EARTHQUAKE

RISK-
Three main factors together determine seismic risks: three level of seismic hazards ,the
number of people and amount of property that are exposed to seismic hazards and how
vulnerable these people and property are to the hazards.

seismic hazards are sources of potential harm or loss during earthquakes, they can be
natural phenomena, they can also be elements of built environment.

Risk in our area= hazard +exposure vulnerability

SEISMIC CODES:-
 Seismic codes or earthquake codes are building codes designed to protect property
and life in buildings in case of earthquakes.
 India is one of the most disaster prone countries, vulnerable to almost all natural
and man made disasters.
 About 85% area is vulnerable to one or multiple disasters and about 57% area is in
high seismic zone including the capital of the country. Disaster prevention involves
engineering intervention in buildings and structures to make them strong enough to
withstand the impact of natural hazard or to impose restrictions on land use so that
the exposure of the society to the hazard situation is avoided or minimized. Seismic
code has been developed by the civil engineering division council.
FOCAL DEPTH-

The focal depth refers to the depth of an earthquake hypocenter.

DIAGRAM OF DIPPING SLAB WITH

DIFFERENT FOCAL DEPTH EVENTS.
MAGNITUDE

Magnitude of an Earthquake is a measure of earthquake size and is determined from the

logarithm of the maximum displacement or amplitude of the earthquake signal as seen on
the seismogram, with a correction for the distance between the focus and the seismometer.
This is necessary as the closer the seismometer is to the earthquake, the larger the
amplitude on the seismogram, irrespective of the size or magnitude of the event. Since the
measurement can be made from P, S or surface waves, several different scales exist, all of
which are logarithmic because of the large range of earthquake energies (for example a
magnitude 6 ML is 30 times larger, in terms of energy than a magnitude 5 ML). The Richter
local magnitude (ML) is defined to be used for 'local' earthquakes up to 600 km away, and is
the magnitude scale used by BGS when locating UK earthquakes.

Surface wave magnitude (Ms) is based on the maximum amplitude of the surface wave
having a period of 20 + 2 s. It is used for observations near the earthquake epicentre where
the surface wave is larger than the body wave. This scale applies to any epicentral distance
or type of seismograph.

Body wave magnitude (mb) is calculated from the body waves (P,PP,S) and are usually used
at larger distance from the earthquake epicentre (P-wave attenuation is less than surface
waves, with distance). It can be used for any earthquake of any depth.

Moment magnitude (Mw) is considered the best scale to use for larger earthquakes as the
Ms saturates at about magnitude 8. Moment magnitude is measured over the broad range
of frequencies present in the earthquake wave spectrum rather than the single frequency
sample that the other magnitude scales use.

For comparison purposes, a magnitude 5 ML earthquake is equivalent to the explosion of

1,000 tons of TNT whereas a magnitude 6 ML earthquake is the energy equivalent of 30,000
tons of TNT or a 30 kilotonne nuclear explosion.
::SOURCE: BRITISH GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
RITCHER SCALE

The Richter magnitude scale was developed in 1935 by Charles F. Richter of the
California Institute of Technology as a mathematical device to compare the size
of earthquakes. The magnitude of an earthquake is determined from the logarithm
of the amplitude of waves recorded by seismographs.

Richter used observations of earthquakes in California to determine a reference

event; the magnitude of an earthquake is calculated by comparing the maximum
amplitude of the signal with this reference event at a specific distance

The Richter Scale is logarithmic, that means that the amplitude of a magnitude 6
earthquake is ten times greater than a magnitude 5 earthquake.

How the Richter’s Magnitude Scale works. The amplitude is measured from the seismogram, as is the time difference
between the arrival of the P- and S-waves. A line connecting the two values on the graph gives the magnitude of the
earthquakes.
INTENSITY

Intensity is a measure of an earthquake determined from the observed effects,

especially damage.
For a given earthquake, intensity normally decreases with distance from the
epicentre.
The observations can then be compiled to make macroseismic maps showing lines
of equal intensity.
The Mercalli intensity scale is a seismic scale used for measuring the intensity of an
earthquake. It measures the effects of an earthquake, and is distinct from the
moment magnitude usually reported for an earthquake (sometimes misreported as
the Richter magnitude), which is a measure of the energy released.

100 Magnit
Magnit
Watt ude
ude
Bulb
Nea
r
Bright
(100
lumens)
Normal Intens
Intens
(50 lumens) Fa ity
ity
r
Dull
(20
lumens)
LANDSLIDE:-
 A landslide is a geological phenomenon that includes a wide range of ground movements.
 FORCE INVOLVED IN THE PROCESS-Although the action of gravity is the primary driving force
for a landslide to occur, there are other contributing factors affecting the original slope stability.
Typically, pre-conditional factors build up specific sub-surface conditions that make the area/slope
prone to failure, whereas the actual landslide often requires a trigger before being released.
 CAUSES OF LANDSLIDE-groundwater, Loss or absence of vertical vegetative structure, soil
nutrients, and soil structure, erosion, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions,
deforestation, cultivation and construction, which destabilize the already fragile slopes,
vibrations from machinery or traffic, blasting, earthwork .
 SOME STUCTURAL MEASURES TO BE ADOPTED FOR PROTECTION AGAINST LANDSLIDE-
i) Reinforcement measures-Reinforcement measures generally consist of the
introduction of metal elements which increase the shear strength of the rock and to
reduce the stress release created when the rock is cut.
ii) Shotcrete- shotcrete is mortar or concrete conveyed through a hose and pneumatically
projected at high velocity onto a surface. Shotcrete is also called spray-concrete.
iii) Drainage-The presence of water within a rocky hillside is one of the major factors leading to
instability. Knowledge of the water pressure and of the runoff mode is important to stability
analysis, and to planning measures to improve hillside stability.

Precautions taken for constructing building for slope

 Buildings should be sized and located to capitalize on views without negatively
impacting views from afar.
 The crest of the hill and the top of the slope, sometimes referred to as a .military
crest. may be used or created to preserve or enhance views.
 When views are from below, extreme care should be taken to avoid breaking the
crest of the hill with the tops of buildings

 If breaking the crest of the hill is unavoidable, retaining a screen of existing mature
trees throughout the new development will help to obscure the view.
 Buildings should fit into the existing grade and step down the slope rather than mass
grading for building and parking slabs.

 Building foundations can be used as retaining walls to further minimize

environmental impacts
 Terraced parking lots, small-scale frontage buildings, and rooftop parking are all
devices which may allow even a .big box. retailer to sit more comfortably on
Albemarle Countys hilly terrain

When earthquakes occur on areas with steep slopes, many times the soil slips causing
landslides. Furthermore, ashen debris flows caused by earthquakes can also trigger mass
 movement of soil. Heavy Rainfall: When sloped areas become completely saturated by
heavy rainfall many times landslides can occur.

BASE ISOLATION:-
 Base isolation, also known as seismic base isolation or base isolation system is one of the
most popular means of protecting a structure against earthquake forces.
 It is a collection of structural elements which should substantially decouple as Superstructure from
its substructure resting on a shaking ground thus protecting a building or non-building structure's
integrity.
 Some methods of base isolation are fixed base and spring method.
 Though the initial cost of base isolation method is high,it saves the post earthquake expenses.
Measures to make a masonry building, EQ resistant

(a) Ensure proper wall construction: The wall thickness should not exceed 450mm. Round
stone boulders should not be used in the construction. Instead, the stones should be shaped
using chisels and hammers. Use of mud mortar should be avoided in higher seismic zones.
Instead, cement-sand mortar should be 1:6 (or richer) and lime-sand mortar 1:3 (or richer)
should be used.

(b) Ensure proper bond in masonry courses: The masonry walls should be built in
construction lifts not exceeding 600mm. Through-stones (each extending over full thickness
of wall) or a pair of overlapping bond-stones (each extending over at least ¾ths thickness of
wall) must be used at every 600mm along the height and at a maximum spacing of 1.2m
along the length (Figure 3).

(c) Provide horizontal reinforcing elements: These bands can be constructed out of wood or
reinforced concrete.

(d) Control on overall dimensions and heights: The unsupported length of walls between
cross-walls should be limited to 5m for longer walls, cross supports raised from the ground
level called buttresses should be provided at spacing not more than 4m. The height of each
storey should not exceed 3.0m. In general, stone masonry buildings should not be taller than
2 storeys when built in cement mortar, and 1 storey when built in lime or mud mortar. The
wall should have a thickness of at least one-sixth its height.
RETROFITTING-
Retrofitting refers to the addition of new technology or features to older systems.
- power plant retrofit, improving power plant efficiency reducing emissions.
-home energy retrofit, the improving of existing buildings with energy efficiency equipment.
-seismic retrofit, the process of strengthening older buildings in order to make them
earthquake resistant.
RETROFITTING OF BUILDING DAMAGED BY EARTHQUAKE.
The general principles of retrofitting strategy and system which is applicable to non-
engineered as well as engineered buildings.Retrofit is done to improve the seismic
safety of existing buildings:
• retrofit buildings damaged during earthquakes
• retrofit to comply with new codes

SYSTEMATIC RETROFIT APPROACH:

1)Retrofit strategy:
A. Increasing stiffness and/or strength
B. Increasing ductility
C. Increasing energy dissipation
D. Modifying the character of the ground motion transmitted to
the building
E. Reducing occupancy exposure

2)Retrofit system:
A. Increasing stiffness and/or strength
A.i. addition of new walls
A.ii. Addition of braced frames
A.iii. Thickening of existing shear walls
A.iv. Carbon fiber reinforced plastic (cfrp)
A.v. providing bandage
A.vi. Jacketing
A.vii. Combination of the above
B. Increasing ductility
C. Increasing energy dissipation
D. Modifying the character of the ground motion transmitted to
The building
E. Non-structural components
F. Reducing occupancy exposure

MODIFYING THE CHARACTER OF THE GROUND MOTION TRANSMITTED TO

THE BUILDING.
Earthquake force that impact to the building will be reduced.Therefore the
displacement in the building will be decreased.
Usually base-isolation is applied to important buildings such as hospitals, main facilities
that must be fully functional after struck by earthquakes, and also historical buildings
that must be protected.

Reducing occupancy exposure

Example: the cost for retrofitting the damage office building to its original function is
high. Therefore, the building will be retrofitted to be a warehouse which has lower
performance criteria than the office building and the cost will be less than retrofitted
office building into its original function.
Retrofit system
A. Increasing stiffness and/or strength
A.i. addition of new walls

A.ii. Addition of braced frames

Materials used for retrofitting

Most common materials for damage repair works:
cement, steel frp
Most common materials for temporary supports:
Bamboo
Wood

Special material and techniques for repair, restore an

Strengthening operations:
Shotcrete
Epoxy resin & epoxy mortar
gypsum cement mortar
Quick setting cement mortar
mechanical anchors
Fibre reinforced polimer (frp)

SEISMIC RETROFITTING-

Seismic retrofitting is the modification of existing structures to make them more resistant
to seismic activity, ground motion, or soil failure due to earthquakes .or

With better understanding of seismic demand on structures and with our recent experiences
with large earthquakes near urban centers, the need of seismic retrofitting is well
acknowledge.) And late 1970s. Many structures were designed without adequate detailing
and reinforcement for seismic protection. In view of the imminent problem, various research
work has been carried out.

State-of-the-art technical guidelines for seismic assessment, retrofit and rehabilitation have
been published around the world - such as the asce-sei 41 and the new zealand society for
earthquake engineering (nzsee)'s guidelines. These codes must be regularly updated;
the 1994 northridge earthquake brought to light the brittleness of welded steel frames, for
example.

STRATEGIES-

Seismic retrofit (or rehabilitation) strategies have been developed in the past few decades
following the introduction of new seismic provisions and the availability of advanced
materials (e.g. Fiber-reinforced polymers (frp), fiber reinforced concrete and high strength
steel).

Performance objective

In the past, seismic retrofit was primarily applied to achieve public safety, with engineering
solutions limited by economic and political considerations. However, with the development
of performance based earthquake engineering (pbee), several levels of performance
objectives are gradually recognised:

 Public safety only. The goal is to protect human life, ensuring that the structure will
not collapse upon its occupants or passersby, and that the structure can be safely exited.
Under severe seismic conditions the structure may be a total economic write-off,
requiring tear-down and replacement.

 Structure survivability. The goal is that the structure, while remaining safe for exit,
may require extensive repair (but not replacement) before it is generally useful or
considered safe for occupation. This is typically the lowest level of retrofit applied to
bridges.

 Structure functionality. Primary structure undamaged and the structure is

undiminished in utility for its primary application. A high level of retrofit, this ensures
that any required repairs are only "cosmetic" - for example, minor cracks
in plaster, drywall and stucco. This is the minimum acceptable level of retrofit
for hospitals.

 Structure unaffected. This level of retrofit is preferred for historic structures of high
cultural significance.

Techniques-
1. External post-tensioning-

The use of external post-tensioning for new structural systems have been developed in the
past decade. Under the press (precast seismic structural systems), a large-scale u.s./japan
joint research program, unbonded post-tensioning high strength steel tendons have been
used to achieve a moment-resisting system that has self-centering capacity.

external post-tensioning
2. Supplementary dampers

Supplementary dampers absorb the energy of motion and convert it to heat, thus "damping"
resonant effects in structures that are rigidly attached to the ground.

3. Infill shear trusses

Shown here is an exterior shear reinforcement of a conventional reinforced concrete

dormitory building
4. Beam-column joint connections-
Beam-column joint connections are a common structural weakness in dealing with seismic
retrofitting

Corner joint steel reinforcement and high tensile strength rods with grouted anti-burst jacket
below

5. Massive exterior structure

In other circumstances, far greater reinforcement is required. In the structure shown at right
— a parking garage over shops — the placement, detailing, and painting of the
reinforcement becomes itself an architectural embellishment.
Some other techniques are-

o Tuned mass dampers

o Slosh tank

o Active Control System

o Adhoc Addition Of Structural Support/Reinforcement

 connections between buildings and their expansion additions

 exterior reinforcement of building

 exterior concrete columns

 infill shear trusses

 massive exterior structure

DESIGN CONSIDERATION FOR HIGH RISE BUILDING IN

EARTHQUAKE PRONE ZONE.
The aforementioned seismic measures are used to calculate forces
that earthquakes impose on buildings. Ground shaking (pushing
back and forth, sideways, up and down) generates internal forces
within buildings called the Inertial Force (FInertial), which in turn
causes most seismic damage.
FInertial = Mass (M) X Acceleration (A).

The greater the mass (weight of the building), the greater the
internal inertial forces generated. Lightweight construction with
less mass is typically an advantage in seismic design. Greater mass
generates greater lateral forces, thereby increasing the possibility
of columns being displaced, out of plumb, and/or buckling under
vertical load (P delta Effect).
Earthquakes generate waves that may be slow and long, or short
and abrupt. The length of a full cycle in seconds is the Period of the
wave and is the inverse of the Frequency. All objects, including
buildings, have a natural or fundamental period at which they vibrate
if jolted by a shock. The natural period is a primary consideration for
seismic design, although other aspects of the building design may
also contribute to a lesser degree to the mitigation measures. If the
period of the shock wave and the natural period of the building
coincide, then the building will "resonate" and its vibration will
increase or "amplify" several times.

Height is the main determinant of fundamental period—each object has its

own fundamental period at which it will vibrate. The period is
proportionate to the height of the building.

The soil also has a period varying between 0.4 and 1.5 sec., very
soft soil being 2.0 sec. Soft soils generally have a tendency to
increase shaking as much as 2 to 6 times as compared to rock. Also,
the period of the soil coinciding with the natural period of the
building can greatly amplify acceleration of the building and is
therefore a design consideration.

Tall buildings will undergo several modes of vibration, but for seismic
purposes (except for very tall buildings) the fundamental period, or first
mode is usually the most significant.

Seismic Design Factors

 The following factors affect and are affected by the design of the
building. It is important that the design team understands these
factors and deal with them prudently in the design phase.

Torsion: Objects and buildings have a center of mass, a point by

which the object (building) can be balanced without rotation
occurring. If the mass is uniformly distributed then the geometric
center of the floor and the center of mass may coincide. Uneven
mass distribution will position the center of mass outside of the
geometric center causing "torsion" generating stress
concentrations. A certain amount of torsion is unavoidable in every
building design. Symmetrical arrangement of masses, however, will
result in balanced stiffness against either direction and keep torsion
within a manageable range.
Damping: Buildings in general are poor resonators to dynamic shock
and dissipate vibration by absorbing it. Damping is a rate at which
natural vibration is absorbed.
Ductility: Ductility is the characteristic of a material (such as steel)
to bend, flex, or move, but fails only after considerable deformation
has occurred. Non-ductile materials (such as poorly reinforced
concrete) fail abruptly by crumbling. Good ductility can be achieved
with carefully detailed joints.
Strength and Stiffness: Strength is a property of a material to resist
and bear applied forces within a safe limit. Stiffness of a material is
a degree of resistance to deflection or drift (drift being a horizontal
story-to-story relative displacement).
Building Configuration: This term defines a building's size and shape,
and structural and nonstructural elements. Building configuration
determines the way seismic forces are distributed within the
structure, their relative magnitude, and problematic design
concerns.

 Regular Configuration buildings have Shear Walls or Moment-

Resistant Frames or Braced Frames and generally have:
o Low Height to Base Ratios
o Equal Floor Heights
o Symmetrical Plans
o Uniform Sections and Elevations
o Maximum Torsional Resistance
o Short Spans and Redundancy
o Direct Load Paths
 Irregular Configuration buildings are those that differ from the
"Regular" definition and have problematic stress concentrations and
torsion.

Irregular and Regular Building Configurations View enlarged illustration.

Buildings seldom overturn—they fall apart or "pancake"

Soft First Story is a discontinuity of strength and stiffness for lateral

load at the ground level.
Discontinuous Shear Walls do not line up consistently one upon the
other causing "soft" levels.
Variation in Perimeter Strength and Stiffness such as an open front on
the ground level usually causes eccentricity or torsion.
Reentrant Corners in the shapes of H, L, T, U, +, or [] develop stress
concentration at the reentrant corner and torsion. Seismic designs
should adequately separate reentrant corners or strengthen them.

SOFT STORY BUILDING

A soft story building is a multi-story building in which one or more floors have
windows, wide doors, large unobstructed commercial spaces, or other openings in
places where a shear wall would normally be required for stability as a matter
of earthquake engineering design. A typical soft story building is an apartment
building of three or more stories located over a ground level with large openings,
such as a parking garage or series of retail businesses with large windows.
Buildings are classified as having a "soft story" if that level is less than 70% as stiff
as the floor immediately above it, or less than 80% as stiff as the average stiffness of
the three floors above it. Soft story buildings are vulnerable to collapse in a moderate
to severe earthquake in a phenomenon known as soft story collapse. The
inadequately-braced level is relatively less resistant than surrounding floors to lateral
earthquake motion, so a disproportionate amount of the building's overall side-to-
side drift is focused on that floor. Subject to disproportionate lateral stress, and less
able to withstand the stress, the floor becomes a weak point that may suffer
structural damage or complete failure, which in turn results in the collapse of the
entire building.

DESIGN WITH SHEAR WALL:

What is a Shear Wall Building Reinforced concrete?

(RC) buildings often have vertical plate-like RC walls called Shear Walls (Figure 1) in addition
to slabs, beams and columns. These walls generally start at foundation level and are
continuous throughout the building height. Their thickness can be as low as 150mm, or as
high as 400mm in high rise buildings. Shear walls are usually provided along both length and
width of buildings (Figure 1). Shear walls are like vertically-oriented wide beams that carry
earthquake loads downwards to the foundation.

Advantages of Shear Walls in RC Buildings

Properly designed and detailed buildings with shear walls have shown very good
performance in past earthquakes. The overwhelming success of buildings with shear walls in
resisting strong earthquakes is summarised in the quote
Shear wall buildings are a popular choice in many earthquake prone countries, like Chile,
New Zealand and USA. Shear walls are easy to construct, because reinforcement detailing of
walls is relatively straight-forward and therefore easily implemented at site. Shear walls are
efficient, both in terms of construction cost and effectiveness in minimizing earthquake
damage in structural and non-structural elements (like glass windows and building contents).

Architectural Aspects of Shear Walls.

Most RC buildings with shear walls also have columns; these columns primarily carry gravity
loads (i.e., those due to self-weight and contents of building). Shear walls provide large
strength and stiffness to buildings in the direction of their orientation, which significantly
reduces lateral sway of the building and thereby reduces damage to structure and its
contents. Since shear walls carry large horizontal earthquake forces, the overturning effects
on them are large. Thus, design of their foundations requires special attention. Shear walls
should be provided along preferably both length and width. However, if they are
provided along only one direction, a proper grid of beams and columns in the vertical plane
(called a moment-resistant frame) must be provided along the other direction to resist
strong earthquake effects.

Door or window openings can be provided in shear walls, but their size must be small to
ensure least interruption to force flow through walls. Moreover, openings should be
symmetrically located. Special design checks are required to ensure that the net cross-
sectional area of a wall at an opening is sufficient to carry the horizontal earthquake force.

Shear walls in buildings must be symmetrically located in plan to reduce ill-effects of twist in
buildings (Figure 2). They could be placed symmetrically along one or both directions in plan.
Shear walls are more effective when located along exterior perimeter of the building - such a
layout increases resistance of the building to twisting.
Ductile Design of Shear Walls
Just like reinforced concrete (RC) beams and columns, RC shear walls also perform much
better if designed to be ductile. Overall geometric proportions of the wall, types and amount
of reinforcement, and connection with remaining elements in the building help in improving
the ductility of walls. The Indian Standard Ductile Detailing Code for RC members (IS:13920-
1993) provides special design guidelines for ductile detailing of shear walls.

Overall Geometry of Walls

Shear walls are oblong in cross-section, i.e., one dimension of the cross-section is much
larger than the other. While rectangular cross-section is common, L- and U-shaped sections
are also used (Figure 3). Thin-walled hollow RC shafts around the elevator core of buildings
also act as shear walls, and should be taken advantage of to resist earthquake forces.

Reinforcement Bars in RC Walls:

Steel reinforcing bars are to be provided in walls in regularly spaced vertical and horizontal
grids (Figure 4a). The vertical and horizontal reinforcement in the wall can be placed in one
or two parallel layers called curtains. Horizontal reinforcement needs to be anchored at the
ends of walls. The minimum area of reinforcing steel to be provided is 0.0025 times the
cross-sectional area, along each of the horizontal and vertical directions. This vertical
reinforcement should be distributed uniformly across the wall cross-section.

Boundary Elements:
Under the large overturning effects caused by horizontal earthquake forces, edges of shear
walls experience high compressive and tensile stresses. To ensure that shear walls behave in
a ductile way, concrete in the wall end regions must be reinforced in a special manner to
sustain these load reversals without loosing strength (Figure 4b). End regions of a wall with
increased confinement are called boundary elements. This special confining transverse
reinforcement in boundary elements is similar to that provided in columns of RC frames (See
IITK-BMTPC Earthquake Tip 19). Sometimes, the thickness of the shear wall in these
boundary elements is also

increased. RC walls with boundary elements have substantially higher bending strength and
horizontal shear force carrying capacity, and are therefore less susceptible to earthquake
damage than walls without boundary elements.

TERMS USED IN EQ CONSTRUCTION:

Repair

1. Patching up of defects as cracks and fall of plaster and re-plastering if needed,

2. Repairing doors, windows and replacement of glass panes,

3. Checking and repairing electrical connections, gas connections ,plumbing ,heating
,ventilation,

4. Rebuilding non -structural walls ,chimneys , boundary walls,

5. Relaying cracked flooring at ground level and roofing sheets or tiles.

Restoration

1. Removal of portions of cracked masonry walls and piers and rebuilding them in richer
mortar. Use of non -shrinking mortar will be preferable,

2. Addition of reinforcing mesh on both faces of the cracked wall, holding it to the wall
through spikes or bolts and then covering it suitably with micro-concrete ofr 1:3 cement –
coarse sand plaster,

3. Injecting net cement slurry like material , which is strong in tension into the cracks
in walls, columns, beams etc.

Retrofitting or seismic strengthening

1. Modification of roofs,

2. Substitution or strengthening of floors,

3. Modification in the building plan,

4. Strengthening of walls including provision of horizontal and vertical bands,

introduction of header stones in thick stone walls , and injection grouting etc,

5. Adding to the sections of beams and columns by casing etc,

6. Adding shear walls or diagonal bracings,

7. Strengthening of foundations if found necessary.

Earthquake risk management programme

Earthquake risk assessment encompasses the range of studies required to estimate the
likelihood and potential consequences of a specific set of earthquakes of different
magnitudes and intensities. Seismic scientists and engineers provide the key decision-makers
with a description of the nature of the earthquake risk in specific regions as well as the
degree of uncertainty surrounding such estimates.
Quantitative estimates of seismic risk are important for judging whether earthquakes
represent a substantial threat at any location as they enable objective weighting of
earthquake risk relative to other natural hazards and other priorities for making design and
retrofit decisions (NRC, 1996.)

4 major steps for earthquake risk management programme includes:

1. Hazard Analysis – quantifies the physical characteristics of a hazard, including probability

of occurrence, magnitude, intensity, location, influence of geological factors

2. Exposure Analysis – identifies and maps underlying elements at risk or exposures,

including the built environment and socioeconomic factors such as population and economic
activity

3. Vulnerability Analysis: Assesses the degree of susceptibility to which elements at risk are
exposed to the hazard. A common form of vulnerability analysis uses historical damage
records to prescribe relationships between damage to dwellings and hazard intensity, for
example different buildings and construction types will have distinct vulnerability curves,

4. Risk analysis synthesizes the above three components and determines the resulting losses
as a function of return period or as an exceedance probability

INITIATIVE TAKEN BY BMTPC IN DISASTER MITIGATION:

1. Making Vulnerability Atlas of India based on Past EQ records
2) Landslide Hazard Zonation Atlas Of India
3) Earthquake Tips: Mass Awareness Programme Though Vernacular Languages

4) Capacity building programme in gujrat

5) Awareness creation and strengthening disaster preparedness of communty level.
6) Dissenimation of disaster resistant construction technologies using innovative and cost
effective building materials.

7) RETROFITTING OF BUILDING (KUPWARA.JK HOSPITALS SCHOOLS ETC)

8) TOT PROGRAMME ON EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT DESIGN & CONTRUCTION

9) EARTHQOAKE HAZARD ZONNING ATLAS FOR NDMA

10) Guidelines/Manual In The Area Of Disaster Mitigation

11) Capacity Building And Skill Upgradation

12) The Building Material and Technology Promotion Council (BMTPC) was setup in 1990
under the Ministry of Housing & Urban Poverty Alleviation to bridge the gap between
laboratory research and field level application.