CHAPTER

2
Basic Terminology and Interrelations

2.1 PHASES IN SOILS

If any volume of soil mass is considered, it comprises in general of three phases, viz., solids
(mineral particles), air (gas) and liquid (water), as shown in Fig. 2.1.

Fully Completely Partially

saturated dry saturated
Ma
VW Vv Va Vv
VW

Fig. 2.1 Multiphase soil model.

A soil mass, if fully saturated, will be a two-phase system of solid soil grains and pore water.
If completely dry, it will also be a two-phased system comprising solid soil grains and pore
air. A partially saturated soil will, however, be three-phase system, comprising solid soil grains,
water and air. Typical two- and three-phase diagrams are shown in Fig. 2.2.

Fully Completely Partially

saturated dry saturated Mass Weight
Ma = 0 Wa = 0
VW Vv Va Vv
VW MW MW M × r
w w

V M W = Mg
VS VS VS MS Ws = Msg

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 2.2 Two-phase diagrams (a) and (b) for fully saturated and completely dry soils
(c) three-phase diagram for partially saturated soil.
22 Geotechnical Engineering

h e
e = _____ also h = _____
1–h 1+e
WW
(MC)w = ____
WS

W Ws(1 + w)
and Unit Weight g = __ = _________
V V
WS g
dry unit weight gd = ___ = _____
V 1+w

Air Va

Vv
Total Total
Water
weight volume Ww Vw V
gw
=W V

Solid
Ws Vs
Gsgw

Fig. 2.3

2.3 UNIT WT., VOID RATIO, MC AND SP. GRAVITY RELATIONSHIP

Wt. of soil solids, WS = Gsgw where GS = Sp. gravity of soil solids
Wt. of water = w WS = wGsgw w = Moisture content
gw = unit wt. of water

Fig. 2.4
24 Geotechnical Engineering

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES
Example 2.1 The bulk density of a soil sample is 1.90 gm/cc. The moisture content is 15%.
The specific gravity of the soil particles is 2.61. Calculate the dry unit weight, dry density, void
ratio, porosity and degree of saturation.
Total mass M
Solution: Bulk density r = ___________ = __ = 1.9 gm/cc
Total volume V

Ww + Ws Ww
Bulk unit weight g = ________; w = ___ × 100
V Ws

\
( w
Ws 1 + ____
100 ) V×g
g = ___________ or Ws = _________
V
(
w
1 + ____
100 )
Ws V×g g r×g 1.9 × 9.8
Dry unit weight, gd = ___ = ___________ = _______
w =
_______
w =
________ = 16.2 kN/m3
V
(
1+
w
____
100
V 1+) ____
100
1+ ____
100
15
1 + ____
100

V×r
Dry density rd = Ms/V; M/V = 1.9, M = 1.9 V, Ms = __________
w
(
1 + ____ V
100 )
1.9 V 1.9
= __________ = ____ = 1.65 gm/cc
(
1+
w
____
100
V )1.15

Consider 1 cc of soil (V = 1), Vs = 1.65/Gs = 1.65/2.61 = 0.63 cc

Vv = 1 – 0.63 = 0.37 cc
c = Vv /Vs = 0.37/0.63 = 0.59
Vv
n = ___ = 0.37/1.00 = 0.37
V
Mass of water in 1 cc of soil = 1.90 – 1.65 = 0.25 gm
0.25
Degree of saturation = Vw /Vv = 100 × ____ = 67.6%.
0.37
Example 2.2 If a soil has a void ratio of 0.7 and a specific gravity of 2.72, calculate the
following:
(a) Dry unit weight (b) Saturated unit weight
(c) Submerged unit weight
Also compute the unit weight and water content at a degree of saturation of 75%.
 Basic Terminology and Interrelations 25

Solution: e = 0.7; Gs = 2.72

Gsgw 2.72 × 9.8
(a) Dry unit weight gd = _____ = _________ = 15.68 kN/m3
1+e 1 + 0.7
Gs + e
(b) Saturated unit weight gsat = ______ gw; S = 1
1+e
2.72 + 0.7
gsat = _________ × 9.8 = 19.7 kN/m3
1 + 0.7
Gs – 1
(c) Submerged (or buoyant) unit weight g = ______ × gw
1+e
2.72 – 1
g = _______ × 9.8 = 9.91 kN/m3
1 + 0.7
Gs + Sr × e
g = _________ gw
1+e

2.72 + (0.75 × 0.70) 2.72 + 0.525

At Sr = 0.75, g = _________________ × 9.8 = ___________ × 9.8
1 + 0.70 1.70
3.245 × 9.8
= __________ = 18.7 kN/m3
1.70
Since w Gs = Sre
0.75 × 0.70
w × 2.72 = 0.75 × 0.70 \ w = __________ = 19.3%
2.72

Example 2.3 A cylindrical soil specimen having a volume of 86.15 cm3 weighs 168.0 gm in its
natural condition. When dried completely in an oven, the specimen weighs 130.5 gm. The value
of Gs is 2.73. What is the degree of saturation of the specimen?
Solution: W = 168.0 gm, Ws = 130.5 gm
Water content w = Ww /Ws = (168.0 – 130.5)/130.5 = 37.5/130.5 = 0.287 or 28.7%
Gs = Ws /Vs i.e., 2.73 = 130.5/Vs or Vs = 47.8 cm3
Vv = V – V s
Vv = 86.1 – 47.8 = 38.3 cm3
Void ratio e = Vv /Vs = 38.3/47.8 = 0.80
Now Sr e = wGs
Sr × 0.8 = 0.287 × 2.73
or Sr = 0.979
i.e., degree of saturation of the soil sample = 97.9%
26 Geotechnical Engineering

Example 2.4 An attempt was made to determine the water content of a given moist soil of
known specific gravity, using a pycnometer. The usual laboratory procedure for specific gravity
determination of dry soil is done on the wet soil.
Following are the observations:
Mass of pycnometer (M1) = 545 g
Mass of pycnometer with moist soil (M2) = 790 g
Mass of pycnometer with soil and water (M3) = 1540 g
Mass of pycnometer and water (M4) = 1415 g
Specific gravity of soil grains = 2.67
Determine the water content of the soil from the first principles
Solution: Consider the two-phase diagrams shown in Fig. 2.5 representing the observations.

Water Water

Mw Water

Ms Soil solids Water Vw = V s

(a) Mass M1 (b) Mass M4

Fig. 2.5

Thus,
M3 – M4 = Ms – (mass of an equal volume of water)
Ms
( )
= Ms – ____ rw
Grw ( Ms
Vs = ___ = Vw
rs )
)
G–1
(
= Ms _____
G

M = (M – M ) ( _____ )
G
\ s 3 4
G–1
(M2 – M1) – Ms
and w = _____________ × 100
Ms
Substituting the respective values
2.67
Ms = (1540 – 1415) _________ = 199.85 g
(2.67 – 1)
 Basic Terminology and Interrelations 27

(790 – 545) – 199.85

and w = __________________ × 100 = 22.6%
199.85
Example 2.5 The bulk unit weight of a soil is 19.10 kN/m3, the water content is 12.5% and
the specific gravity of soil solids 2.67. Determine the dry unit weight, void ratio, porosity and
degree of saturation.
g 19.1
Solution: gd = _____ = _______ = 16.98 kN/m3
1+w 12.5
1 + ____
100
G gw
gd = _____
1+e
G gw 2.67 × 9.81
\ e = ____ – 1 = __________ – 1 = 0.54
gd 16.98
e 0.54
\ n = _____ × 100 = _______ × 100 = 35.07%
1+e 1 + 0.54
wG 2.67
12.5 ____
and Sr = ___ ____
e × 100 = 100 × 0.54 × 100 = 61.8%
Example 2.6 How many cubic metres of fill can be constructed at a void ratio of 0.65 from
2,21,000 m3 of borrow material that has a void ratio of 1.25?
Solution: Let eb and ef be the void ratios of the borrow material and the fill, respectively. Also
let Vvb and Vvf be the volume of voids in the borrow and the fill, respectively. As the same number
of soil grains obtained from the borrow are used in the fill, the volume of soil solids is same in
both the cases.
From Fig. 2.6

Voids Vvb
Voids Vvf
Vb
Vf
Soil solids Vs Soil solids Vs

(a) Borrow (b) Fill

Fig. 2.6

Vvb Vvf
eb = ___ and ef = ___
Vs Vs

\ Vvb = eb Vs and Vvf = ef Vs

28 Geotechnical Engineering

Total volume of soil in the borrow = Vb = Vvb + Vs

i.e., Vb = eb Vs + Vs = (1 + eb) Vs
Vb
Vs = _____
1 + eb

Total volume of soil in the fill = Vf = (1 + ef) Vs

Substituting for Vs
Vb 1 + 0.65
Vf = (1 + ef) _____ = _______ × 221000 = 162066.7 m3
1 + eb 1 + 1.25
Example 2.7 For a stable packing of regular spheres at the minimum
density, find the void ratio and the dry unit weight. Unit weight of soil
solids is 25 kN/m3.
Solution: Let D be the diameter of each sphere.
pD3
Volume of each sphere = ____
6
For the arrangement in Fig. 2.7 the density will be minimum
Total volume = 2D × 2D × D = 4 D3 Fig. 2.7

4D3 – 4 × p D3/6 1______ –p

– p/6 6_____
\ e = ______________ = = p = 0.91
3
4 × p D /6 p/6

Ms Vs gs 4 × p D3/6 × gs ___
p gs p______
× 25
Also gd = ___ g = ____ = ____________ = =
V V 4D 3 6 6
or gd = 13.09 kN/m3

Example 2.8 In order to determine the in-place density of a highway subgrade, the sand bottle
method was adopted. The mass of soil extracted from a hole at the surface was 4.87 kg. The
hole was then filled with sand from the sand bottle and found to have a mass of 3.86 kg. While
calibrating the sand bottle, to fill a container of volume 0.0048 m3 a mass of 6.82 kg of sand
was needed. In moisture content determination, 28.26 g of the moist soil weighed 22.2 g after
oven drying. If the specific gravity of the soil was 2.67, determine the bulk and dry densities of
the soil and the degree of saturation of the soil.

6.82
Solution: Density of sand in sand bottle = ______ = 1420.8 kg/m3
0.0048

= 1.42 Mg/m3

3.86
Volume of the hole = ______ = 0.00272 m3
1420.8
 Basic Terminology and Interrelations 29

4.87
Bulk density = _______ = 1790.4 kg/m3 = 1.79 mg/m3
0.00272
28.26 – 22.2
Water content = ___________ × 100 = 27.3%
22.2
1790.4
Dry density = _______ = 1406.4 kg/m3 = 1.41 mg/m3
27.3
1 + ____
100
Grw 2.67 × 1000
e = ____ –1 = __________ – 1 = 0.899
rd 1406.4
wG 2.67
27.3 _____
Sr = ___ ____
e × 100 = 100 × 0.899 × 100 = 81.08%
Example 2.9 A fully saturated soil sample was extracted during an oil well drilling. The wet
mass of the sample was 3.15 kg and the volume of the sampling tube was 0.001664 m3. After
analysis the soil sample was found to contain 28.2% of the liquid as kerosene and the dry mass
as 2.67 kg. The specific gravity of soil grains was 2.68. Determine the bulk density, void ratio,
and water content of the sample.
3.15
Solution: Bulk density = ________ = 1893 kg/m3 = 1.89 mg/m3
0.001664
2.67
Volume of soil grains = __________ = 0.000996 m3
2.68 × 1000
Volume of voids = 0.001664 – 0.000996 = 0.000668 m3
0.000668
\ e = ________ = 0.67
0.000996
As the soil was fully saturated,
Volume of liquid = volume of voids = 0.000668 m3
Volume of water = (1 – 0.282) × 0.000668 = 0.00048 m3
Mass of water = 0.48 kg
0.48
Water content = ____ × 100 = 17.98%
2.67

Exercise

1. A soil sample whose water content is 20% has a bulk density of 2.16 gm/cc. The sample
undergoes air drying with significant change in void ratio. What is the water content of
this sample when its bulk density is reduced to 2.0 gm/cc. (Ans. = 11.11%)