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PART 2
I
R
V
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DC CIRCUITS

I. CIRCUITS and NETWORKS

1. CIRCUITS

 a closed conducting path through which an electric current flows or is

intended to flow

a. Parameters
 the various elements of an electric circuit, like resistance, inductance, and
capacitance which may be lumped or distributed

b. Types:

Linear Circuit
 is one whose parameters are constant, i.e., they do not change with voltage
or current.

Non-Linear Circuit
 is that circuit whose parameters change with voltage or current.

Bilateral Circuit
 is one whose properties or characteristics are the same is either direction.

*The usual transmission line is bilateral; because it can be made to perform its
function equally well in either direction.

Unilateral Circuit
 is that circuit whose properties or characteristics change with the direction of
its operation.

*A diode rectifier is a unilateral circuit, because it cannot perform rectification in

both directions.

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2-2 DC CIRCUITS

2. ELECTRICAL NETWORK
 Connection of various electric elements in any manner.

a. Types
Passive Network
 With no source of emf.

Active Network
 Contains one or more than one sources of emf.

b. Parts
Node
 A junction in a circuit where two or more circuit elements and/or branches are
connected together.

Branch
 Part of a network which lies between two junctions.

Loop
 A closed path in a circuit in which no element or node is encountered more
than once.

Mesh
 A loop that contains no other loop within it.

3. OHM’s Law

 one of the most fundamental law in electrical circuits relating voltage, current
and resistance
 developed in 1827 by German physicist Georg Simon Ohm

CURRENT ( I )

LOAD( R )
SOURCE ( E )

 According to Ohms Law, the current (I) flowing in an electrical circuit is

directly proportional to the applied voltage (E) and inversely proportional to
the equivalent resistance(R) of the circuit and mathematically expressed as:
I= E
R

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DC CIRCUITS 2- 3

II. SERIES/ PARALLEL CIRCUITS

1. SERIES Circuits
 a circuit connection in which the components are connected to form one
conducting path

R1 R2 R3
RT = R1+R2+R3

ET =E1+E2+E3 I1 I2 I3

ET IT
IT = I1=I2=I3

PT =P1+P2+P3

Voltage Division for Series Circuit:

R 
Ex = ET  x 
R
 T 

Where: Ex - voltage across the resistor concerned

ET - total voltage across the circuit
Rx - the resistor concerned
RT - the sum of all resistances in the circuit

2. PARALLEL Circuit

 a circuit connection in which the components are connected to form more

than 1 conducting path

1
RT =
1 1 1
 
R1 R 2 R 3 IT I
I1 I2  I3 3

ET = E1 = E2 = E3 ET
R1 R2 R3

IT = I1 + I2 + I3
Resistors in
parallel
PT =P1+P2+P3

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2-4 DC CIRCUITS

Current Division for Parallel Circuit:

R 
Ix = IT  eq 
 RT 
 

Where: Ix - current concerned flowing through resistor Rx

IT - total current of the circuit
Req – equivalent resistance of the parallel circuit except Rx
RT – the sum of all the resistances in the circuit

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DC CIRCUITS 2- 5

III. NETWORK ANALYSIS

1. NETWORK LAWS and THEOREMS

a. Kirchoff’s Law

 more comprehensive than Ohm’s Law and is used in solving electrical

 termed as “Laws opf Electric Networks”
 formulated by German physicist Gustav Robert Kirchhoff

Kirchoff’s Current Law (KCL)

“In any electrical network, the algebraic sum of the current meeting at a point (or
junction) is zero.”

N
 In =0
n1

Where In – is the nth current entering the node

N – the number of currents at the node
 In short the sum of currents entering a node equals to sum of currents
leaving the node
 In using KCL, we usually use the following conventions
- Current towards the node, positive current
- Current away from the node, negative current

IT
NODE !

I
I1 I2  I3 3

ET
R1 R2 R3

NODE 2

At NODE 1: IT - I1 - I2 - I3 = 0

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2-6 DC CIRCUITS

At NODE 2: I1 + I2 + I3 - IT = 0

Kirchoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)

“The algebraic sum of the products of currents and resistances in each of the
conductors in any closed path (or mesh) in a network PLUS the algebraic sum of
the emfs in that path is zero.”

N
 Vn =0
n1

Where: Vn – the nth voltage in a loop

N - the number of voltages in a loop

 In short, the sum of the voltages around the loop is equal to zero
 In using KVL, we use the following conventions:
- For voltage sources, if loops enters on minus and goes out on plus,
positive voltage and if loops enters on plus and goes out on minus,
negative voltage
- For voltage drops, if the loop direction is the same as the current
direction, negative voltage drop and if the loop direction is opposite
to the current direction, positive voltage drop.

For LOOP 1: ET – V1 – V2 – V3 = 0

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DC CIRCUITS 2- 7

b. Mesh Analysis

 A sophisticated application of KVL with mesh currents.

Mesh Currents
 An assumed current, which are preferably to flow clockwise around the
meshes.

In mesh equations:
 “Self-resistances” terms always have (+) sign because the PRINCIPAL mesh
currents flow through them.

 “Mutual-resistances” terms always have (-) sign because the OTHER mesh
current always flow through the mutual resistors in direction opposite to those
of the principal mesh currents.

 The voltage of an emf source has a (+) if the voltage AIDS the flow of
principal mesh currents (i.e., if this current flows out of the positive terminal)
because this aiding is equivalent to voltage rise.

 *The number of mesh equations equals the number of meshes!

c. Nodal Analysis

 A systematic application of KCL at a node and after simplifying the resulting

KCL equation, the node voltage can be calculated.
 Consist of finding the node voltages at all principal nodes with respect to the
reference node.

Principal Node
 A node with three or more circuit elements joined together.

Reference Node
 The node from which the unknown voltages are measured

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2-8 DC CIRCUITS

d. Superposition Theorem

“The current through, or voltage across, an element in a linear bilateral network is

equal to the algebraic sum of the current or voltages produced independently in
each source.”

In general:
 Number of network to analyze is equal to number of Independent Sources.
 To consider effects of each source independently, sources must be removed
and replaced without affecting the final result:

All voltage sources >> short circuited

All current sources >> open circuited

Sample Problem
On the following circuit, determine the current flowing through the 10K ohm
resistor using the Superposition Theorem:

Guide to Solution:
 I10 – current due to E and I
 Short circuit the voltage source and compute for the current flowing
through 10 K in the influence of the I
and termed as Ix
 Open the current source and compute for the current through 10 K in the
influence of 10 Volts and termed as Iy
 I10 = Ix + Iy

 Superposition is not applicable to power effects since the power loss in a resistor
varies as the square (non-linear) of the current or voltage.

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DC CIRCUITS 2- 9

e. Compensation Theorem

 as applied to DC circuits:
 Any resistance R in a branch of a network in which current I is flowing can be
replaced, for the purposes of calculations, by a voltage equal to IR, or
 If the resistance of any branch of a network is changed from R to (R + R)
where the current flowing originally is 1, the change of current at any other
place in the network may be calculated by assuming than an emf of –1 (R)
has been injected into the modified branch while other sources have their
emfs suppressed and are represented by their internal resistance only.

f. Reciprocity Theorem

“In any linear-bilateral network if a source of emf, E in any branch produces a

current I in any other branch, then the same emf, E acting in the second branch
would produce the same current I in the first branch.

Simply mean,
 E and I are mutually transferable, or
 The receiving point and the sending point in a network are interchangeable,
or
 Interchange of an IDEAL voltage source and an IDEAL ammeter in any
network will not change the ammeter reading,
 Interchange of an IDEAL current source and an IDEAL voltmeter in any
network will not change the voltmeter reading.

g. Millman’s Theorem

“A special case of the application of Thevenin’s Theorem/or Norton’s Theorem

used for finding the COMMON voltage (VAB) across any network which contains a
number of parallel voltage sources”.

 In Millman's Theorem, the circuit is re-drawn as a parallel network of

branches, each branch containing a resistor or series battery/resistor
combination.
 Millman's Theorem is applicable only to those circuits which can be re-drawn
accordingly. Here again is our example circuit used for the last two analysis
methods

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2-10 DC CIRCUITS

Review Question
Using Millman’s Theorem, solve for the Branch voltages

Guide to Solution:
 Used the Millman’s Theorem equation:

h. Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

 For loads connected directly to a DC voltage supply, maximum power will be

delivered to the load when the resistance is equal to the internal resistance of
the source.

 For maximum power transfer : Rs = Rl

Review Question
A battery source rated 12 volts has an internal resistance of 25 ohms, what is the
expected load impedance to attain maximum power transfer?

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DC CIRCUITS 2- 11

Solution:
By condition: Rl = Rs therefore Rl = 25 ohms
Applications
 To obtain maximum power output from several types of power amplifier load
must match the output resistance of the associated components.
 Maximum power is delivered to an antenna circuit when the impedance of
the antenna is made to match that of the transmission line that feeds the
antenna.

i. Thevenin’s Theorem

“Any two-terminal of a linear, active bilateral network of fixed resistances and

voltage source/s may be replaced by a single voltage source (ETH) and a series
internal resistance (RTH)”.
 Formulated by Charles Leon Thevenin (1857-1926)

SUPPLYING RTH LOAD

LOAD VTH
NETWORK

THEVENIN’s EQUIVALENT Circuit

VTH
 The open circuit voltage (Voc) which appears across the two terminals from
where the load resistance (RL) has been removed.
RTH
 The resistance looking back into the network across the two terminals with all
the voltage sources shorted and replaced by their internal resistances (if any)
and all the current sources by infinite resistance.

j. Norton’s Theorem

“Any two terminal active network containing voltage sources and resistances
when viewed from its output terminals, is equivalent to a constant-current source (IN)
and a parallel internal resistance (RN)”.

SUPPLYING LOAD
LOAD IN RN
NETWORK

NORTON’s EQUIVALENT Circuit

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2-12 DC CIRCUITS

IN
 The current which would flow in a short circuit placed across the output
terminals.
RN
 The resistances of the network when viewed from the open-circuited
terminals after all voltage sources being replaced by open-circuits.

Thevenin – Norton Transformation

RTH
VTH IN
RN

THEVENINs – NORTONs
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

VTH
IN = RN = RTH
R TH

Norton – Thevenin Transformation

RTH
IN VTH
RN

NORTONs – THEVENINs
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

VTH = INRN RTH = RN

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DC CIRCUITS 2- 13

2. Equivalent Three-Terminal Networks

X Y

A C
Z

Delta and Wye Circuits

Delta to Wye
 the equivalent resistance of each arm of the wye is given by the PRODUCT
of the two delta sides that meet at its end divided by the SUM of the three
delta resistances

AB BC AC
X= Y= Z=
ABC ABC ABC

Wye to Delta
 The equivalent delta resistance between any two terminals is given by the
SUM of star resistance between those terminals PLUS the PRODUCT of
these two star resistances DIVIDED by third resistance.

XY  YZ  ZX XY  YZ  ZX XY  YZ  ZX
A= B= C=
Y Z X

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2-14 DC CIRCUITS

TEST YOURSELF 2
Review Questions

1. A battery with a rating of 9 volts has an internal resistance of 20 ohms, what is the expected
resistance of the bulb that is connected across the battery to attain a maximum power transfer?
a. 20 ohms
b. 10 ohms
c. 5 ohms
d. 2 ohms

Answer a. 20 ohms
Condition
For maximum power transfer, Rsource = Rload

2. In a series circuit of 2 resistors 2200 and 4500 with an impressed voltage of 10, what is the
circuit current in mA? (November, 2005)
a. 1.49
b. 6.76
c. 4.34
d. 1.34

Answer a. 1.49
Solution
10 10
I=   1.493 x103
2200  4500 6700

3. The current needed to operate a soldering iron which has a rating of 600 watts at 110 volts is.
a. 5.455 A
b. 66,000 A
c. 18200 A
d. 0.182 A

Answer a. 5.455 A
Solution
P 600
I=   5.4545
V 110

4. The ammeter reads 230 amperes while the voltmeter is 115 volts. What is the power in KW at
the time of reading (April, 2004)
a. 264.5
b. 2645
c. 264500
d. 26.45

Answer d. 26.45

Solution
P = VI = 115x230 = 26450 Watts = 26.45 KW

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DC CIRCUITS 2- 15

5. What type of circuit whose parameters are constant which do not change with voltage or
current?
a. lumped
b. tuned
c. reactive
d. Linear

Answer d. Linear

6. What is the total resistance of two equal valued resistors is series?

a. twice as one
b. the sum of their reciprocal
c. the difference of both
d. the product of both

Answer a. twice as one

7. What do you expect when you use two 20 kohms, 1 watt resistor in parallel instead of one 10
kohms, 1 watt?
a. provide more power
b. provide lighter current
c. provide less power
d. provide wider tolerance

Answer a. provides more power

8. The voltage applied in DC circuit having a power of 36 watts and a total resistance of 4 ohms.
a. 6 V
b. 9 V
c. 12 V
d. 24 V

Answer c. 12 V
Solution
V2
P=
R
V= PR = 36x4  12

9. When resistors are connected in series, what happens?

a. the effective resistance is decreased
b. nothing
c. the tolerance is decreased
d. the effective resistance is increased

Answer d. the effective resistance is increased

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2-16 DC CIRCUITS

10. Find the Thevenin’s impedance equivalent across R2 of a linear close circuit having 10-V
supply in series with resistors (R1 =100 ohms and R2 = 200 ohms (November, 1997)
a. 666 ohms
b. 6.66 ohms
c. 66.6 ohms
d. 6.66 ohms

Answer c. 66.6 ohms

Solution
R1R2 100 x200
RTH =   66.667
R1  R2 100  200

11. How much power does electronic equipment consume, assuming a 5.5 A current flowing and a
120-V power source (November, 1997)
a. 60 W
b. 66 W
c. 660 W
d. 125.5 W

Answer c. 660 W
Solution
P = VI = 120x5.5 = 660 W

12. How many nodes are needed to completely analyze a circuit according to Kirchoffs Current Law
(April, 1998)
a. One
b. Two
c. All nodes in the circuit
d. One less than the total number of nodes in the circuit

Answer d. One less than the total number of nodes in the circuit

13. A common connection between circuit elements or conductors from different branches.
a. Node
b. Junction
c. Ground
d. Mesh

Answer b. Junction

14. It is used to denote a common electrical point of zero potential (April, 2004)
a. Short circuit
b. Reference point
c. Open circuit
d. Ground

Answer d. Ground

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DC CIRCUITS 2- 17
15. Loop currents should be assumed to flow in which direction? (April, 1998)
a. Straight
b. clockwise
c. counterclockwise
d. either b or c

Answer d. either b or c

16. In mesh analysis, we apply:

a. KCL
b. KVL
c. Source transformation
d. Millman’s Theorem

Answer b. KVL

17. Which of the following is not a valid expression of Ohms Law (November, 1999)
a. R =PI
b. E =IR
c. I = E/R
d. R = E/I

Answer a. R = PI

18. Using Ohms Law, what happens to the circuit current if the applied voltage increases? (April,
2004)
a. Current doubles
b. Current increases
c. Current remains constant
d. Current decreases

Answer b. Current increases

19. According to Ohm’s Law, what happens to the circuit current if the circuit resistance increases?
(April, 2005)
a. Current doubles
b. Current decreases
c. Current increases
d. Current remains constant

Answer b. Current decreases

20. If the resistance of a circuit is doubled and the applied voltage is kept constant, the current will
be________ (April, 2005)
a. Be quadrupled
b. Remains the same
c. Be cut in half
d. Be doubled

Answer c. Be cut in half

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N
=

2
n
2

2-18 DC CIRCUITS

21. It is an electrical current that flows in one direction only? (April, 2005)
a. Normal current
b. Alternating current
c. Direct current
d. Eddy current

Answer c. Direct current

22. In Ohms law, what is E/R? (November, 2005)

a. Amperage
b. Voltage
c. Resistance
d. Power

Answer a. Amperage

23. A 33-kohm resistor is connected in series with a parallel combination made up of 56-kohm
resistor and a 7.8-kohm resistor. What is the total combined resistance of the three resistors?
(November, 1999)
a. 39067 ohms
b. 49069 ohms
c. 63769 ohms
d. 95000 ohms

Answer a. 39067 ohms

Solution
56Kx7.8K
Rtotal = 33K +  39.067Kohms
56K  7.8K

24. Which of the following cannot be included in a loop of Kirchhoff’s Voltage law (April, 2004)
a. Current sources
b. Voltage sources
c. Resistance
d. Reactance

Answer a. Current sources

25. A series connected circuit consists of 3 loads and consume a total power of 50 Watts. It was
reconfigured such that 2 are in parallel and the other load is in series with the combination. What is
the expected power to be consumed then?
a. 50 Watts
b. 25 Watts
c 75 watts
d. 45 watts

Answer a. 50 Watts
Condition
Power is additive in any configuration of load whether in series or in parallel
Ptotal = 50 Watts

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