt (24, p. 53) are "earlier
than the last mineralizationbut later than muchof the monzonite." At Bag-
dad,Arizona,(1) brecciapipesrangein agefromolderthanthe earliest
Cretaceous
(?) or Tertiary(?) volcanics
to younger
thantheyoungestig-
neousrocksof theseperiods
of igneous
activity.Somearemineralized
and
somenot. Someof thesepipes,however,probablyare co-hydrothermal
but
otherspossiblyare not.
In pebble
dikesintrusive
activity
seems
to predominate,
butin co-hydro-
thermalbreccia
andshatterpipes,collapse,
whetherit causes
greatdisplace-
502 LEONID BRYNER

meritor hardlyany displacement, is a moreimportantprocess.The evidence

for this is in the prevalence
of a net downwardmovementof fragmentsin
the co-hydrothermal brecciapipes,and in-place,unrotatedfragmentsin the
shatterpipes. With examples from Bisbee,Wisser (53, p. 772) has shown
that failure of rocksabovemine openingsand aboveoxidizedore bodiesas-
sumesthe form of a cylindrical,brecciatedmass,exceptwherecollapseoccurs
relativelycloseto the surface,in whichcasethe groundfails as a cylindrical
unit. In mining operations,cavingsometimes producesvertical,cylindrical
breccia masses.
Locke(33) proposed "mineralizationstoping"to explaincollapse breccias
in mineralizedpipes. He describesthis processas: "brecciationdue to re-
movalof supportby the dissolvingactionof solutionsduring an early stage
of their activityfollowedby mineraldepositionin the brecciatedmassat a
later stage"(p. 431). The term "mineralization stoping"as understood here
from Locke's paper means that there was enough corrosiveaction along
fracturesto trigger collapseof a block of ground,and this collapsewas the
main causeof brecciation. Once an openinghad occurredcollapsemight be
augmentedby rock bursts (18, p. 809-812). Locke's theory explainsboth
the brecciationand the ore depositionby a singleprocess,and hasin its favor
the widespreadevidenceof corrosiveactionand replacementin brecciapipe
deposits.
The Porphyry Copper Deposits.--Locke (33) extendedthe conceptof
mineralizationstopingand brecciapipesto the porphyrycopperdeposits. He
writes as follows (p. 452):
The irregular disseminatedmineral depositshave in no case had their shrinkage
measuredor its cause determined,yet their brecciation and that of the pipes are
so closelyanalogousas to indicate that such depositsin general, including those of
Bingham, Braden, and Chuquicamata,will be establishedas cases of the same
process,confusedby the overlapping of subsidencecircles.
The same processgives promise of applicationalso to the tin-bearing and tourma-
line-bearing stockworks, and it may even prove in some places to have been a
preparatory stage for igneousintrusion.
This plausibleexplanationfor porphyrycoppershatteringseemsto havehad
little or no impacton the theory of the origin of thesedeposits.
Shrinkageof coolingigneousbodieshas beenproposedby Hulin (23) as
an explanationfor collapseand attendentbrecciation. Againstthis theory is
the lack of spatialcoincidence betweenporphyrycopperintrusivesand the
associated shatteringand also the dearthof porphyry-copper-type shattering
in unmineralizedhypabyssalintrusives.
PossiblyLocke'sideashavebeeninterpretedas violatingLindgren's"law
of equalvolumes"(32, p. 92). This "law" doeshave exceptions,as shown
by Cooperin his studiesnear JohnsonCamp, Arizona, where stratigraphic
measurements of the carbonate rocks show that "the silicated facies is as
muchas 30 percentthinnerthan the unsilicatedfacies"(9, p. 577). Further-
more, volume-for-volume,replacementas advocatedby Lindgren, was meant
primarily, it seemsto the writer, to explain the lack of such increasesin
volume as might be expectedfrom chemicalreactionsunder atmospheric
 BRECCI,4 AND PEBBLE COLUMNS 503

pressurerather than any chemicallyindicateddecreases.Lindgren wrote

(p. 92):
It is necessaryto distinguishbetween (1) metasomaticchangesproceedingin free
crystalsor grains, or in looseor plasticaggregatesunder light load, where force
of crystallizationcan easily overcomethe restraining pressure;and (2) meta-
somaticchangesproceedingin rigid rocks where the new mineral is forced to
make room for itself by solution of the host mineral.
In the first casethe volumechangesproceedaccordingto the chemicalformula.

ThoughLindgrenstates(p. 93) "The mostfundamentalchangesin rockstake

placewith practicalconstancyof volume,"he addsin a footnote,"When a
rock is permeatedby strong,rapidly movingliquids,solutionmay overtake
deposition and a drusystructuremay result. But evenin this casethe bulk
volumeis likely to remainaboutconstant,exceptundervery heavypressure."
This last statementsays,in effect, that the rock volumehas been reduced,
leavingan openingequalin volumeto that originallyoccupiedby solidrock,
and if the pressureof overlyinggroundis not too greatthis openingremains.
Locke'sidea apparentlyis that after this corrosiveaction by hydrothermal
solutions,the pressurein manycasesis too greatand the rockoverlyingthe
cavitycollapses into it, forminga brecciapipe,or elsethere is incipientcol-
lapseto form a shatterpipe. Such shatterpipesin closelypackedswarms
may well constitutethe mostcommonform of porphyrycopperstructure.
Another significantcontributionon the relationshipbetweenbrecciapipes
andporphyrycopperdeposits wasmadeby B. S. Butler (6). His discussion
was an outgrowthof studiesin the San FranciscoDistrict, Utah. Two of
the pipesthere,the Cactusand O.K. ore deposits, led Butler to reviewthe
literature on similar deposits. He cites other examplesof such "quartz-
tourmaline-chalcopyrite deposits"(p. 127-129), and concludes that boththe
CactusandO.K. deposits "are . . . very closelyalliedto the typecommonly
known as disseminated deposits,of which there are numerousexamplesin
the west" (p. 129). Suchdisseminated [porphyrycopper]deposits:"occur
in siliceousrocks, either schists,monzonites,or some closelyallied rocks.
Thesehavebeenfracturedand highlyalteredby ore-bearingsolutions.The
fissuresare filled by veinsof quartzand sulphides, and grainsof sulphides
are also disseminated throughthe altered rock. Both pyrite and chalco-
pyriteare usuallyabundant primarysulphides.The commercial ore is as a
rule the result of enrichment"(p. 129).
Althoughthereare no published
field investigations
to confirmthe rela-
tionship
betweenporphyrycopperdeposits andbrecciapipes,it seems
to the
writer that what evidenceis availableis decidedlyin favor of this concept.
Besidesthe structuraland mineralogicsimilaritiespointedout by Lockeand
Butler, the followingobservations
apply:
Thereare all gradations
betweendeposits
considered
to be disseminated
porphyry
copperdeposits
andthoseconsidered to be brecciapipedeposits.
For example,
theCactus
"pipe"(Fig. 3) is hardlypipe-like
in formandhas
shatter structure rather than breccia structure. It could be considereda
smallporphyry
copper
deposit
or a shatter
pipethatdiverges
greatlyfroma
 504 LEONID BR YNER

pipe-likeshape.The Childs-Aldwinkle deposit(Fig. 2) probablymore

closelyapproaches
the typicalco-hydrothermal
breccia-shatter
pipethan do
mostporphyrycopperdeposits,
yet it is not essentially
differentfrom the
Cactusdeposit.The sulfidemineralization
of the Childs-Aldwinkledeposit,
including
pyrite,chalcopyrite,
andmolybdeniteas well as zonesof pegmatite
material,is certainlysuggestive
of porphyrycoppermineralization.
The central,shattered part of the Pilarespiperesembles
the fracturingat
Bingham,and the Coloradapipe of Cananea,Mexico,is surrounded
by a
halo of porphyrycopper-type
mineralization.At SantaRita, New Mexico,
the relativelyweaklymineralizedgroundnearthe centerof the pit perhaps
has a counterpartin the relativelyweaklymineralizedcore of the Pilares
deposit.The circularplan of the Climax,Colorado,molybdenum deposit
with ore adjacent to a sheath-likemass of silica rock resemblesfeatures of
the Coloradapipe deposit.
Other porphyrycopperdeposits, suchas Binghamand Bagdad,are sur-
roundedby relativelybarrenbrecciapipes. If thesebrecciapipes,as well
as the porphyrycopperdeposit,are regardedas havingbeen formed by
hydrothermal fluids,and if hydrothermal activityis considered
to havebeen
centeredbeneaththe porphyryore deposit,then the isolatedbrecciapipes
logicallyrepresentthe fringe effectsof mineralizingactivityas well as the
fringesof a centerof collapsecausedby the corrosiveactionof the fluids.
At this center,brecciaor shattercolumnscoalesce, formingporphyrycopper
structure,and away from it, the columns,being less crowdedtogether,be-
comerecognizable as separateentities.
The intensealterationaroundmostporphyrycopperdeposits testifiesto
the activityand volumeof hydrothermalfluids. The complexof structural
intersectionscommonlycenteringon thesedeposits(36) perhapsprovided
the necessaryconcentration of channelways for the mineralizingfluids to
effectivelycorrodelarge enoughblocksof groundto causethe widespread
shattering. Also, if the shatteringin porphyrycopperdepositsis related
throughmineralizationstopingto ore solutionscharacterized by a certain
degreeof corrosionalactivity,assumingthat the rock is not abnormallyre-
active or non-reactive,as for example limestoneand quartzite respectively,
then perhapsthis explainswhy shatteror stockworkstructureis especially
typical of copper-molybdenum depositsand not of, say, lead-zincdeposits.
In otherwordssolutions that depositcopperand molybdenum may be charac-
terized by an ability to corrodethe countryrock to a degree (neither too
great nor too small) that is most likely to induce porphyry copper-type
shattering.
su•^R¾ ^•D COnCLUSiOnS

Breccia and pebble columns associatedwith epigeneticore deposits

presenta wide variety of phenomena whetherthey are considered from the
structuralor mineralogicalstandpoint,or from the standpointof origin. The
broadestclassificationbasedon origin would include three main types dis-
tinguishedon the basisof dominantmovementof fragments. The movement
of fragmentsgenerallyis predominantlyone of the following: 1. Intrusive;
 BRECCIA AND PEBBLE COLUMNS 505

2. Collapse;3. Oscillatory. Intrudedfragmentsgenerallyare impelledby

magmaor else by gaseousor aqueousfluids that arise from the magma or
are mobilizedby magmaticheat. The fragmentsthat constitutethe column
do not reachthe surfaceand they accumulate either in a volcanicvent or in
a hypabyssalintrusive body.
Collapsestructuresprobablyhavean evenwider variety of causes. Be-
sidescollapsecausedby withdrawalof magmaor slackeningof intrusive
activity,collapsemight resultalsofrom meltingof rock by gasescompressed
by an advancingmagmacolumn (52, p. 316), by distensionof the crust
causedby doming,by solutionof limestone by groundwater, by shrinkagedue
to corrosionby gaseous or hydrothermalfluids,andpossiblyalsoby shrinkage
due to coolingof an intrusive.
Oscillatorymovementwould result from a combinationof intrusiveand
collapseprocesses.
These three typesof movement,namely,intrusive,collapse,and oscilla-
tory, producerock massesin which the fragmentsare notably displaced,
rotatedand,in somecases,mixed. Incipientintrusion,collapseor oscillation
on the other hand causesshatter structuresin which the broken fragments
are essentiallyin placerelative to eachother. Probablycollapseprocesses
are most importantin producingshatter structures.
Brecciaand pebblecolumnsdisplaya wide variety of shapesand internal
structuralfeaturesand a few dominantstructural controls. They vary from
dike-liketo pipe-likeand to formsthat haveno readily-described counterpart.
Commoninternal featuresare zonal arrangementswith respectto the pipe
axis, of fragmentsize, fragment rounding,porosity,and fracturing.
Breccia and pebble columnsare most commonin competentrocks and
rocks that do not have distinctdirectionalproperties. Within such rocks
they generallyshowcontrolby planarstructuresand structuralintersections,
and in many casesare apicallysituatedwith respectto instrusivebodies.
From the standpointof mineralogyand economicgeology,brecciaand
pebblecolumnsfit into two broad categoriestermed pre-hydrothermaland
co-hydrothermal.Pre-hydrothermalstructuresformed prior to the advent
of hydrothermalfluids,and showrelativelypoorspatialcoincidence with con-
tained ore deposits. Co-hydrothermalstructuresformed as a result of cor-
rosiveactionby hydrothermalfluids,showa relativelyclosecoincidence with
ore, and as a classprobablydisplaya higherincidenceof ore mineralization
than do the pre-hydrothermalclass.
Mostporphyrycopperdeposits probably arebroadco-hydrothermal shatter
columns,or aggregatesof suchcolumns,because structurallyas well as min-
eralogically
they.showa closerelationship
to co-hydrothermal brecciapipes.

PROBLEMS RELATING TO BRECCIA AND PEBBLE COLUMNS

The subjectof brecciaand pebblecolumnscontainsenoughdebatable

pointsto showthat from manyaspectsit needsadditionalstudy. Data are
neededto verify or to revisesomeof the concepts
presented
above. There
is roomfor considerably more studyto determinethe exact natureof the
506 LEONID BRYNER

geologicprocesses involvedin pipe formation,to find criteria for distinguishing

betweenpre-hydrothermaland co-hydrothermal,as well as other types, and
to find criteria for evaluating pipe structuresas guides to ore. Another
problemis that of terminologyand classification, althoughrecentprogressis
shownin Fisher's (16) proposedclassification of volcanicbreccias. Present
usageindicateslittle or no graspof the manypossiblewaysin whichcolumn-
like breccia structurescan originate. The relationshipof "mineralization
stoping"to porphyrycopperstructuresurelydeserves moreattenuationthan
it has receivedin the yearsthat haveelapsedsinceLockesuggested in 1926
that this processwas responsiblefor porphyry copper shattering. More
theoreticalquestionsalso offer an intriguing challenge. For example,are
pipe-likestructures,suchas the one at Toquepala,really diatremesor are
they,perhaps, morecloselyalliedto hydrothermalprocessesthanto volcanism?
This leadsto the broaderquestionof the relationshipbetweenvolcanismand
hydrothermalore deposition.
DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY,
COLORADOSCHOOLOF MINES,
GOLDEN,COLORADO,
October 18, 1960

REFERENCES

1. Anderson, C. A., Scholz, E. A., and Strobell, J. D., Jr., 1955, Geology and ore deposits
of the Bagdadarea, Yavapai County,Arizona: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 278.
2. Bateman,A.M., 1950, EconomicMineral Deposits,2nd ed.: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.,
New York.
3. Blanchard, Roland, 1947, Some pipe depositsof eastern Australia: Ecoa. GxoL., v. 42,
p. 265-304.
4. Bretz, J. H., 1950, Origin of the filled sink structuresand circle depositsof Missouri:
Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 61, p. 789-834.
5. Burbank, W. S., 1941, Structural control of ore depositionin the Red Mountain, Sneffels,
and Telluride Districts of the San Juan Mountains, Colorado: Colo. Sci. Soc. Proc.,
v. 14, No. 5, p. 141-261.
6. Butler, B. S., 1913, Geology and ore depositsof the San Francisco Region, Utah: LI. S.
Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 80.
7. , 1942, Some inter-relationsof structure, mineralogy,and associationwith intrusive
bodies in ore deposits: Ore depositsas related to structural features, edited by W. H.
Newhouse, p. 3-5.
8. Cook, D. R., 1957, Ore deposits of the main Tintic Mining District: Geology of the
East Tintic Mountains and ore depositsof the Tintic Mining Districts, Utah Geol.
Sot., Guidebook no. 12, p. 57-79.
9. Cooper,J. R., 1957, Metamorphismand volume lossesin carbonaterocks near Johnson
Camp, CochiseCounty, Arizona: Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 68, p. 577-610.
10. Cross, Whitman, 1896, Geologyof the Silver Cliff and Rosita Hills, Colorado: LI. S.
Geol. Survey 17th Ann. Rept., pt. 2, p. 263-403.
11. Daly, R. A., 1933, IgneousRocks and the Depths of the Earth: McGraw-Hill Book Co.,
New York.
12. Emmons, S. F., 1896, The mines of Custer County, Colorado: LI. S. Geol. Survey 17th
Ann. Rept., pt. 2, p. 405-472.
13. Emmons, W. H., 1938, Diatremes and certain ore-bearing pipes: A.I.M.E. Tech. Publ.
891, Mining Technology, v. 2, no. 3.
14. Fairbairn, H. W., and Robson,G. M., 1942, Breccla at Sudbury, Ontario: Jour. Geology,
v. 50, p. 1-33.
15. Farmin, Rollin, 1934, Pebble dikes and associatedmineralizatlon at Tintic, Utah: Ecoa.
GxoL., v. 29, p. 356-370.
16. Fisher, R. V., 1960, Classification of volcanic breccias: Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 7I,
p. 973-981.
 BRECCIAAND PEBBLE COLUMNS 507

17. Forgan,C. B., 1950,Ore deposits

of the StantrgLead-ZincMine, Yugoslavia:Reportof
the 18th Inter. Geol. Congress, part 7, p. 290-3Q6.
18. Gates,Oleott, 1959, Brecciapipesin the Shoshone
Range,Nevada: Ecom Gzo•..,v. 54,
p. 790-815.
19. Hack, J. T., 1942, Sedimentation
and volcanismin the Hopi Buttes,Arizona: Geol. Soc.
America Bull., v. 53, p. 335-372.
20. Howd, F. H., 1957, Hydrothermalalteration in the Tintic Mining District: Geologyof
the East Tintic Mountains and ore depositsof the Tintie Mining Districts, Utah Geol.
Soe., Guidebook no. 12, p. 127.
21. Howell, F. H. and Molloy, J. S., 1960, Geologyof the Braden orebody,Chile, South
America: Ecom Gzo•.., v. 55, p. 863-905.
22. Howell, J. V., 1957, Glossaryof geologyand related sciences:Amer. Geol. Inst., Wash-
ington, D.C. '
23. Hulin, C. D., 1948, Factors in the localization of mineralized districts: A.I.M.E. Trans.
v. 178, p. 36-52.
24. Hunt, R. N., 1933, Bingham Mining District: Report of the 16th Inter. Geol. Cong.,
Guidebook 17, Excursion 2, p. 45-56.
25. Johnston, W. P., 1955, Geology and ore deposits of the Copper Basin Mining' District,
Yavapai County, Arizona: Ph.D. thesis, University of Utah. (Contains general dis-
cussionof breeeiapipes in addition to information on areal geologyand individual mines).
26. Joralemon, I. B., 1952, Age cannot wither or Varieties of geologic experience: Ecom
G•zo•.., v. 47, p. 253-256.
27. Kerr, P. F., Kulp, J. L., Patterson, C. M., and Wright, R. J., 1950, Hydrothermal altera-
tion at Santa Rita, New Mexico: Geol. Soe. America Bull., v. 61, p. 275-347.
28. Kildale, M. B., 1957, Ore deposits of the Tintie Standard, North Lily, and Eureka Lilly
Mines: Geology of the East Tintie Mountains and ore deposits of the Tintie Mining
Districts, Utah Geol. Soe., Guidebook no. 12, p. 103-119.
29. Kuhn, T. H., 1938, Childs-Aldwinkle Mine, Copper Creek, Arizona, in Some Arizona ore
deposits: Univ. of Ariz., Ariz. Bur. of Mines Bull. 145, p. 127-130.
30.---, 1941, Pipe deposits of the Copper Creek area, Arizona: Ecoa. GEOL., v. 36, p.
512-538.
31. Lacy, W. C., 1958, Porphyry copper deposit, Cuajone, Peru: Mining Eng., v. 10, p. 104-107.
32. Lindgren, Waldemar, 1933, Mineral Deposits: 4th ed., N.Y., McGraw-Hill Book Co.,
New York.
33. Locke, Augustus, 1926, The formation of certain ore bodies by mineralization stoping:
Ecoa. Gzo•.., v. 21, p. 431-453.
34. Loughlin, G. F., and Koschmann, A. H., 1935, Geology and ore depositsof the Cripple
Creek District, Colorado: Colo. Sei. Soc. Proc., v. 13, p. 215-435.
35. Lovering,T. S., and Goddard,E. N., 1950, Geologyand ore depositsof the Front Range,
Colorado: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 223.
36. Mayo, E. B., 1958, Lineamenttectonicsand someore districts of the Southwest:Mining
Eng., v. 10, p. 1169-1175.
37. McKinstry, H. E., 1955, Structure of hydrothermal ore deposits: Ecoa. Gzo•.. 507H
A•N. Vo•,., pt. 2, p. 214.
38. Morris, H. T., 1957, General geology of the East Tintie Mountains, Utah: Geology of
the East Tintie Mountains and ore depositsof the Tintie Mining Districts, Utah Geol.
Soe. Guidebook, no. 12, p. 1-56.
39. Noble, J. A., 1952, Evaluation of criteria for forcible intrusion of magma: Jour. Geology,
v. 60.
40. Paige, Sidney, 1922, Copper deposits of the Tyrone District, New Mexico U.S. Geol.
Survey Prof. Paper 122.
41. Perry, V. D., 1933, Applied geology at Cananea, Sonora: A.I.M.E. Lindgren Volume,
Ore deposits of the Western States, p. 706.
42. Peters, W. C., 1953, Definition of a mineral belt in south central Colorado: a discussion:
Ecoa. G•.o•,., v. 48, p. 599, 600.
43. Reynolds, D. L., 1954, Fluidization as a geologic process aud its bearing on the problem
of intrusive granites: Am. Jour. Sei., v. 252, p. 577-614.
44. Richard, Kenyon, and Courtright, J. H., 1958, Geologyof Toquepala, Peru: Mining Eng.,
v. 10, p. 264.
45. Rust, G. W., 1937, Preliminary notes on explosive volcanism in southeastern.Missouri:
Jour Geology, v. 45, p. 48-75.
46. Sales, Reno, 1913, Ore depositsat Butte, Montana: A.I.M.E. Trans., v. 46, p. 3-106.
47. Shoemaker,E. M., 1956, Occurrenceof uranium in diatremes in the Navajo and Hopi
Reservations, Arizona, New Mexico, and Utah: Contributions to the Geology of
508 LEONID BRYNER

Uranium and Thorium by U.S. Geol. Survey and U.S. Atomic Energy Commission
for the United Nations Conference on peaceful uses of atomic energy, Geneva, Switz-
erland: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 300, p. 179-185.
48. Tenney, J. B., 1935, The Pilares Mine, Los Pilares de Nacozari, Mexico: 16th Inter.
Geol. Cong., Copper resources of the world, v. 1, p. 422.
49. Tweto, Ogden, 1951, Form and structure of the sills near Pando, Colorado: Geol. Soe.
America Bull., v. 61, p. 789-834.
50. Walker, R. T., 1928, Mineralized volcanic explosionpipes: Eng. and Mining Jour., v. 126,
p. 895-898, p. 939-942, p. 976-984.
51. Williams, Howel, 1936, Plioeene volcanoes of the Navajo-Hopi Country: Geol. Soe.
America Bull., v. 47, p. 111-172.
52. --., 1953, Problems and progress in voleanology: Quarterly Jour. Geol. Soe. of London,
v. 109, pt. 3, p. 311-332.
53. Wisser, Edward, 1927, Oxidation subsidence at Bisbee, Arizona: EcoN. Gv.oL., v. 22,
p. 761-790.
54. --., 1960, Relation of ore deposition to doming in the North American Cordillera: Geol.
Soe. America Memoir 77.