Electronics comprises the physics, engineering, technology and applications that deal with the emission, flow and

control of electrons in vacuum and matter.[1] The identification of the electron in 1897, along with the invention of
the vacuum tube, which could amplify and rectify small electrical signals, inaugurated the field of electronics and the
electron age.[2]
Electronics deals with electrical circuits that involve active electrical components such as vacuum
tubes, transistors, diodes, integrated circuits, optoelectronics, and sensors, associated passive electrical
components, and interconnection technologies. Commonly, electronic devices contain circuitry consisting primarily or
exclusively of active semiconductors supplemented with passive elements; such a circuit is described as
an electronic circuit.
The nonlinear behaviour of active components and their ability to control electron flows makes amplification of weak
signals possible. Electronics is widely used in information processing, telecommunication, and signal processing. The
ability of electronic devices to act as switches makes digital information-processing possible. Interconnection
technologies such as circuit boards, electronics packaging technology, and other varied forms of communication
infrastructure complete circuit functionality and transform the mixed electronic components into a regular
working system, called an electronic system; examples are computers or control systems. An electronic system may
be a component of another engineered system or a standalone device.
Electrical and electromechanical science and technology deals with the generation, distribution, switching, storage,
and conversion of electrical energy to and from other energy forms
(using wires, motors, generators, batteries, switches, relays, transformers, resistors, and other passive components).
This distinction started around 1906 with the invention by Lee De Forest of the triode, which made
electrical amplification of weak radio signals and audio signals possible with a non-mechanical device. Until 1950 this
field was called "radio technology" because its principal application was the design and theory of
radio transmitters, receivers, and vacuum tubes.

electronic devices and component

An electronic component is any physical entity in an electronic system used to affect the electrons or their associated
fields in a manner consistent with the intended function of the electronic system. Components are generally intended
to be connected together, usually by being soldered to a printed circuit board (PCB), to create an electronic circuit
with a particular function (for example an amplifier, radio receiver, or oscillator). Components may be packaged
singly, or in more complex groups as integrated circuits. Some common electronic components
are capacitors, inductors, resistors, diodes, transistors, etc. Components are often categorized as active (e.g.
transistors and thyristors) or passive (e.g. resistors, diodes, inductors and capacitors).[4]

History of electronic components[edit]

Further information: History of electronic engineering and Timeline of electrical and electronic engineering
Vacuum tubes (Thermionic valves) were among the earliest electronic components.[5] They were almost solely
responsible for the electronics revolution of the first half of the twentieth century.[6][7] They allowed for vastly more
complicated systems and gave us radio, television, phonographs, radar, long-distance telephony and much more.
They played a leading role in the field of microwave and high power transmission as well as television receivers until
the middle of the 1980s.[8] Since that time, solid-state devices have all but completely taken over. Vacuum tubes are
still used in some specialist applications such as high power RF amplifiers, cathode ray tubes, specialist audio
equipment, guitar amplifiers and some microwave devices.
In April 1955, the IBM 608 was the first IBM product to use transistor circuits without any vacuum tubes and is
believed to be the first all-transistorized calculator to be manufactured for the commercial market.[9][10] The 608
contained more than 3,000 germanium transistors. Thomas J. Watson Jr. ordered all future IBM products to use
transistors in their design. From that time on transistors were almost exclusively used for computer logic and
peripherals.

Types of circuits[edit]
Circuits and components can be divided into two groups: analog and digital. A particular device may consist of
circuitry that has one or the other or a mix of the two types.

Analog circuits[edit]
Main article: Analog electronics
Hitachi J100 adjustable frequency drive chassis

Most analog electronic appliances, such as radio receivers, are constructed from combinations of a few types of basic
circuits. Analog circuits use a continuous range of voltage or current as opposed to discrete levels as in digital
circuits.
The number of different analog circuits so far devised is huge, especially because a 'circuit' can be defined as
anything from a single component, to systems containing thousands of components.
Analog circuits are sometimes called linear circuits although many non-linear effects are used in analog circuits such
as mixers, modulators, etc. Good examples of analog circuits include vacuum tube and transistor amplifiers,
operational amplifiers and oscillators.
One rarely finds modern circuits that are entirely analog. These days analog circuitry may use digital or even
microprocessor techniques to improve performance. This type of circuit is usually called "mixed signal" rather than
analog or digital.

Digital circuits[edit]
Main article: Digital electronics
Digital circuits are electric circuits based on a number of discrete voltage levels. Digital circuits are the most common
physical representation of Boolean algebra, and are the basis of all digital computers. To most engineers, the terms
"digital circuit", "digital system" and "logic" are interchangeable in the context of digital circuits. Most digital circuits
use a binary system with two voltage levels labeled "0" and "1". Often logic "0" will be a lower voltage and referred to
as "Low" while logic "1" is referred to as "High". However, some systems use the reverse definition ("0" is "High") or
are current based. Quite often the logic designer may reverse these definitions from one circuit to the next as he sees
fit to facilitate his design. The definition of the levels as "0" or "1" is arbitrary.

SOAP (abbreviation for Simple Object Access Protocol) is a messaging protocol specification for exchanging
structured information in the implementation of web services in computer networks. Its purpose is to
provide extensibility, neutrality and independence. It uses XML Information Set for its message format, and relies
on application layer protocols, most often Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) or Simple Mail Transfer
Protocol (SMTP), for message negotiation and transmission.
SOAP allows processes running on disparate operating systems (such as Windows and Linux) to communicate
using Extensible Markup Language (XML). Since Web protocols like HTTP are installed and running on all operating
systems, SOAP allows clients to invoke web services and receive responses independent of language and platforms.

Raw Materials
Soap requires two major raw materials: fat and alkali. The alkali most commonly
used today is sodium hydroxide. Potassium hydroxide can also be used. Potassium-
based soap creates a more water-soluble product than sodium-based soap, and so it
is called "soft soap." Soft soap, alone or in combination with sodium-based soap, is
commonly used in shaving products.
Animal fat in the past was obtained directly from a slaughterhouse. Modern
soapmakers use fat that has been processed into fatty acids. This eliminates many
impurities, and it produces as a byproduct water instead of glycerin. Many vegetable
fats, including olive oil, palm kernel oil, and coconut oil, are also used in soap
making.
Additives are used to enhance the color, texture, and scent of soap. Fragrances and
perfumes are added to the soap mixture to

The above illustrations show the kettle process of making soap.

cover the odor of dirt and to leave behind a fresh-smelling scent. Abrasives to
enhance the texture of soap include talc, silica, and marble pumice (volcanic ash).
Soap made without dye is a dull grey or brown color, but modern manufacturers color
soap to make it more enticing to the consumer.

The Manufacturing
Process
The kettle method of making soap is still used today by small soap manufacturing
companies. This process takes from four to eleven days to complete, and the quality
of each batch is inconsistent due to the variety of oils used. Around 1940, engineers
and scientists developed a more efficient manufacturing process, called the
continuous process. This procedure is employed by large soap manufacturing
companies all around the world today. Exactly as the name states, in the continuous
process soap is produced continuously, rather than one batch at a time. Technicians
have more control of the production in the continuous process, and the steps are
much quicker than in the kettle method—it takes only about six hours to complete a
batch of soap.

The Kettle Process

Boiling
  1 Fats and alkali are melted in a kettle, which is a steel tank that can stand
three stories high and hold several thousand pounds of material. Steam coils
within the kettle heat the batch and bring it to a boil. After boiling, the mass
thickens as the fat reacts with the alkali, producing soap and glycerin.

Salting
 2 The soap and glycerin must now be separated. The mixture is treated with
salt, causing the soap to rise to the top and the glycerin to settle to the
bottom. The glycerin is extracted from the bottom of the kettle.

Strong change
 3 To remove the small amounts of fat that have not saponified, a strong
caustic solution is added to the kettle. This step in the process is called
"strong change." The mass is brought to a boil again, and the last of the fat
turns to soap. The batch may be given another salt treatment at this time, or
the manufacturer may proceed to the next step.

Pitching
 4 The next step is called "pitching." The soap in the kettle is boiled again with
added water. The mass eventually separates into two layers. The top layer is
called "neat soap," which is about 70% soap and 30% water. The lower layer,
called "nigre," contains most of the impurities in the soap such as dirt and
salt, as well as most of the water. The neat soap is taken off the top. The soap
is then cooled. The finishing process is the

Developed around 1940 and used by today's major soap-making companies, the above
illustrations show the continuous process of making soap.

same as for soap made by the continuous process.

The Continuous Process

Splitting

 1 The first step of the continuous process splits natural fat into fatty acids and
glycerin. The equipment used is a vertical stainless steel column with the
diameter of a barrel called a hydrolizer

Mixing
 2 The purified fatty acids are next mixed with a precise amount of alkali to
form soap. Other ingredients such as abrasives and fragrance are also mixed
in. The hot liquid soap may be then whipped to incorporate air.

Cooling and finishing

 3 The soap may be poured into molds and allowed to harden into a large slab.
It may also be cooled in a special freezer. The slab is cut into smaller pieces of
bar size, which are then stamped and wrapped. The entire continuous process,
from splitting to finishing, can be accomplished in several hours.

Milling

 4 Most toiletry soap undergoes additional processing called milling. The milled
bar lathers up better and has a finer consistency than non-milled soap. The
cooled soap is fed through several sets of heavy rollers (mills), which crush
and knead it. Perfumes can best be incorporated at this time because
their volatile oils do not evaporate in the cold mixture.

Byproducts
Glycerin is a very useful byproduct of soap manufacture. It is used to make hand
lotion, drugs, and nitroglycerin, the main component of explosives such as dynamite.

Washing Soda is sodium carbonate containing 10 molecules of water of crystallisation. So, we can say
that washing soda is sodium carbonate decahydrate(Na2CO3.10H2O).

The sodium carbonate which does not contain any water of crystallisation is called anhydrous sodium
carbonate or soda ash (Na2CO3).

How Washing Soda is produced?

In the following three steps, washing soda is prepared from sodium chloride or common salt.

Firstly, a cold and concentrated sodium chloride solution is reacted with ammonia and carbon dioxide to
obtain sodium hydrogen carbonate.
The sodium hydrogen carbonate is slightly soluble in water, so it precipitates out as solid.

NaCl +NH3 +CO2 +H2O → NaHCO3 +NH4Cl

Secondly, now sodium hydrogen carbonate is separated by filtration, dried and heated. On heating
sodium hydrogen carbonate decomposes to form sodium carbonate. This anhydrous sodium carbonate is
known as soda ash.

2NaHCO3 → Na2CO3 +H2O +CO2

Soda ash
The preparation of Sodium Carbonate is also known as Solvay process. But before that calcium carbonate
(limestone) was heated to release carbon dioxide.

Thirdly, anhydrous sodium carbonate or soda ash is dissolved in water and recrystallised to get washing
soda crystals containing 10 molecules of water of crystallisation.

Na2CO3 + 10H2O → Na2CO3.10H2O

Washing Soda

Salt: Concept, properties and uses

What are the Properties of Washing Soda?
- Washing Soda is a transparent crystalline solid.

- It is one of the few metal carbonates which are soluble in water.

- Do you know that the solution of washing soda in water is alkaline which turns red litmus to blue?

- Washing Soda has detergent or cleansing properties because it can remove dirt and grease from dirty
clothes. How it cleanse the clothes? Washing soda attacks dirt and grease to form water soluble
products, which are then washed away on rinsing with water.

- It has a melting point of 8510C.

What are the uses of Washing Soda?
- Washing Soda is used as cleansing agent for domestic purposes like washing clothes. In fact sodium
carbonate is a component of many dry soap powders.

- It is used for removing permanent hardness of water.

- It is used in the manufacture of glass, soap and paper.

- It is used in the manufacture of sodium compounds like borax.

- It is the most important agent in laundries.

- It is used in paper, textile, soap, and detergent industries.

Therefore, we can say that washing soda is sodium carbonate with 10 molecules of water which is mainly
used as a cleansing agent.

Banking

Banking is an industry that handles cash, credit, and other financial transactions. Banks provide
a safe place to store extra cash and credit. They offer savings accounts, certificates of deposit, and
checking accounts. Banks use these deposits to make loans. These loans include home mortgages,
business loans, and car loans.

Banking is one of the key drivers of the U.S. economy. Why? It provides the liquidity needed for
families and businesses to invest for the future. Bank loans and credit mean families don't have to
save up before going to college or buying a house. Companies use loans to start hiring immediately
to build for future demand and expansion.

How It Works
Banks are a safe place to deposit excess cash. The Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC)
insures them. Banks also pay savers interest rates or a small percent of the deposit.

Banks can turn every one of those saved dollars into $10. They are only required to keep 10
percent of each deposit on hand. That regulation is called the reserve requirement. Banks lend the
other 90 percent out. They make money by charging higher interest rates on their loans than they
pay for deposits.
1. Eliminate Your Debt

If you're trying to save money through budgeting but still carrying a large debt burden, start with the
debt. Not convinced? Add up how much you spend servicing your debt each month, and you'll
quickly see. Once you're free from paying interest on your debt, that money can easily be put into
savings. A personal line of credit is just one option for consolidating debt so you can better pay it off.

2. Set Savings Goals

One of the best ways to save money is by visualizing what you are saving for. If you need
motivation, set saving targets along with a timeline to make it easier to save. Want to buy a house in
three years with a 20 percent down payment? Now you have a target and know what you will need to
save each month to achieve your goal. Use Regions savings calculators to make your goal!

3. Pay Yourself First

Set up an auto debit from your checking account to your savings account each payday. Whether it's
$50 every two weeks or $500, don't cheat yourself out of a healthy long-term savings plan.

4. Stop Smoking

No, it's certainly not easy to quit, but if you smoke a pack and a half every day, that amounts to
nearly $3,000 a year you can realize in savings if you quit. According to the Centers for Disease
Control, the percentage of Americans who smoke cigarettes is now below 20 percent for the first time
since at least the mid-1960s — join the club!

5. Take a "Staycation"

Though the term may be trendy, the thought behind it is solid: instead of dropping several thousand
on airline tickets overseas, look in your own backyard for fun vacations close to home. If you can't
drive the distance, look for cheap flights in your region.

6. Spend to Save

Let's face it, utility costs seldom go down over time, so take charge now and weatherize your home.
Call your utility company and ask for an energy audit or find a certified contractor who can give you
a whole-home energy efficiency review. This will range from easy improvements like sealing
windows and doors all the way to installing new insulation, siding or ENERGY STAR high-
efficiency appliances and products. You could save thousands in utility costs over time.

7. Utility Savings

Lowering the thermostat on your water heater by 10°F can save you between 3-5 percent in energy
costs. And installing an on-demand or tankless water heater can deliver up to 30 percent savings
compared with a standard storage tank water heater.
8. Pack Your Lunch

An obvious money-saving tip is finding everyday savings. If buying lunch at work costs $7, but
bringing lunch from home costs only $2, then over the course of a year, you can create a $1250
emergency fund or make a significant contribution to a college plan or retirement fund.

9. Create an Interest-Bearing Account

For most of us, keeping your savings separate from your checking account helps reduce the tendency
to borrow from savings from time to time. If your goals are more long-term, consider products with
higher yield rates like a Regions CD or Regions Money Market account for even better savings.

10. Annualize Your Spending

Do you pay $20 a week for snacks at the vending machine at your office? That's $1,000 you're
removing from your budget for soda and snacks each year. Suddenly, that habit adds up to a
substantial sum.