Salt-Affected Soil Soil 206 – Soil Ecosystem Lab

Objectives:

After completing this laboratory the student should be able to:

1. Define three classifications of salt-affected soils.
2. Perform calculations to classify a salt-affected soil and determine the reclamation procedures.
3. Explain the reclamation procedures for salt-affected soils.
4. Determine the EC of assigned soil.
5. Set up a percolation tube, leach with assigned reagent and describe the chemical reactions that
occur during the leaching processes.

Introduction

Salt-affected soils develop in low-rainfall regions where lack of leaching results in a high concentration
of basic cations. When drainage of these soils is restricted and surface evaporation exceeds
precipitation, soluble salts accumulate in the surface horizon. These types of soils are said to be "salt-
affected" and are classified as saline, sodic, or saline-sodic, refer to Table 1 for the characteristics of
these soils. Many salt-affected soils develop because changes in the local water balance, usually
brought about by human activities, increase the input of salt-bearing water more than they increase the
output of drainage water. Increased evaporation, waterlogging, and rising water tables usually result. It is
worth remembering the irony that salts usually become a problem when too much water is supplied, not
too little.

During the past three decades, low-income countries in the dry regions of the world have greatly
expanded the area of their land under irrigation in order to produce the food needed by their rapidly
growing human populations. Consequently, the proportion of arable land that is irrigated has increased
dramatically. Initially, the expanded irrigation stimulated phenomenal increases in food-crop production.
Many of these irrigation projects failed to address the need for drainage of excess irrigation water. The
result has been the acceleration of salinization, the accumulation of neutral soluble salts in the surface
horizons, and salts have accumulated to levels that are already adversely affecting crop production.

The diagnosis of salt-affected soils requires several chemical tests. Management is specific for each type
of salt-affected soil.

Salt-Affected Soils

Structure is a highly desirable soil property: it greatly influences water movement (infiltration and
erosion), heat transfer (seedling emergence), aeration (gas exchange), and porosity (root penetration
and water holding capacity). In the presence of calcium, soils are typically flocculated, a condition where
colloidal particles are bound together. The flocculated soil particles are in turn bound by organic and
inorganic materials to form soil aggregates. These aggregates form the basis of soil structure and are
referred to as granular, platy, blocky and prism-like.

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Consider for a moment a suspension of clay particles. Clay particles are negatively charged as the result
of isomorphous substitution or broken edges so they naturally repel each other (like charges
repel). However, the presence of adsorbed cations tends to mask this negative charge (repulsion) to
varying degrees, depending on the type of cation. Small multi-charged cations (i.e., Al+3, Ca+2, Mg+2)
are strongly adsorbed by colloids (unlike charges attract), greatly reducing the negative charge. If the
negative charge of the colloid is sufficiently reduced, flocculation will occur as represented shown in
Figure 1B. If, on the other hand, the colloids are saturated with large weakly charged cations (i.e. Na+,
K+), dispersion will occur as represented in Figure 1A. Sodium, a weakly charged cation that encourages
dispersion and calcium, a multi-charged cation that encourages flocculation, provide an example of the
intricate relationship between soil chemistry and the physical condition of a soil. The importance of the
physical condition and the influence of sodium, creates the situation where knowing the concentration of
this cation in a soil is essential.

Figure 1: Soil Particles in a Dispersed and Flocculated Condition

A B

The exact mechanisms of flocculation and dispersion are quite complex and best explained using more
advanced chemistry principles. The main point to remember for this lab is flocculation and dispersion
reactions are the result of cation exchange. Cation exchange is the interaction between a cation in
solution and another cation on the surface of any surface-active material, such as clay or organic
matter. In this lab, we will observe the cation exchange that occurs between sodium and calcium on clay
mineral surfaces.

Salt-affected soils are classified using electrical conductivity, exchangeable sodium percentage and pH
measurements. Electrical conductivity (EC) is the capacity of the soil to conduct or transmit electrical
current and will be measured in deci-Siemens per meter (dS/m). This soil property is determined largely
by the concentration of soluble salts. A concentration sufficient to interfere with plant growth is generally
defined as that which produces an electrical conductivity in the saturation extract (EC) greater than 4
dS/m. The exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) identifies the degree to which the exchange complex
is saturated with sodium. A concentration above 15% is considered to be sodic and is toxic to many
plants and can be extremely detrimental to soil structure. Refer to Example 1 for the calculation to
determine the ESP of a soil.

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Example 1: ESP Calculation

ESP = Exchangable Sodium, cmolc/ kg soil * 100

Soil CEC cmolc/ kg soil

6.9 cmolc Sodium/ kg * 100 = 23% ESP

30 cmolc/ kg soil

The pH is the negative logarithm of the activity or concentration of the hydrogen ion. The pH of a
saturated soil paste is measured using an electrode referenced to a standard. The relationship of these
three soil properties and their use as an indicator of salt-affected soils are summarized in Table 1.

Table 1: Classification of Salt-affected Soils

EC (dS/m) ESP (%) pH
Saline >4 <15 <8.5
Sodic <4 >15 >8.5
Saline-sodic >4 >15 <8.5

Reclamation

Three general methods are employed to improve the productivity of salt-affected soils. The exact
method used depends on the nature of the salt problem. Eradication techniques, used for saline soils,
involve improving soil drainage followed by soil flooding. The objective of eradication is to lower the
soluble salt content in the root zone. Conversion techniques are used for saline-sodic and sodic
soils. Conversion involves improving soil drainage and the incorporation of gypsum prior to
leaching. Gypsum applications replace the exchangeable sodium with calcium in order to promote
flocculation. Example 2 reviews the steps necessary to classify a salt-affected soil.

Example 2: Classification of Salt-affected Soil

EC pH CEC Ex-Na+ ESP
Soil (cmol / kg) (%)
(dS/ m) c (cmolc/ kg)
<4 6.5 ---No Additional Info. Needed to Classify---
A
Not Salt-affected, Reclamation not required.
>4 7 35 5 7
B
Saline Soil, Reclamation Needed, Eradication Technique
<4 9 30 6.9 23
C
Sodic Soil, Reclamation Needed, Conversion Technique

Example 3 summarizes how to calculate the gypsum requirement for the sodic soil in Example 2, Soil
B. Replacing exchangeable sodium with calcium allows the soluble sodium to be leached with no
adverse affect on soil structure. Leaching saline-sodic and sodic soils before adding gypsum can actually
intensify the sodium problem by dispersing the remaining aggregates. This allows the clay colloids to
migrate through the profile until the pores clog, reducing the porosity and permeability of the soil. This
may permanently impair the hydraulic conductivity of the soil making it unfit for use in biomass
production.

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Example 3: Gypsum Calculation for Conversion Reclamation Technique

The exchangeable sodium content of the soil that is to be replaced determines the gypsum
(CaSO4) requirement. Exchangeable sodium can be calculated from the CEC of the soil and the
percentage of sodium that is on the exchange complex. Once the cmolc of exchangeable sodium is
known, the amount of CaSO4 needed to effectively replace it on the soil colloid can be calculated.

Calculate the kilograms of CaSO4 per hectare-15 cm required to replace 60% of the exchangeable
sodium in a soil with a CEC = 30 cmolc/ kg and an ESP of 23%.

First calculate the percent exchangeable sodium to be replaced and then the total CEC of the soil
that is to be replaced in cmolc.

23% * 60% = 14% * 30 cmolc = 4.2 cmolc

1 kg soil 1 kg soil

Next, calculate the kilograms CaSO4 for each kilogram of soil:

4.2 cmolc * 1 molc * 1mol CaSO4 * 136g CaSO4 * 1kg = 2.8x10-3kg

1 kg soil 100cmolc 2molc 1 mol CaSO4 1000g 1 kg soil

Finally, calculate the kilograms CaSO4 for each hectare-15 cm of soil:

2.8x10-3kg CaSO4 * 2x106kg soil = 5600 kg CaSO4

1 kg soil 1ha-15cm 1ha-15c

Gypsum is added to the saline soil to replace the Na+ ion from the exchange complex with the Ca+2 ion.
When gypsum is added the following reaction takes place:

2Na–X + CaSO4 Ca–X + Na2SO4

Sodium sulfate is a soluble salt that can be easily leached from the soil. Calcium has been exchange for
the sodium on the exchange complex so flocculation should be encouraged. Now when the leaching
occurs, the pores will not be clogged with the dispersed clay-size fraction and the hydraulic conductivity
will not be impacted. However, tons of gypsum per hectare can be required, which Example 3 indicates,
so this is not a task without effort.

Control methods for salt-affected soils include controlling evaporation, proper irrigation scheduling,
application of elemental sulfur or sulfuric acid, and the use of salt-tolerant crops. See chapter 9 in
Gardiner and Miller for more information on the management and reclamation of salt-affected soils.

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EC Procedure for Assigned Soils
1. From each of your assigned soils, weigh out 25 grams of well ground soil into a 100 ml beaker.
2. Add 25ml of distilled water. Stir. Let stand for 1 hour, minimum.
3. Filter using a vacuum filter flask.
4. Pour leachate into a centrifuge tube. Measure and record the EC and the pH of each soil.
5. Clean-up all lab equipment.

Data Sheet for Soil Salinity Classification

Soil pH EC Soil Salinity Classification

Soil Reclamation Procedure

1. Construct a percolation tube as illustrated in the diagram. You will be assigned a solution for
leaching. Enter your solution on the data sheet.
2. Leach the soil column with the FIRST assigned solution under constant-head (refer to diagram)
conditions for 10 minutes. Before continuing make sure your flow rate is within 5% of your
competing group. This is critical to verify the affects of our reclamation procedures.
3. Collect the leachate in centrifuge tubes. One tube for each minute. This must be collected under
constant flow.
4. Measure and record the amount of solution collected each minute and measure and record the EC
for each sample. Measure and record the pH of the 10th collection.
5. At the end of the first leaching period, let the tube drain and stand for 5 minutes.
6. SLOWLY refill the percolation tube with the SECOND assigned solution leaving the tube open until
the aggregates are completely submerged. Filling the tube slowly will avoid air entrapment. Do not
jiggle or tap the tube as this will create a conductivity artifact.
7. Leach the soil column with the SECOND assigned solution under constant-head conditions for 10
minutes. Collect the leachate in centrifuge tubes. One tube for each minute. This must be collected
under constant flow.
8. Measure and record the amount of solution and the EC for each interval as you did in step
4. Measure and record the pH of the 10th sample. !!!!Make sure you use the SAME EC and pH
meter that you used in Step 4!!!!
9. Compute the cumulative solution collected for the total length of each leaching period.
10. Fill in the blank graphs with the EC and the Q.

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 Maintain ‘Constant Head’ of Reagent

One Piece of Crumpled Kimwipe

Saturated Soil Aggregates (NaCl or CaCl2)

½ Cotton Ball

Maximum Q = 15 ml min-1

Data Sheet

___________________________ Treatment
1 min 2 min 3 min 4 min 5 min 6 min 7 min 8 min 9 min 10 min
ml
collected
EC

Total Leachate Collected ___________ml

pH of #10 treatment leachate____________

Soil Salinity Classification after first treatment _________________________

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___________________________Reclamation Treatment

1 min 2 min 3 min 4 min 5 min 6 min 7 min 8 min 9 min 10 min
ml
collected
EC

Total Leachate Collected ___________ml

pH of #10 reclamation leachate____________

Soil Salinity Classification after Reclamation Treatment _________________________

___________________________Treatment Graph

EC ml
80 40
72 36
64 32
56 28
48 24
40 20
32 16
24 12
16 8
8 4
min 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

___________________________Reclamation Treatment Graph

EC ml
80 40
72 36
64 32
56 28
48 24
40 20
32 16
24 12
16 8
8 4
min 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

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