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Anthropology

This article is about the social science. For other uses, parts of the world that were influenced by the European
see Anthropology (disambiguation). tradition.[10]

Anthropology /ænθrɵˈpɒlədʒi/ is the study of humans,


past and present,[1][2] that draws and builds upon knowl- 1 Origin of the term
edge from the social sciences and biological sciences, as
well as the humanities and the natural sciences.[3][4] The term anthropology originates from the Greek anthrō-
Since the work of Franz Boas and Bronisław Malinowski pos (ἄνθρωπος), “human being” (understood to mean
in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, social anthro- humankind or humanity), and -λογία -logia, “study.”
pology in Great Britain and cultural anthropology in the
US has been distinguished from ethnology[5] and from
other social sciences by its emphasis on cross-cultural 2 Fields
comparisons, long-term in-depth examination of context,
and the importance it places on participant-observation Further information: American anthropology
or experiential immersion in the area of research. Cul-
tural anthropology in particular has emphasized cultural
Anthropology is a global discipline where humanities,
relativism, holism, and the use of findings to frame cul-
social, and natural sciences are forced to confront one
tural critiques.[6] This has been particularly prominent in
another. Anthropology builds upon knowledge from
the United States, from Boas’ arguments against 19th-
natural sciences, including the discoveries about the ori-
century racial ideology, through Margaret Mead's advo-
gin and evolution of Homo sapiens, human physical traits,
cacy for gender equality and sexual liberation, to cur-
human behavior, the variations among different groups
rent criticisms of post-colonial oppression and promotion
of humans, how the evolutionary past of Homo sapiens
of multiculturalism. Ethnography is one of its primary
has influenced its social organization and culture, and
research designs as well as the text that is generated from
from social sciences, including the organization of hu-
anthropological fieldwork.[7][8][9]
man social and cultural relations, institutions, social con-
In Great Britain and the Commonwealth countries, the flicts, etc.[11][12] Early anthropology originated in Clas-
British tradition of Social Anthropology tends to domi- sical Greece and Persia and studied and tried to under-
nate. In the United States, anthropology has traditionally stand observable cultural diversity.[13][14] As such, an-
been divided into the four field approach developed by thropology has been central in the development of sev-
Franz Boas in the early 20th century: biological or physi- eral new (late 20th century) interdisciplinary fields such
cal anthropology; social, cultural, or sociocultural anthro- as cognitive science,[15] global studies, and various ethnic
pology; and archaeology; plus anthropological linguistics. studies.
These fields frequently overlap, but tend to use different
According to Clifford Geertz,
methodologies and techniques.
European countries with overseas colonies tended to “anthropology is perhaps the last of the
practice more ethnology (a term coined and defined by great nineteenth-century conglomerate disci-
Adam F. Kollár in 1783). In non-colonial European plines still for the most part organizationally in-
countries, social anthropology is now defined as the study tact. Long after natural history, moral philoso-
of social organization in non-state societies. It is some- phy, philology, and political economy have dis-
times referred to as sociocultural anthropology in the solved into their specialized successors, it has

1
2 2 FIELDS

remained a diffuse assemblage of ethnology, product of ethnographic research, i.e. an ethnographic


human biology, comparative linguistics, and monograph. As methodology, ethnography is based upon
prehistory, held together mainly by the vested long-term fieldwork within a community or other re-
interests, sunk costs, and administrative habits search site. Participant observation is one of the foun-
of academia, and by a romantic image of com- dational methods of social and cultural anthropology.[20]
prehensive scholarship.”[16] Ethnology involves the systematic comparison of differ-
ent cultures. The process of participant-observation can
Sociocultural anthropology has been heavily influenced be especially helpful to understanding a culture from an
by structuralist and postmodern theories, as well as a emic (conceptual, vs. etic, or technical) point of view.
shift toward the analysis of modern societies. During the The study of kinship and social organization is a cen-
1970s and 1990s, there was an epistemological shift away tral focus of sociocultural anthropology, as kinship is a
from the positivist traditions that had largely informed the human universal. Sociocultural anthropology also cov-
discipline.[17] During this shift, enduring questions about ers economic and political organization, law and conflict
the nature and production of knowledge came to occupy a resolution, patterns of consumption and exchange, mate-
central place in cultural and social anthropology. In con- rial culture, technology, infrastructure, gender relations,
trast, archaeology and biological anthropology remained ethnicity, childrearing and socialization, religion, myth,
largely positivist. Due to this difference in epistemology, symbols, values, etiquette, worldview, sports, music, nu-
the four sub-fields of anthropology have lacked cohesion trition, recreation, games, food, festivals, and language
over the last several decades. (which is also the object of study in linguistic anthropol-
ogy).

2.1 Sociocultural Comparison across cultures is a key element of method in


sociocultural anthropology, including the industrialized
Main articles: Cultural anthropology, Social anthropol- (and de-industrialized) West. [21]
Cultures in the Standard
ogy and Sociocultural anthropology Cross-Cultural Sample (SCCS) of world societies are:
See also: List of indigenous peoples
Sociocultural anthropology draws together the principle
axes of cultural anthropology and social anthropology.
Cultural anthropology is the comparative study of the
manifold ways in which people make sense of the world
2.2 Biological
around them, while social anthropology is the study of
Main article: Biological anthropology
the relationships among persons and groups.[18] Cultural
Biological Anthropology and Physical Anthropology are
anthropology is more related to philosophy, literature and
synonymous terms to describe anthropological research
the arts (how one’s culture affects experience for self
focused on the study of humans and non-human primates
and group, contributing to more complete understand-
in their biological, evolutionary, and demographic di-
ing of the people’s knowledge, customs, and institutions),
mensions. It examines the biological and social factors
while social anthropology is more related to sociology
that have affected the evolution of humans and other pri-
and history.[18] in that it helps develop understanding
mates, and that generate, maintain or change contempo-
of social structures, typically of others and other popu-
rary genetic and physiological variation.[22]
lations (such as minorities, subgroups, dissidents, etc.).
There is no hard-and-fast distinction between them, and
these categories overlap to considerably.
2.3 Archaeological
Inquiry in sociocultural anthropology is guided in part by
cultural relativism, the attempt to understand other soci- Main article: Archaeology
eties in terms of their own cultural symbols and values.[7] Archaeology is the study of the human past through its
Accepting other cultures in their own terms moderates re- material remains. Artifacts, faunal remains, and human
ductionism in cross-cultural comparison.[19] This project altered landscapes are evidence of the cultural and mate-
is often accommodated in the field of ethnography. rial lives of past societies. Archaeologists examine these
Ethnography can refer to both a methodology and the material remains in order to deduce patterns of past hu-
3

language across time and space, the social uses of lan-


guage, and the relationship between language and cul-
ture. It is the branch of anthropology that brings lin-
guistic methods to bear on anthropological problems,
linking the analysis of linguistic forms and processes
to the interpretation of sociocultural processes. Lin-
guistic anthropologists often draw on related fields in-
cluding sociolinguistics, pragmatics, cognitive linguistics,
semiotics, discourse analysis, and narrative analysis.[24]

3 Key topics by field: sociocultural


Forensic anthropologists can help identify skeletonized human re- 3.1 Art, media, music, dance and film
mains, such as these found lying in scrub in Western Australia,
c. 1900–1910. 3.1.1 Art

Main article: Anthropology of art

One of the central problems in the anthropology of


art concerns the universality of 'art' as a cultural phe-
nomenon. Several anthropologists have noted that the
Western categories of 'painting', 'sculpture', or 'litera-
ture', conceived as independent artistic activities, do not
exist, or exist in a significantly different form, in most
non-Western contexts.[25] To surmount this difficulty, an-
thropologists of art have focused on formal features in
objects which, without exclusively being 'artistic', have
certain evident 'aesthetic' qualities. Boas’ Primitive Art,
Claude Lévi-Strauss’ The Way of the Masks (1982) or
Excavations at the 3800-year-old Edgewater Park Site, Iowa Geertz’s 'Art as Cultural System' (1983) are some exam-
ples in this trend to transform the anthropology of 'art'
into an anthropology of culturally specific 'aesthetics’.
man behavior and cultural practices. Ethnoarchaeology is
a type of archaeology that studies the practices and ma-
terial remains of living human groups in order to gain a 3.1.2 Media
better understanding of the evidence left behind by past
human groups, who are presumed to have lived in similar Main article: Media anthropology
ways.[23] Anthropology of media (also anthropology of mass
media, media anthropology) emphasizes ethnographic
studies as a means of understanding producers, audi-
ences, and other cultural and social aspects of mass me-
2.4 Linguistic dia. The types of ethnographic contexts explored range
from contexts of media production (e.g., ethnographies
Main article: Linguistic anthropology of newsrooms in newspapers, journalists in the field, film
production) to contexts of media reception, following
Linguistic anthropology (also called anthropological lin- audiences in their everyday responses to media. Other
guistics) seeks to understand the processes of human types include cyber anthropology, a relatively new area of
communications, verbal and non-verbal, variation in internet research, as well as ethnographies of other areas
4 3 KEY TOPICS BY FIELD: SOCIOCULTURAL

repertoire.

3.1.4 Visual

Main article: Visual anthropology

Visual anthropology is concerned, in part, with the study


and production of ethnographic photography, film and,
since the mid-1990s, new media. While the term is some-
times used interchangeably with ethnographic film, visual
anthropology also encompasses the anthropological study
of visual representation, including areas such as perfor-
mance, museums, art, and the production and reception
of mass media. Visual representations from all cultures,
such as sandpaintings, tattoos, sculptures and reliefs, cave
paintings, scrimshaw, jewelry, hieroglyphics, paintings
and photographs are included in the focus of visual an-
thropology.

3.2 Economic, political economic, applied


and development
3.2.1 Economic

Main article: Economic anthropology

Economic anthropology attempts to explain human eco-


A Punu tribe mask. Gabon Central Africa nomic behavior in its widest historic, geographic and cul-
tural scope. It has a complex relationship with the disci-
pline of economics, of which it is highly critical. Its ori-
of research which happen to involve media, such as de- gins as a sub-field of anthropology begin with the Polish-
velopment work, social movements, or health education. British founder of Anthropology, Bronislaw Malinowski,
This is in addition to many classic ethnographic contexts, and his French compatriot, Marcel Mauss, on the nature
where media such as radio, the press, new media and tele- of gift-giving exchange (or reciprocity) as an alternative
vision have started to make their presences felt since the to market exchange. Economic Anthropology remains,
early 1990s.[26][27] for the most part, focused upon exchange. The school of
thought derived from Marx and known as Political Econ-
omy focuses on production, in contrast.[28] Economic An-
3.1.3 Music thropologists have abandoned the primitivist niche they
were relegated to by economists, and have now turned
Main article: Ethnomusicology to examine corporations, banks, and the global financial
system from an anthropological perspective.
Ethnomusicology is an academic field encompassing var-
ious approaches to the study of music (broadly defined), 3.2.2 Political economy
that emphasize its cultural, social, material, cognitive, bi-
ological, and other dimensions or contexts instead of or in Main article: Political economy in anthropology
addition to its isolated sound component or any particular
3.3 Kinship, feminism, gender and sexuality 5

Political economy in anthropology is the application of might offer? Why is development so externally driven
the theories and methods of Historical Materialism to the rather than having an internal basis? In short why does
traditional concerns of anthropology, including, but not so much planned development fail?
limited to, non-capitalist societies. Political Economy in-
troduced questions of history and colonialism to ahistor-
ical anthropological theories of social structure and cul-
ture. Three main areas of interest rapidly developed. The
first of these areas was concerned with the “pre-capitalist” 3.3 Kinship, feminism, gender and sexual-
societies that were subject to evolutionary “tribal” stereo-
types. Sahlins work on Hunter-gatherers as the 'original
ity
affluent society' did much to dissipate that image. The
second area was concerned with the vast majority of the 3.3.1 Kinship
world’s population at the time, the peasantry, many of
whom were involved in complex revolutionary wars such
Main article: Kinship
as in Vietnam. The third area was on colonialism, imperi-
alism, and the creation of the capitalist world-system.[29]
More recently, these Political Economists have more di- Kinship can refer both to the study of the patterns of so-
rectly addressed issues of industrial (and post-industrial) cial relationships in one or more human cultures, or it
capitalism around the world. can refer to the patterns of social relationships themselves.
Over its history, anthropology has developed a number
of related concepts and terms, such as descent, descent
3.2.3 Applied groups, lineages, affines, cognates and even fictive kin-
ship. Broadly, kinship patterns may be considered to in-
Main article: Applied anthropology clude people related both by descent (one’s social rela-
tions during development), and also relatives by marriage.
Applied Anthropology refers to the application of the
method and theory of anthropology to the analysis and so-
lution of practical problems. It is a, “complex of related,
research-based, instrumental methods which produce
change or stability in specific cultural systems through 3.3.2 Feminist
the provision of data, initiation of direct action, and/or
the formulation of policy”.[30] More simply, applied an-
Main article: Feminist anthropology
thropology is the practical side of anthropological re-
search; it includes researcher involvement and activism
within the participating community. It is closely related Feminist anthropology is a four field approach to anthro-
to Development anthropology (distinct from the more pology (archeological, biological, cultural, linguistic) that
critical Anthropology of development). seeks to reduce male bias in research findings, anthro-
pological hiring practices, and the scholarly production
of knowledge. Anthropology engages often with fem-
3.2.4 Development inists from non-Western traditions, whose perspectives
and experiences can differ from those of white European
Main article: anthropology of development and American feminists. Historically, such 'peripheral'
perspectives have sometimes been marginalized and re-
Anthropology of development tends to view development garded as less valid or important than knowledge from the
from a critical perspective. The kind of issues addressed western world. Feminist anthropologists have claimed
and implications for the approach simply involve ponder- that their research helps to correct this systematic bias
ing why, if a key development goal is to alleviate poverty, in mainstream feminist theory. Feminist anthropologists
is poverty increasing? Why is there such a gap between are centrally concerned with the construction of gender
plans and outcomes? Why are those working in devel- across societies. Feminist anthropology is inclusive of
opment so willing to disregard history and the lessons it birth anthropology as a specialization.
6 3 KEY TOPICS BY FIELD: SOCIOCULTURAL

3.4 Medical, nutritional, psychological, status and food security, and how changes in the former
cognitive and transpersonal affect the latter. If economic and environmental changes
in a community affect access to food, food security, and
3.4.1 Medical dietary health, then this interplay between culture and bi-
ology is in turn connected to broader historical and eco-
Main article: Medical anthropology nomic trends associated with globalization. Nutritional
status affects overall health status, work performance po-
tential, and the overall potential for economic develop-
Medical anthropology is an interdisciplinary field which
ment (either in terms of human development or tradi-
studies “human health and disease, health care systems,
tional western models) for any given group of people.
and biocultural adaptation”.[31] Currently, research in
medical anthropology is one of the main growth areas
in the field of anthropology as a whole. It focuses on the
following six basic fields:
3.4.3 Psychological
• the development of systems of med-
ical knowledge and medical care Main article: Psychological anthropology
• the patient-physician relationship
Psychological anthropology is an interdisciplinary sub-
• the integration of alternative medical sys-
field of anthropology that studies the interaction of
tems in culturally diverse environments
cultural and mental processes. This subfield tends
• the interaction of social, environmen- to focus on ways in which humans’ development and
tal and biological factors which influence enculturation within a particular cultural group—with
health and illness both in the individual its own history, language, practices, and concep-
and the community as a whole tual categories—shape processes of human cognition,
• the critical analysis of interaction be- emotion, perception, motivation, and mental health. It
tween psychiatric services and migrant also examines how the understanding of cognition, emo-
populations (“critical ethnopsychiatry tion, motivation, and similar psychological processes
extquotedbl: Beneduce 2004, 2007) inform or constrain our models of cultural and social
processes.[32][33]
• the impact of biomedicine and biomedi-
cal technologies in non-Western settings

Other subjects that have become central to medical an- 3.4.4 Cognitive
thropology worldwide are violence and social suffering
(Farmer, 1999, 2003; Beneduce, 2010) as well as other
issues that involve physical and psychological harm and Main article: Cognitive anthropology
suffering that are not a result of illness. On the other
hand, there are fields that intersect with medical anthro- Cognitive anthropology seeks to explain patterns of
pology in terms of research methodology and theoretical shared knowledge, cultural innovation, and transmission
production, such as cultural psychiatry and transcultural over time and space using the methods and theories of
psychiatry or ethnopsychiatry. the cognitive sciences (especially experimental psychol-
ogy and evolutionary biology) often through close col-
laboration with historians, ethnographers, archaeologists,
3.4.2 Nutritional linguists, musicologists and other specialists engaged in
the description and interpretation of cultural forms. Cog-
Main article: Nutritional anthropology nitive anthropology is concerned with what people from
different groups know and how that implicit knowledge
Nutritional anthropology is a synthetic concept that deals changes the way people perceive and relate to the world
with the interplay between economic systems, nutritional around them.[34]
3.6 Nature, science and technology 7

3.4.5 Transpersonal Legal anthropology, also known as Anthropology of


Law specializes in “the cross-cultural study of social
Main article: Transpersonal anthropology ordering”.[35] Earlier legal anthropological research often
focused more narrowly on conflict management, crime,
sanctions, or formal regulation. More recent applications
Transpersonal anthropology studies the relationship be-
include issues such as Human Rights, Legal pluralism,
tween altered states of consciousness and culture. As
Islamaphobia[36][37] and Political Uprisings.
with transpersonal psychology, the field is much con-
cerned with altered states of consciousness (ASC) and
transpersonal experience. However, the field differs from 3.5.3 Public
mainstream transpersonal psychology in taking more
cognizance of cross-cultural issues—for instance, the Main article: Public anthropology
roles of myth, ritual, diet, and texts in evoking and in-
terpreting extraordinary experiences (Young and Goulet
1994). Public Anthropology was created by Robert Borofsky, a
professor at Hawaii Pacific University, to “demonstrate
the ability of anthropology and anthropologists to effec-
3.5 Political and legal tively address problems beyond the discipline - illuminat-
ing larger social issues of our times as well as encouraging
3.5.1 Political broad, public conversations about them with the explicit
goal of fostering social change” (Borofsky 2004).
Main article: Political anthropology
3.6 Nature, science and technology
Political anthropology concerns the structure of political
systems, looked at from the basis of the structure of 3.6.1 Cyborg
societies. Political anthropology developed as a disci-
pline concerned primarily with politics in stateless so- Main article: Cyborg anthropology
cieties, a new development started from the 1960s, and
is still unfolding: anthropologists started increasingly to
study more “complex” social settings in which the pres- Cyborg anthropology originated as a sub-focus group
ence of states, bureaucracies and markets entered both within the American Anthropological Association's an-
ethnographic accounts and analysis of local phenomena. nual meeting in 1993. The sub-group was very closely
The turn towards complex societies meant that politi- related to STS and the Society for the Social Studies
cal themes were taken up at two main levels. First of of Science.[38] Donna Haraway's 1985 Cyborg Manifesto
all, anthropologists continued to study political organiza- could be considered the founding document of cyborg an-
tion and political phenomena that lay outside the state- thropology by first exploring the philosophical and soci-
regulated sphere (as in patron-client relations or tribal ological ramifications of the term. Cyborg anthropology
political organization). Second of all, anthropologists studies humankind and its relations with the technologi-
slowly started to develop a disciplinary concern with cal systems it has built, specifically modern technologi-
states and their institutions (and of course on the relation- cal systems that have reflexively shaped notions of what
ship between formal and informal political institutions). it means to be human beings.
An anthropology of the state developed, and it is a most
thriving field today. Geertz' comparative work on “Ne-
3.6.2 Digital
gara”, the Balinese state is an early, famous example.
Main article: Digital anthropology
3.5.2 Legal
Digital anthropology is the study of the relationship be-
Main article: Legal anthropology tween humans and digital-era technology, and extends
to various areas where anthropology and technology in-
8 3 KEY TOPICS BY FIELD: SOCIOCULTURAL

tersect. It is sometimes grouped with sociocultural an- Ethnohistory is the study of ethnographic cultures and
thropology, and sometimes considered part of material indigenous customs by examining historical records. It
culture. The field is new, and thus has a vari- is also the study of the history of various ethnic groups
ety of names with a variety of emphases. These that may or may not exist today. Ethnohistory uses both
include techno-anthropology,[39] digital ethnography, historical and ethnographic data as its foundation. Its
cyberanthropology,[40] and virtual anthropology.[41] historical methods and materials go beyond the standard
use of documents and manuscripts. Practitioners recog-
nize the utility of such source material as maps, music,
3.6.3 Ecological paintings, photography, folklore, oral tradition, site ex-
ploration, archaeological materials, museum collections,
Main article: Ecological anthropology enduring customs, language, and place names.[47]

Ecological anthropology is defined as the “study of


cultural adaptations to environments”.[42] The sub-field 3.8 Religion
is also defined as, “the study of relationships between a
population of humans and their biophysical environment
Main article: Anthropology of religion
extquotedbl.[43] The focus of its research concerns “how
cultural beliefs and practices helped human populations
adapt to their environments, and how people used ele- The anthropology of religion involves the study of reli-
ments of their culture to maintain their ecosystems.”[42] gious institutions in relation to other social institutions,
and the comparison of religious beliefs and practices
across cultures. Modern anthropology assumes that there
3.6.4 Environmental is complete continuity between magical thinking and
religion,[48] and that every religion is a cultural product,
Main article: Environmental anthropology created by the human community that worships it.[49]

Environmental anthropology is a sub-specialty within the


field of anthropology that takes an active role in examin- 3.9 Urban
ing the relationships between humans and their environ-
ment across space and time.[44] The contemporary per- Main article: Urban anthropology
spective of environmental anthropology, and arguably at
least the backdrop, if not the focus of most of the ethno-
graphies and cultural fieldworks of today, is political ecol- Urban anthropology is concerned with issues of
ogy. Many characterize this new perspective as more in- urbanization, poverty, and neoliberalism. Ulf Hannerz
formed with culture, politics and power, globalization, lo- quotes a 1960s remark that traditional anthropologists
calized issues, and more.[45] The focus and data interpre- were “a notoriously agoraphobic lot, anti-urban by defi-
tation is often used for arguments for/against or creation nition”. Various social processes in the Western World
of policy, and to prevent corporate exploitation and dam- as well as in the extquotedblThird World extquotedbl
age of land. Often, the observer has become an active (the latter being the habitual focus of attention of anthro-
part of the struggle either directly (organizing, participa- pologists) brought the attention of extquotedblspecialists
tion) or indirectly (articles, documentaries, books, ethno- in 'other cultures’ extquotedbl closer to their homes.[50]
graphies). Such is the case with environmental justice There are two principle approaches in urban anthropol-
advocate Melissa Checker and her relationship with the ogy: by examining the types of cities or examining the
people of Hyde Park.[46] social issues within the cities. These two methods are
overlapping and dependent of each other. By defining
different types of cities, one would use social factors as
3.7 Historical well as economic and political factors to categorize the
cities. By directly looking at the different social issues,
Main article: Ethnohistory one would also be studying how they affect the dynamic
of the city.[51]
4.4 Forensic 9

4 Key topics by field: archaeologi- in natural science and social science, combining the
human development with socioeconomic factors. Evo-
cal and biological lutionary anthropology is concerned with both biologi-
cal and cultural evolution of humans, past and present.
Main articles: Archaeological and Biological anthropol- It is based on a scientific approach, and brings to-
ogy gether fields such as archaeology, behavioral ecology,
psychology, primatology, and genetics. It is a dynamic
and interdisciplinary field, drawing on many lines of ev-
idence to understand the human experience, past and
4.1 Anthrozoology present.

Main article: Anthrozoology


4.4 Forensic
Anthrozoology (also called human–animal studies or
HAS) is the study of interaction between living things. Main article: Forensic anthropology
It is a modern interdisciplinary and burgeoning field that
overlaps with a number of other disciplines, including an- Forensic anthropology is the application of the science
thropology, ethology, medicine, psychology, veterinary of physical anthropology and human osteology in a legal
medicine and zoology. A major focus of anthrozoo- setting, most often in criminal cases where the victim’s
logic research is the quantifying of the positive effects of remains are in the advanced stages of decomposition.
human-animal relationships on either party and the study A forensic anthropologist can assist in the identification
of their interactions.[52] It includes scholars from a di- of deceased individuals whose remains are decomposed,
verse range of fields, including anthropology, sociology, burned, mutilated or otherwise unrecognizable. The ad-
biology, and philosophy.[53] jective “forensic” refers to the application of this subfield
of science to a court of law.

4.2 Biocultural
4.5 Palaeoanthropology
Main article: Biocultural anthropology
Main article: Palaeoanthropology
Biocultural anthropology is the scientific exploration of
the relationships between human biology and culture. Paleoanthropology combines the disciplines of
Physical anthropologists throughout the first half of the paleontology and physical anthropology. It is the
20th century viewed this relationship from a racial per- study of ancient humans, as found in fossil hominid
spective; that is, from the assumption that typological hu- evidence such as petrifacted bones and footprints.
man biological differences lead to cultural differences.[54]
After World War II the emphasis began to shift toward an
effort to explore the role culture plays in shaping human
biology. 5 Organizations
Contemporary anthropology is an established science
4.3 Evolutionary with academic departments at most universities and col-
leges. The single largest organization of Anthropologists
Main article: Evolutionary anthropology is the American Anthropological Association (AAA),
which was founded in 1903.[55] Membership is made up
[56]
Evolutionary anthropology is the interdisciplinary study of anthropologists from around the globe.
of the evolution of human physiology and human be- In 1989, a group of European and American scholars in
haviour and the relation between hominins and non- the field of anthropology established the European Asso-
hominin primates. Evolutionary anthropology is based ciation of Social Anthropologists (EASA) which serves
10 6 CONTROVERSIAL ETHICAL STANCES

as a major professional organization for anthropologists 6 Controversial ethical stances


working in Europe. The EASA seeks to advance the sta-
tus of anthropology in Europe and to increase visibility of Anthropologists, like other researchers (especially his-
marginalized anthropological traditions and thereby con- torians and scientists engaged in field research), have
tribute to the project of a global anthropology or world over time assisted state policies and projects, especially
anthropology. colonialism.[58][59]
Hundreds of other organizations exist in the various sub- Some commentators have contended:
fields of anthropology, sometimes divided up by nation
or region, and many anthropologists work with collab-
orators in other disciplines, such as geology, physics, • That the discipline grew out of colonialism, perhaps
zoology, paleontology, anatomy, music theory, art his- was in league with it, and derived some of its key no-
tory, sociology and so on, belonging to professional soci- tions from it, consciously or not. (See, for example,
eties in those disciplines as well.[57] Gough, Pels and Salemink, but cf. Lewis 2004).[60]

• That ethnographic work was often ahistorical, writ-


ing about people as if they were “out of time” in an
5.1 List of major organizations
“ethnographic present” (Johannes Fabian, Time and
Main category: Anthropology organizations Its Other).

6.1 Ethics of cultural relativism


• American Anthropological Association
• American Ethnological Society At the same time, anthropologists urge, as part of their
quest for scientific objectivity, cultural relativism, which
• Asociación de Antropólogos Iberoamericanos en has an influence on all the sub-fields of anthropology.[7]
Red, AIBR This is the notion that particular cultures should not be
judged by one culture’s values or viewpoints, but that all
• Moving Anthropology Student Network
cultures should be viewed as relative to each other. There
• Anthropological Society of London should be no notions, in good anthropology, of one cul-
ture being better or worse than another culture.[61]
• Center for World Indigenous Studies
Ethical commitments in anthropology include notic-
• Ethnological Society of London ing and documenting genocide, infanticide, racism,
mutilation including circumcision and subincision, and
• Institute of Anthropology and Ethnography torture. Topics like racism, slavery or human sacrifice,
• Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropol- therefore, attract anthropological attention[62]
and theories
ogy ranging from nutritional deficiencies to genes[63] to
acculturation have been proposed, not to mention the-
• Network of Concerned Anthropologists ories of colonialism and many others as root causes of
Man’s inhumanity to man. To illustrate the depth of an
• N. N. Miklukho-Maklai Institute of Ethnology and anthropological approach, one can take just one of these
Anthropology topics, such as “racism” and find thousands of anthropo-
• Radical Anthropology Group logical references, stretching across all the major and mi-
nor sub-fields.[64][65]
• Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and
Ireland
6.2 Ethical stance to military involvement
• Society for anthropological sciences
• Society for Applied Anthropology Anthropologists’ involvement with the U.S. government,
in particular, has caused bitter controversy within the dis-
• USC Center for Visual Anthropology cipline. Franz Boas publicly objected to US participation
11

in World War I, and after the war he published a brief of counterinsurgency, and in a potentially coercive envi-
expose and condemnation of the participation of several ronment – all characteristic factors of the HTS concept
American archaeologists in espionage in Mexico under and its application – it can no longer be considered a le-
their cover as scientists. gitimate professional exercise of anthropology. In sum-
But by the 1940s, many of Boas’ anthropologist con- mary, while we stress that constructive engagement be-
temporaries were active in the allied war effort against tween anthropology and the military is possible, CEAUS-
the “Axis” (Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, and Imperial SIC suggests that the AAA emphasize the incompatibil-
Japan). Many served in the armed forces, while oth- ity of HTS with disciplinary ethics and practice for job
ers worked in intelligence (for example, Office of Strate- seekers and that it further recognize the problem of allow-
gic Services and the Office of War Information). At the ing HTS to define the meaning of “anthropology” within
same time, David H. Price’s work on American anthro- DoD.”[69]
pology during the Cold War provides detailed accounts of
the pursuit and dismissal of several anthropologists from
their jobs for communist sympathies. 7 Post–World War II developments
Attempts to accuse anthropologists of complicity with
the CIA and government intelligence activities during Before WWII British 'social anthropology' and American
the Vietnam War years have turned up surprisingly little 'cultural anthropology' were still distinct traditions. Af-
(although anthropologist Hugo Nutini was active in the ter the war, enough British and American anthropologists
stillborn Project Camelot).[66] Many anthropologists (stu- borrowed ideas and methodological approaches from one
dents and teachers) were active in the antiwar movement. another that some began to speak of them collectively as
Numerous resolutions condemning the war in all its as- 'sociocultural' anthropology.
pects were passed overwhelmingly at the annual meetings
of the American Anthropological Association (AAA). 7.1 Basic trends
Professional anthropological bodies often object to the
use of anthropology for the benefit of the state. Their There are several characteristics that tend to unite an-
codes of ethics or statements may proscribe anthropol- thropological work. One of the central characteristics is
ogists from giving secret briefings. The Association of that anthropology tends to provide a comparatively more
Social Anthropologists of the UK and Commonwealth holistic account of phenomena and tends to be highly
(ASA) has called certain scholarship ethically dangerous. empirical.[6] The quest for holism leads most anthropolo-
The AAA’s current 'Statement of Professional Responsi- gists to study a particular place, problem or phenomenon
bility' clearly states that “in relation with their own gov- in detail, using a variety of methods, over a more exten-
ernment and with host governments ... no secret research, sive period than normal in many parts of academia.
no secret reports or debriefings of any kind should be In the 1990s and 2000s (decade), calls for clarification
agreed to or given.” of what constitutes a culture, of how an observer knows
Anthropologists, along with other social scientists, are where his or her own culture ends and another begins, and
working with the US military as part of the US Army’s other crucial topics in writing anthropology were heard.
strategy in Afghanistan.[67] The Christian Science Moni- These dynamic relationships, between what can be ob-
tor reports that “Counterinsurgency efforts focus on bet- served on the ground, as opposed to what can be observed
ter grasping and meeting local needs” in Afghanistan, un- by compiling many local observations remain fundamen-
der the Human Terrain System (HTS) program; in ad- tal in any kind of anthropology, whether cultural, biolog-
dition, HTS teams are working with the US military in ical, linguistic or archaeological.[70]
Iraq.[68] In 2009, the American Anthropological Asso- Biological anthropologists are interested in both human
ciation’s Commission on the Engagement of Anthropol- variation[71] and in the possibility of human universals
ogy with the US Security and Intelligence Communities (behaviors, ideas or concepts shared by virtually all hu-
released its final report concluding, in part, that, “When man cultures).[72] They use many different methods of
ethnographic investigation is determined by military mis- study, but modern population genetics, participant ob-
sions, not subject to external review, where data collec- servation and other techniques often take anthropologists
tion occurs in the context of war, integrated into the goals “into the field,” which means traveling to a community in
12 8 SEE ALSO

its own setting, to do something called “fieldwork.” On In France, the study of Western societies has been tra-
the biological or physical side, human measurements, ge- ditionally left to sociologists, but this is increasingly
netic samples, nutritional data may be gathered and pub- changing,[80] starting in the 1970s from scholars like Isac
lished as articles or monographs. Chiva and journals like Terrain (“fieldwork”), and devel-
Along with dividing up their project by theoretical em- oping with the center founded by Marc Augé (Le Centre
phasis, anthropologists typically divide the world up into d'anthropologie des mondes contemporains, the Anthro-
relevant time periods and geographic regions. Human pological Research Center of Contemporary Societies).
time on Earth is divided up into relevant cultural tra- Since the 1980s it has become common for social and cul-
ditions based on material, such as the Paleolithic and tural anthropologists to set ethnographic research in the
the Neolithic, of particular use in archaeology. Fur- North Atlantic region, frequently examining the connec-
ther cultural subdivisions according to tool types, such tions between locations rather than limiting research to a
as Olduwan or Mousterian or Levalloisian help archaeol- single locale. There has also been a related shift toward
ogists and other anthropologists in understanding major broadening the focus beyond the daily life of ordinary
trends in the human past. Anthropologists and geogra- people; increasingly, research is set in settings such as
phers share approaches to Culture regions as well, since scientific laboratories, social movements, governmental
mapping cultures is central to both sciences. By making and nongovernmental organizations and businesses.[81]
comparisons across cultural traditions (time-based) and
cultural regions (space-based), anthropologists have de-
veloped various kinds of comparative method, a central 8 See also
part of their science.
Main article: Outline of anthropology

7.2 Commonalities between fields


• Anthropological Index Online (AIO)
Because anthropology developed from so many differ- • Anthropological science fiction
ent enterprises (see History of Anthropology), including
• Engaged theory
but not limited to fossil-hunting, exploring, documen-
tary film-making, paleontology, primatology, antiquity • Ethnology
dealings and curatorship, philology, etymology, genetics,
• Ethology
regional analysis, ethnology, history, philosophy, and
religious studies,[73][74] it is difficult to characterize the • Folklore
entire field in a brief article, although attempts to write
histories of the entire field have been made.[75] • Human ethology

Some authors argue that anthropology originated and de- • Human evolution
veloped as the study of “other cultures”, both in terms • Human Relations Area Files
of time (past societies) and space (non-European/non-
Western societies).[76] For example, the classic of urban • Intangible Cultural Heritage
anthropology, Ulf Hannerz in the introduction to his • Memetics
seminal Exploring the City: Inquiries Toward an Urban
Anthropology mentions that the extquotedblThird World • Prehistoric medicine
extquotedbl had habitually received most of attention; • Qualitative research
anthropologists who traditionally specialized in “other
cultures” looked for them far away and started to look • Sociology
“across the tracks” only in late 1960s.[77] • Theological anthropology, a sub-field of theology
Now there exist many works focusing on peoples and top-
• Philosophical anthropology, a sub-field of philoso-
ics very close to the author’s “home”.[78] It is also argued
phy
that other fields of study, like History and Sociology, on
the contrary focus disproportionately on the West.[79] • Anthropology in Tinbergen’s four questions
13

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[62] Harris, Marvin. Cows, Pigs, Wars, and Witches. [75] Leaf, Murray. Man, Mind and Science: A History of An-
thropology. Columbia University Press. 1979
[63] Timeshighereducation.co.uk
[76] See the many essays relating to this in Prem Poddar
[64] “Statement on “Race extquotedbl extquotedbl. American and David Johnson, Historical Companion to Postcolonial
Anthropological Association. May 1998. Thought in English, Edinburgh University Press, 2004.
See also Prem Poddar et al., Historical Companion to
[65] Sciencemag.org, Shanklin, Eugenia. 1994. Anthropol- Postcolonial Literatures--Continental Europe and its Em-
ogy & Race; Faye V. Harrison. 1995. “The Persistent pires, Edinburgh University Press, 2008
Power of 'Race' in the Cultural and Political Economy
of Racism.” Annual Review of Anthropology. 24:47-74. [77] Ulf Hannerz (1980) “Exploring the City: Inquiries To-
Allan Goodman. 1995. “The Problematics of “Race” ward an Urban Anthropology”, ISBN 0-231-08376-9, p.
in Contemporary Biological Anthropology.” In Biologi- 1
cal Anthropology: The State of the Science.; Yearbook
of Physical Anthropology, 1945-. “Melanin, Afrocen- [78] Lewis, Herbert S. (1998) The Misrepresentation of An-
tricity ... ,” 36(1993):33-58.; see Stanford’s recent col- thropology and its Consequences American Anthropologist
lection of overarching bibliographies on race and racism, “100: extquotedbl 716-731
Library.stanford.edu
[79] Jack Goody (2007) The Theft of History Cambridge Uni-
[66] Horowitz, Lewis ed.(1967) The Rise and Fall of Project versity Press ISBN 0-521-87069-0
Camelot.
[80] • Abélès, Marc. “How the Anthropology of France
[67] Christian Science Monitor Has Changed Anthropology in France: Assessing
New Directions in the Field”. Cultural Anthropol-
[68] “The Human Terrain System: A CORDS for the 21st ogy 1999: 407. JSTOR 08867356.
Century”. Archived from the original on 21 January 2014.
[81] Fischer, Michael M. J. Emergent Forms of Life and the
[69] AAA Commission Releases Final Report on Army Hu- Anthropological Voice. Duke University Press, 2003. Don
man Terrain System « American Anthropological Asso- Morrell JR.
ciation

[70] Rosaldo, Renato. Culture and Truth: The remaking of


social analysis. Beacon Press. 1993; Inda, John Xavier 10 Further reading
and Renato Rosaldo. The Anthropology of Globalization.
Wiley-Blackwell. 2007
Main article: List of important publications in anthro-
[71] Robert Jurmain, Lynn Kilgore, Wenda Trevathan, and pology
Russell L. Ciochon. Introduction to Physical Anthropol-
ogy. 11th Edition. Wadsworth. 2007, chapters I, III and
IV.; Wompack, Mari. Being Human. Prentice Hall. 2001,
pp. 11–20. 10.1 Dictionaries and encyclopedias
[72] Brown, Donald. Human Universals. McGraw Hill. 1991; • Barnard, Alan and Spencer, Jonathan eds. (2010)
Roughley, Neil. Being Humans: Anthropological Uni- The Routledge Encyclopedia of Social and Cultural
versality and Particularity in Transciplinary Perspectives.
Anthropology London: Routledge
Walter de Gruyter Publishing. 2000

[73] Erickson, Paul A. and Liam D. Murphy. A History of


• Barfield, Thomas (1997). The dictionary of anthro-
Anthropological Theory. Broadview Press. 2003. p. 11– pology. Hoboken: Wiley-Blackwell Publishing.
12
• Jackson, John L. (2013) Oxford Bibliographies: An-
[74] George Stocking, “Paradigmatic Traditions in the His- thropology. Oxford: Oxford University Press
tory of Anthropology.” In George Stocking, The Ethnog-
rapher’s Magic and Other Essays in the History of An- • Levinson, David and Melvin Ember. eds. (1996)
thropology (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, Encyclopedia of Cultural Anthropology. (4 vols.)
1992):342-361. New York: Henry Holt.
16 10 FURTHER READING

• Rapport, Nigel and Overing, Joanna (2007) Social • Harris, Marvin. (2001[1968]) The rise of anthropo-
and Cultural Anthropology: The Key Concepts. New logical theory: a history of theories of culture. Al-
York: Routledge taMira Press. Walnut Creek, CA.
• Kehoe, Alice B. (1998) The Land of Prehistory: A
10.2 Fieldnotes and memoirs Critical History of American Archaeology.
• Lewis, H. S. (1998). “The Misrepresenta-
• Barley, Nigel (1983) The innocent anthropologist: tion of Anthropology and Its Consequences”.
notes from a mud hut. London: British Museum American Anthropologist 100 (3): 716–731.
Publications. doi:10.1525/aa.1998.100.3.716.
• Geertz, Clifford (1995) After the fact: two countries, • Lewis, Herbert S. (2004) “Imagining Anthropol-
four decades, one anthropologist. Cambridge, MA: ogy’s History.” Reviews in Anthropology, v. 33.
Harvard University Press.
• Lewis, Herbert S. (2005) “Anthropology, the Cold
• Lévi-Strauss, Claude (1967) Tristes tropiques. War, and Intellectual History”. In R. Darnell &
Translated from the French by John Russell. New F.W. Gleach, eds. Histories of Anthropology An-
York: Atheneum. nual, Vol. I.

• Malinowski, Bronisław (1967) A diary in the strict • Pels, Peter & Oscar Salemink, eds. (2000) Colonial
sense of the term. Translated by Norbert Guterman. Subjects: Essays on the Practical History of Anthro-
New York, Harcourt, Brace & World. pology.
• Price, David. (2004) Threatening Anthropology:
• Mead, Margaret (1972) Blackberry winter: my ear- McCarthyism and the FBI’s Surveillance of Activist
lier years. New York: William Marrow. Anthropologists.
• Mead, Margaret, (1977) Letters from the field, • Sera-Shriar, Efram. (2013) The Making of British
1925–1975. New York: Harper & Row. Anthropology, 1813–1871. Science and Culture in
the Nineteenth Century, 18. London and Vermont:
• Rabinow, Paul. (1977) Reflections on fieldwork in Pickering and Chatto
Morocco.
• Stocking, George, Jr. (1968) Race, Culture and Evo-
lution. New York: Free Press.
10.3 Histories
• Trencher, Susan. (2000) Mirrored Images: Amer-
• Asad, Talal, ed. (1973) Anthropology & the Colo- ican Anthropology and American Culture, 1960–
nial Encounter. Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities 1980.
Press. • Gisi, Lucas Marco. (2007) Einbildungskraft und
Mythologie. Die Verschränkung von Anthropologie
• Barth, Fredrik, Andre Gingrich, Robert Parkin, One und Geschichte im 18. Jahrhundert, Berlin, New
Discipline, Four Ways: British, German, French, York: de Gruyter.
and American anthropology. Chicago: University
of Chicago Press. • Wolf, Eric. (1982) Europe and the People Without
History. Berkeley and Los Angeles: California Uni-
• D'Andrade, R. “The Sad Story of Anthropology: versity Press.
1950–1999.” In E. L. Cerroni-Long, ed. Anthropo-
logical Theory in North America. Westport: Berin
& Garvey 1999. Anthro.ucsd.edu 10.4 Textbooks and key theoretical works
• Darnell, Regna. (2001) Invisible Genealogies: A • Clifford, James and George E. Marcus (1986) Writ-
History of Americanist Anthropology. Lincoln, NE: ing culture: the poetics and politics of ethnography.
University of Nebraska Press. Berkeley: University of California Press.
17

• Geertz, Clifford (1973) The Interpretation of Cul- • Annual Review of Anthropology


tures. New York: Basic Books.
• Division of Anthropology, American Museum of
• Harris, Marvin (1997) Culture, People, Nature: An Natural History Online collections database with
Introduction to General Anthropology (7th Edition). detailed description and digital images for over
Boston: Allyn & Bacon 160,000 ethnographic artifacts.
• Salzmann, Zdeněk. (1993) Language, culture, and • National Anthropological Archives, Smithsonian
society: an introduction to linguistic anthropology. Institution Collects and preserves historical and con-
Boulder, CO: Westview Press. temporary anthropological materials that document
the world’s cultures and the history of anthropology
• Shweder, Richard A., and Robert A. LeVine, eds.
(1984) Culture Theory: essays on mind, self, and • The Anthropological Index Online Online biblio-
emotion. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University graphic database.
Press.
• Anthropology Researcher and Groups
• Anthropology at MIT OCW
11 External links
• at video Anthropology ?
• Webpage “History of German Anthropol- • at Cong dong Nhan Hoc_VietNam
ogy/Ethnology 1945/49-1990”
• at Nhan Hoc Viet Nam
• American Anthropological Association Homepage
Home page of largest professional organization of
anthropologists
• European Association of Social Anthropologists
• American Association of Physical Anthropologists
• Australian Anthropological Society
• Iberoamerican Association of Anthropology AIBR
• European Association of Social Anthropologists
• Human Relations Area Files, Has published a
database containing information on over 400 Cul-
tures since the 1940s
• Moving Anthropology Student Network - Interna-
tional Association of Social Anthropology Students
• Italian Institute of Anthropology
• National Association for the Practice of Anthropol-
ogy
• Radical Anthropology Group
• The Royal Anthropological Institute Homepage—
The Royal Anthropological Institute of Great
Britain and Ireland (RAI)
• The Society for Applied Anthropology
18 12 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

12 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses


12.1 Text
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Dreamyshade, Brion VIBBER, Eloquence, Mav, Robert Merkel, Zundark, The Anome, Tarquin, Slrubenstein, Gareth Owen, RK, Claudine-
Chionh, Andre Engels, XJaM, William Avery, Netesq, Olivier, Stevertigo, Edward, Michael Hardy, Jrcrin001, Liftarn, MartinHarper,
Wapcaplet, Tomos, Chinju, Shoaler, Dori, Goatasaur, Ellywa, Mac, Snoyes, TUF-KAT, Notheruser, Darkwind, Nerd, Salsa Shark, Glenn,
BenKovitz, Poor Yorick, Nikai, Panoramix, Samuel, JidGom, Charles Matthews, Guaka, David Newton, Dcoetzee, Selket, Maximus
Rex, Hyacinth, Samsara, Chrisjj, Secretlondon, Jusjih, Jason Potter, Robbot, Altenmann, Kowey, Postdlf, P0lyglut, Merovingian, Sunray,
Matty j, Rebrane, UtherSRG, Wikibot, David Edgar, Borislav, Benc, Aetheling, Gobeirne, Ancheta Wis, Giftlite, Wolfkeeper, Luis Dan-
tas, Kenny sh, Marcika, Duncharris, Guanaco, Macrakis, Bobblewik, Alan Au, Cam, John Abbe, Heysup420, Fishal, Leonard Vertighel,
Alexf, Geni, Gdr, Metlin, Abu badali, Jossi, APH, Gauss, Icairns, Defenestrate, Sam Hocevar, WpZurp, Neutrality, Robin klein, Kle-
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12.2 Images 19

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