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information: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/tsed20 An exploratory study on students' problem-solving ability in 
earth science Chun-Yen Chang & Yu-Hua Weng Taipei Published online: 26 Nov 2010. 
To cite this article: Chun-Yen Chang & Yu-Hua Weng Taipei (2002) An exploratory study on students' 
problem-solving ability in earth science, International Journal of Science Education, 24:5, 441-451, DOI: 
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, 2002, 
VOL. 
24, 
NO 
. 5, 441–451 
INT. J. SCI. EDUC. 

An exploratory study on students’ problem-solving ability in earth science 

Chun-Yen  Chang,  Department  of  Earth  Sciences,  National  Taiwan  Normal  University,  Taipei  11650 
Taiwan,  R.O.C.;  e-mail:  changcy@cc.ntnu.edu.tw,  and  Yu-Hua  Weng,  Taipei Municipal His Sung Senior 
High School, Taipei 105, Taiwan, R.O.C.; e-mail: judge567@ms22.hinet.net 
In  this  paper,  we  explore  the  interrelationship  between  students’  problem-solving  ability  and  their  science-process  skills  in  the 
area  of  earth  science.  Participants  were  195  earth  science  students  enrolled  in  four  science classes at four senior high schools in 
Taipei  City  and  the  County  of  Taiwan.  Statistical  analyses  indicated  that  a  significantly  moderate  correlation  existed  between 
students’  problem-solving  ability  and  their  science  process  skills.  Results  of t-test also revealed that there were significant mean 
differences  in  students’  skills  of  observation,  data  interpretation,  and  hypothesis  formulation  between  higher-level  and 
lower-level  problem  solvers.  Semi-structured  interviews  revealed  that  the  higher-level  problem  solver  performed  better  on  the 
problem-solving processes than the lower-level problem solver. 
Introduction 
Developing  and  enhancing  problem-solving  ability  and  science-process  skills  of  students  have long been important 
objectives  of  science  education.  Recent  science  education  standards  in  the  USA  propose,  ‘Teaching  must  involve 
students  in  inquiry-oriented  investigations  in  which  they  interact  with  their  teachers  and  peers....they apply science 
content  to  new  questions;  they  engage in problem solving, planning, decision making, and group discussions’ (NRC 
1996:  20).  Problem-solving  ability  is  generally viewed as the ability to think critically, to reason analytically, and to 
create  productively,  which  all  involve  quantitative,  communication,  manual,  and  critical-response  skills  (AAAS 
1993).  Science-pro-  cess  skills  usually  refer  to  two  types  –  basic  and  integrated  process  skills.  The  basic  skills 
include  observing,  classifying,  measuring, using space/time relations, using numbers, communicating, inferring, and 
predicting.  The  integrated  skills  encom-  pass  interpreting  data,  formulating  hypotheses,  estimating,  controlling 
variables, experimenting and defining problems operationally (AAAS 1967). 
It  is  interesting  to  find  that  problem-solving ability and science-process skills have been closely tied together in 
the  research  literature.  To  be  successful  in  problem  solving,  it  appears  that  students need to have some background 
knowl-  edge  and  to  possess  certain science-process skills. Accordingly, some researchers have suggested improving 
students’  problem-solving  ability  through  teaching  science-process  skills  (Germann  1991),  or  vice  versa  (Geban  et 
al. 1992, Holley 1996a, 1996b). Others have also suggested employing different modes of problem- 
International Journal of Science Education ISSN 0950–0693 print/ISSN 1464–5289 online © 2002 Taylor & Francis Ltd 
http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals DOI: 10.1080/09500690110066502 
 
442 
C.-Y. CHANG AND Y.-H. WENG 
solving  associated  instruction  to  improve  students’  creative/critical  thinking,  prob-  lem-solving  ability, 
science-process  skills  or  earth  science  achievement  (Tobin  and  Capie  1982,  Germann  1989,  Basaga  et  al.  1994, 
Chang and Barufaldi 1999, Chang and Mao 1999, Chang 2001a, 2001b). 
Champagne  and  Klopfer  (1981)  assessed  the  relative  contribution  of  knowl-  edge  and  process  to 
problem-solving  and  processing  skills. Both contribute more to the successful solution of set-member problems than 
to  the  solution  of  analo-  gous  problems.  They  also  found  that  the  students  with  higher  processing  skills  on 
structuring  tasks  would  score  higher  on  set-member  problems  in physical geology than those with lower processing 
skills.  Tamir  and  Amir  (1987)  have  also  inves-  tigated  the  interrelationships  among  21  laboratory  process  skills  in 
biology.  They  found  both  association  as  well  as  dissociation  among these process skills. Bowen and Bodner (1991) 
investigated  different  phases  of  problem-solving  processes  used  by  graduate  students  to  solve  problems  in  organic 
chemistry.  They  found  that  the  verbal  and  pictorial  systems  are  prevalent  in  all  three  phases  of  problem-solving. 
Geban  et  al.  (1992)  investigated  the  effects  of  computer-simulated  experiments  (CSE),  problem-solving,  and 
conventional  instructional  method  on  high  school  students’  chemistry  achievement,  science  process  skills,  and 
attitudes  toward  chemistry.  The  results  indicated  that  CSE  and  problem-solving  produced  greater  achievement  in 
chemistry  and  science  process  skills  than  the traditional teaching method. Ault (1994) pointed out that earth science 
curriculum  developers  ‘assumed  that  emphasis  on  inquiry  processes  in  the  curriculum  would  promote  problem 
solving’  (Ault  1994:  270).  Research  implicitly  suggests  that  problem-solv-  ing  ability  be  intertwined  with 
science-process  skills.  However,  the  relationships  between  these  two  have  not been explored in greater depth in the 
area of science education. 
Earth  science  is a unique science subject matter in terms of its interdisciplin- ary, integrated and practical nature 
among  different  science  disciplines.  As  Aldridge  (1993)  stated,  ‘In  a  very  real  sense,  the  life  and  Earth  science 
constitute  natural  application  of  fundamental  concepts,  principles,  and  laws  of  science,  most  of  which  appear  in 
physics  and  chemistry’  (Aldridge  1993:  32).  Mayer  (1995)  called  for  an  integrated  science  curriculum  building 
around  a  unifying  theme,  the  earth  system,  to  better  prepare  future  citizens  with  the  understanding  of  our  planet. 
Earth  system  science  is  emerging as a progressively important science discipline because of increasing awareness of 
the  world’s  deteriorating  land,  water  and  climate;  yet,  its  significance  has  not  been  reflected  in  the  area  of  science 
education  research.  Moreover,  after  reviewing  research  conducted  on  problem-  solving, Ault (1994) concluded that 
insufficient  research  has  been  conducted  into  the nature of learning and problem-solving in the area of earth science 
educa-  tion.  Therefore,  the  purpose  of  this  study  attempted  to  fill  the  gap  by  exploring  the  nature  of  students’ 
problem-solving ability in this context. 
Method 
This  study  explored  the  interrelationships  between  tenth-grade  students’  prob-  lem-solving  ability  and  their 
science-process  skills  in  the  secondary  earth  science  classrooms.  Additionally,  the  differences  between 
higher-ability  and  lower-ability  problem  solvers’  science-process  skills  and  problem-solving  processes  were  also 
investigated. 
 
443 
STUDENTS’ PROBLEM-SOLVING ABILITY IN EARTH SCIENCE 
Sample 
Subjects  were  195  tenth-grade  students  attending  four  senior  high  schools  in  the  Taipei  City  and  Taipei  County of 
Taiwan,  75  males  and 120 females with a mean age of 16. These students were enrolled in four earth science classes 
in  the  spring  semester  1998.  The  earth  science  course,  taught  three  hours  per  week  for  one semester, is required of 
every  tenth-grade  student  in  the  secondary  schools  in  Taiwan.  These  four  public  senior high schools shared similar 
features,  including  similar  student  populations,  social-economic  background  of  parents,  geographic  location,  and 
school administration. 
Instruments 
Quantitative  data  were  obtained  on  students’  problem-solving  ability  and  science-process  skills  through  the  use  of 
the  Problem  Solving  Ability  Test  (PSAT)  and  the  Science  Process  Skills  Test  (SPST)  to  inquire  their  common 
interrelationship. 
The  PSAT  was  developed  and  constructed  by  us  based  on  the Creative Problem Solving (CPS) model (Osborn 
1963),  which  emphasizes  students’  con-  vergent  (or  critical)  and  divergent  (or  creative)  thinking  skills  within  the 
following  four-stage  problem-solving  processes:  fact-finding,  problem-finding,  idea-finding,  and  solution-finding 
(Treffinger  and  Isaksen  1992).  This  open-ended  essay-ques-  tion-type  instrument  employed  by  the  study  aimed  to 
measure  students’  problem-  solving ability in earth science subject. Questions in the instrument were open- ended to 
encourage  pupils  to  express  their  opinions  thoroughly  and  were  designed  specifically  to  tap  students’ 
problem-solving  ability.  There  are  two  open-ended  questions  in  this  test,  which  were designed to correspond to the 
aforementioned  problem-solving  stages  proposed  by  the  CPS  model.  The  first  question  was  adapted  from  an 
activity,  ‘The  deer  migration  mess’  in  Project  Wild  Activity  Guide  (WREEC  1992),  which  required  the  student  to 
resolve  a  dilemma problem between city development and environmental conservation. This question first presented 
the  student  with  ‘The  deer  migration  mess’  and  asked  the  students  to  tackle  the  problem  of  establishing  safe  deer 
migration  routes.  Students  then  began  brainstorming  questions  about  the  ‘fuzzy  situation’,  and then tried to resolve 
the  issue.  The  second  question  was  constructed  based  on  the  emerging  problems  of  water  resources  shortage  in 
Taiwan.  Students  were  required  to  solve  this  problem  based  on  the  water  resources  information  provided  in  the 
question.  There  are  multiple  solutions  to  the  questions  in  the  PSAT  and  students  can  form  their  own 
problem-solving strategies to reach the solutions. 
These  two  open-ended  questions  were  determined  as  appropriate  for  tenth-  grade  students  by  the  authors,  by 
two  senior  earth science teachers in the second- ary schools, and by two earth science professors from universities in 
Taiwan.  The  instrument  was  evaluated  and  analysed  to  determine  levels  of  students’  problem-  solving  success  for 
different  stages in the CPS model. The following criteria were used to score answers on the aforementioned PSAT at 
different problem-solving stages: 
(1) Fact-finding stage: number and variety of facts identified by the 
student. 
 
444 
C.-Y. CHANG AND Y.-H. WENG 
(2) Problem-finding stage: number of problems recognized by the student 
and degree of clarity of the problems described by the student. (3) Idea-finding stage: number and variety of ideas 
proposed by the student 
and degree of creativity of the ideas presented by the student. (4) Solution-finding stage: reasonableness, accuracy, 
and feasibility of sol- 
utions suggested by the student. 
Two  earth  science  teachers,  using  the  aforementioned  criteria,  scored  the  students’  responses  independently. 
Interrater  reliability (Pearson product- moment correlation coefficient) was computed as 0.96 and few disagreements 
were  resolved  by  discussions  between  the  raters  after  completing  the  scoring  pro-  cedure.  The  validity,  design, 
administering, detailed scoring and analysis of the PSAT can also be found in Chang and Weng (2000). 
1 
The  SPST  focused  on  students’  skills of observation, data interpretation, and hypothesis formulation, which are 
considered  presumably  the  most  important  elements  in  both  the  CPS  problem-solving  scheme and in earth science. 
A  panel  of  experts,  including  four  professors  from  the  Department  of  Earth  Sciences,  National  Taiwan  Normal 
University,  and  two  senior  high  school  teachers  estab-  lished  the content validity of the test. We conducted a test of 
reliability  by  testing  tenth-grade  earth  science  students  ...n  ˆ  146†  of  a  different  school  in  the  same  school  district 
during  a  pilot  study.  Internal  consistency  reliability  coefficients  of  0.64,  0.73,  and  0.64  were  reported  for  the 
observation, data interpretation, and hypothesis formulation subscales respectively. 
The  reliability  of  both  tests  with  the  present  sample  of  the  study  was  even  higher.  The  reliability  coefficient 
(Cronbach’s  ¬) was calculated as 0.71 for the PSAT with subjects of the study; the SPST had an internal consistency 
reliability coefficient (Cronbach’s ¬) which ranged from 0.73 to 0.90 with participants in the current study. 
Interviews 
Qualitative  data  were  acquired  through  a  semi-structured  interviewing  technique  to  explore  characteristics  of 
students’  problem-solving  process  in  greater  depth.  The  ‘Footprint  Puzzle’  was  selected  and  adapted  from  ‘The 
dinosaur  puzzle’,  an  activity  first  developed  for  the  Earth  Science  Curriculum  Project  (ESCP),  in  Investigating  the 
Earth:  Laboratory  Manual  (ESCP  1964).  In  the  ‘Footprint  Puzzle’,  students  needed  to  examine  two  sets  of 
footprints,  and  to  make  observa-  tions  and  inferences  about  past  events.  Students  were  also  required  to  establish  a 
defensible  hypothesis and estimate these animals’ weights deriving information from their footprints. The interviews 
were all audio recorded and transcribed for analysis. 
Design and data analysis procedures 
A  correlation  research  design  (Campbell  and  Stanley  1966),  accompanied  by  the interviewing technique, involving 
four  senior  high  school  classes  was  adopted.  The  participants  in  these  four  classes  were  tested  with  the  PSAT  for 
two  hours  and  the  SPST  for another two hours during a three-week period, in the spring semester of 1998. Care was 
taken to ensure that the procedures of administrating these tests in 
 
445 STUDENTS’ PROBLEM-SOLVING ABILITY IN EARTH SCIENCE 
Table 1. An analysis example of the Flander’s system on the problem- solving process of the student. 
ff pf if sf 
ff pf 1 1 1 if 3 sf 2 
different  school  sites  were  as  similar  as  possible.  The  relationships  between  students’  problem-solving  ability  and 
science-process  skills  were  then  determined  for  the  total  group  of  students  using  a  Pearson  product-moment 
correlation method. 
T-test  was  also  conducted  for  a  sub-sample  of  29  higher-ability  and  28  lower-  ability  problem  solvers  to  find 
any  significant  differences  between  means  on  the  Science  Process  Skills  Test.  Twenty-nine  higher-ability  problem 
solvers  were  chosen  based  on  their  PSAT  scores  (>38  points)  which were one standard devi- ation above the group 
mean  score  (31.52  points);  while  28  lower-ability  problem  solvers  were  selected  based  on  their  PSAT  scores  (<25 
points)  which  were  one  standard  deviation  below  the  group  mean  score.  The  highest possible score on the PSAT is 
60. 
A  cluster  of  six  higher-ability  problem  solvers  and  six  lower-ability  problem  solvers  was  further  randomly 
selected  from  the  above sub-sample of 29 higher- ability and 28 lower-ability problem solvers respectively. We then 
employed  the  semi-structured  interviewing  technique  to  explore  higher-ability  vs.  lower-ability  problem  solvers’ 
problem-solving processes in greater depth. 
Students’  problem-solving processes were then transcribed and classified according to the CPS problem-solving 
stages:  fact  finding  (ff),  problem  finding  (pf),  idea  finding  (if),  and  solution  finding  (sf).  We  employed  an adapted 
Flander’s  system  (Borich  1990)  to  analyse  interviewing  data  qualitatively.  For  example,  if  one  student  solved  the 
Footprint Puzzle in the following processes, ff-pf-if-pf-if- sf-pf-if-sf, we then coded the procedures as: ff 
^ 
pf 
_ 
if 
^ 
pf 
_ 
if 
^ 
sf 
_ 
pf 
^ 
if 
_ 
sf  and  converted  them  into  the 
format  of  column  and  row,  i.e.  (column,  row)  as  the  following:  (ff,pf)  (pf,if)  (if,pf)  (pf,if)  (if,sf)  (sf,pf)  (pf,if)  and 
(if,sf).  We  counted  the  total  frequency  of  each  problem-solving  process  performed  by  individual  students  and 
recorded this interaction in a table. Table 1 illustrates the aforemen- tioned case. 
Results 
Correlation 
Table  2  presents  a  5  £  4  matrix  of  Pearson  product-moment  correlation  coeffi- cients on students’ PSAT and SPST 
scores  and  their  sub-scale  scores.  The  find-  ings  revealed  that  (1)  the  students’  skills  of  observation  ...r  ˆ  0:55, p < 
0:01†, data interpretation ...r ˆ 0:35, p < 0:01†, and hypothesis formulation ...r ˆ 0:56, 
 
446 
C.-Y. CHANG AND Y.-H. WENG 
Table 2. Summary of Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients between students’ PSAT and SPST 
scores. 
Science process skills 
Problem-solving Data Hypothesis Total ability Observation interpretation formulation score 
Fact finding 0.45** 0.24 0.40* 0.45** Problem finding 0.34* 0.22 0.32* 0.33 Idea finding 0.50** 0.30* 0.52** 0.52** Solution 
finding 0.48** 0.31* 0.54** 0.60** Total score 0.55** 0.35** 0.56** 0.57** 
* p < 0:05, ** p < 0:01. 
p  <  0:01†  have  a  significantly  modest,  positive  correlation  with  the  student’s  problem-solving  ability;  (2)  the 
students’ skills of observation and hypothesis formulation account for more variations ...r 
2 
ˆ 0:32† in the student’s problem- solving ability than their skills 
of data interpretation ...r 
2 
ˆ  0:12†;  (3)  a  significantly  moderate  correlation  exists 
between  students’  problem-solving  ability and their science-process skills ...r ˆ 0:57, p < 0:01†, as shown in the total 
score row of table 2. 
Differences of science-process skills 
Table  3  presents  the  results  of  t-test  on students’ mean scores of science-process skills test between a sub-sample of 
29  higher-ability  and  28  lower-ability  problem  solvers,  with  the  means  and  standard  deviations  noted.  The  results 
indicate that significant differences exist on students’ skills of observation ...2.41-point mean difference, t ˆ 5:54, p < 
0:01†,  data  interpretation  (1.59-point  mean  difference,  t  ˆ  3:24,  p  <  0:01), hypothesis formulation (3.32-point mean 
difference,  t  ˆ  4:94,  p  <  0:01),  and on total scores (7.76-point mean difference, t ˆ 6:57, p < 0:01) between these two 
subgroups. 
Table 3. Summary of t-test on students’ mean scores of the SPST between higher-ability and lower-ability 
problem solvers. 
Science Data Hypothesis Total process skills Observation interpretation formulation score Problem-solving mean mean mean 
mean ability (SD) (SD) (SD) (SD) 
Higher-ability problem solver 14.72 14.59 16.59 45.90 
...n ˆ 29† (1.28) (1.43) (2.38) (3.68) 
Lower-ability problem solver 12.31 13.00 13.27 38.14 
...n ˆ 28† (1.97) (2.18) (2.71) (5.19) 
t 5.54* 3.24* 4.94* 6.57* 
* p < 0:01. 
 
447 STUDENTS’ PROBLEM-SOLVING ABILITY IN EARTH SCIENCE 
Differences of problem-solving processes 
Table  4  and  table  5  reported  the  adding-up  frequency  analysis  of  the  adapted  Flander’s  system  on  the 
problem-solving  processes  of  six  higher-ability  problem  solvers  and  six  lower-ability problem solvers respectively. 
Summarizing  from  the  results  of  table  4  and  table  5,  it  was  found  that  the  higher-ability  problem solvers generally 
followed  the  CPS  problem-solving  procedures  to  solve  a  problem,  i.e. going through fact-finding, problem-finding, 
idea-finding,  and  solution-finding  stages.  Regularly,  higher-ability  students  would  go  back  to  the  problem-finding 
stage  if  it  seemed  necessary,  as  is  shown  in  the  grey  area  of  table  4.  The  lower-  ability  problem  solvers  usually 
jumped  back  and  forth  between  different  problem-  solving  stages  with  fragmented  and  disorderly  problem-solving 
processes, as illu- strated in the grey area of table 5. 
Table 4. Summary of the problem-solving processes performed by six higher- ability problem solvers. 
Fact finding 
Problem finding 
Idea finding 
Solution finding 
Fact finding 
2 3 5 
Problem finding 
8 3 12 
Idea finding 
5 16 0 
Solution finding 
2 2 18 
Grey areas: frequency >7 
Table 5. Summary of the problem-solving processes performed by six lower- ability problem solvers. 
Fact finding 
Problem finding 
Idea finding 
Solution finding 
Fact finding 
8 2 0 
Problem finding 
7 1 8 
Idea finding 
8 10 0 
Solution finding 
0 2 10 
Grey areas: frequency >7 
 
448 
C.-Y. CHANG AND Y.-H. WENG 
Discussion and implications 
Overall,  there  exists  a  significantly  moderate  correlation between problem-solving ability and science-process skills 
of  tenth-grade  students  in  earth  science;  however,  correlations  are  not  great  ...r  ˆ  0:35  1  0:57†  but  substantial. 
Besides,  the  current  study  found  that  12  to  32%  of  the  variation  in  problem-solving  ability  was  attri-  butable  to 
differences  in  the  science-process  skills  of students. These data indi- cated that science-process skills might serve as 
important  inputs  in  accomplishing  successful  problem-solving  in  earth  science.  Since  solving  a  problem  requires 
students  to  understand  the  problem,  make  accurate  observations,  interpret  data,  formulate  a  valid  hypothesis,  and 
find  solutions  to  the  problem.  These  findings  suggested  that  earth  science  instruction  in  the  secondary  schools 
should  put  more  emphasis  on  developing  the  science-process  skills of students because pupils receiving this type of 
instruction  would  be  provided  with  the  opportunity  to  observe,  interpret,  hypothesize,  and  think  on  their  own. 
Accordingly,  these  science-process  skills  might  help  students,  to  some  extent,  in  improving  their  problem-solving 
abilities. 
Students’  skills  of  observation  and  hypothesis  formulation  were  found  to  be  strongly  associated with students’ 
problem-solving  ability  in  comparison  to  students’  skills  of  data  interpretations.  The above result is consistent with 
results  or conclusions from other studies in this area. First of all, many instructors believe that students must develop 
careful  visualization  and  observation  skills  in  order  to  solve  earth  science  problems  (e.g.,  Ault  1994).  Secondly, 
reasoning  ability  or  hypothesis  formulation  skills  were  found  to  be  significantly  related  to  students’  success  at 
solving  stoichiometry  problems  (Robinson  and  Niaz  1991),  concept  acquisition  (Lawson  and  Worsnop  1992),  or 
their  science  grades  (Bitner  1991).  These  findings  along  with  conclusions  from  this  study  have  a  practical 
implication  for  the  practice  of  science  education.  If  students  were  well  trained  on  their  obser-  vation  skills  and 
hypothesis  formulation  techniques  in  regular  science  classrooms,  they  might  be  capable  of  solving  problems  more 
thoroughly not only in earth science subject but, also, across different science disciplines. 
The  results  of  the  study  indicated  that  the  students  with  higher  problem-solv-  ing  ability  had  higher 
science-process  skills  than  did  those  students  with  lower  problem-solving  ability.  Scarnati  (1993)  proposed  to 
improve  students’  observa-  tion  skills  and  reasoning  abilities  through  solving  a  puzzle  problem  in  earth  science. 
Holley  (1996a,  1996b)  suggested  that  using  problem-solving  to  help  students  develop  their  basic  science-process 
skills. Padilla and Padilla (1986) also perceived that teaching efficient learning or problem-solving strategies appears 
to  exhibit  promise  for  teaching  integrated  process  skills.  The  study  gen-  erates,  to  some  extent,  experimental 
evidences to uphold these ideas. 
The  present  research  also  provides  empirical  evidence  to  support  a  previous  study  (Tobin  and  Capie  1980), 
which  proposed  that  science-process  skills  might  be  used  as  primary  vehicles  to  solve  problems  within  different 
science  disciplines.  As  described  by  Benchmarks  for  Science  Literacy  (AAAS  1993:  282),  ‘Students’  ability  and 
inclination  to  solve  problems  effectively  depend  on  their  certain  knowl-  edge,  skills  and  attitudes’.  It  is,  therefore, 
suggested  that  teachers  should  be  able  to  improve  students’  problem-solving performance through providing pupils 
with the opportunities for the development of their science-process skills in earth science classrooms. 
 
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STUDENTS’ PROBLEM-SOLVING ABILITY IN EARTH SCIENCE 
The  results  of  the  current  study  could  serve  as  guidelines  for  the development of earth science curriculum, i.e., 
future  earth  science  curriculum  should  emphasize  the  issues  of  developing  and  teaching  of  science-process  skill  in 
the  secondary  earth  science  classroom,  which  might  be  able  to  help  students  overcome  the  difficulties  they 
encounter  solving  earth-science  problems.  The Taiwanese, New Nine-Year Science Curriculum Standards (Ministry 
of  Education  1999:  10) stress the follow- ing seven major themes of scientific literacy as a guide to the development 
of  the  science  curriculum:  science  process  skills,  scientific  cognition,  nature  of  science,  attitude  towards  science, 
habits  of  mind,  application  of  science,  and  application  of  information  (Chang  and  Chiu  2000).  On  the  top  of  the 
scientific  literacy  list  is  ‘science  process  skills’. As Russell and Chiappetta (1981: 300) claimed ‘Problem solving is 
an  integral  part  of  science  and  it  should  permeate  the  entire  science  curriculum’.  In  light  of  the  current  study,  it  is 
suggested  that  not  only  problem-  solving  but  also  process skills, especially those of observation and hypothesis for- 
mulation skills, be infused throughout all earth science curricula. 
The  higher-ability  problem  solvers’  problem-solving  processes  in  earth  science  generally  correspond  to  the 
problem-solving  procedures  proposed  by  the  CPS  model.  Consequently,  the  CPS  problem-solving  model  has  its 
promise  in  the  area  of  earth  science  education  in terms of improving students’ problem-solving ability in secondary 
schools. It is therefore suggested that incorporating the CPS model into earth science classroom might be helpful. As 
Abell  (1990)  suggested,  employing  CPS  could  help  integrate  higher-order  thinking  skills  into  science  instruction, 
and to inspire students to think creatively. 
The  results  of  the  study  provide  new  information  on  the  interrelationship  of  student’s  problem-solving  ability 
and  their  science-process skills in the area of earth science education. It is noted, however, that a positive correlation 
does  not  ensure  causality. Consequently, causality merits further investigation, which is presently being investigated 
in  Taiwan.  Future  research  is  needed  to  ascertain  whether  this  relationship  is  generalizable  to  other  science 
disciplines. 
Acknowledgement 
This  research  was  funded  by  the  National Science Council (NSC) of the Republic of China under Contract no. NSC 
87-2511-S-003-026.  The  data  presented,  the  statements  made  and  the  views  expressed  are  solely  the responsibility 
of  the  authors.  The  authors  gratefully  acknowledge  the  assistance  of  Jing-Wen  Hsu.  The  authors  thank  two 
anonymous reviewers and the editor for their insightful comments on an earlier version of the manuscript. 
Notes 
1. Part of the present paper has been published in the Chinese Journal of Science Education, 
which is in the Chinese language. 
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