Professional Documents
Culture Documents
This article is about the social science. For other uses, parts of the world that were influenced by the European
see Anthropology (disambiguation). tradition.[10]
1
2 2 FIELDS
repertoire.
3.1.4 Visual
Political economy in anthropology is the application of might offer? Why is development so externally driven
the theories and methods of Historical Materialism to the rather than having an internal basis? In short why does
traditional concerns of anthropology, including, but not so much planned development fail?
limited to, non-capitalist societies. Political Economy in-
troduced questions of history and colonialism to ahistor-
ical anthropological theories of social structure and cul-
ture. Three main areas of interest rapidly developed. The
first of these areas was concerned with the “pre-capitalist” 3.3 Kinship, feminism, gender and sexual-
societies that were subject to evolutionary “tribal” stereo-
types. Sahlins work on Hunter-gatherers as the 'original
ity
affluent society' did much to dissipate that image. The
second area was concerned with the vast majority of the 3.3.1 Kinship
world’s population at the time, the peasantry, many of
whom were involved in complex revolutionary wars such
Main article: Kinship
as in Vietnam. The third area was on colonialism, imperi-
alism, and the creation of the capitalist world-system.[29]
More recently, these Political Economists have more di- Kinship can refer both to the study of the patterns of so-
rectly addressed issues of industrial (and post-industrial) cial relationships in one or more human cultures, or it
capitalism around the world. can refer to the patterns of social relationships themselves.
Over its history, anthropology has developed a number
of related concepts and terms, such as descent, descent
3.2.3 Applied groups, lineages, affines, cognates and even fictive kin-
ship. Broadly, kinship patterns may be considered to in-
Main article: Applied anthropology clude people related both by descent (one’s social rela-
tions during development), and also relatives by marriage.
Applied Anthropology refers to the application of the
method and theory of anthropology to the analysis and so-
lution of practical problems. It is a, “complex of related,
research-based, instrumental methods which produce
change or stability in specific cultural systems through 3.3.2 Feminist
the provision of data, initiation of direct action, and/or
the formulation of policy”.[30] More simply, applied an-
Main article: Feminist anthropology
thropology is the practical side of anthropological re-
search; it includes researcher involvement and activism
within the participating community. It is closely related Feminist anthropology is a four field approach to anthro-
to Development anthropology (distinct from the more pology (archeological, biological, cultural, linguistic) that
critical Anthropology of development). seeks to reduce male bias in research findings, anthro-
pological hiring practices, and the scholarly production
of knowledge. Anthropology engages often with fem-
3.2.4 Development inists from non-Western traditions, whose perspectives
and experiences can differ from those of white European
Main article: anthropology of development and American feminists. Historically, such 'peripheral'
perspectives have sometimes been marginalized and re-
Anthropology of development tends to view development garded as less valid or important than knowledge from the
from a critical perspective. The kind of issues addressed western world. Feminist anthropologists have claimed
and implications for the approach simply involve ponder- that their research helps to correct this systematic bias
ing why, if a key development goal is to alleviate poverty, in mainstream feminist theory. Feminist anthropologists
is poverty increasing? Why is there such a gap between are centrally concerned with the construction of gender
plans and outcomes? Why are those working in devel- across societies. Feminist anthropology is inclusive of
opment so willing to disregard history and the lessons it birth anthropology as a specialization.
6 3 KEY TOPICS BY FIELD: SOCIOCULTURAL
3.4 Medical, nutritional, psychological, status and food security, and how changes in the former
cognitive and transpersonal affect the latter. If economic and environmental changes
in a community affect access to food, food security, and
3.4.1 Medical dietary health, then this interplay between culture and bi-
ology is in turn connected to broader historical and eco-
Main article: Medical anthropology nomic trends associated with globalization. Nutritional
status affects overall health status, work performance po-
tential, and the overall potential for economic develop-
Medical anthropology is an interdisciplinary field which
ment (either in terms of human development or tradi-
studies “human health and disease, health care systems,
tional western models) for any given group of people.
and biocultural adaptation”.[31] Currently, research in
medical anthropology is one of the main growth areas
in the field of anthropology as a whole. It focuses on the
following six basic fields:
3.4.3 Psychological
• the development of systems of med-
ical knowledge and medical care Main article: Psychological anthropology
• the patient-physician relationship
Psychological anthropology is an interdisciplinary sub-
• the integration of alternative medical sys-
field of anthropology that studies the interaction of
tems in culturally diverse environments
cultural and mental processes. This subfield tends
• the interaction of social, environmen- to focus on ways in which humans’ development and
tal and biological factors which influence enculturation within a particular cultural group—with
health and illness both in the individual its own history, language, practices, and concep-
and the community as a whole tual categories—shape processes of human cognition,
• the critical analysis of interaction be- emotion, perception, motivation, and mental health. It
tween psychiatric services and migrant also examines how the understanding of cognition, emo-
populations (“critical ethnopsychiatry tion, motivation, and similar psychological processes
extquotedbl: Beneduce 2004, 2007) inform or constrain our models of cultural and social
processes.[32][33]
• the impact of biomedicine and biomedi-
cal technologies in non-Western settings
Other subjects that have become central to medical an- 3.4.4 Cognitive
thropology worldwide are violence and social suffering
(Farmer, 1999, 2003; Beneduce, 2010) as well as other
issues that involve physical and psychological harm and Main article: Cognitive anthropology
suffering that are not a result of illness. On the other
hand, there are fields that intersect with medical anthro- Cognitive anthropology seeks to explain patterns of
pology in terms of research methodology and theoretical shared knowledge, cultural innovation, and transmission
production, such as cultural psychiatry and transcultural over time and space using the methods and theories of
psychiatry or ethnopsychiatry. the cognitive sciences (especially experimental psychol-
ogy and evolutionary biology) often through close col-
laboration with historians, ethnographers, archaeologists,
3.4.2 Nutritional linguists, musicologists and other specialists engaged in
the description and interpretation of cultural forms. Cog-
Main article: Nutritional anthropology nitive anthropology is concerned with what people from
different groups know and how that implicit knowledge
Nutritional anthropology is a synthetic concept that deals changes the way people perceive and relate to the world
with the interplay between economic systems, nutritional around them.[34]
3.6 Nature, science and technology 7
tersect. It is sometimes grouped with sociocultural an- Ethnohistory is the study of ethnographic cultures and
thropology, and sometimes considered part of material indigenous customs by examining historical records. It
culture. The field is new, and thus has a vari- is also the study of the history of various ethnic groups
ety of names with a variety of emphases. These that may or may not exist today. Ethnohistory uses both
include techno-anthropology,[39] digital ethnography, historical and ethnographic data as its foundation. Its
cyberanthropology,[40] and virtual anthropology.[41] historical methods and materials go beyond the standard
use of documents and manuscripts. Practitioners recog-
nize the utility of such source material as maps, music,
3.6.3 Ecological paintings, photography, folklore, oral tradition, site ex-
ploration, archaeological materials, museum collections,
Main article: Ecological anthropology enduring customs, language, and place names.[47]
4 Key topics by field: archaeologi- in natural science and social science, combining the
human development with socioeconomic factors. Evo-
cal and biological lutionary anthropology is concerned with both biologi-
cal and cultural evolution of humans, past and present.
Main articles: Archaeological and Biological anthropol- It is based on a scientific approach, and brings to-
ogy gether fields such as archaeology, behavioral ecology,
psychology, primatology, and genetics. It is a dynamic
and interdisciplinary field, drawing on many lines of ev-
idence to understand the human experience, past and
4.1 Anthrozoology present.
4.2 Biocultural
4.5 Palaeoanthropology
Main article: Biocultural anthropology
Main article: Palaeoanthropology
Biocultural anthropology is the scientific exploration of
the relationships between human biology and culture. Paleoanthropology combines the disciplines of
Physical anthropologists throughout the first half of the paleontology and physical anthropology. It is the
20th century viewed this relationship from a racial per- study of ancient humans, as found in fossil hominid
spective; that is, from the assumption that typological hu- evidence such as petrifacted bones and footprints.
man biological differences lead to cultural differences.[54]
After World War II the emphasis began to shift toward an
effort to explore the role culture plays in shaping human
biology. 5 Organizations
Contemporary anthropology is an established science
4.3 Evolutionary with academic departments at most universities and col-
leges. The single largest organization of Anthropologists
Main article: Evolutionary anthropology is the American Anthropological Association (AAA),
which was founded in 1903.[55] Membership is made up
[56]
Evolutionary anthropology is the interdisciplinary study of anthropologists from around the globe.
of the evolution of human physiology and human be- In 1989, a group of European and American scholars in
haviour and the relation between hominins and non- the field of anthropology established the European Asso-
hominin primates. Evolutionary anthropology is based ciation of Social Anthropologists (EASA) which serves
10 6 CONTROVERSIAL ETHICAL STANCES
in World War I, and after the war he published a brief of counterinsurgency, and in a potentially coercive envi-
expose and condemnation of the participation of several ronment – all characteristic factors of the HTS concept
American archaeologists in espionage in Mexico under and its application – it can no longer be considered a le-
their cover as scientists. gitimate professional exercise of anthropology. In sum-
But by the 1940s, many of Boas’ anthropologist con- mary, while we stress that constructive engagement be-
temporaries were active in the allied war effort against tween anthropology and the military is possible, CEAUS-
the “Axis” (Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, and Imperial SIC suggests that the AAA emphasize the incompatibil-
Japan). Many served in the armed forces, while oth- ity of HTS with disciplinary ethics and practice for job
ers worked in intelligence (for example, Office of Strate- seekers and that it further recognize the problem of allow-
gic Services and the Office of War Information). At the ing HTS to define the meaning of “anthropology” within
same time, David H. Price’s work on American anthro- DoD.”[69]
pology during the Cold War provides detailed accounts of
the pursuit and dismissal of several anthropologists from
their jobs for communist sympathies. 7 Post–World War II developments
Attempts to accuse anthropologists of complicity with
the CIA and government intelligence activities during Before WWII British 'social anthropology' and American
the Vietnam War years have turned up surprisingly little 'cultural anthropology' were still distinct traditions. Af-
(although anthropologist Hugo Nutini was active in the ter the war, enough British and American anthropologists
stillborn Project Camelot).[66] Many anthropologists (stu- borrowed ideas and methodological approaches from one
dents and teachers) were active in the antiwar movement. another that some began to speak of them collectively as
Numerous resolutions condemning the war in all its as- 'sociocultural' anthropology.
pects were passed overwhelmingly at the annual meetings
of the American Anthropological Association (AAA). 7.1 Basic trends
Professional anthropological bodies often object to the
use of anthropology for the benefit of the state. Their There are several characteristics that tend to unite an-
codes of ethics or statements may proscribe anthropol- thropological work. One of the central characteristics is
ogists from giving secret briefings. The Association of that anthropology tends to provide a comparatively more
Social Anthropologists of the UK and Commonwealth holistic account of phenomena and tends to be highly
(ASA) has called certain scholarship ethically dangerous. empirical.[6] The quest for holism leads most anthropolo-
The AAA’s current 'Statement of Professional Responsi- gists to study a particular place, problem or phenomenon
bility' clearly states that “in relation with their own gov- in detail, using a variety of methods, over a more exten-
ernment and with host governments ... no secret research, sive period than normal in many parts of academia.
no secret reports or debriefings of any kind should be In the 1990s and 2000s (decade), calls for clarification
agreed to or given.” of what constitutes a culture, of how an observer knows
Anthropologists, along with other social scientists, are where his or her own culture ends and another begins, and
working with the US military as part of the US Army’s other crucial topics in writing anthropology were heard.
strategy in Afghanistan.[67] The Christian Science Moni- These dynamic relationships, between what can be ob-
tor reports that “Counterinsurgency efforts focus on bet- served on the ground, as opposed to what can be observed
ter grasping and meeting local needs” in Afghanistan, un- by compiling many local observations remain fundamen-
der the Human Terrain System (HTS) program; in ad- tal in any kind of anthropology, whether cultural, biolog-
dition, HTS teams are working with the US military in ical, linguistic or archaeological.[70]
Iraq.[68] In 2009, the American Anthropological Asso- Biological anthropologists are interested in both human
ciation’s Commission on the Engagement of Anthropol- variation[71] and in the possibility of human universals
ogy with the US Security and Intelligence Communities (behaviors, ideas or concepts shared by virtually all hu-
released its final report concluding, in part, that, “When man cultures).[72] They use many different methods of
ethnographic investigation is determined by military mis- study, but modern population genetics, participant ob-
sions, not subject to external review, where data collec- servation and other techniques often take anthropologists
tion occurs in the context of war, integrated into the goals “into the field,” which means traveling to a community in
12 8 SEE ALSO
its own setting, to do something called “fieldwork.” On In France, the study of Western societies has been tra-
the biological or physical side, human measurements, ge- ditionally left to sociologists, but this is increasingly
netic samples, nutritional data may be gathered and pub- changing,[80] starting in the 1970s from scholars like Isac
lished as articles or monographs. Chiva and journals like Terrain (“fieldwork”), and devel-
Along with dividing up their project by theoretical em- oping with the center founded by Marc Augé (Le Centre
phasis, anthropologists typically divide the world up into d'anthropologie des mondes contemporains, the Anthro-
relevant time periods and geographic regions. Human pological Research Center of Contemporary Societies).
time on Earth is divided up into relevant cultural tra- Since the 1980s it has become common for social and cul-
ditions based on material, such as the Paleolithic and tural anthropologists to set ethnographic research in the
the Neolithic, of particular use in archaeology. Fur- North Atlantic region, frequently examining the connec-
ther cultural subdivisions according to tool types, such tions between locations rather than limiting research to a
as Olduwan or Mousterian or Levalloisian help archaeol- single locale. There has also been a related shift toward
ogists and other anthropologists in understanding major broadening the focus beyond the daily life of ordinary
trends in the human past. Anthropologists and geogra- people; increasingly, research is set in settings such as
phers share approaches to Culture regions as well, since scientific laboratories, social movements, governmental
mapping cultures is central to both sciences. By making and nongovernmental organizations and businesses.[81]
comparisons across cultural traditions (time-based) and
cultural regions (space-based), anthropologists have de-
veloped various kinds of comparative method, a central 8 See also
part of their science.
Main article: Outline of anthropology
Some authors argue that anthropology originated and de- • Human evolution
veloped as the study of “other cultures”, both in terms • Human Relations Area Files
of time (past societies) and space (non-European/non-
Western societies).[76] For example, the classic of urban • Intangible Cultural Heritage
anthropology, Ulf Hannerz in the introduction to his • Memetics
seminal Exploring the City: Inquiries Toward an Urban
Anthropology mentions that the extquotedblThird World • Prehistoric medicine
extquotedbl had habitually received most of attention; • Qualitative research
anthropologists who traditionally specialized in “other
cultures” looked for them far away and started to look • Sociology
“across the tracks” only in late 1960s.[77] • Theological anthropology, a sub-field of theology
Now there exist many works focusing on peoples and top-
• Philosophical anthropology, a sub-field of philoso-
ics very close to the author’s “home”.[78] It is also argued
phy
that other fields of study, like History and Sociology, on
the contrary focus disproportionately on the West.[79] • Anthropology in Tinbergen’s four questions
13
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• Kehoe, Alice B. (1998) The Land of Prehistory: A
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• Lewis, H. S. (1998). “The Misrepresenta-
• Barley, Nigel (1983) The innocent anthropologist: tion of Anthropology and Its Consequences”.
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Press. • Gisi, Lucas Marco. (2007) Einbildungskraft und
Mythologie. Die Verschränkung von Anthropologie
• Barth, Fredrik, Andre Gingrich, Robert Parkin, One und Geschichte im 18. Jahrhundert, Berlin, New
Discipline, Four Ways: British, German, French, York: de Gruyter.
and American anthropology. Chicago: University
of Chicago Press. • Wolf, Eric. (1982) Europe and the People Without
History. Berkeley and Los Angeles: California Uni-
• D'Andrade, R. “The Sad Story of Anthropology: versity Press.
1950–1999.” In E. L. Cerroni-Long, ed. Anthropo-
logical Theory in North America. Westport: Berin
& Garvey 1999. Anthro.ucsd.edu 10.4 Textbooks and key theoretical works
• Darnell, Regna. (2001) Invisible Genealogies: A • Clifford, James and George E. Marcus (1986) Writ-
History of Americanist Anthropology. Lincoln, NE: ing culture: the poetics and politics of ethnography.
University of Nebraska Press. Berkeley: University of California Press.
17
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Aaron Kauppi, A.amitkumar, 13alexander, Dan6hell66, Fortdj33, Antopus, Paine Ellsworth, Tobby72, Altg20April2nd, Allinthebrain,
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esmaeel, TonyD6201, Msin10, Omyumyum, Becritical, Slon02, EmausBot, John of Reading, Nicksway2cool4u, Josephcunningham,
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thropologist123, Loudder, Wikipelli, Thecheesykid, Mz7, Werieth, Equisetum, John Cline, Fæ, Kyaku84, Knight1993, Bangsmcoy23,
Question Often, The Nut, Wayne Slam, Letssee23, Aidarzver, L Kensington, Phronetic, PassionOrPain, Carey McCarthy, Qianxinyi,
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Swagmamba, Histroryisawesome, Kirvesrinta and Anonymous: 1066
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