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APPLIED EXPLOSIVES TECHNOLOGY

FOR
CONSTRUCTION
AND
MINING
by
Stig O Olofsson
All rights rcscrvcd.
This book or nny parl thcrcof must
not he reproduccd in any form without
th1..· writtcn pcrmissio11 of thc ¡mhlishcr.

ISBN 91- 7970-<i34- 7


Publishcr
Sccond cdition
APPLEX
P.O. Box 7!
COPYRJG!lT
S-640 43 ARLA. Swcdcn
APPLEX
Applicd Explosivcs Tcchnologv Printcd by
PO Box 71 ~-
S-640 43 ÁRLA. SWEDEN
Nora Boktryckeri AB
l wish to thank Nitro Nobel AB, Nitro Consult
Atlas Copeo, AL!MAK and SKANSKA
for the photographs and illustrations
thcy have supplied me with.
Last but not !east, l wish to
thank Anny for her patícnce.

lllustratíons:
Góran Ek
Gi)sta Lithner
Stig O Olofsson
Photographs:
Rcinho!d Carlsson Sturcbi!d
Erik Svcnsson
Stíg O Olofsson
anda fcw unknown.
CONTENTS
l. FOREWORD

2. !NTRODUCT!ON 2
2.1 Tcrminology 4

'.\. BLAST!NG PRODUCTS 13


3a. EXPLOSIVES 13
3a.1 Propcrtics 13
3a. 2 C!assification 18
3a .3 Dcscription of cxp!osivcs presently in use 18
3a .4 Explosíves products 31
3b.FIRING DEVICES 33
3b. l General 33
3b.2 Firing mcthods 34
3b. 2.1 Safety fusc and plaín dctonators 34
3b.2. 2 Dctonating cord 36
3b.2.3 Elcctric firing 37
3h.2.4 NON EL 49
3c. J\CCESSOR!ES 57

4. BLASTINGTHEORY 59

5. BENCH BLASTING 62
5.1 General 62
5.2 Charge calculations 66
5.3 Low bcnches. levcling 90
5.4 Sccondary blastíng 94
5.5 Opcning of the bcnch 95
5.6 Rock fragmentation 96
5.6. J Srnall rock fragrncntation 96
5.6.2 Large sízc fragmcntation 107
5. 7 Swcllíng 109
5.8Throw, flyrock 110
5. 9 Coveríng 114
5.10 Blastingeconomy 118

6. TRENCH BLASTING 122


6. l General 122
6.2Tradítional trcnch blasting 123
6.3 Smoothwall trcnch blasting 126
6.4 High productivity trench blasting 129
7. UNDERGROUND BLASTJNG l3l
7. l Tunncling !31
7.2 Shafts l 60
7 3 Underground chambcrs 171

8. CONTOLJR BLASTINCJ !74


8. l General 174
8.2 Line drilling 175
8.3 ( 'ushion hlasting ! 7(1
8.4 Srnoo! h blasting 178
8.5 Presplitting 183
8.(i Combined mel hods !8()
8. 7 Eco11omic as1x:cts on conl<Htr hlasting 18(1

9. O!ARGING THE BLAST!IOLE 188


9. ! General 188
9.2 Priming 189
lJ_,\ Diffcrcnt cll:irging mctlrnds 195

JO. CAUTIOUS BLAST!NG 200


1O.1 General 200
!0.2Grou11d vibr:11ions 201
l 0.3 Charge calculalions 218
l 0.4 Blasting el ose to liardcning concrete 23(1
l 0.5 Flyrock 237
10.6 Air shock \\aves 2.\7

! l. lJNDERWATER BLASTlNCJ 242


11. I General 242
11 .2 Dril! and blast mcthods 242
11.:1 Ground vihr:1tions and water shock waves 254

!2. SPEC!ALFORMSOFBLASTINC; 258


! 2. l Blasting of n:itur:d lloulders 258
12.2 Blastíng of ditchcs 260
12.3 B!asting of s1onc hlocks 261
12.4 B!astíng of polc holcs 262
12.5 Blastíng of stumps 26:1
! 2 .6 Blasting of soil frost 264
! 2. 7 Blasting of ice-holes 266
12.8 Blastíng of opcnings in concrete 268
l 2. 9 Blasting ol' concrete 270
12. 1OMini-hole b!asting 271
12.1 l Demolition blasting 277
13. DESTRUCTfON OF EXPLOSIVES AND FIRING DEVICES 278

14. CODE OF GOOD PRACTICE 280

15. REFERENCES 302

APPENDIX 1 304
Conversion table 304
1. FOREWORD
The writing of this book was first started during rny stay in Malaysia at the
bcginning of the J 980's and the intentíon was to take away sorne of the mystícism
which surrounds rock blasting and rock blasters ín the world.
I had then been using the Swedish rock blasting technique on three continents,
and found that the theoríes concerning rock blasting that were worked out in
Swedcn in the l94(fs and l950's functioned well also in other environments and
in othcr rocks than thosc I was uscd to. The blasting works I performed con-
firmcd the tbcories.

In blasting technology Swedcn becamc the forcrunner dueto the research of Dr.
Ulf Langefors. His scientific approach to rock blasting transformcd it frorn an
occupation in which personal expcrience, skill and intuition formed the dominat-
ing part to technological scíence. Dr. Langefors' pioneering work opened the
way for controlled blasting operations and bígger rounds could be blasted in a
safcr and more economic way.
lt is no ovcrstatemcnt to say that the works of Dr. Langefors have had the same
significance for the development of the blasting technology as Alfred Nobe!'s
rcsearch for the development of civil hígh explosivcs.

This manual is, from b!asting tcchnology point of view, based on the book "The
Modern Technique of Rock Blasting" which is written jointly by Ulf Langefors
and Bjürn Kihlstrüm. Formulas havc been simplificd or transformed to graphs
for casíer accessibílity to the reader.
The method of calculation and design of blasting operations such as bench
b!asting. tunnel blasting and underwater blastíng has bcen simplified, and the
calculation procedure madc easy to follow step by step.
Most of the problems that rnay occur ín a blasting operation are dealt with and I
belicve that the reader wil! have use for this book for both reference and
guidance.

Arla, October 1988


Stíg O Olofsson

Foreword to the second edition.

The first edition of this book \.vas sold out rapídly so a new edition seerns to be of
íntcrest. The content is mainly the same as in the first edition, but misprints have
been corrected and in the chapter about cautious blasting new instrurnents for
rneasurement of ground vibrations, air shock waves and water shock waves are
prescntcd. Thc devclopment in this field has been very progressive the last year.
On reque:;t from man y readers I ha ve added a conversion table wíth conversion
factors from metric to American and English units.

Arla J une 1990


Stig O Olofsson
2. INTRODUCTION
l n the beginning of the l 7th century black powdcr was introduccd ancl blasting
replaced firc setting as the principal mcthod of loosening rock in thc mining
industry in Europe. Thc ancicnt mcthod of building a wood firc against thc facc
of ore-bearing rock and keeping it burning until the rock was heated through,
and then pouríng water on the heated rock to cause it to break by tension was too
slow. and became too costly as the forcsts around the mines v,;ere clcan-cut and
transport of wood became a problem.

Thc introduction of black powder into thc mining industry was rclatively fast and
by the end of the 17th century most of the European mincrs u sed black powder to
loasen rock. By the turn of the century black powder became widely used in
construction work.

Thc initiation of black powder was hazardous until William Bickford, an Eng-
lishman, patcnted thc "Miners Safety Fusc" in 1831. thus giving thc blasters a
reliable and safe initíating devicc for b!ack powder.

The demand for more powerful tools to break rock engaged many in developing
new explosíves. In 1846. Ascanio Sobrero, an ltalian, discovered nitroglycerin.
but he consi<lered it too unpredictable and hazardous for anyone to manufacture
and use.
Thc ncw invcntion was tricd out in Swcdcn by Alfrcd Nobel and hís brothcrs.
They found it excellcnt for blasting thc hard Swedísh graníte. Subsequently
Alfred Nobel in 1864. formcd bis first explosivcs company. "Nitroglycerin
Aktiebolagct". for thc manufacture of nitroglyccrin.
The main problem with the nitroglycerín was to get it to shoot consistently.
Alfrcd Nobel solved this prohlcm by the invention of the fulminate of mercury
blasting cap in 1867, which whcn used togcthcr \vith safety fuse made an
excellcnt initiating system for nitroglycerin.
Nitroglycerin conque red thc world rapidly and factorics were erected all over the
world. Howcver, disastrous cxplosions in Europe and Ameríca madc peoplc
aware of the risks in the manufacture and use of thc new explosivc and subsc-
quently laws werc passed against its use in many countrícs.
In his efforts to make nitroglycerin safer to handlc. Alfred Nobel in 1866
discovered that Kieselguhr ( a diatomaceous earth) not only absorbed threc
times its own wcíght of nitroglycerin, but also rcndercd it less sensitive to shock.
After kneading and shaping ít into a cartridge, it was wrapped in papcr and the
DYNAMITE was invcnted. lt was an explosive with a brisance ofpowcr twenty
times greater than that of black powder. Thc devclopment of dynamite contin-
ued, and in 1875 Alfred Nobel díssolved nitroccllulose ínto nitroglycerin, thus
introducing blasting gelatinc which is still one ofthe most powcrful explosives for
civil use.
In the 1920's nitroglycol was addcd to dynamitc, thus lowering its freezing point
( + 13ºC) considerably. In 1964. a new manufacturing process of <lynamite was
2
íntroduced in Sweden. where the nitroglycerin was flegrnatized (DNT was
added) makíng it both safer to manufacture and handle the explosive which was
marketed under the trade na me of Dynamex. Dynarnex was classified as a safety
explosive.
Together with the development of dynarnite new methods were searched for to
initiate the explosives. In the beginning of the 20th century the electric initiation
was introduced, and by 1922 the first electric delay detonator (with 1 sec. dela y)
carne in to practica! use. The introduction of the short delay detonator 10-100
milliseconds) in the late 1940's has had the greatest importance in the develop-
rnent of modern blasting techniques.
In the late 1970's wc saw new non-electrical initíating systems like Nonel being
developed.
The development of blasting techniques in the United States and Europe were
more or lcss similar until 1955.
In 1955, Robert W. Akre presented a paper on "Akremite" on the year's Coa!
Show in the U.S.A. Akrernite was a mixture of prilled ammonium nitrate and
black carbon forming a ''do-it-yourself" blasting agent. The mixture had to be
put into polycthylene bags to be kept dry in the blast hole.
The following year, 1956, ANFO (Ammonium Nitrate and Fue! Oíl) was intro-
duced to the U .S. market (89 years after the patent of AN with various sensi-
tizers was given toJohan Norrbin and Johan V. Ohlsson in Sweden). The success
of the ANFO in U.S.A. is indisputable, from a consumption rate of almost nil in
1956, the consumption had increased to over 1,000.000 tons by 1975. The
consumption of dynamites has, during the sarne time, declined from 340,000
tons to 135,000 tons. In Europe the ANFO was not so widely accepted and the
clynamites were prevailing into the 1980's. In 1985 a new, more water resistant
ANFO, Akvanol was presented by Nitro Nobel, which wíll increase the versatili-
ty of this explosive.
In the l 960's, we ha ve seen the development of water gels and slurries and in the
1970's the developrnent of emulsion exp!osives (EMULITE) and the 1980's we
will see new powered ANFO, (EMULAN). In this manual I will emphasíze on
the use of Dynamex, Ernulite, Emulan and ANFO. The latter three are the
explosives which will be used in the future and Dynamex M wíll be on the market
for many years to come.

3
2.1 Tcrminology
Tcrrns uscd in cxplnsivcs and b!asting.

AHlJTMENT. -- Thc point in a tunncl scction whcrc wal! and roof mcct.
ABUTMENT HEIGHT. - Hcight from tunncl floor to abutmcnt.
ACCELERATION. - Unit of ground vibrntíon í g (l g=9.8l m/scc')
ACCESS TUNNEL. - Tunncl from surfacc to undcrgrouml work sitc.
ADIT. - Horizontal cntrancc to mine.
ADV ANCE. - Excavatcd lcngth of tunncl pcr blasting round.
AIRBLAST. - Airbornc shockwave rcsulting from the detonation of cxplosives.
Can be caused by rock rnovement or by rclcasc of cxpanding gas into thc air.
AIR OVERPRESSURE. - Scc airblast.
ALUMINUM. - Metal commonly uscd as fue! or scnsitízing agcnt in explosivcs
and blasting agcnts. Jncreascs the encrgy con ten t.
AMPLITUDE. - See disp!acerncnt.
AMMONIUM NITRATE (AN). - Thc rnost commonly uscd oxidizcr in explo-
sivcs and blasting agents.
ANFO. - Powdcr form cxplosivc consisting of A111111onium Nitrate and Fue! Oíl.
Thc most commonly uscd b!asting agcnt.
ARCH HEIGHT. - Hcíght from abutment to the highcst point of thc tunnel
roo f.
AXIAL PRIMING. - Systcm for priming blastíng agents in which thc corc of
príming material extends through the column of thc blasting agcnt.

BACK BREAK. - Rock brokcn beyond thc !imits of thc last row of l10les.
BASE CHARGE. - Maín cxp!osivc chargc in a dctonator.
BENCH. - Horizontal rock shelf.
BENCH BLASTING. - Blasting of a bcnch with at least two free faces.
BLAST. - Detonation of explosivcs to break rock.
BLAST AREA. - Arca close to a blast, which may be inf!ucnccd by flyrock
ancl/or concussion.
BLASTER. - Qualificd pcrson in chargc of a blast.
HLASTHOLE. - Hole drillcd in rock for the placemcnt of cxplosives.
BLASTING AGENT. - Explosive that mcets prescribcd critcria for inscnsitivity
to initiation.
BLASTING CAP. - Sec dctonator.
BLASTING CIRCUIT. - Electric circuit uscd to firc onc or more clectric
detonators.
BLASTING DI AR Y, - Diary to be kept on work sitc containing all infonnation
about each blast.
BLASTING MACHINE. - Machi ne cxprcssly built for initíating clectricdctona,
tors or othcr typcs of initiators.
BLASTING MAT. - Covering placed overa blast to hold down flyrock. Usually
made of scrap tires, logs, ropcs or wirc cables.
BLASTING PLAN. - Plan indicating planncd drilling. charging. ínitiation and
safety measurcs for blasting opcration.
4
BLOCKHOLE. - Holc drí!lcd in to a bouldcr for thc placcmcnt of a srnall charge
to break thc hou!dcr.
BOOSTER. Charge of high explosive uscd to ímprovc dctonation stability and
to intcnsify the cxplosivc rcaction.
BOREHOLE. - Scc blasthole.
HOTTOM BENCH. - Underground bench b!asted aftcr the excavatíon of the
top hcading.
BOTTOM CHARGE. - Conccntratcd chargc in the hottom part of the blast-
holc.
BOULDER. - Ovcrsízcd blocks from blasting.
BRIDGE WIRE. - Very fine filamcnt wíre embeddcd in the ignition elcment of
an elcctric detonator. Thc hcat from a currcnt passing through the bridge wire
initíates a pymtechnic elcment, which in turn ínítiatcs thc dctonator.
BRISANCE. - Property of an explosive approximately equivalent to the veloci-
ty of dctonation (YOD). An explosíve with hígh VOD has high brisance.
BUBBLE ENERGV. - Energy of expandíng gases oían explosive, as measured
in an undcrwater test.
BlJLK EXPLOSIVE. - Exp!osive material prepared for use without packing.
BULK STRENGTH. - Strcnglh of a given volumc of an explosíve compared
with thc eyuivalent volumc of Blasting Gclatine.
Hl.lLL HOLE. - Large empty centcr hole in a paral!cl hole cut.
BlJRDEN. - Distance from an explosive chargc in a blastholc to the nearest free
or open focc.
BlJRN CUT. - Parallel hole cut with c!oscly spaced boreholes. Onc or severa! of
thc boles are left unchargcd.
BUTT. - Portion of a blastholc that remains rclatively intact after a bias t. A butt
rnay contain cxplosives and ís thus considcrcd hazardous.

CAPPED FUSE. - Safety fuse to which a blasting cap has been attached.
CAP SENSITIVITV. - Sensitivity of an explosivc to initiatíon by a #8 detonator
or fraclion thcrcoL
CARBON MONOXIDE. - Poisonous gas created by the detonation of explo-
sivcs. lnadequate amount of oxygcn in the explosíve causes excessive carbon
monoxide content in the "after thc blast" fumes.
CARTRIDGE. - Container of explosivc. Can be rigid or scmi-rigid.
CAST PRIMER. - High vclocity explosive uscd to initiate b!astíng agents.
CAUTIOUS BLASTING. - Blastíng with rcspect to surrounding arcas, control-
ling flyrock, ground vibrations and air shock waves.
CHAMBERING. - Process of cnlarging the bottom part of the blasthole by
firing small explosíve charges, enabling a larger final charge ín the hole.
CIRCUIT TESTER. -Measuríng instrument used to check that the electric
circuit of an clectric hlasting round ís unbroken. Should not be used for larger
rounds.
COLLAR. - Opcning of a blasthole. The act of collaring thc holc mcans to start
drilling thc ho!e.
COLLAR DISTANCE. - Distance from top of explosive to collar of blasthole.
5
Usually filled with stemming.
COLUMN CHARGE. - Chargc of cxplosivc or blasting agcnt in thc column
section of !he b!astholc, abovc thc bottom chargc.
CONCUSSION CHARGE. - Surfacc chargc uscd to blast bouldcrs.
CONFINED DETONATION VELOCITY. ·- Vclocity of dctonation (VOD) of
an cxp!osivc or blasting agcnt undcr confincmcnt. such as in a hlastholc oran
iron pipe.
CONNECTING \VIRE. - Wirc uscd to conncct thc dctonator circuit with thc
firing cable orto cxtcnd lcg wircs from onc blastholc to anothcr.
CONTOUR HOLES. - Holcs drilled a!ong thc perimetcr of thc cxcavation.
CONTROLLED BLASTING. - Tcchniquc to control ovcrhrcak ami damagc to
rcmaining rock sur fa ce.
COVERING. - Scc blasting ma!.
CRITICAL DIAMETER. - Mínimum diamctcr or :in cxplosivc for propagatiun
of stablc dctonation.
CURRENT LEAKAGE. - Arcing of ignition curren! to carth (water) instcad of
going through thc elcctric b!asting circuit.
1
CURRENT LEAKAGE TESTER. - Instrumcnt to dctect currcnt lcakagc.

i
f:
CUSHION BLASTING. - Tcchniquc to produce compctcnt slopcs in bcnch
blasting.
CUT. - Opcning part of a tunncl blast to providc a free racc for !he rcmaindcr of
!l
1 thc round.
1
CUT EASER HOLES. -· l 11 tunncling. t he hn!cs closcst to thc cut uscd to cn largc
¡;
thc opening formed by the cu!.
!
l CUTOFFS. - Part of a chargcd blastholc whcrc thc cxplosive has failed to
dctonatc. often dueto inf!uencc of dctonation from hlastholcs with lowcr de lay
numbcr.
CUTTINGS. - Dust of rock crcatcd by drilling.

DEAD PRESSING. - Dcsensitization of an explosivc caused by prcssurization.


DECIBEL. - Unit of sound pressurc uscd to mcasure airb!ast.
DEFLAGRATION. - Subsonic but rapid cxplosivc reaction.
DELA Y BLASTING. - Use of de lay dctonators or re lay conncctors to cause
separatc chargcs to detonatc at differcnt times.
DELA Y CONNECTOR. ~ Short intcrval dela y dcvicc uscd with dc1onating cord
for short dc!ay blasting.
DELA Y DETONATOR. - Detonator. clcctric or non-clcctric, with a built-in
del ay elcment crcating a dela y bctwccn thc input of cncrgy and thc cxplosion of
thc dctonator.
DELA Y TIME. - ·rime bctwccn initíatíon and dctonation of a detonator.
DENSITY. ~ Specific weight of an explosíve cxprcsscd in grams pcr cubic
centimetcr (grfc.c.).
DETONATING CORD. ~ P!astic covcrcd corc of high vclocity cxplosivc. uscd
to inítiate cxplosive chargcs.
DETONA TING RELA Y. - Dcvice inscrtcd in a linc of dctonatíng cord to
produce a dclay betwecn incorning and outgoing sides.
6
DETONATION. - Supcrsonic explosive reaction which crea tes a high pressure
shock wavc. heat and gases.
DETONATION PRESSURE. - Pressure creatcd by the detonation proceeding
through the explosive column.
DETONATION VELOCITY. - See velocity of detonation, VOD.
DETONATOR. - Devicc containing a dctonating charge that is uscd to initiate
an cxplosivc.
DISPLACEMENT. - Unit of ground víbratíon (height of deflection in mm).
DOWNLINE. - Linc of dctonating cord in a blastho!e transmitting the initiatíon
from thc trunklinc to the explosive down in thc holc.
DRILL DUST. See cuttings.
DRILLING PATTERN. - Plan of holes laid out on a tunnel facc or a bench
which are to be drilled for blasting. The burdcn and spacing are usually express-
ed in meters whílc thc diametcr of thc blastholes is cxprcssed in míllimeters.
DRILL SERIES. - Series of integral steels in which the diameter of the dríllbit
dccreases 1 mm for every increase of 0.8 m in the length of the steel.
DROP BALL. - Stecl weight suspended on a wire which is droppcd from a
hcight onto !arge boulders to break them into sma!ler píeces.
DVNAMITE. - High explosive invented by Alfred Nobel. Any high explosive
contaíning nitroglycerin as a sensitizer is considered a dynamite.

EASER BOLES. - See cut easer holes.


EARTH FAULT. - See current leakage.
ELECTRIC DETONATOR. - Detonator designed to be inítiated by an electríc
curren t.
ELECTRIC STORM. - Atmospheric disturbancc creating hazards in blasting
operations with e!ectric dctonators.
EMULSION. - Explosive where the oxidizcrs are dissolved in water and sur-
roundcd by immisciblc fue!s.
EXPLODER. - See blasting machine.
EXPLOSION. - Thermochemical process in which mixtures of gases, solíds or
liquids react with almos! instantaneous formation of gaseous prcssures and heat
release. A!so sec detonation.
EXPLOSIVE. - Chemical mixture that releases gases and heat at high velocity,
causing vcry high pressures.
EXTRANEOUS ELECTRICITY. - Electrícal energy, other than the firing
current, being a hazard to blasting with clectric detonators. Includes stray
currenL static electricity, !ightning, radiofrequency energy and inductive and
capacitíve energy.

FACE. - Rock surface agaínst which a blast can be executed.


FAN CUT. - Cut for tunnel blasting where the opening holes are spread in the
form of a fan.
FAULT. - Natural crack formation in the rock.
FIRING CABLE. - Cable connecting the blasting round with the blasting
machinc.
7
FLASH OVER. - Syrnpathctic dctonation bctwccn cxplosivc chargcs or bc-
twccn chargcd blastholcs.
FL YROCK. - Undcsirable throw of rock from thc blast.
FRAGMENTATION. -· Act of brcaking thc rock. Also thc distríbutíon of thc
particlc size of thc b!astcd rock.
FREQUENCY. - Unit of ground vibration charactcristícs (pcríods pcr sccond).
FUEL OIL. - Fuel. usua!ly diese! fue!. in ANFO.
FUMES. - Noxious or poisonous gases occurring from a blasl.
FUSE. - Scc safcty f'usc.
Fl!SE LIGHTER. - Pyrotcchnic dcvicc for lighting of safcty fusc.

GALVANOMETER. - Also ca!lcd blastcrs galvanomctcr, scc ohm meter.


GAP SENSITIVITY. - Distancc across which an cxplosivc can propagatc a
dctonation.
GRAINS. - System of wcight mcasurcment in whicil 7000 grains equal 1 lb.
( 15400 graíns= 1 kg). The mcasurcmcnt is normally uscd in connectíon with
dctonating cord whcre thc corc load is exprcssed in g.rains per foot. Acore load
of 50 grains pcr foot is apprnximatcly 1Ograms pcr meter accordin12 to the mctric
syst Clll.
GROUND VIBRATION. - Shock wavc cmanatin¡2 f'rom a blast transmittcd
through thc surrounding ground.

HALF-SECOND DETONATOR. - Dcl;1v dctonator with apprnximatcly O.S


scc. dclay bctwccn subscqucnt numhers.
HEAD. - Scc tunncl facc.
HEADING. - Horizontal u1H.lerground cxcavation in rock.
HERTZ. - Tcrm uscd to ex pres.~ t he frcqucncy of grnund vibrnt ions and
ai rblast.
HIGH EXPLOSIVE. - Anv cxplosivc which is sensitivc to a #8 dctonator and
1¡ rcacts supcrsonical!y.
HOLE SPACING. - See spacing.
¡¡
¡¡ IGNITER CORD. - Flexible linc containing acore of composition which burns
H with an intense flamc. Thc cord is designcd !o be uscd togcthcr with conncctors
l\ for firing with plain dctorwtors ami fuses, whcn thc numbcr of fuscs is grcatcr
than can be lit safcly with a fusc lightcr.
IGNITION CABLE. ··- Scc firing cable.
lNITIATION. - Act or dctonatíng an explosivc hy mcans of a dctonator ora
primer.
INITIATING MACHINE. - See b!astíng machínc.
INSTANTANEOUS DETONATOR. - Dctonator not contaíning any dclay
clemcnt.
INSULATION METER. - Sce currcnt lcakagc testcr.
INTERV AL. - Diffcrcncc in dela y time betwcen dctonators with diffcrcnt
numbers.

JOINTS. - Planes within thc rock mass which separntc sol id rock masses from
8
each other.

LEADS. - See lcg wires.


LEAD WIRE. - See firíng cable.
LEG WIRES. - Cables supplied with thc clcctric dctonator.
LEVELING. - Blast of low benches, where the bench height is less than twice
the burden (2xB).
LIFTERS. - Blastholes in a tunnel round breaking upwards.
LINE DRILLING. - Method to control overbreak. A series of very closely
spaced holes are drílled at the peri meter of the excavation. These holes are not
chargcd with explosíves.
LOADING DENSITY. - Expression of exp!osive density ín terms of kilograms
of explosive per meter of charge length of a specifíc diamcter.
LOADING POLE. - See tamping rod.
LOOK-OUT. - Angling of the contour holes in a tunnel outside the theoretical
con tour to provide space for the drílling equípment when drillíng the followíng
round.

!VIAGAZINE. - Structure specially constructcd for storing cxplosíves and other


explosíve materials.
MICROBALLOONS. - Tiny hollow spheres of glass or plastic whích are added
to cxplosive matcrials to enhance scnsitívity by assuring adequate content of
cntrappcd air. ln cmulsion cxplosives likc EMULITE, thc microhalloons actas
scnsitizer.
rvIILLISECOND. - Unit of measurement of short dclay intervals, equal to
l /[ 000 of a sccond.
MILLISECOND DETONATOR. - Short dela y detonator with less than 100 ms
delay betwcen subsequent numbers.
MISFIRE. - Charge, or part of charge. which has failed to firc as planned.
MUCKPILE. - Pile of broken rock which is the result of the blast.
MlJD CAP. - See concussion charge.

NITROGLYCERIN. - Explosive oil origínally uscd as scnsitizer in dynamítes.

OD-BLASTING. - Drilling and charging through the overburdcn. Mainly used


in underwater blasting. (OD - Ovcrburden Drilling).
OHM METER. - Used to check the resístance of a single electric detonator,
dctonators in series and para!lel and to check the final round. Has to be approved
by the authorities for use in blastíng operations.
OVERBREAK. - Exccssive breakage of rock beyond the theoretícal contour.
OVERBURDEN. - Useless material laying on top of a deposit of useful materi-
al. Also rcferred to as the earth laying on top of the rock in construction blastíng,
road cuts etc.
OXIDIZER. - Ingrcdient in an exploslve or blasting agent whích supplies
oxygen. which combines with the fue! to form gaseous products of detonation.
OXYGEN BALANCE. - State of equilibrium in a mixture of fuels and oxidizers
2
9
in which the fumes from thc dctonation are nwinly carbon dioxidc, water vapor
and free nitrngcn. (Harrnlcss fumes.)

PARALLEL HOLE CUT. - Tunncl cut with ali holcs para lle! and perpendicular
to thc rock facc. Thc unchargcd ho!e (boles) is (;ire) normally largcr than the
blastho!es.
PARTICLE VELOCITY. - Mcasurc of ground vibration. Thc vclocity at which
a particlc of ground vibrates when hit by a scismic wavc.
PLASTER SHOT. - Scc concussion chargc.
PLAIN DETONATOR. - Deton¡¡tor designcd to be fircd by the flash from a
safety fuse, and used only with ;.;afcty fuse.
POWDER FACTOR. ·- Scc spccific charge.
PREMATURE. - Charge dctonating carlicr than intcndcd.
PRESHEARING. - See prcsplitting.
PRESPLITTING. - Blasting of closely spaccd boles a!ong thc peri meter of tlle
excavation. The presplil is fired beforc thc rnain bias!. Onc of the methods for
controllcd blasting.
PRILL. - Small porous sphcrc of ammoníum ni trate uscd for thc manufacture
of ANFO.
PRIMARY EXPLOSIVE. - Explosivc, scnsitive to spark, friction. impact or
flamc, which is used in a detonator to initiatc the explosion.
PRIMER. - Cap-sensitive cartridgc of high cxplosive which is used to ínítiatc
hlasting agcnts.
PRIMER CARTRIDGE. - Cartridgc in which thc detonator is placed.
PROPAGATION. - Detonatíon of cxplosivcs chargcs by impulse from explo-
sivc clrnrgc located ncarby. Scc flash ovcr.
PROPAGATION VELOCITY. - Vclocíty of thc ground shock wave.
PULL. - Sec adva11cc.

RAISE SHAFT. - Tunncl or shaft cxcavatcd from a lowcr to a híghcr leve] with
an inclination of at leas! 45º.
RELIEVERS. - Scc cut enser boles.
ROlJND. - Grnup or set of blastholcs rorming a blasL whcn conncctcd lo cach
otllcr.

SAFETY FUSE. - Corc of black powdcr covcred by textilc and watcr-proofing


material, which is uscd 10 initiatc plain detonators.
SCALEO OISTANCE. - Ratio used to predict ground vibrations.
SCALING. - Cleaning thc rock surfacc frorn loose rock after blasting.
SECONDARY BLASTING. - Blasting of oversizcd boulders from prcvious
blast.
SENSITIVENESS. - Explosivc's ability to propagate a dctonalion.
SENSITIVITY. - Explosivc's susccptibility to dctona!ion upon rccciving an
externa] impulse such as irnpact, flamc or friction.
SENSITIZER. -- lngrcdicnt uscd in an explosivc to case initiation ami propaga-
tion of detonation.
10
SHELF LIFE. - Lcngth of time an axplosivc can be storcd wíthout losing its
performance propcrties.
SHOT FIRER. - Person who actually fires the blast. Hc/shc is assigned to
control thc blasting opcration with authority to decide charge wcights. delay
pattcrns. etc.
SINK SHAFT. - Underground shaft excavatcd vertícally downwards.
SLURRY EXPLOSIVE. - High density aqueous explosive containing ammoni-
um nitrate. sensitized with a fueL thickened and crosslinkcd to a gelatinous
consistcncy. Also called watergel.
SMOOTH BLASTING. - Mcthod of controlled blasting in which dosel y spaced
holes are drilled at the peri meter of the excavation, chargcd with low charges to
reduce overbrcak. The perimeter boles are fired with a higher delay number
than the rest of thc round.
SOCKET. - See butt.
SPACING. - Distance between blastholes in a row.
SPECIFIC CHARGE. - Explosives consumption per cubic meter of rock.
SPECIFIC DRILLING. - Drilled mcters per cubic meter of rock.
STEMMING. - Inert material used in the collar part of thc blastholc to confine
the gases from thc detonation.
STRIPPING. - Rcmoval of overburden.
STUMP. - Unbroken rock within the final contour.
SUBDRILLING. - Part of the blasthole below the planned grade or tloor leve!.
SWELLING. - Differencc in volumc of a material ín its solid statc and when it ís
broken.
SYMPATHETIC PROPAGATION. - See flash over.

TAMPING. - Act of compressing the cxplosive in a blasthole.


TAMPING ROO. - Rod of wood or plastic used to introduce and tamp explo-
sives in a blasthole.
TRUNKLINE. - Detonating con! line used to connect the clownlines in a
blasting round.
TUNNEL. - Horizontal undcrground excavation.
TUNNEL FACE. - Rock face at the ene! of the tunnel.

UNCONFINEDVELOCITY OFDETONATION. - Velocityofdetonationofan


explosivc not confined in a blasthole or othcr confining medium.

V-CUT. - Tunncl cut with the holes in V-layout. Also callcd weclge cut.
VELOCITY OF DETONATION. - VOD, velocity at which the detonation
wavc travels through the explosives column. May be measured confined or
unconfined.
VIBRATION VELOCITY. - Unit of ground vibration in mm/sec.
VOLUME STRENGTH. - See bulk strength.
11
WATERGEL EXPLOSIVE. - Scc slurry.
WATER RESISTANCE. - Ability of an cxplosivc to withstand water cx¡;osurc
without bccorning dctcrioratcd or dcscnsítízcd.
\VEB. - Rock mass bct wecn prcsplitting lwlcs.
WEIGHT STRENGTH. - Strcngth of a givcn wcight oJ' an cxplosívc compared
wílh tllc cquivalcnl wciglit of Blasting Gclatínc.
WINZE. - Scc sink slrnft.

l2
3. BLASTING PRODUCTS
3a. Explosives.

Fig. 3a.! C/wrging of bench wíth Dynamex M.

3a. 1 Propcrtics.
Dillcrent working conditions have made it necessary to manufacture explosivcs
with diffcring prnpcrtics appropriatc to the varying purposes for which thcy are
uscd.
In thc ideal conditions of dry blastholcs a simple explosive can be uscd, whilc
undcr wct conditions. more sophisticated products are callcd for.
To be ahle to sclcct thc ideal cxplosivc for cach purpose thc basic propcrties of
thc avai!ablc cxplosives have to be considcrcd.
Thc most important charactcristics of an cxplosívc are:
::~ vclocity of dctonation (VOI))
strcngth
dctonation stability
sensitiveness (propagation ability)
densit v
water resistance
sensitívity
safcty in handling
13
cnvironmcnial propcrtics
rcsista11ce to freczing
oxygcn balance
shclf lile

Thc vclocity of dctonation (VOD) is the spccd ;1( which the dctonatíon travcls
thrnugh thc cxplosivc.
Thc vclocitv of detonation of an cxplosive is highcr wllcn thc cxp!osivc is
confincd than unconfincd.
l\cccnt rcscarch in thc U.S./\. confirms thc nld assumption tlrnt thc dctonation
vc!ocity should be cqua! to thc vclocity of the scismic shock wavc through thc
rock. High vclocity of detonalion would thus he favor;1blc in thc case of hard
rock. Explosivcs likc Dynamcx M and Emulitc are suitahlc for hard rocks likc
granite. gnciss aml basalt whilc ANFO is suitablc for softcr rocks likc limcstonc
and sandstone.
Hígh vclocity of dctonation is of thc grcatcst importancc for houldcr hlasting
with concussion chargcs and urH.krwater blasting with shaped chargcs. The high
vclocitv is nccess:irv to givc the powcrful impact at dctonation which is rcquircd
to rnusc the tensilc slresscs which break tlw rock.

The strength of an cxplosive is in rnosl cases cxpresscd as a perccntagc of thc


strcngth of blasting gclatinc. Tlle wcight strcngth denotes thc strcngth of anv
\\·cight of :m cxplosívc cornp;ircd \VÍth thc samc wcight of bl;1sting ge latine. Tlw
bulk or volumc strength dc11otes lile comparison of any vo!urnc \lf an cxp!osivc
with the samc volumc of blasting gelatinc. Blasti11g gclatíne was choscn as a
standard. as it is wdl known ali ovcr thc wt\rld ;111d is thc mosl powcrful civil
cxplosivc. Late!\· thc marnifaelurers han' stcirll'd to compare thc wcight and
Y<)lumc stre11µths with those of í\NFO. lt is a natur;il dcwlopmcnt as blasting
gchtinc h:1s hc'l'll pli:1scd out :is :1 civil cxplosivc in ncmly ali co1111t1ics a11d
i\NFO has hccomc thl' 111osl widcly uscd and \Yl'li known cxplosi\·c. ln ordcr to
mc:tsurc t he st n:ngi h of :in cxplosivc, di lkrcrl! tests can he cnrricd out. e ·!2·:
l .c:id block lL'St
Ballistic mortar test
Buhhle cncrgv kst
"Nitrodyn ..

The leud block test is thc oldcst lcsl mctliod and is still uscd. A snrnl! ;1mount of
cxplosivc is dcto11atcd ín a hole in a lend block. By mcasuring the volumc of thc
cavity produccd hv the dcto1wtio11. an indication of thc hlasting clfrct can he
obtaincd.

Thc bal!istic mortar !est. /\ small amou11t (lf cxplosivc is dctonated in a stccl
cylindcr which is fixcd to a pcndulurn, Thc pcndulum wil! s\1·ing away frorn thc
dctonation and thc dcrlcction anglc of' thc swin¡.: indicales the hlasting dfcct.

The huhhle encrgy test was proposcd sorne .ve<trs aµo as a mea ns of comparing thc
J-{
rc!ativc strcngth of dirfcrcnt cxplosivcs. By dctonatíng an arnount of cxplosívc
undcr 1vatcr and mcasuring thc shock encrgy and thc bubble cncrgy the strength
or t he cxplosivc can be calculatcd.

"Nilrodyn" is a thcorctical cv¡1Juation of thc availahlc cncrgy in an cxplosivc to


obtain an i11dication of its strcngth.
In Swcden. thc strcngth of an explosivc is comparcd to thc strcngth of Dynamex
M. which has a wcight strcngth of 78 pcrccnt comparcd to that of blasting
¡rclatinc.

Dctonation stability mcans that thc dctonation gocs through thc cntire explo-
sivcs column.
An cxplosiv¡;·s scnsitivcncss or propagating ability is cxpresscd in thc length of
! he air-gap o ver which a donar cartridge of an cxp!osive wi!I detona te a receptor
car! ridgc undcr unconfincd conditions.
Thc scmitivencss is an importan! propcrty which has to be consídcred in blasting
opcrations. 1f the scnsitivcncss is !ow, there can be interruptions in the detona-
tion if thc col umn of cxplosivc in the charged blastholc is not continuous or some
ohstaclc has come betwecn thc various chargcs. An cxplosive with too high a
scnsilivcncss can cause propagation bctwccn adjaccnt blastholcs if thc holcs are
closcly spaccd. Especially in faulty rock and in undcrwatcr blasting thc risk of
propiigation ktwcen thc blastholcs is great. Thc propagation ability is highcr in
confíncd conditions than in unconfincd oncs.
Thc dcnsity of an cxp!osivc is its specific wcight cxpresscd as kilograms pcr liter
( kgil) or grarns pcr cuhic ccntimctcr (g/c.c.). The dcmity dctcrmi ncs the possihlc
char¡!c conccntration in thc h!asthole. Thc dcnsity of an explosive is one of the
mnst importan! prnpcrtícs to be considcrcd whcn dcsigning blasling operations.
The dril!íng paltcrn will be considcrably more widely spaccd if the high dcnsity
Dvnarncx M is USL'd instcad of thc low dcnsity ANFO.

The water resistance is an cxplosivc's ability to wilhstand water pcnetration and


is 11\lnnall:; cxprcsscd as thc time the product can he undcrwatcr and still
dcto11;1lc rcliab!y Thc water resistance oran cxp!osive dcpends on the packing
as wcll as its inhcrcnt ahility lo rcpcl water. An explosive can be affectcd by
water in t\1'0 diff«:rL'lll ways. Salls can be dissolvcd in water and !cak out of thc
cxplosi\·l' ;1nd thc water prcssurc can reduce thc sizc and amount of air bubblcs.
\\hich act as .. hot spots''. resulting in thc explosivc bccoming desensitizcd.
l'lastic cxplosivcs norma!ly have high rcsistance to water. Emu!sion explosives
like Emulitc havc cxcellcnt water rcsistancc properties. as thc salts are protected
by an oil/wax film and thc "hot spots .. are produced from air filled mícro-
balloons.
Explosivcs whích havc 110 inhercnt water rcsistancc properties can be used in
water fillcd blastholes if proper packaging material. such as plastíc bags. are
uscd.
Exccpt for Emulite. with its outstanding water resislancc propertics. Dynamcx
AM (Nitro Nobel\ undcrwatcr explosivc) ís guarnnteed to withstand water
15
prcssurc for one week and Dynamcx M for 24 hours. On thc other hand.
powdcr-form nitroglyccrin cxplosivcs in paper cartridgcs are nol guarantccd to
last in water for more than one hour. ANFO pourcd in to water fi!led b!astholes
wi!I deteriorate \'Cry quickly.
With thc widc rnnge of explosivcs av;iibb!c. it is a matter of planning to choosc
thc cxplosive with tlic w;1tcr rcsistanCL' propcrtics most suitah!c l"or thc spccific
job.

Thc scnsitiYity of ;1n L'xplosin· is n;prL'SSCd <IS t!ll' minimum CllL'rgy necdcd tn
inítíatc thc cxplosivc.
Civil cxplosivcs are dividcd intn:
cap scnsitivc cxplosivcs
non-cap scnsitivc cxplt>sivcs
Thc cap scnsiti1·c cxplosivcs can be íniti;itcd hy a #6 or #8 blasting cap. Thc
manufaclurer índicales lhc scnsitivity of his product.
Thc non-cap sensitivc cxplosives need to be primed with an amount of" high
cxplosivcs in ordcr to ohuin initiation and st<1ble dctonalion.

Safety in handling is of thc utmost importancc as thc transporlation ami usagc ol"
an cxplosive should lie carried out without any risks for thc pcrsonne! in volved.
Bci'ore :111 explosivc is apprnved by thc :iutlwritics it is suhjcctcd to cxtcnsivc
tests.
1) The drop hamml'rtest dckrmincs thc height from which ;1 wcight must fall on
thc cxplosivc in ordcr to ere.ate a dctonation.
2) Thc friction test, is a test in which friclion undcr incrcased pressurc is applied
to a small amount o! cxplosive. Whcn a rc;iction in thc explosive is obtainclL
thc pressurc is rccordcd .
."l) Thc projcctik im¡iact test determines thc hulkt vclllcity nccdcd to crcatc a
rcaction in thc explosive.
-.\) Thc hcat test determines how much hcat <lll expiosivc can withstand hcf'orc a
reaction starts.

The tests form thc !Jasis for thc authoritics lo classify thc various explosivcs from
thc poínl of vicw or handling allt! tra11sport.

Thc environmcntal prnpcrtics are more ami more takcn into consideration. Thc
aim is to rninimizc thc toxic fumes and such ncgative sidc~cffccts as hcadachcs
and skin irriwtion whcn handling nitrog!yccrin e:-;plosivcs.
Thc gases produced from a dctonation of a ci\ il cxplosivc are principa!ly carbo11
dioxidc. nitrogcn and water \'apor. whieh an; idl 11011-toxic. Various toxic gases
are also produced likc carbon monoxidc. oxides of nitrogcn. and nitrnglyccrin
vapors. Thc fumes' clwractcristics diffcr grcatly betwccn different kinds of
cxplosívcs. No matlér which cxplosive is uscd. somc noxious gases will he
produced ín thc <ktonation.
For .. (1¡JC11-pit" operntions the tm:ic fumes rarcly crcatc any prnhlcm. but for
j()
underground operations, it is esscntial that noxious gases are kcpt toan aecept-
able !cvcl. Increased amounts of fumes can be produccd if explosives wíth
insufficient water resistance are used. Inadequate priming, poor confinement.
use of woodcn spaccrs. and íncomp!clc explosion are othcr causes of an in-
crcascd production of noxious fumes.
lt is importan! that time for sufficienl ventilation is al!owed in underground
operalíons as somc of the toxic gases are odorless. Too early a return to the
blasting silc may be fatal.
Thc hcadachc causcd by nitroglyccrin cxp!osivcs is a sidc cffcct that causes a lot
of inconvcnicncc to many of thosc cxposcd to thc cxplosivc. lt is difficult to
protect oncsclf from nitroglyccrín vapors, which enter the blood system via the
respiratory organs or by dírcct contact with the skin. thus lowering the blood
prcssurc.
The ncw water based explosívcs, like Emulite, have very good fume character-
istics and the advantage of "non-headache" properties.
Resistlmce to f'reezing is importan! in countríes where thc tcmperature faHs
below 0° C. Dynamites and watergels become stiffcr in !ow tcmpcraturcs and
lose thcir good tamping charactcristics whilc cmulsion cxplosivcs retain their
cxcellclll tarnping charactcrístics cven nt the lowest tcmperatures. Modern
explosivcs will not frecze undcr normal cxposure to thc lowcst temperatures
cncountcrcd in normal working conditions. Thc cxplosivcs will thus work in the
coldest wcalhcr. in which ít is possiblc to work, without the hazards of thawíng
thcm bdore use.
The oxygen balance must be considercd in undcrground applicatíons. An excess
of oxygcn in thc cxplosive can form nitrogcn oxides (NO and N02) anda deficit
of oxvgcn will form carbon monoxidc (CO).
Thos~ gases are toxic and cxposure to them may be fatal. In open air blasting
these gases rarcly cause any prob!cm as thc blasting fumes are rapidly dispersed
aftcr l he detona\ ion.
The shelflife of thc explosive is very ímportant as thc explosive frcqucntly has to
be kcpt for a long time in storage, oftcn under unfavorablc condítions.
P!astic nitroglycerin explosivcs undergo a normal aging process during storage.
The air bubb!es in the explosivc disappear partly or wholly. thus decreasing its
scnsitivity to initiation and its propagatíon ability but not its energy content.
Plastíc nitroglycerin cxplosives should not be storcd in high temperatures, as
thcy tcnd to soften and the salts in the cxplosive penetra te the papcr wrapping of
thc cartridges. thus dcforming them. Storagc tempcraturcs around +32º C
shou!d be avoidcd, cspccially if the tempcrature fluctuatcs around that figure.
The ammonium nitrate in thc explosivc undergoes a physical rearrangement
making thc explosivc in thc cartridge swc!I, dcfonning the cartridgc. The blast-
ing effect is not affected. Powdcr typc cxplosives in cartridgcs are sensitive to
moisturc. In a hurnid cnvíronment. the salt in the cxplosivc tend to form deposits
on !he cartridge, thus hardening it.
ANFO is sensitivc to humidity and cakcs easily whcn slored under such
conditions.
17
3a.2 Classification.
Thc cxplosivcs uscd in civil cngineering and mining can nowadays be classificd
;1s:
Hígh cxplosives
Bla~tingagcnts

High explosives are charactcrizcd by high vclocity of dctonation (VOD). high


prcssure shock ,,.a\'l'. hi¡.!h 'knsitY ;111d hv hcing c;ipsensitivc.

B!asting agcnts are mixtures consisting of a fue! and oxidizcr systcm, whcrc nonc
of thc ingrcdicnts are classificd asan cxplosivc ami whcn unconfincd cannot be
dctonatcd by mcans or a #',:l. test blasting cap. Blasting agcnts llave to be
initiatcd hv ;1 primer ;\NFO is ;1 t1·picd hlastíng ;igcnt.

3a.3 Orscription of explosivcs prescntly in civil use.


Thc dcvclopmcnt of high explosi1·es has undcrgonc three generation altcrna-
tions to\\'anb safcr products:
lst gcncration. Dynamites. scnsitizcd by nitroglyccrin.
2nd gcncratio11. Watergcls. scnsitizcd by 'J'NT. mcth1·la111í11 nitrale
(MAN) or uther explosivc componcnts.
3rd gcnL'r;ition. Emu!sion cxplosivcs. SL'llsitit.cd h\ plastic m gl;iss
micro sphcrcs.
Thc scnsitization or thc cxphisivc is thc nwst critica! opcrntion i11 the nwnuLic-
turíng proccss and thc sclcctcd scnsitizcr influcnces not only tl1e nwnufacturc
bu! also thc handling of thc fi11isllcd produL·L D11ri11g a ful! centur:-· of man u Lle"
turc. nitroglyccrin-bascd cxplosivcs llave hecn thc subjcct of rnany disastrnus
accidcnts. Tllc manufacture ami tr;lllsport of MAN has also pru\"1..'d tll lrnvc
ccrtain unprcdictablc clcrnc111s in it ciusing uncxpcctcd cxplosions.
l l was a gigantic stcp to\\'mds a safcr product whcn crnulsion cxplosívcs wcrc
ínvcntcd''' ancl thus thc sc11si1i1.i11g agcnt for thc l"irst time in hiSllH\ \1;1s a
substancc which in itselfw;is not ;rn cxplosivl'. Thal tlK' cmulsion cxplosivcs also
havc strcngths comparable to that or thc prcl·eding two !lcncralinns and hctle1
tampíng charactcristics nrnke thcrn an cqu:ll ;ilternativc for all kinds of rock
blasting.

"'By Atlas Powder U.S./\.

Nitroglycerin bascd explosiYcs.


The invcntion of dynarnitc ín !SM lamed nitruglyccrin ami madc it possíblc to
handle ít in a rcasonably safc Wil'i. Howcvcr. thc 111incrs who had ¡_!ot uscd to thc
strongcr nitroglyccrin cornpbincd. and when i\lfrcd Nobel in 1875 discovercd
thai nítroglyccrin could be dissoh·cd in nitro ccllulosc. thcy got the ncw strnng
cxplosivc they had bccn asking for. Nobel callcd thc nitro-cotton cxplosivc
blastíng gclatinc.
IX
Thc industrial use of blasting gclatine has rapidly dcclíned sincc WWII duc to
hígh cost. scnsitivity to friction and shock and its high inflammability propertícs.
Ovcr thc ycars arnmoníum nítratc has bccomc a more importan\ ingredicnt in
dynamitc rcplacínt: a largc portion of nitroglyccrin. I11 Swcdcn blasting gelatine,
which originally containcd 92 Sir nitroglyccrin and 8 % nitro ccllulose. has
gradually bccn rcplaccd with cxplosivcs wíth a lowcr nitroglyccrin contcnt. In
tnday·s Dynamcx M. ammoníum 111tratc has replaccd much of the nitroglycerin
which 11ow makcs up only 20 % of thc ingrcdíents. To add further safcty to the
product. thc nitroglyccrin in Dvnarncx Mis flcgmatizcd.

Nitroglycerin based products:


Dynamex AM is spccially íntcndcd for undcrwatcr hlasting. Thc cartridgcs can
líe in water for a wcck without being Jamagcd.
Dynarncx !\Mis dclivcrcd ín papcr cartridgcs. suitablc for mcchanízed charging
and in scrc\\' mount plastic tubcs for through-thc-rod charging.
Dynamcx M is thc most vcrsatilc cxplosivc in the Nitro Nobel range of nitro-

Fix 3a. 2 Dynamex M.


19
g!yccrin cxrlosivcs. lts good fume diaractcrístícs makc it suitab!c for scvcrc
cnvíronmental conditions.
Dynamex Mis delivered in:
* papcr cartridg.cs
pi<istic hoses
' p!astic pipes
Thc paper cartridges are suítable for <di typcs of surfacc and undcrground
opcrations whcrc srnall diamctcr blastholcs are uscd. Dynamcx M in papcr
cart ridges is suitcd for mcchanizcd charging. f"or bcttcr packing and utili1.at ion of
thc blastholc.
Thc plastic hose charge is a rational altcrnativc foral! kinds of bcnch blasting.
Thc plastk pipe charge providcs a high chargíng capacity wíth a wcll balanccd
charge conccntration. In tunnel blasting, a complete round can be chargcd vcry
quickly usíng pipe chargcs. thus climinatíng over-charging.

fi"g. 3a.3 G11rir.


Guril is a nitroglycerin scnsitizcd powdcr cxplosivc. which was dcvc!opcd exclu-
sivc!y for contour blasting. lt is manufactured in firm plastic tubes with small
diametcrs ( l l. 17. and 22 mm). Thc tuhcs are fittcd with connector sleeves,
which cnab!e fas! and easy asscmhly of the chargcs when charging. The Gurit
charge conncction mcthod and thc small diamcters employcd, givc a low and
evcn!y dístributed chargc concentratíon throughout thc blastholc, which is of
paramount imporlance in contour b!asting.
Applications:
e smooth b!asting of rock contours

:;: prcsplítting of rock contours


~, caut1ous blasting \Vhen thcrc are ground vibratlon problcms
trcnch b!asting, where high quality trcnch walls are required
dcmo!i1ion of buildíngs and structurcs

Primex.
Primcx charges were dcvelopcd for blasting opcrntions whcre extreme cautíon
was rcquired. Primcx is dcsigncd mainly for miní-hole blasting.
Thc chargcs havc a !cngth of 150 mm anda diameterof l 7 mm. The weight of the
cartrídge ís 52 gr. Thc suitablc length/wcight is obtaincd by cuttíng thc tube. A
spccial shcath may be adapted to thc cut piccc of tubing in ordcr to hold the
dctonator in thc corrcct position.
Thc míni-holc mcthod may with great advantage be used for thc followíng
blastíng tasks:
bouldcr blasting
lcvcling
pipe and cable trcnching
·~ py[on and poic footings
dcmolition blasting

Concussion charge M SIM.


M S l M contains thc samc cxplosivc as Primcx. lts p!astic consistancy and high
dctonation vclocily rnakcs it ideal for plastcr shots where the charges are
rnoulded to thc surfacc of thc objcct to be hlasted and high vclocity ís nccded for
best concussíon cffcct.
Concussion chargc M S lM is principa!!y used for thc blastíng of natural houlders
and for sccondary blasting.

Watergel exp!osives havc a gcl-!ikc consistcncy obtaincd by adding thickcning


agents to water. Their main explosives base is ammonium nitrate which is an
oxídizcr. This typc of exp!osives contains JO to 30 per cent water and is sensitized
by carbonaceous fucls, TNT, aluminum or certain organic compounds Jike
methylamin nitratc. Both cap sensitivc and non-cap sensitivc watcrgel explo-
sives are availab!c.
Watergcl cxp!osivcs are also called slurry explosívcs.
2l
-:·,-~-.: __ . ,....,.,
'1"- . • -· -~~·

1
~' ,.:\
1"lg. 311 . ./ Co11rnssio11 ch11rg(' M SI M.

!
11
Enmlsion explosin.>s me composcd nf scparatc. vcrv sm;i!I drops or ammonium
nitra!c solution and uthcr oxidizcrs. dc11sl'lv dispcrscd in a conti11uous phasc.
¡¡ which is composcd ora mi;;turc of mineral oíl ~1nd 1vax.
"!! Thc oil/wax mixture. which is thc fucL is i11 this wav givcn a Vt'ry largc contact
¡;
surface to thc oxídizcr_ thc ;immoniu111 nitratc solution. What distinguishcs !he
r cmu!síon explosivcs from othcr liquid and pl<lslic cxplosivcs. is that lhcy can be
madc to detonatc without thc addition of a sensilizcr which in itsclf is an
t
¡'
exp!osivc. To makc the cmulsion initiablc. smal! cavitics are mixcd in. i.c. ín
rorrn of microba!loons 1\ilh a diamctcr or about onc knth of <I mi!lirnctcr. Thcsc
collapsc undcr the inlfoencc or thc initiating shock wavc rrom thc blasting cap.
crc:atínga multitude oflocnl hot spot~nvhcrc thc tcmpcraturc issufficic:ntlv hi¡?.h
lo start a fast cxplosiYc combustion of lile cxplosivc.
Thc densíty of !he cxplosívc and its capacitv of inil iation can he ad justcd wit h t he
amount of microbal!oons in thc cmu!sion.
Thc strength is rcgulalcrJ bv the amounl of thc addílivc fue!. aluminum. th:it is
addcd. Furthermorc. lhcre are co11sidcrahlc possihilitícs to vary thc consistcncy
')j
lo fit diffcrcnt purposcs. This can be dctcrmincd maínly by thc proportion
oil/w:1x. With a high pcrccntage of wax, a margarine-likc consistcncy is obtained.
Wíth more oiL grcasc-likc pumpab!c qua!ities can he obtaincd.
Thc margarinc-!ike typc of emulsion explosívcs is bcst suitcd for cartridgcd
cxplosivcs. The tamping charactcristics are cxcc!lent making it possiblc to uti!íze
the blasthole vo!umc to almos! 100 %.
Beca use of the physical naturc and propcrtics of cmu!sion cxplosivcs, they rctain
thcir consistcncy ovcr a \vide tcmpcraturc range. thc tamping and pumping
diaractcristics are virlua!ly unchangcd from -20º to +35º e
Thc stability of' crnulsions is outstanding, comparcd with othcr civil cxplosivcs.
Thc dctonatíon propcrtics rcmain unchanged ovcr long pcriods of time under
normal storagc conditions.
Thc vclocítv of dctonation is high for cmulsion cxplosivcs but may decreasc
somcwhat if thc diarnctcr is dccrcascd or alurninum is addcd.
Thanks to 1he facl that thc water soluble drops of ammonium ni trate ín the
cmulsion are complctcly surroundcd by an oil/wax film. thc cxplosivc bccomcs
watcr-rcpcllcnl. thus bcing highly water resistan!.
Th~· scnsitivity of'cmulsion cxplosivcs may vary from a high cxplosivc which rnay
he initia\cd by a #8 strcngth dclonator to blasting agcnl products rcquiring a
prim<:r for initíatíon.
From a handling point of vicw, thc cmulsion cxplosivcs are vcry safc anda high
dcgrcc of impact is nccdcd for accidental initiation.

Velocity of detonation
Unconfined in 40 mm
cartridges
o 7 ¡-
~ 6~
is~~ Emulite
E 4, Dynamex
i
3 l VVatergel
i
2L
11
1
o~~~~~~·~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Fresh 6 months 12 months

Fip,. 311.5 Comprm\011 o( v!'loci1y of deto1w1io11 with respecl to srorage time.


23
Critical velocity

E mu lite

ANFO
700 ¡----..¡.

600 ,______

400 . . . . . .-~+------------- Watergel - - - -


Oynamex M
300 t-~t---

200 -----~-

100

Fig. 3a.6 Pmjcctile impaCI 1es1.

Emulsíon explosives products.


By using differcnt pcrccntagcs of mícrobal!oons and aluminum. a wide rangc of
cmu!sion cxplosivcs can be manufacturcd.
Thc cap scnsitive rangc of Emulite 100 and 150 are intcndcd for small ami
mediurn diamctcr blastholcs and are dclivcrcd in papcrshclls and plastic bags.
Thc non-cap scnsitivc rangc of Emulitc 200 and 300 are in tended for mcdium ami
largc diamctcr blastholcs in bench blasting, and are dclivcred in plastic hoses.
Of real intcrest are the pumpahlc bulk cmulsions Ernulitc i200 and 1300 which
are cconomical altcrnativcs to ANFO in quarrying and mining.
EMlJLITE explosivcs are at prcscnt manufacturcd in four qualitics.
Emulitc 100, a cap sensitivc cmulsion cxplosive which is rnanufacturcd in
paper cartridges or plastic hoses. lts good fume charactcristícs and water rcsist-
ance makcs it an cxccllcnt all-round cxplosivc. lt is suitahlc for mcchanizcd
charging.
7J
Fi¡;. 3a. 7 Em11lsio11 exp!osives.

Emulitc 100 can also be supplied in plastíc pipes with dimcnsions 20 x500 mm for
prcsplitting and smooth b!asting.
Emulite l50 is similar to Emulitc l 00 but aluminurn is added to in crease the
cncrgy contcnl. lt is manufacturcd in papcr cartridgcs, plastic hoscs and plastic
pipes.
Emulile 200 is a non-cap scnsitivc cmulsion cxplosivc which is intcndcd for
bcnch blasting with mcdiurn and Jargc sízc blastholcs. It is supplied in plastic
hoscs. A cartridge of Emulite l 00 or 150 will serve well as a primer. The Ernulite
200 is nol compatible with dctonating cord.
Enrn!ite 300 is thc con! compatible varicty of non-cap scnsitivc emulsion
cxplosívcs.
All typcs or EMUL!TE are suitablc for undcrwater blasting. EMULITE can be
manufacturcd in a pumpab!c vcrsion upon rcquest.

ANFO.
ANFO is thc mosl widely used civil explosívc in the world. lt is considered a
b!asting agcnt and has to be initiatcd by a primer. ANFO is a mixture of príl!cd
Ammonium Nitratc and Fue! Oíl at a ratio of 94/6.
Thc primer uscd to initiatc thc ANFO should have a diametcr which is close to
the blastholc diarnctcr and a lcngth long cnough to cnsurc stable dctonatíon.
(Sce Chapter 8.2.1 Primíng of ANFO.)
A vclocity of detonation lcss than 2000 miscc. is not consídcrcd stablc. Tests
25
3
VOD

table detonatlon P'lme<


l'--7:
1
~ Stable detonation ANFO
Mínimum 1 1 -----------

primer length 1 ]
·--~ ¡

Fig. 3!1.8 EffiTI o( 1/ze primer 011 1·cloci1y o( de1011111ion.

madc h1· SVEDEFO show tlwt ;1 Dvnamc.x M primer cartrídgc initiatcs ANFO
dírcc!ly lo íts ful! 1·L'iocity. Thc sarnc l'L'Stlit will lle obtaincd with an Emulite 10()
primer, provided that its díarnctcr is c!osc to thc hlastholc diarnctcr.
Thc vclocity of dctonation changl'S with thc diarnetcr or thc !JlasthlllC and
rcachcs its highcst vclocity of 4-HJO m/scc. in a 2.'íO rnm blastholc. Thc vclocitv or
dc!on a t ion dccTL'ascs wi t h t he diamcll'f of 1he hlnst holc al1ll whcn lhe diametcr is
Jess than 25 mm. thc detonalion wil! not he stahlc. ANFO is mnst suitablc in
middlc and l:irge di;1rnetcr hl;istholcs (75 w 250 mm) under dr:' conditions.
lnitíation of ANFO shou!d not b..: nwdc with dctonating conl in small and
mcdium sizc hlastholcs (25 to 100 mm). Thc dctona\ing conl will initiatc the
ANFO diamctrical!y (a.xi;1I primíng) andas tll<.' ANFO will not rcach a stahlc
vclocity of detonation (2000 to 4400 111/sec. ). thc ehcmical rcaction will he
incomplctc. That t his ís t he case is confirrncd by thc use uf A N FO <md dcto11:1ting
conl for smontllhf;1sting purposcs which h:1s hccn rcportc:d from dilkrl'lll pro-
.iects.
ANFO has poor water rcsistance am! sllould. whcre \Vatcr is prcsent i11 thc
blastholcs. he prokctcd hv plastic hoscs.
Thc appcrancc of orangc-brown fumes upon dctonalion is a sign of water
dcterioration andan indicatitrn that a more water rcsistant product should be
uscd or that thc ANFO shou!d be packed in plastic baps of hcllcr quality.
Whcn thc ANFO is packcd in plastic hoscs. cnnsidcration has to he givcn to thc
dcsign of thc dril!ing pattcrn as thc: cxplosivcs co!umn will havc smallcr diamcter
in hoscs than ifpourcd in to thc blastholc. A narrowcr drilling pattern is nccdcd.

"'Swedish Detonic Research Foundation.



Fig. 3a.9 Prilled ANFO

Water rcsistant ANFO.


As mcntíoned abovc. one of the rnain prob!ems wíth ANFO is its poor water
resistancc propertics. Nitro Nobel has devc!opcd a water resistan! ANFO which
is mmkctcd under !he !radename AKVANOL.
/\KV ANOL is manufactured from differenl typcs of AN mixcd with fue! oíl. In
addition. a componcnt is rnixed in. which forms a gel when it comes in contacl
with water. The water resistance propcrties of AKY ANOL depend u pon the
thickening agents abí!íty to swell and forrn a geL AK Y ANOL should prcferably
be chargcd ínto thc blasthole with a charging rnachine. starting to fil! thc holc
rrorn thc bottom.

EMULET
ANFO is used in many underground applications. but has becn found to be too
powcrful for the contour. with ovcrbrcak as a rcsult. Sornctimcs it is impractica!
to use spccia! smoothblasting explosives or sma!lcr hole diamcter in the peri-
27
Fig. 311. JO W irh Fnwlet and A N FO, thc dc11sif.1· 1111d hu/k s1re11g1h c1111 he \'t/ried 111
lhl' 11·odsi1c.

rnclcr boles. lt has thcn:!"ore becn a dcmand for an ANFO with reduccd
strenµth. Different rnethods of mixing thc ANFO with incrt material llave becn
tricd. hut today thc most commonly uscd material for reduction is cxpandcd
polystyrcnc sphncs. Duc to thc dilkrcncc in densitv. ANFO 0.S 'f./c.c. ami
polystyrcnc 0.02 gl<:.c .. thc t\\'O componcnts in thc mixture tcntl to sepmalL'
during thc char¡.>:ing opcratinn and the polystyrcne sphercs me blown out ol' thc
blasthnlc.
By addin¡! bulk cmulsion to thc mixture. a hornogcneous blasting agcnt is
ohtainc(L which does not separatc and is char¡!cahlc with pcnumatic ch;irging
machines. its tradenamc is Fmulet.
Four blcnds of EnHdet are presently availablc. Fmulct 20. 30. 40 ;md :'iO. Tlw
figures denole !he bulk s\rength in perce111<1ge of ANFO.
Fmu!et 20 has a hulk slrL'llgth comparable lo tlwt of" C111rit 17 mm in a 3S mm
blasthok and Emu!ct _\()is comparable lo ()uri\ 22 111111ina:'i1 mm hlastholc.
Fnr e fficient charging uf t he rou nd. \\\'O charging conlaincrs shou Id be used, onc
for 1\NFO and lhe othcr for Fmulct. By a control dL'\'icc. the bla~acr can s1.vitch
frnm one container tn thc othn dcpending on which parl of thc round he is
charging. the contour or thc main round. It is also possiblc to mix ANFO and
Emulct in thc same holc. if an cxplosivc with a bulk strength between ANFO
and Emule! is rcquircd. c.g. in the row closcst to thc contour orina tunnel cut.
Sec Fi¡!. :la. 10.

EMULAN.
Emulan is a hybrid product. 1.vhich is a mixture of ANFO and bulk Emulite. 111
thc mixcd product. the air spaccs hetwcen thc prills in the ANFO are filled with
emulsion cxplosive, rcsultíng in a sound increasc in both encrgv and dcnsily.
28
Fig. 3a.1 l ANFO EMULAN

Fíg. 3a. l 2 Mobile EMULAN ¡¡fant.

As thc airspaccs betwecn thc ANFO pril!s are fillcd with Emulitc with cxccllent
water rcsistancc propcrtics. blasting agcnts with good to cxcellent water resist-
ancc can be manufaeturcd.
Thc ratio Emulitc/ ANFO may be varicd from 20/80 in dry eonditions to 80/20 in
cxtrcmcly wcl conditions.
Another advantage of filling up the airspaccs bctwccn the ANFO prills is that
dcnsity is íncrcascd with an explosivc material. thus drastically incrcasing the
cnerg~· contcnt.

Duc to thc higher dcnsity and higher energy con ten t. up to 40 % more rock can
be blasted per drillmctcr compared witll ANFO. Thc burdcn ami spaeing can
both be incrcascd by 20 %.
In most cases EMULAN has proved to be an cconomic altcrnativc to ANFO,
espccially ín scvcrc water conditions.
29
Special products.
FRAGl\1EX is a slwpcd
chargc. spccially dcvclopcd
for undcrwalcr and scismíc
opcrations. Usin¡l shapcd
chargcs. underwatcr rock
blasting can be carricd out
wíth bcttc.r tcchnical and
cco11omical rcsulls ;1! bcnch
hcights of less !han l .:'i rn.

Fig. 3a. J3 Fragmi'x.

Nobel Prime is a primer with


vcrv h igh vclocí1 v cspccíallv
dcvclopcd to inítiat~
J\NFO.

Fif!,. 311.14 Nohd Prime.


30
3a.4 Explosives products
Thc strcngth of thc cxplosives are in comparison with ANFO.

PRODUCT Dcnsity Wcíght Bulk Velocity of Water


gr/e.e. strcngth strcngth dctonation resistance
per cent pcr cent m/sec
of ANFO of ANFO confined
--·••-•m•u•••-•-n-•n•-••-•-•~

Dynamcx AM 1. 40 127 192 6. ()()() Excellent


Dynamcx M l .40 l2l 181 s. 000 Excellcnt
Gurit LOO 85 4.0lJO Fa ir
Emulitc 1{)() 1.20 78 l 10 5.300 Excellenl
Emulitc 150 1.21 l 13 145 5. 1()() Exeellent
Emulitc 200 l.25 78 115 4.900 Exccllcnt
Emu!itc 300 1.28 76 1()() 4.900 Excellent
Emulitc !200 1.25 78 130 4.900 Excellent
EMUl .AN 5000 1.30 88 !40 5.00() Good
ANFO (). 80 l ()() 100 2. 500 Poor
Emulct 20 0.22 74 20 1.850 Poor
Enrnlct 30 0.33 81 30 2 ()()() Poor
Emu!ct 40 (). 40 86 40 2.200 Poor
Emulct 50 U.50 89 50 2.650 Poor
i'ri llll'X 1.50 127 208 6.000 Exccllent

Spccial products.
Frag.mcx.
Nobel Prime.
Dynamex AM. Dynamcx M. Gttrit, Primcx. Fragmcx and Nobel Prime are
trademarks of Nitro Nobel AB, Sweden.
Emulite, EMULAN and Emulct are trademarks of Nitro Nobel AB, Swcden
and its licensecs.

31
1)imcnsions. wci¡.d1ts ;1 mi p;1cki11g:

EXPLOSíVE SlZE 111111 \VE!CHT /\PPROX. P/\CKJNCi

Dyna111cx !\ rv1 29 x::wo 175 !! !':ipcr cart ridgc


40 x200 330 g
Dynamcx M 22x200 1()() <:-()
25 x200 ¡ 1.:; t""
~,

29 x2UO 175 g
40X2()(} .\20 g
Dynamex M 50 X 5SO 1.4 kg Phst ic hoscs
55 X 550 17 kg
65x550 2.4 kg
80x-.lUO 2.7 kg
90x375 3.0 kg
125x:n5 5.4 kg
Dynamcx IV! 25x I l 10 0.74 kg Plast ic pipes
29 X 1110 O.<J8 kg
32x 1110 1.2 kg
39xlll0 !.6 kg
Guril 11X 4()() 50 g Plastíc pipes
17X500 115 g
22x725 3 JO g
Emulitc 150 22 X 200 ')O g Papcr cartridgcs
25x200 11 () g
29 X21JO 150 g
40x20o 280 g
Emulitc 150 25X 1110 () fr.jkg Plastic tuhcs
29xl l llJ 0.86 kg
32xlll0 l .05 kg
3<)x 1110 l. 5.4 kg
Emulitl' 150 -.!3 X 550 0.90 kµ. Plast ic hoscs
50 X 550 1.30 kg
55 X 550 1.50 kg
60 X 550 l.8(J kg
65 X 55() 2.20 kg.
75X550 2. 70 kg.
hagrncx 4 4.2 kg Plastic cover
8 8.2 kg
Nobel rrimc 25 X 150 100 g Pbstic tubc
J2 X 15() 165 g
Primcx l 7x 150 ~
'í?- b() Plastic lubc
Concussion chargc M SIM 0.5 kg Plastic hoscs
3b. Firing devices.

Fig. 3h. l Fírin¡; of tunnel round wirh NONEL.

3h. I General.
Bcforc w¡l!iarn Bickford invcntcd thc "Mincrs Safcty Fusc" in 1831, thc initia-
tion of b!asts was a hazardous task. A lot of more or less dangcrous mcthods were
app!icd to initiate black powder. With the invcntion ofthe safcty fuse, the blaster
was givcn thc focilíty to initíate black powdcr wíth reasonable prccision and
rcliability.
Thc incrcased use or nitroglyccrin in the l 850s and of dynamite in the l860s,
madc it ncccssary to supplement the safcty fuse with a detonator, as thc safety
fuse alonc could not ínitíatc the ncw explosives.
Alfrcd Nobel's invention of the fulminatc of mercury blasting cap in 1867 made
thc initiation of ali cxplosivcs safer and more efficíent.
Dctonators in civil use havc all been devcloped from Nobel's basic ideas.
33
Thc introduction of the elcctric rnilli-sccond dctonalor has lk'Cll of utmost
importancc for the dcvc!opmcnt of' ncw blasting tcchniqucs, whcrc tlm1\1'.
fragmcntation and ground \'Íhrations can be controllcd in Jargc blasting rounds,
Elcctric initiation has bccn more widcly acccptcd in Europc than in U .S.A.,
whcre non-elcctric firing mcthods are more commonly used.
Latcly. a ncw 11011-ckctric milli-sccond dctonator. NON EL has come into widc
use. lts inhcrcnt short dela\· charar.:tcristics are thc samc as for its c!cctric
countcrpart. hut thc clcctric haz;mls havc hccn eliminated by rcplacing thc
clectrír.: wircs with a shock tube.
The firing mcthods can be divided into two main groups:
Non-clcctric
Safcty fusc with plain dctonator
Dctonatíng cord
NON EL
Elcctric dctonators

3b.2 Fíring rnethods.


The firíng methods will be prcscntcd ín historical ordcr. starting with thc safcty
fusc ami ending witb thc sophisticatcd NONFL systcm.

3b.2.1 Safety fuse ami plain detonator.


lnitiatíon with sal'ct> !use is <1 mctlwd whidi is inc1casíngl\ bcing rcplaccd hy
lcss time consuming ami more sophisticatcd inítiatíng mcthods. Jfowcver. thc
mcthod is still uscd in small opcratíons, in scwndary blasting and for stonc ami
stump blasting. whcrc ít is still thc simples! and rnost cconomical mcthod.
Thc safcty fusc consists of a black powdcr core whích is tíght!y wrnppcd with
coveríngs of textilc and insulatcd against moisture by watcrproofing matcríals
likc asphalt and plastics. Thc covcríngs act as prntcction for thc black powclcr
corc against water. oil and othcr matcrials which can changc the burning specd
or dcsensitizc thc powdcr. The covcring also prcvcnts "sidc-spít" which can
c;1usc prcmaturc ddona1ion if ít sets firc to thc cxp!osíves chargc.
Thc safcty fusc has a stcady and wcll controllcd burning spccd. but as thcrc are
many brands of safcty fusc in thc world. thc burning spccd may diffcr bctwccn
diffcrcnt brands, Thc burning ratc of most hrnnds in U.S.J\. is l30 scconds pcr
meter ( l20 scc/yard) at sea leve\ with allowablc variation of 10 scconds from
standard. In Europc, thc standard burning ratc ís 120 scconds pcr meter with thc
samc varíation.
lt should be takcn in to account that thc safcty fusc will burn fastcr if it is suhjcct
to confincmcnt or prcssure. ami that thc use al high altitudes slows clown thc
burning speed, Thcrcfore, so me occurrcnccs that are rcfcrrcd to as "prcmaturc"
or "delaycd" dctonations may not be duc to inhcrent propcrtics of thc fusc, but
to conditions on thc work-sitc or poor storagc or handling of thc fusc.
As the burníng spccd docs vary, the spccd should be vcríficd hy accuratc timing
of a samplc from cach coíl just bcforc use,
'.l4
Primar y Base
charge charge
/

Fig. 311. 2 Pfain deummor.

To initiate the cxplosivc. a plain dctonator has to be attached to thc safety fusc.
Duc to varying scnsitivity of diffcrcnt cxplosivcs. detonators of different
strcngt hs are availablc. Thc strcngth of thc deto11ator is exprcssed in numbers, of
which #6 and #8 are prcscntly availablc on the markct. Thc #8 detonator
contains approximatcly 1.0 gram ofhigh cxplosives and the #6 contains approxi-
mately 0.8 gram. As cxplosivcs havc bccomc safcr to handle and thus lcss
scnsitivc to impacL thc #8 dctonator has bccomc more widcly uscd.
Thc p!ain dctonator consists of an aluminum or coppcr cy!indcr which is closed at
onc cnd. A chargc of high cxplosivc, likc hcxytol. tetry! or similar. is placed in
thc base of thc cy!indcr. 011 top of thc base chargc, a primary charge is placed
nonna!ly lcad azídc. Thc prímary chargc is sensilivc to initiation by thc cndspit
of thc sa!'cty fusc and subscquent!y initiatcs !he base charge.

Asscrn b!y of plain dctonators to a safcty fusc:


cut thc fusc so thc black powdcr cene is visible.
cut thc cnd of thc fusc squarcly and introduce it gcntly into thc
detonator against thc primary chargc - !cave 110 airgap. Slantíng cuts
musl be avoidcd as thc tapcrcd cnd can fold over and block the
endspit.
crimp thc detonator thoroughly to thc fusc with a crimpcr. Two types
are avai!ab!c, hand crimpcrs and ben ch crimpers.
in wd conditions. ínsulate the crimp with grcasc.

Thc lcngth of thc safcty fw;c should gcncra!ly not fa!! bclow 1.0 m. but for single
shots a lcngth of0.6 m may be allowcd. l-lowcvcr. thc fusc should havc sufficicnt
lcngth to cxcccd thc collar of thc blastholc with at lcast O. 1 rn.
A safcty fusc may be lit by using matchcs or, bcttcr. specia! igniter torches.
Whcn severa! fuscs are lit, a control fusc. thc lcngth of which is 0.6 m shorter
than thc shortcst fusc of thc round, may be lit and carricd around as an extra
safcty mcasure. Whcn thc control fusc has burnt out. the blasting crcw should
cvacuatc thc blasting sitc immcdiatcly.
Whcn a largc amounl of fu ses are to be lit in t he same arca, it may be practica! to
u~c i¡:.nitc-r cord and bcan-holc connectors. Thc bcan·l10lc conncctor. which
35
Lighting end Detonator end

~j
@iiiecqp~~
¡
/

r D l,¡
r"wi ·-)¡~----~~ \,.

ú
1 Vig. 3h.3 /\sse111hlr (~r ¡;loin dc1011111or wul !1 sa/i·tr firsr'.

contains a pyrochemical compound, is crímpcd to thc cnd nf thc safcty fuse and
the ígníter cord is ínserted ínto a slot ín !he bcan-holc conncctor. Whcn the
ignítcr cord ís lit, ít ignitcs tll<.' conncctm. which in turn lights thc s¡¡fcty fusc.
1
! 3b.2.2 Detonating con!.
l
lj Dctonating cord is a vcry common firing dcvicc throughout !he wmld. lt has
l cspccially bccn adoptcd in countrics with dífficu!t clímatíc conditions, with
¡ l"requcnt thundcrstorm;;. whích dís;tl!ows the use of clectric firing systc1m.
¡
·)
.¡ J\part from being uscd in difficult clt:ctríc conditions, it is a!so uscd whcn an
¡ cxnct simultancous detonation of severa! hoks is dcsirecL as in presplittíng.
Detonatíng cord is also used as a supplcmcnt to other l'iring rnethods in blast-
1!
hoks that are ragged and difficul! to clwrgc.
The detonating cord consists of a PETN corc, which is wrapped in covcrings of
textiles, wa!crproofing materials and plastics.
Thc: detonating cord may be init ía!cd 1vith a # () st rength dctona!or and detona tes
along its cntirc lcngth with a vclocity of ahout 7.000 mcters per sccond. lt
initiates most cxplosivcs, but can; must be takcn when detonating cord is used
together wíth ANFO in small and medium size b!astholes, whcrc c:ords 1vith low
corc load tcnd to givc inclomplctc initiation and sometí mes cause dead prcssing
of thc ANFO.
Detonating cord is manufacturcd with core loads ranging from 3 grams per meter
to 80 grams per meter. Thc most widcly uscd cord has acore load of !O grams per
meter (50 grains per foot). Thc powerfu! detonating cords with core loads of 40
and 80 grarns per meter are mainly uscd for seismic prospecting and othcr spccial
purposes .
.16
~1

Fig 3b. 4 Firing pafl('/'/1 jór a dero11ati11g cord bias!.

M ultiple-row blasting can be carríed out with detonatíng cord. where the delays
bctwcen the rows are obtained by means of relay connectors. A wide range of
relays with dc!ay times from 5 ms to 50 ms are availablc from different manu-
facturers.
Connection of detonating cord:
* kcep cach conncction ata right angJc. Plastic connectors are convcni-
ent and rcliable.
the distance bctween parallcl cords should be no less than 0.2 m.
" the distance between rclay connector and parallel corcl should be at
lcast 1.0 m.
" no kinks or loops are pcrmitted in thc round.
the initiating detonator should always be pointcd m thc desired
dircction of the dctonating cord detonation.
3b.2.3 Electric firing.
Thc introduction of electric firing gave a higher degree of safety for the people
involved in blasting operations.
Thc blastcr becamc able to fire thc blast from a protccted arca and could have
thc momcnt of firing complctely under control.
As it became possible to check with instruments that all the detonators were
connectcd. thc risk of mísfires dccreasccl.
37
Thc introduction of shor\ dclay blasting revolutionized thc rock blasting tcch-
nique. making it possiblc to ovcrcornc thc probkms with ¡uound vibrntions and
incrcasc thc sizc of thc rounds.
Elcctric dctonators can be dividcd into tilrcc díffcrcnt classcs duc to thcir
inhercnl liming pnipl'rlics:
instantancous dctonators
' milli-sccond dctonators
' half-sccond dcton;1tors
Tlw i11slan1:1nclH!s tkluiwtor is a dl'\'l'i\lp1nl·111 o!' tlw pl:iin dctoiwtor. whcrL' tlic
safcty fusc has bccn rcphced by clcuric lcgwircs anda fuschcad which liurns ami
ignitcs thc primary chargc whcn thc bridge wirc rcccivcs an clectric currcnt.
lnstantancous dcton;1tors are used for stonc and bouldcr blasting. prcsplitting
etc .. whcre no dclay hctwccn the dillercnt charges is ncedcd nor dcsircd.

Thc millisceond dclay dctonator has a built·in rnillisccond dchy clcmcnt which
dclays thc dctonation a prcdctcrrnincd time. To be considcrcd a 111iliisccond
cicla y dctonatoc thc delay bctwecn cach intcrval ín thc series should not cxcccd
100 ms (O. J scc). Thc Nitro N()bcl millisecond dela y series has 20 intcrvals wílh
25 ms delay bctwccn cach interval.
Thc millisccond series may be prolonged with dccisccond ( 1()[) ms) delays for
tunncling.
Millisecond delay dcton;itors are rnainlv usl'.d f'or bcnch and trcnch blasting.

Thc half-sccond dclay dctonator has a 500 111s (0.5 sec) dclay hctwccn the
intcrvals. lt is intcndcd cxclu~ivcly for tunncl :'lasting whcrc longer dclays are
rcquirccl ro ¡ireparc spacc for tllc movcmcnt of thc b!asted rock masscs.
Thc clcctric dctonators availablc 011 thc 111arkct may roughly be.' dividcd into:
convcntional dctonators
high safcty detonatms
Thc classífication is basccl 011 thc dctonators· inhcrcnt capacity to withstand
cxtrancous elcctric hazards.
A couple of cxamplcs:
High safety dctonalors of VA typc can be uscd undcr a 70 kV powerlinc whilc
thc safcty distancc for a co11vcntio11al dctonator is 200 ni.

Delay etement Fuse head Sealing p!ug

-Base charge Primary charge Protecting sleeve

Fig. 3/1.5 !>e/ar dcw1111wr.


Portablc walkie-talkie cquipmcnt and mobilc radio transmíttcrs can be uscd in
the immcdiatc vicinity of hígh safety V A detonators. but a safcty distance of at
lcast JO mctcrs is thc general rule for conventional detonators.
E ven t hough thc VA dctonators are 30 times saJ'cr for unintcntional initiation by
clcctric hazards than convcntional dctonators. safcty prccautions have to be
takcn in thc ncighborhood of strong radio t ransmillers. power!ine<> o ver 120 k V
and during thundcrstonns.
\VARNlNG!
Dctonators of di!Tcrcnt brands should NOT be uscd in the samc round. Due to
di1Tc1-cnt propcrties of thc dctonators, this would dcfinitcly cause MISFIRES.

The fnllowing typcs of V A detonators are avai!able:

TYPE Colours on Interval Dela y Standard leg-


lcgwircs numbcrs time wirc length
---------------------·~~·

Milli-sccond gray-green 1-20 25 ms 2. 4. 6. 10,


V /\!MS 24-80' !00 ms 16. 24 and 35 m
(No. 24-80 nrnnufacturcd only to ordcr)
Half-sccond gray-red 1-12 500 ms 4 and 6 m
VA/l!S (manufacturcd only to ordcr)

,. The MS series of thc VA-systcm is prolongcd wíth 100 ms intcrvals from No. 20
to No. 44 (20_ 24. 28 etc.) and with 150 ms intcrvals from No. 44 to No. 80 (44, 50
etc.)

Thc VA-OD dctonator has a spccially strong plastic covcr on the Jegwírcs. The
ddonator has doublc aluminum capsules for protcctíon in heavy duty applica-
tions. The VA-OD dctonator is dcvclopcd for undcrwater blasting whcrc the
detonators are subjecl to stress from rough handling.
Thc charactcristic of the V A-dctonator is thus íts grcater degrcc of safcty against
unintcntional initiation. The hígh rcsistancc. which is 3.6 ohms irrcspcctive of
the lcgwirc length. makes it ncccssary to use a 30 times highcr firíng impulse than
for conventional dctonators. As the legwires form part of the V A-detonators
safcly propcrtics. they should never be cut. For further safety, the V A-detonator
is supplied with an attached connectíon slecvc whích gives rationa! and safe
connection.

39
3b.2.3a Connccting the dectric round.
Thc clcctric detonators can
be connectcd in series or in
parallcL dcpcnding on thc
amount of dctonators in thc
round and thc c!ectric data
of thc b!asling machinc
availablc.
··..

Fig. 3h.6 Pamlle/-saies cirrnit.

3b.2.3h Testing the round.


Thc tcsting instrumcnls for
b!nsting circuits havc lo be
specially dcsigncd for tlwir
purposc and be approvcd by
thc authoritics rnnccrncd.

Tllc simples! instrumcnt for


tcsting purposes is Circuit
Tester LP4. lt has bccn dc-
signed lo test small numhcrs
of detonators in onc series.
Thc Circuí! Tester LP4 011 ly
shows if thc circuit is closed
and no break occurs. Thc
L.P4 musl not be uscd in mul-
tiple series blasting. Thc
Ohm-meter GM 2 is more
suitablc for that purposc.

Fig. 3h. 7 Cirrni1 tcster LP4 .


.:\()
·rhc Ohm-meter GM2 ís uscd to control thc rcsistancc of single electric dctona-
tors. dctonators in series and ín parallcl-scries and for !he final check bcfore
firing.
Proccdurc for tcsting:
Calibratc the instrument beforc mcasuríng.
Divide intn series in accordancc with the instructions on the blasting
machi ne.
8
Mcasure thc resistancc in Ohms for cach series.
" Thc resistancc must not vary more than ±5 pcrcent betwcen each
series in the round.
* ~rhe series are connccte.d ín parallel and suhsequently measured. The
rcsistance of thc parallel connection is in accordance with Kirckhoff's
law:
1 1 1 1
- = - + - + - + .......... --.-·
R R1 R2 R., R,,
As thc díffcrcncc in resistancc bctwcen the series must not excecd ±5 perecnt.
thc rcsistance of thc parallc! conncetion wil! be:
Resistan ce/series
R =
Numbcr of series
Examplc:
/\ssume a blast of 250 VA-dctonators with a resistancc of 3.6 Ohms each. (The
resistancc is always 3.6 Ohms indepcn<lent of legwire length.)
The firing cable has a rcsistancc of 5 Ohrns anda CID 330 V A blasting machine is
uscd.
In accordancc with thc instructíons on the blasting machine, the round may be
connccted in 5 parallel series.
Numbcr of detonators in cach series: 50.
Rcsistancc pcr series: 50X3.6= 180 Ohms.
Resistancc after parallcl conncction:
Rcsistancc/scries 180
~~-~~.- = - - = 36 Ohms
Nurnber of series 5
Rcsístancc at the fíring point is thc rcsistancc of the parallel-scrics connection
plus the resistancc of the firing cable.
36 + 5 "" 41 Ohms.

41
4
Possible errors during measuring:
Rcsistancc too iligh:
Largcr numbcr o!' dctona-
tors !han calculatnl.
Sub-division into series
wrongly carricd out.
Poor contact in sorne con-
ncct itHl or dctnn:itor.
Rcsistancc too hl\\''.
Al! dctonators are not
conncctcd in to thc circuiL
Sub-divísion into series
wrongly carricd out.
Somc par! of the rouncl
110! conncctcd in to thc cir-
cu it.
lnfinitc rcsistancc:
Intcrruption in series
through incomplctc con-
ncction,
hg, 31>,8 Ohm meter GA12.
Fau!ty dctonator (usua!ly
torn off lcgwírc),

RIM l.
Rcsistancc ami !nsulation Meter.
RIM 1 is a combina! ion instrumcnt
for mcasurcmcnt of' rcsistancc a11d
insulation in clcctrically initiatcd
blasting rounds, Thc instrumcnt is
providcd with thrcc tcrmin;il clips for
COll!lCClÍOll of thc objccts lll be lllC<!S-
llíCd,
Thc ccntcr and ldt clips me uscd !or
mcasurerncnt of rcsistancc. Thc ccn-
tcr aml right clips are uscd for insula-
tíon tcsting. The instrument is auto-
starting and auto-rnnging. Al! lhc
operator has to do is to conncct thc
round (or part of thc round) to thc
corrcct tcrrninals and rcad the valuc
at thc digital display.
Thc displaycd valuc is automatica!Jy
roundcd off to thc accuracy nccdcd
for practi;:al bbsting work, Vig, 3h,9 R!M /,
42
Thc instrumrnt is providcd with a built-ín sclf-tcst functíon, which givcs a display
reading of 5.0 to 5.3 whcn the test button is prcssed. Thc test consists of an
ínsulatíon measuremcnt of an interna! resistor.
Thc rcsistance is mcasurcd with a dircct currcnl (DC) of max. 2 mA.
The insulation is tcstcd with alternating curren! (AC) to reduce thc influence
frorn possihle voltaic ce!ls created by the metal in the blasting round wircs and
salt so!ution in the ground. Such voltaic ec!ls can inf!ucncc mcasurerncnt with
dircct current (DC) to such dcgrec that actual earth faults escapes detection.
Thc instrurncnt is powercd with a 9V baltery size 6F22 and indica tes when there
is time to exchangc battcry.

3h.2.3c Firing the round.


B!asting machines used to firc clectric blasting rounds havc to be approvcd by
thc appropriate authoritics. The use of batterics and accumulators is strictly
prohibited.
Capacitor hlasting machines havc proved to be vcry rcliablc cvcn under scvere
working conditions. Thc íntroduction of high safcty clectric dctonators has lcd to
thc dcmand for more powcrful blasting machines.
Thc following range of blasting machines are rnanufacturcd by Nitro Nobel
Swcdcn.

CI 50 (2VA):
This is the smallcst blasting machine
in thc range and it is dcsigncd for the
firing of maxirnum 2 V A-dctonators
or 50 conventional dctonators. It is
chéirgcd by means of an índuction gc-
ncrntor drivcn by a hand crank. Thc
chargc rnrrcnt is 340 V and it takes
about 5 scconds to charge the ma-
chinc. Thc füing curren! is autorna-
!ically rcleascd. which means that
you crank until firing occurs.

Fig. 3b.l0 CI 50 (2VA).

43
Cil5VA:
This is a somewhat largcr capacitor
blasting machi ne with an inductor gc-
ncrator drivcn by a lrnnd crank.
!t can be chargcd lo 600 V in aboul
10 scconds. A dial shows whcn thc
blasting rnachinc is fully chargcd.
The chargc curren! is high. thcrdore
lile blasting ma<:hinc is lwo-lwnd
operatcd to avoid clcctrical accidents
and reduce thc risk of accidental fir-
ing.
This hlasting machi ne is dcsigncd for
thc blasting of up to l5 VA-dctona-
tors in onc series with 10 Ohms firing Fíg. 3b.ll C! 15 VA.
cable rcsistance. Thc Jowcst conncc-
tion rcsistancc to thc blasting ma-
chine should he not kss tlwn :\.5
Ohms.

CB 20 VA:
CB 20 VA is a capacitor blasting nrnchinc dcsigncd for thc firing of up to 20 V/\
dctonators connectcd in onc series and with a fíríng cable resistan ce of 5 Ohms.
The blasting machine is battcry powcrcd and of a t\vo-hand opcrntion typc to
minimizc thc risk of accidental firíng. Thc four NíCd-aecumulators powcring thc
machinc are placed in thc handlc. ·rhc accumulators are rccharged by connecting
thc tcrminals of t he h!astíng machi ne to a 12 to 14 V DC powcr sourcc. e .g. thc
cigarcttc lighter sockct of a car.
If nccessary, lhc accumulators may
be rcp!accd hy four alkalinc battcr- t''
ics. ~
The control panel has three signa[
larnps indicating:
1. lf accumulator charge is suffi-
cient.
2. That thc rcsistancc of a ONE SE-
R! ES round is wíthin thc capacity
of the blasting machín e.
3. That the capacitor is clrnrgcd and Fi¡;. 3h.12 CB 20 VA.
rcady for firíng.
44
CI 160 VA:
With !he CI 160 VA it is possiblc to
adjust thc accumulated cncrgy. and
thcrcby the firing pulse. to suit the
round lO be fircd. evcn when the
round contains considcrably less de-
tonators than can be handled by thc
bl;1sti11¡.i: machinc.
Fu!I cncrgy accurnulalion is only
u sed whcn it is actually required. The
voltage is kept as low as possible to
minimíze thc risk of currcnt lcakage.
Thc machine is charged up by an
cfficient hand crankcd gcncrator.
Thc maximum voltagc (1950 V) is
rcachcd in approx. 20 scc. The char-
ge leve] is índicated on a meter which
has four divisions (1- 1V). The rc-
quircd chargc levcls are shown on a
tab!c on thc rnachinc's instruction
platc.
Fii. 3b.13 Cl 160 VA.

Ci\PACfTY or Cl 160 VA.

Rcsistancc of shotfiring cable 5 Ohms.

Dctonator Charging Series in Dctonators/ Detonators


typc leve! parallcl se ríes in thc round
·~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Vi\ 1- 10 1 -10

11 11-40 11-40
¡¡¡ 41-70 4 l - 70
2 21-45 42-90
IV 1 71-100 71-100
2 46- 70 92-140
3 31-50 93-150

45
CI 330 VA:
Thc CI 330 VA blasting ma-
chinc is similar to Cl 160 V A
but is dcsigncd for thc hlast-
ing of up to 330 V A dcto11a-
tors in one roun<l. Thc ma-
chine is charged by mea ns of
a hand-cr:rnkcd 12enerator
und is of a two-lwnd opcra-
tion typc to minimizc thc
risk of accidental firing. Thc
CI 330 V A is vcry robust und
fitted with heat ami cold re-
sistan\ capacitors.

Vig. 3h. l4 C! 330 VA.

CAPACITY of CI 330 VA:


Thc round can consist of betwcen 1 and 300 VA dctonators in 1 to:; series in
parallcl using a shot firíng cable of 5 Ohrns rcsistancc.
lf a shot firing cable of 2.5 Ohms rcsistancc is uscd. thc Cl 330 VA blasting
machine will firc up to :no VA dctonators dividcd into 6 parallel series at full
charging kvcl. (IV.)
Líkc thc CI 160 VA blasting machine. thc CI 330 V A machi ne may be chargcd to
four lcvcls which providcs the possibi!ity to choosc thc suitablc encrgy lcvcl for
any sizc of thc round up to :no V A dctonators.
Test instrumcnts for the b!asting machines.
Spccial test instrurnents are availablc for ali Nitro Nobcl's blasting machines.
with whích thc blasting machines can be chcckcd to scc that thcy givc thc cffcct
thcy are dcsigncd for. Thc ínstrumcnt is attachcd to thc blasting machinc's
tcrminals and thc machinc is chargcd and fircd as usual. Thc tcstcr pointcr
should thcn respond and movc in to thc red arca. This índicatcs that thc blasting
machinc is gíving full cffcct.
Fig. 3b. 15 Co1111cC1ing wirc and firing cahle.
Conncrting wire.
Connccling wirc is uscd to conncct thc diffcrcnt series in parallcl and to conncct
thc blasting round to thc firing cable. Connccting wirc rnay also be uscd to
cxtcnd thc length of thc legwircs.
Thc connccting wircs rnust be properly insulatcd and havc a low rcsistancc. l f thc
connccting wircs havc high rcsistancc thc capacity of thc blasting machinc will be
rcduccd. \Vorn or uscd connecting wircs rnust not be uscd as they may cause
misfircs.
Firing cable.
Thc firing cable is uscd to connect thc blasling round with t he blastíng machín e.
Thc firing cable must be twin wired to reduce the rísk of induction. lnductíon
currcnts may arise duc to lightning. radio cnergy, snow or sand storms. Thc twin
wírc cables to be used must he approved for use as fíring cable.
Thc firing cable must be completcly insulatcd and should not be splíced by
pcrsons othcr than clcctricians.
Thc firíng cable should havc as low rcsistancc as possiblc. High rcsistancc in thc
firing cable Jcads to rcduccd cffectiveness of thc blastíng rnachíne. Thc cable
should be kcpt on a cable winch and wound up to protcct it frorn damage. It
should be spccially colorcd so ít ís not mistaken for othcr electrí:: cables.

3b.2.3d Lightning dctection.


Whcncver thcrc is a risk of a thunderstorm, it is neccssary to evacua te worksites
whcrc clcctric firing is used. Nitro Nobel has devclopcd a líghtning detector,
V S L 2. to cvaluate thc actual on-site risk, registcring not only distan! lightning
hut also the clectrostatic fíe!d which arises during thunderstorms.
In ordcr to providc cffcctivc warning of lightning, flashes and high ficld intcnsi-
ties, thrcc differcnt typcs of thunderstorms must be takcn into account:
1. Thundcrstonns starting to devclop in !he warning arca. Thc vcry fírst light~
ning díscharge may then occur withín the arca concerncd.
2. Elcctrostatically charge precipitation in the form of rain and snow. Thís type
of prccipitation oftcn terminates with a sinµle flash of lightníng.
47
3. Thundcrstorms that are alrcady fully dcvclopcd whcn thcy en ter thc warning
arca.
Types 1 and 2 are registcred through a ficld mi 11 which accuratcly mea sures the
ficld intcnsity in thc air. Typc 3 is rcgistcrcd, nDt only hy thc field mili but al so by
a radio-wavc antcnna which can detcct thc clcctro-magnctic rndiation from
lightning flashes at distances of approx. l 5 kilomctcrs.

;,,,.''

,' •'
·'·-_.· ~
_.,,.:, --:.·:·
Fig. 3h. l 6 V S /, 2 Lighrning .fór<'casling sysl<'m.

48
3b.2.4 NONEL.
With the invcntion of NONEL. blasters wcrc providcd with a long sought
rcplaccmcnt for thc clectric dctonator which possesscs thc advantages of thc
clcctric dclonator but none of its disadvantages.
NONEL is complctcly irnmunc to any clcctric hazard and is thus ideal whcn
clcctríc firing is ncither possiblc nor pcrmitted.
Thc NON EL dctonator functions asan elcctric dela y dctonator. but the legwires
and thc fuschcad havc bccn rcplaced by a plastic tube through which a shock
wa\'C is transrnitted. Thc cndspit of thc shock wavc from the plastíc tu be initiatcs
thc dclay clcmcnt in thc dctonator.
Thc plastic tubc. which has an outcr diamctcr of 3 mm is coatcd on thc inside
with a thin !ayer of reactive material_ which transmits thc shock wavc with a
velocity of approx. 2.000 mctcrs pcr sccond. The plastic is unaffcctcd by the
shock wavc and \VÍ!I conscquently not initiale any explosives column it gocs
through.
Two NON EL systems are available:
NONEL GT
' NONEL UNIDET

3b.2.4a NONEL GT.


Thc rangc of NON EL GT timing offers both short dclays and dcci-second and
half-sccond dclays. Thc short dela y pcriods, NON EL GT/MS. rneet thc nceds of
bcnch blasting and thc deci-sccond and half-sccond delay periods. NONEL
GTiT are intcnded for tunncl blasting.
For the connection and initiation of thc NON EL GT detonators. NON EL group
ignitcrs UB O or detonating cord are uscd.
The group igniter NON EL UB O consist of a NON EL tuhe with onc end scaled
anda transmítter cap in the othcr. The lransmittcr cap is protectcd by a plastic
block.
Thc initiation with detonating cord should be done with a cord with low core load
(E-cord 5 gr/m). In bench blasting the NONEL tube is connectcd to thc cord
with a MULTJCLIP and in tunncling thc NON EL tu bes are collccted in bunches
aml thcn fircd with cord. Thesc methods will be dcalt with more thoroughly
!a ter.
NONEL UT/MS is an all-round firing system which may be uscd in most
situations when millisccond delay is nccdcd likc bench blasting, trench blasting,
undcrwatcr b!asting cte.

49
Fig. 3!>.17
NONEJ,GT!MS NON EL UB O
detonutor

Fig. 3h.18 NONF..L GT!MS hooked 11p ro U/3 O co1111ecror 11nit.


Thc UB O connector Ltnit includcs a transmittcr cap with a strcngth corrcspond-
ing to 1/3 of a #8 blnsting cap. lt is dcsigned solcly to initiatc thc NON EL tubc.
Thc conncctor unil is so designcd that thc conncctcd NONEL tube is in closc
contact with thc transmittcr cap. thus rcducing thc risk of discontinuancc in thc
round. Whcn thc shock wavc. whích gocs through the NON EL tubc ( 1). rcachcs
thc connccting block (2) thc transmittcr cap cxplodcs and initiatcs all thc
NONEL tubcs conncctcd to thc block. fn this wa:-·. thc initíating impulse is
transmittcd to 011c or more dctonators (3) and also to 1he ncxt C()!lllcctor unit (4)
where thc proccdurc is rcpcatcd. Thc NON EL UB O conncctor unit is principal·
lv dcsi¡mcd for bcnch blasting. aml up to 8 NON EL tubcs may be hookcd up in
.cach conncctor unit.
)()
3 3 3 3 ! 3 4

~
1
5 5 5 5 i 5 6

~
Fig. 3h.J9 NONEL GTIMS co1111ectC'd 10 UB O in be11ch blasting.

8 6 4

Fig. 3b.20 NON EL CiTIMS connecred 10 UB O in tff11ch hlasting.

51
Thc NONEL GT/MS dc(o-
nators may also be conncc-
tcd to dctonating cord if
noise is no problcm. The
NONEL tubcs shou!d be
connected to thc detonating
cord with a MULTICUP as
thc NONEL tuhcs ought to
he perpendicular ln thc
cord. Each l'v1lJLTICUP
can take up to 2 NON EL tu-
bes togcthcr with thc conl.
Fig. 3h.21 MU!_ T!CL!P.

Fig. 3h.22 ll/(),\if:L <JTi¡\1S connened 10 dcwnaring co}'{/.

The NONEL GT/T is dcsigncd spccia!ly l"or tunnc! h!asting. Thc ddays are
longer ihan in the NON EL GT/MS system as more time is nccdcd for brcakagc
and movcmcnt of thc rock in thc constrictcd tunncl b!asts.
The delay times bctwccn thc pcriods vary lrom 75 ms to 500 ms and 25 pcriods
are availablc.
The standard tubc kngths are (1.fl ;n1d 7.K rn hui othcr lcngths are availahlc on
special on.lcr.
52
Thc simples! way of connccting NON EL GTrr is by using the NONEL Bunch
Conncctor. which consists of a loop of dctonating cord (E-cord) connccted to a
UB O connector unit.
Connection procedure:
Thc NONEL tubes. which
should be around 2 m longer
than the hole depth. are col-
!cctcd in bunchcs \vith a
maximum of 20 tubes in
cach. Thc bunch is sccurcd
with insulation tape. A
NONEL Bunch Conncctor
1s thoroughly tightened
around thc bunch. Immcdi-
atcly bcforc ev;;cuation of
thc blasting site. thc bunch
conncctors are conncctcd to
a conncctor unit UB ()ora
Startcr aner which thc
round is rc;1dy for hlasting. Fig. 3b.23 Connecrion of lllnne! round 1vith
NONEL !31111ch Co1111ect0rs.

Thc bunchcs may ;liso be ticd up and conncctcd together with 5 gr detonating
cord. As the amount of cord on thc rock surfacc is grcatcr in this case, thcrc is an
incrcascd risk of cut-offs and subscqucnt misfircs.

Rangc of NON EL GT detonators:

Numbcr Delay De!ay time


!ntcrval of rangc betwccn
Dcscription number intervals (ms) intcrvals

NONELGT/MS 3-20 18 75-500 25


dctonator
NONEL GT/T o 25 25
dctonator l-12 12 100- 1200 100
14. !6. 18. 20 4 l 400- 2000 200
25, 30, 35, 40,
45. 50, 55, 60 8 2500-6000 500

Thc standard tube lcngths of NON EL GT/MS dctonators are 4.8, 7.8 and 15.0
m. Othcr lcngths can be ordcrcd from 2.4 m and upwards in intcrvals of 0.6 m.
NONEL GT/T is only manufactured in standard lcngths of 6.0 and 7.8 m.
53
Dcscription Dclay (rns) Standnrd tubc lcngtb (m)

UB O O 1.8, 3.0. 4.8. 6.0


Startcr () 30. 50. 100

3b.2.4h NONEL UNIDET.


Many applications rcquirc more pcriod numbcrs than are avail;ihlc in any
prcvious firing systcm. ln thc case of rounds whcrc thc lcngth of thc blast is grcat
in comparison with thc wídth. c.g. trcnch blasting, thc blasts bccomc too small
wíth MS detonators with its lirnited numbcr of pcriods. In cautious blasting.
ground vibration limitations may rcstrict thc use of severa! chargcs within thc
sanie pcriod numbcr. Wíth thc NONEL UNIDETsystcm an unlimitcd numbcr
of cxact!y tímcd dclay pcriods are obtaincd.
The NON EL UNIDET sys-
tcm consists of a NONEL //: //'
// ...
downlinc with a dctonator
with 500 rns dc!ay and NO-
N EL surfacc conncctors
with 17. 25 and 42 ms dclay. ,, ,,.
.·', '·'
Each holc has thc samc base 'I
dela y, SOO rns, and t he actual :'I!
sno ::.oDms
dclay betwccn thc holcs is
obtaincd bv thc surl'acc dc-
lay conncctors. ..
As thc actual time bctwccn
initiation and dctonatíon of
./'
thc blastholc is grcatcr than :/:
the surfacc activatíon time, :/.'
thc risk of cut-off downlincs
or lrun klincs duc to rock
movcment is minimizcd.
/
.i ,t:
,/
'>.'\

Fig. 3h. 24 l'ri11ci¡;/c o!)i111C1io11.

Dcnom inations:
Thc basis of thc UNID ET. systcm is thc dctonator with SOO ms dclay which is
known as U 500. Thc standard lcngths of thc tubc are 4.8. 6.0. 7.8 and 15.0 ni.
but other lcngths may be ordcred from 2.4 m and upwards in 0,6 m intcrvals.
For thc conncction of thc round, four díffcrcnt kinds of connccting units are
availablc.
)-f
Three with a built-in dela y of 17 ms. 25 ms and 42 ms respcctively. the fourth is
the connector wíth no dclay which is mentioncd in the NONEL GT systcm.
The standard tubc !engths are 2.4 and 4.8 m but, as in the case of thc detonators.
thcy may be nrnnufactured in any length in 0.6 m interva!s.

--·~~~·~·--~----------

NONEL UNIDET
Dcnomination u 500
Dclay rns 500

Conncctor
Color Yellow Bluc Red Green
Dcnomínatíon UB O UB 17 UB 25 UB 42
Dclay rns () 17 25 42
-~-,-·,__,,,,-~,--,-~

·---~---•:---.....~· ~
!'ll"'"·~--~.Jr.t-~---..~~--~111:--J~~

,tp----"--------~"-----41111:::--.J. .~
'11""'-----~J:r~~~_....~~---..,.,~--J~

Fi¡;. 3b. 25 Connecrion of ben ch b!asrínr; round with NON EL UN 1D ET

55
Fig. 3h.26 Co11necrio11 o( trcnc/i hf11s1i11g ro1111<1 wirh NOi'v'I:L UN!DCT

3h.2.4c NONEL Systcm Blasling Machines.


A NON EL round mav be fircd by safcty fuse am! a p!ain dctonator in locations
where time prccision is not ncccssary c._Q. in undcrgrnund blasting.s. In blastings
where thc momcnt of initintion must be lolal!y under controL like surfacc
blasting and blastings with ground vibration control. clcctric firing may be uscd if
the firing point is extended outsidc the hazardous arca.
Howcver. thc safcst and most reliablc way nf inít iatíng a NON EL round is to use
NONEL Systcm Blasting ivbchincs.
Nitro Nobel has dcvcloped lwo types of blasting machines to initiate NONEL
rounds. the manually actuated HN l and the pneumatic PN J. Both machines use
"Shot Shcll Primers No. 20" primer caps.
HN l:
HN 1 is a simple and highly
effective hand held blasting
machine, robust!y construc-
ted in tough metal a!loys and
stainlcss steel. lts slendcr
form and a wcight of only
approx. 450 g makcs it casy
to carry in a pockct.
It has an integral safety dc-
vice and is a complete blast-
ing machi ne. no othcr equip-
ment being necdcd to fire
thc NONEL round.

¡¡
!!
¡;
¡!

li
!i,,

PN 1:
PN 1 is a pncumatically opc-
ratcd blasting machinc dc-
signcd to stand in thc vicinity
of thc round and be remotc-
ly actuatcd by cornprcsscd
air. Thus thc blastcrs safety
is assurcd and saYings are
madc in NONEL startcr
tu bes.
Snap-on air-linc couplings
allow thc machinc to be mo-
ved hctwccn !ocations anda
safcty !ock is providcd to
Fig. 3b.28 PN J.
preven\ prcmaturc firing.

NONEL is ínvcntcd by Nitro Nobel of Swcdcn, which is manufacturer ami


lradcmark holder.
NONEL is also rn<1nufacturcd undcr !iccnse by liccnscholdcrs.

3c. ACCESSORIES,

E!ectrk \Varning Síren for B!asting ESS 1.


Thc ESS l is a spccial!y dc-
signcd warning sircn for
blastin_g opcratíons. Thc si-
rcn is powcrcd by 12 V
DC and has a powcrful
magnct in its base which cn-
ab!cs it to be firmly attachcd
to for cxarnplc a car roof.
ESS 1 is dc:;igncd to suit !he
·-onc-off" ami smallcr work-
sitcs.

Fíg. 3c. J ESS l,

5
57
Drill hole plugs.
Dril! holc pi ugs prcvent thc
fínished dril! holc from bc-
comíng blockcd by dírL
grave!, dril! cuttings cte.
CíltCl'Íllg at thc coJJ;ir of thc
holc.
Thc plug's vivid red coloring
also serves as an cffcctívc
markcr.
Typc Plug dia. Dril! holc día.
min/max m in/max
mm mm
#1 29-- 50 34-45
#2 39-60 45-57
#3 57-1 !5 M-110

Fig. 3c.2 Dril/ hule p/11gs.

Chargc locks.
Chargc locks prevent the
chargc from hcing blown out
of thc b!ast holc dunng fir-
ing. Two sizes me av:1ilablc:
Typc Blast holc día.
min/max mm
#! 31-43
#2 43-64
Scc Fig. 8. l l.

Tampíng rods.
Plastíc tamping rods are csscntial for a good standard of packing during charging
with papcr cartridgcs.
Standard rangc:
Díamctcr Lcngth
25 mm 3, 5 and 8 m
40 mm 3 and (i m.
Tamping rods may also be made of wood or hamboo. 1t is irnportant that its
diarnetcr is c!ose to thc diamcter of thc blastholc.
58
4. BLASTING THEORY

Fif{. 4.1 Bcnch blastinf{ wi1h EMUUTE muí NONEL

Thc rock is affectcd by a detonating explosive in thrcc principal stagcs.


l n the first stage, starting from the initiation point, thc blastholc cxpands by
crushing the blasthole walls. This is duc to thc high prcssure upon dctonatíon.
l n thc sccond stage. compressíve stress waves emana te in ali dírections from the
blasthole with a vclocity equal to the sonic \vave vclocity in the rock.
Whcn thcsc comprcssivc stress waves reflect against a free rock face, they cause
tcnsi!c strcsses in !he rock mass bctwccn the blasthole and the free face. If the
tcnsilc strength of thc rock is cxceeded, the rock breaks in the burden arca,
which is thc case in a corrcctly designed blast.
59
Pulverized

hg. 4.1 Radial crnck for111111io11. hg. 4.3 Co111prcs.1it·e srrcss w111"cs.

ln thc lhird swgc. thc rclcascd


gas vol u me "cntcrs" thc crnck
formation under high prcssu-
rc, cxpanding thc crack s. lf
thc distancc bctwccn !he
b!astholc nnd thc free facc is
corrcctly calculatcd, !he rock
mass lwtwccn thc h!aslholc
and thc free facc will yicld and
be thrown rorw;1rd.

Fig. 4. 4 Gas ¡;e11em11io11 of crack f!imwríon.

Thc cxplosivcs rcaction in thc blasl holc is vcry fast and thc cffcctivc work or thc
cxplosivc is considcrcd complctcd whcn thc blastholc volumc has cxpandcd to
!O times its original volumc which takcs approx. 5 ms.
Thc fo!lowing grnph shows how thc cxpansion oí !he hlastholc is rclatcd to tí me.
(J[)
V /Vo V cxpandcd blastholc volumc
V., origina! blastholc volume /
I
I
10 /

8 3

6~
4

2
1
1
o 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.5 2 3 5 10 ms

Fig. 4.5 Blasthole expansion in relmíon to time.

l. lnítiation of shockwavc in rock crushing. Thc blastholc cxpands to doublc its


original volumc (2V0 ). Thc b!asthole will stay at this volumc for relatively
long time (O.! to 0.4 ms) befo re radial cracks start to open.
2. Bcsidcs thc natural cracks are ncw cracks formcd mainly by interaction
bctwcen thc stress ficld around thc blastholc and !ensile strcsses formed by
rcflcction of thc outgoing shockwave at the free facc. Reaction products
cxpand from blasthole (which volumc now is quadrupled) into the cracks.
Fragmcntation starts.
3. Gas expands further and accclcratcs thc rock mass.

61
5. BENCH BLASTING

hg. 5.1 Quarry b/a.1·1í11g í11 Sweden.

5.1 General
Bcnch blasting is !he mosl common kind of blasling work. lt can be dcfincd as
blasting of vertical or closc to vertical blastholcs in onc or severa! rows towards a
free surfacc. Thc blastholcs can havc free brcakage or fixed boltom.
62
Fig. 5.2 Frff hreakage. Fig. 5.3 Fixed botrom.

Most types of b!asting can be considered as bench blasting.


Trcnch blasting for pipclincs is also a kind of bench blasting, but as the rock is
more constrictcd. it rcquircs a highcr spccific chargc and more closcly spaced
dri!ling.
In tunneling. after the cut has been blasted. the stoping towards thc cut is a type
of bcnch blasting.
Rock is a materia! with widely varying propertics. lts tcnsile, cornpressíve and
shcaring strengths vary with different kinds of rock and may vary within the sarne
blast. As thc rock's tensilc strength has to be cxcec<lcd in ordcr to break the
rock. its geologica! propcrties will affect its blastability.
Rock forrnations are rarcly homogeneous, The rock formation in tbe blast arca
may consist of diffcrent types of rock. Furthermore, faults and dirt-seams may
change the effect of thc explosivc in the blast. Faulty rock containing voids,
wherc the gases penctrate without giving full effect, may be difficult to blast even
though thc rock may have a relatívely low tensile strength.
The rcquisite specific charge, (kg/cu.m.) provides a first-rate measure of the
blastability of the rock. By using the specific chargc as a basis for the calculation,
it is possible to calculate the charge which is suitable for the rock concerned.
Tbe distributíon of the explosives in the rock is of thc utmost importance. A
closcly spaced round with small diametcr blastholcs gívcs much bctter frag-
mcntation of the rock than a round of widely spaced largc diameter blastholes,
provided that the same specific chargc is used. (See Chapter 5.6 Fragmentation.)
The following calculations are bascd on a specific charge of 0.4 kg/cu.m. of
EMULITE 150 in the bottom part ofthe round. In the constrícted bottom part of
63
thc blastholc. this specific ehargc is ncedcd to shattcr thc hurdcn. but in thc
colurnn par! of thc holc considcrably kss explosives are needcd to break the
rock. Thc average specific clrnrge of the round (hole) wíll he lcss than 0.4
kg/cu.m.
Th..: valuc applics 1<\ burdcns be!ween ! .O and 10.0 111 and can be uscd for rnost
kinds of rock. Thc basis of" the computations of bcnch blasting will he Langc-
fors" formula:

13 tn;i.'\ e=·~~~-
p·s -
....,...., _ . ,,
.).) e · f · Sí B
whcrc
B,mx = maximum burdcn ( lll)
d ""'diamctcr in thc hottum of thc blastholc (mm)
p "'packing dcgrcc (loading dcnsit:-·) (kg.litcr)
s "'wcight strcngth of thc cxplosÍ\l' (EMUUTE l:'\O~·IJ.9:'\)

e "" rock constan! (k¡J/ctLm.)


(' = c + O.U) for B""'' he! \\Ten 1.-1 amf 1:'\.ll rnctcrs
== dcgrcc or rixation. 1.0 f"or vertical hoks
and tl.9:'i !'or hules 1vith incli11atío11 .i: 1
s,Tl == ratio of spacing tn burdcn
8
Thc Modcrn Tcchniquc of Rock Blasting. Lingcfors/Kíhlstróm.
In thc f"ollowing calculations. Lrngdors' formula is simplíficd to:
13"'"' "" 1.47 v\, for Dynamcx M
B""" = lA:'i vl 1, for Emulitc l:'iO
B""" = 1.36 \IÍ¡, for ANFO
wh~'rC 1h is thc rcquisitc chargc conccntratio11 (kg/Jn) nf thc sclcctcd cxplosívc in
thc bottom part of thc blasthole.
Thc holc inclín;1tio11 is as~umcd to he 3: 1 a11d !he rnck constant e is 0.-1. Thc
bcnch hcight K is ;?;2xB"''".
For othcr valucs of holc inclination ancl rock constant corrcctíon factors :in:
uscd.
Thc chargc co11cc11trntion dcpcnds t)ll th~' diamctcr \lf thc blastlwlc and thc
utílizatíon of thc holc.
Explosivcs in papcr cartridgcs. which are normally tampcd with a tamping rod in
small diamctcr blastholcs. can be tampcd toan utilization of up lo 90 i;;, of thc
blastholc if tamping ís carrícd out aftcr thc introduction of cach cartridgc. lf
tampíng is carricd out aftcr cvcry t\vo or thrcc carlridgcs. thc charge concentra~
tion will be considcrahly lowcr. Pncumatic charging machines givc good tamping
of papcr cartrídgcs with hígh utilízation of thc blastholc vol u me.
Explosivcs in plastíc hoscs wcrc introduccd for thc convcnicnce of fast chargíng
and casy handlíng. Droppcd into thc blasthole. thcy are intcndcd to fil! up thc
holc wcll. Howcver, differcnt tamping charactcrbtics of díffercnl cxplosivcs gívc
varying results. Emulitc cartrídgcs in plastic hoscs. which are cut along thc sidc.
fil! up thc hole almost complctcly by ímpact. while dynamitcs and watcrgels with
(l4
thcir stiffcr consistcncy do not fill up the holc that wcll, espccial!y in thc winter.
lt is importan! whcn charging wet blastholcs that the ho!cs are flushcd and
clcaned beforc diarging. lf the blastholcs contain water, thc packing of the
cxplosive will be almost nil and thc charge concentration of the cartridgcs should
be uscd for thc calculations. Bulk explosives which are pumpcd, augered or
pourcd into the h!asthole utilizc the blasthole volumc to 100 %.
Tllc ca!culatíons that follmv wi!I involvc thc following cxplosives:
Dynamcx M
Emulite 150
ANFO
which are explosivcs with diffcring charactcristics rcgardíng wcight strength and
dcnsítv.
As tlle rnaximum burdcn, B"""" is also dependen! on the fixation degree at the
bottorn part of thc blastholc. thc computations will in vol ve drilling with ínclína-
tion 1: 1. which dccrcascs thc constríction in thc hottom part of the holc. For
othcr inclinations corrcction factors can be uscd.
Thc ¡rncking dcgrcc (utilízation of the blastholc) of thc cxplosivc in the bottom
part of the blastholc is assumcd to be 95 % for Emulitc 150 in p!astic hoscs and
90 ~:t for Dynamcx M. Poured ANFO and pumped Emulitc fill up thc holc to
100 '>.
lt is vcry irnportant for thc hlasting result that thc chargc conccntration obtaincd
hv 1hc calculations is achicvcd in practicc.
Thc fonnulae uscd in the calculations are empirical, but are based on informa-
l ion frorn thousands of blasts. The expcricncc of Langcfors' calculations is so
good that it could be considcrcd unnecessary in most blasting operations to make
tria) blasts. Howevcr, local condítions may makc it neccssary for thc practica!
opcrator to test thc theorctical calculations in thc ficld.

65
5.2 Charge calculations. BENCH .. ,,.,.,
,.........sp:i.:::in:g
Bcnch hcight ;:;:2x Bm:ix· .. }.P:::t(1n1.

D1.cu1h.:t<.:r ül thi.: h!a~thPl1.·


ín thc hnl!orn (mili)

K lh:ndi hciµ.!n {111)


St.cmm1n>;.
11 .. t'.1;ixirnurn l1ti1dl'!: {rn)
[; Suhdril!in~ (m) !
fl t folc dcp;h (lll)
¡: f:rrni tr: dnllln¡~ (m)
ll t>r;11..'!K;1! hoHk:n (inj
s l11artkal "p;1ci11i: \H\)
¡, Spcnltl' d1illin¡'. (m.'nt m l
Holl'.!
I;. ('rnl({.'/ll!:111rnl ni hu1!1•rn dcpth
\:ha1gc !kwm)
h¡, 1h:iglu of hounm i:h;1rf!1..' (lll)
01. \\\;i_µhl o{ bO!ltHll c.:hargt.' i~µl
h.. 1k·iµ-ht ni -:tt.•niirnaµ (m)
1, ( 'onr1.·1Hr:ninn ,,¡ cnlunin
ch;ir~~t.' !kµ.iml
h f k1µ.lll of r(>h11nn •.:h<tr¡.!l.'. (111)
\\\:i~!hl ol ..:olumn d1;1q~t' (tll)
º·
o. ·¡ ()!<tl di:iq~~· wdµ.!11 pl·r
j¡,¡il' ikg)
(].:~·cu m l

Thc following assumptions are madc for thc calcula1ions:


K is cqual to. or more than 2xB,,,",.
Explosive: Emulitc 150 Dynamcx M ANFO
Packing dcgrcc: 9:'i <;; '){) r·; - 1()() (.''i·
1.15 kg/l l .25 kg/I 0.8 kg/I
Rock constant e: 0.4 0.4 0.4
Holc inclination: :u :u :1:1

Calrnlation proccdurc:
Thc maximum burden in thc
bottom of thc blastholc dc-
pcnds on:
wcight strcngth of thc actu-
al cxplosivc (s)
" chargc conccntration (lh) rock
* rock constant (e) /'
constriction of thc blastholc ,';

,/ i
(R1)
// Cons!riction

'"-f~ Charge concentrat;on


As mcntioncd bcfore. the maximum burclen B"'"' is calculatccl from Langcfors'
formula. which has becn simplified to:
for Dynamex M B01 ,., = l.47 Vi;;·xR 1 xR 2 (m)
for Emulitc 150 B"'ª' = 1.45 \/Í1~XR 1 XR2 (m)
for ANfO Bmax = 1.36 \/Í~·xR 1 xR 2 (m)
whcrc l¡, = chargc conccntration. kg/m as pcr point 1. as follows
R 1 = corrcction for holc inc!ination othcr than 3: l as pcr point 2, as
follows
R 2 "" correction for rock constan! othcr than 0.4 as pcr point 3. as follows

l. Dctcrmination of chargc concentration, l¡,.


a/ For tampcd cartridgcs and bulk explosivcs
lh = 7.85 cFxP
whcrc d = blasthole diameter. dm
P = packing dcgrec. kg/litcr

Chargc conccntration for dífferent blasthole diarnetcrs and diffcrcnt explosives:


Blastholc diameter (mm) 51 64 76 89 102 127 152

ANFO. kg/111 1.6 2.6 3.6 5. () 6.5 JO. 1 14.5


Emulitc 150 (cut and dropped
into dry blastholes). kg/m 2.3 3.7 5.0 7. ¡ 9.3
Bulk cmulitc, kglm 2.4 3.9 5.3 7.5 9.9 15.3 21.9
Dvnamcx M (chargcd with
pncumatic charging machinc
ami ROBOT). kg/m 2.6 4.0 5.6 7.8 10.2

Chargc conccntration. kg/m, for drill series 11 and 12. Tarnpcd cxplosives.
Blastho!c cliametcr. mm
27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39

Eml50 0.66 0.71 0.76 0.81 0.87 0.92 0.98 1.04 J. 11 1.17 1.24 1.30 1.37
Dx M 0.69 0.74 0.79 0.85 0.91 0.96 l.03 1.09 1.16 1.22 1.29 1.36 1.43

67
hí Chargc co11cc11tr;11 io1i. ]¡,. for cxplosivcs in plastic lwscs at difkrcnt dcgrccs of
com prcssion.

[) YN ;\f\l E\'. f\l LMULITL l~O

E 0.3
e 5
Cl>
'2::> 0.4
.o
4 0.5
xro
:::;;
3

1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10


Charge concentration, lb, kg/m
~ 32 40 51 76 8,9 192
l Emulite 150. P • 1.20

$ 5,1 64 76 89 102
'
Bu!k Emulíte

(¡ 51 64 76 89 102 i27
'
ANFO

~ 32 40 5,i 64 76 89
Dynamex M. p. 1.25
Fig. 5.4 The i11jl11cnce of c/1111p,e concrn1rilfion 011 11wxi111w11 lwrd('11, 13,,,,,,..
(Íí\
:>. Ctlrrcction of 13,,"" for dif-
krcn! rock constan! c.
!""
¡ e () ..\ OA 0.5
i
O. l)()
L R. 1.15 l.llO

Subdri!!ing = 0.3 x maxirnum


hurdcn. at lcast 10 x d.
U = 0.3 X Bnrnx (m) I
/
!/!
//
Thc suburi!ling is nccessary to /!
avoid stumps abovc thc thco-
I
/
retical grade.

:u 0.3·Bmax
Depth ofthe hole = bcnch hc-
ight + subdrilling + S cm!m of
thc dcpth of the blastholc duc
10 3: 1 inclination.
H = K+U+0.05(K+U)
H = I.05(K+U) (ml

¡/
K
// ~

u
¡:
/J
ji to

l nclined boles have a favor-


able anglc of breakagc be-
l wccn the holes ami thc in-
tendcd bottom, thus dccreas-
ing the constríction in the hot-
lorn part of the holcs.

Faulty drilling consists of:


1
Co!laringcrror "' d (in mm)
Alignmcnt error = 0.03 mim
of the blasthole dcpth.
d
E =--+0.03XH (m)
1000
lt has to be taken in10 account
that it is impossible to drill a
holc cxactly in accordance
with theoretical computa-
tions.
Both the machines uscd aml
the skill of the operator affecl
the accuracy of thc drilling.
Thc error should not be al-
lowcd to exceed E as calcu-
lated in accordance wíth the
abovc formula.
70
Whcn thc practica! burden is
calculatcd. thc error in drill-
in¡r has to be dcductcd.
(m)
Thc rule of thumb, B = (L
whcrc B (burdcn) is cxprcss-
cd in mctcrs and d (blastholc
diamctcr) is cxprcsscd in
inchcs. can be uscd to check
Bmax - E
t he cakulations.

Thc bmden is thc distancc


from thc blastholc to thc ncar-
cst free facc at thc instant of
dctonation. ln multiplc row
blasts ncw faces are crcatcd at
cach dctonation.

s
Practica! hole spacing Sis cal-
culatcd from thc rclation
S = l.25 X B (m)
Spacing is thc distance be-
twccn the adjacent blastholes
in a row.
= 1.25·8
lf thc ratio SiB is changcd //
!,'

without the spccific drilling or


thc spccific chargc being
changed it \.Vill rcsult in thc
following:
SIB> 1.25. fincr fragmentation
SIB<l.25. coarscr fragmcntation
7l
Specific drilling is thc dri!!ing
w
ncedcd to blast 1 cu. m. of
rock ancl can be exprcsscd as:
nXH
b = --------- (m/cu.ml
nXBXSXK
for q uarries and open pit
mines.
In road cuts ele. whcrc li!ast·
ing is pcrfonned wíthin a lim-
itcd arca, thc spccific drilling
is cnlculated per row:
nXH
b = .
·-·~- ~--· (m/cu.m.)
wXBXK
whcrc w is thc width of thc
round.
Thc lattcr value will be higher
due !o t he influence of t he
cdgc holcs.

Charging the blasthole.


In ordcr to lnoscn and break
thc rock in thc constrictcd //
bottorn part of thc blasthole,
thc chargc conccntration uscd
for thc c:dculation nf 13"'"' // hb = l3·Bmax
should be u sed: //
//
l¡, = charge conrentration
used for dctermination of
Bmax-
1{hb'
Height of thc bottom diargc:

h¡, = 1.3 X B""" (m)

72
Thc bottom charge will thcn
be:
(kg)

Stemming.
The unloadcd part of the
blastholc, the stemming, is
normally cqual to thc hmden:
(m)
Thc stemming should consist
of sand or grave! with a parti-
cle size of 4 to 9 mm. Research
has shown that this sizc givcs /'
the bcst confinemcnt of the
ho
1

cxplosivcs gases. Drillfincs


shou ld be avoidcd.
lf h., < B. t he risk of flyrock
from thc uppcr surface in-
crcascs. but the amount of
bouldcrs decreases. On thc
othcr hand, h 0 > B, it will givc
more boulders but superficial
throw will be less or elimi-
nated.
73
6
To break thc rock abovc thc
bottom chargc, a column
charge is applicd. As this part
of the blasthole is lcss con-
stricted, thc chaq~e con-
centration may be Jcss.
Ir= 40to60 % ofl¡, (!<g/m)
40 to 60 %
of lb

The height of the column


diarge is thc rema in ing part of
thc blastholc.
h" = H-h¡,-h., (m)


¡~
ri! Thc column clrnrge is t hcn
!'.
1 (!<g)
i

74
Thc total charge per hole is
thc bottom chargc plus thc
column chargc.
º'º' = Qh + º" (kg)

Ob +Oc

Thc specific charge may be


calculated in the s2me manner
as specific drilling (b).
nXQtot
q =-----(kg/cu.m.)
nXBXSXK
for quarrics and open pít
mines.
In rnad cuts etc. whcrc blast-
ing is performcd within a lim-
itcd arca, !he specific charge
is ca!culatcd per row:
11XQ1ot
q = ----· (kg/cu.m.)
wXBXK
whcre w is thc \vídth of the n ·Otot
round. w·B·K
Thc value of thc spccifíc char-
gc will be hígher duc to the
íníluencc of thc edgc holcs.

75
EXAMPLE SHOWING HOW THE CALCULATION FOR BEN CH BLASTING
rsCARRIED OUT:

Conditions:
Bench hcight: K = 15 111
Width of thc round: \V= 26 1ll
Blastholc diamctcr: d = 76 111111
Rock constan!: c =- 0.4
Holc ínclination: 3: l
Explosivc: Emulitc l 50 in 65 mm plastíc hoscs dropt in to
thc holc.
Charging condition: Dry boles

Calcu!ation of drilling pattern.

l. Maximum burden.
B""" = l.45\/i;~ Chargc conccntration. !¡,.is found in table la
¡ind is in this case :'i.O kg/m. No corrcction for
holc inclination or rock constan!.
13 111 " = I.45 \/{O= 3.24 m
t
~

2. Suhdrilting.
1 u = 0.3 X 13,mx U = 0.3 X 3.24 = 0.97 111

¡¡!
,, 3. Depth of blaslhole.
,¡~
¡r H -·· I.05(K+U) 1-1 ""' l.lJ5( I:'i.0+0.97) = 16.76 m
¡!
¡¡
4. Error in dril!ing.
I!í d 76
+ 0.03 = 0.58
j F ""~- + 003 X H E = --- X 16.76 111
! 1()()(} !000

5. Practica! burden.
B ·-
B""" - F B = 3.24 - 0.58 = 2.66 111
6. Practica! spacing.
S= 1.25 X B S = 1.25 X 2.66 = 3.32 m

7. Adjustment for width of the round.


w 26.0
--- = 7.83 = 8 spaccs
s 3.32
wíclth 26.0
Sadj = - - = 3.25 m
No. of spaccs/row 8

Note tha! thc numbcr of holcs in a row is thc numhcr of spaccs +l.

8. Spccific drilling.
nxH 9xl6.76
b = ··-···---·-- b = 0.145 m/cu.m.
Bx K x w 2.66 X 15.0 X 26.0

Calculation of chargcs.

9. Concentration of bottom charge.


111 "' l¡, for thc dctcnnination l¡, = 5.0 kg/m
of B 111 ,". fn accordancc
with table l a.

10. Hcight of the bottom charge.


h¡, = l.J X 3.24 = 4.20 m

11. Weight of bottom chargc.


Q¡, = I¡, X h11 Ü¡, = 5.0 X 4.20 = 21.0 kg

12. Stcmming.
h.,= B h., = 2.66 m

13. Concentration of column charge.


l, "" 40 to 60 % of 111 l, = 0.5 x 5 .O = 2.50 kg/m

14. Height of column charge.


l\. "" 11 - h¡, - h(l h, = !6.76 - 4.20 - 2.66 = 9 \,'() m

15. Weight of column charge.


Üc = l, X }\. Q, = 2.50 X 9.90 = 24.75 kg

16. Total d1argc.


0101 = Q¡, + Üc 0101 = 21.00 + 24.75 = 45.75 kg

17. Specific charge.


11 X Ü101 9 X45.75
q = q = -----·------ = 0.40 kg/cu.m.
BxKxw 2.66X 15.0x26.0 ,.

77
1f thc blast is not limikd to a ccnain arca. thc spccific drilling and spccific chargc
1víll be lowcr.
!n thc abovc examplc. thc spccífic chargc wi!I then be:
45.75
q q ------------·--- = {l.3~ kg/ct1.1n.
BxSxK 2.h6X.\ ..i2X 15.0

Jn quarrying thcrc is no nccd to adj ust t he spacing bctwccn 1he holcs and numbcr
or hnlcs ín aceord:rncc with thc 11·idth of thc cut.

Drilling and charging tables.


Thc following tables gi1·c thc computcd kc\' data for diffcrent blastholc dia-
rnctcrs.
Thc tables givc thc l'alucs for bcnch hcights hi¡,d1cr tlrnn 2 x B""''' lowcr be ne hes
will be dealt wíth separntely (Sec Leveling).
Thc fírsl two t<ihlcs givc the kcy data for dril! series l l and l 2. Thcsc series are
dcvclopcd mainly fm manual drillíng.
Thc series is a series of dril! rods with carhide-tipped bits. incrcasing 0.8 m in
lcngth and dccrcasing ! mm in di:imcler bctwcen one dril! rod and thc ncxt onc.

rr-
,

~
034mm
1

/
033mm
!

'
l
032rnrn

/
03lrnm

hg. 5.5 Dril! series 11.


78
The drilling and charging tables for Emulite !50 may also be uscd for Dynamex M.
Drilling ;1nd clwrginl1 table for dríll :--crics ! 1.
Bbt~thok di~trnctcr .°'-1--2<) mm.
Lxpl<lsivc: Emuli!c J:ill
Hnk inclína1íon: .1: ¡

lkndi hc'i¡:h1 K (m) 2.0 .1.11 .'\.:i 4.0 .\.) :i.O 5.:i
H"k dianwkr d (llllll) 31 31 ~I N N W ~ n
Ilok dq,1h 11 (lll) 2.)0 3.SS 4. iO .l.W 5. lll 5.60 6. l:i
Pr;iclil':il hunkn ll (111) 10 120 .1.'í 1.10 1. 10 1.0:i 1.00 0.95
P1;lrlic;!I s.p:1<.:in~ s (fll) l.'i() .¡5 1 Hl 3.'i l.:ltl 1.25 1.20
Stcmuúng h.. (lll) 10 1.20 l.'í 1.10 1.10 1.05 l.ll(} 0.9.'i
BoHnm <..'lrnr~c:
("1.mci.:111r:ttion l., (kg!m) 0.87 0.87 0.81 O. 76 0.76 0.71 0.71 0.66
lkighl h.. (111) !411 170 1 70 l .li'i 1.6) 1.60 1.60 l.:i:i
\\,.eigh1 o, (kg) 1.211 uo 1.411 1.25 l .2S \.IS l.15 1.110
{'o\umn dwr~~;
(·,)nci..'nlratít'll 1, (lll) 0.-l.l 11.¡.¡ IJ..11 11 ..li\ IUX IUh 0 31> 0.33
l friµh! h. (m) 000 O.l:i 11.70 1 ~:i 1.85 2.·15 3.00 3.65
Wcíghl º· (k.~) 11.1111 O.lo IUO 11.:iO U.711 0.90 1.05 1.20
Tnl:d ch~1r~L'
º···· (kg) 1.20 1.60 1.70 l.7:i 1.95 2.115 2.20 2.20
S¡wcific drilling \l (111.CU 111) 11.8..\2 ll.!178 11710 () 761 11.77(1 (),K'\I) 11.8% 11.980
Spt..».:il11..- ch:1q!t.' q (kµcu m) 11.411 IU6 o.;;.t O..\; o.:n 1i.:;.:; IU5 0.3.1

Thc rcduction of thc diarnctcr of thc blasthole for cach dril! rod used has to be
takcn into account in thc drill and chargc calculations.
Drilling <md ch'tr~Ín~ t<ibk for dril! series 12
Bl:istbolc di<ill1L'lcr 40-29 mm.
Explosíw: Emulilc !SO
Hok inclination· J: 1

lk11ch hc'igh1 K (m) .'\.O :U 4.0 4.5 5.0 :\5 (l.0 6.5
1h>k diamckr ti (mm) )() 15 35 34 :i!> .).) .i2 32.
llok <kp1h ll (ll1) .'.ó5 4.20 4.70 '.i.20 5.70 ú.25 6.7) 7.25
Prac1 ic;il hunkn B (m) 1.40 l. 3'i U:\ 1.30 l.25 120 l.15 1.15
P1 act ical spacin? s (111) 1.75 1.75 1.71) l.60 1.55 uo 1.45 I.40
Stemmin,µ h.. (m) IAO l.:'>5 uo l.25 1.20 l ¡:; 1.15
Bottom charµl':
(\niú.'nlratíon 1,, (kgim) l.17 I.ll l.ll l.04 0.98 0.98 0.92 0.92
lki~bl h,. (m) 2.0ll 2.011 2.00 l .90 1.90 1.90 l.80 1.80
\\·'t.;i,µ.ht o, (kg) :Uo 2.20 2.20 2.Ull 1.90 l. <JO 1.70 l.70
Column chargc:
( 'onccntra1ion 1, (m) 0.59 0.56 0.56 0.52 0.49 0.49 0.46 0.46
lkigh1 h, (m) 0.25 11.S:i 1 35 2.00 2.55 3 1:\ 3.80 4.30
Wcight Ü, (kg) O.IS 0.:\0 0.75 !.OS 1.25 1.55 1.75 2.00
Total chargc o,,., (kg) 2.45 2.70 2.95 3.05 3.!5 3.45 :us }.70
Spccific drilling b (micu.m) 0.497 0.508 O.Sl 1 0Si6 0.589 ll.63! 0.675 (1.700
Spccilic char¡;c q (k~!cu.m) <U3 IU:l íl.33 0.33 IU3 0.35 0.35 0.36
lf cxcavation 1s not carricd out bctwcen t11c rounds. it may be ncccssary to
in crease the specífic chargc.
This can be done eithcr by dcnscr drilling or by incrcasing the conccntration of
thc column chargc.
Norma!ly thc lattcr alternativc will suffícc.
79
For hole inclinations other than 3: 1. thc corree! hurden B ami spacing S are
obtained by multiplying by the appropriatc rcduction fnctor in table 2. pagc 69.

Drilling and d1arµing t;1hk fur hl~t'-'l huk di:1111c1cr 5 ! nim


1:.xpln:-;jv,·: 1:nw!it~· 1 )u
!lok itJclinalion: 3:1

!knch li<:i¡!ln K (m) .l,' h,11 i 11 7,5,


! !ole dia11w1e1 d (mm) .'il 51 SI :il
Hole dcp1b ll (m) .J.<Jll .'i . .J() 7.00 X.lllJ X.bll
l'ractical hurdcn B fm) 2.0ll 2.0ll 1.90 l.lJO 1.9ll l.'10
Practí~al spacinp. s (lll) 2.50 2 ..\.'i 2.~0 2.411
Stemming 11 .. {m) 2.1111 2.llll l.'111 i.<llJ l.'.lll 1.911
Boltom charge:
(~011\'.'.cnt r;il Í{)n 1,. 1kµ:111) 2.:'Ul 2.311 2.:1t) 2 .)ti 2,~0 2.JO
lkiµht h,. (lll) 2.90 2.<Jll :',<Jll 2.'111 2.90 2.911
\\.'cíght O,, ikg) h,70 h.70 (; 711 h.71l (\. ill h.70

( 'olumn charµ.c:
( ~orH:t:ntrat i(HJ 1, (111) 1.1) l. 1;; l. 1;; 1.1 :i 1.1.1 1 l:'í 1.15 1 l .'i
! lcight h, (m) O.Oll IUO 1.O:' JI>:'> 2 20 2. ill :Uo .1 Sil
\Vc·ip.lil o. 1kg) 11.1111 1}.(i{) 1.20 1 •Jo 2.50 :i 10 >.711 .uo
Tul;1! chargt._· o. . (kg) (), 711 '7..lll 7.<Jll S.hll 'l.2ll 1U:ll lll ·111 11 111
Spceific drillinµ h f11t:\'<1 m) 11.2·!.'i <l.2·1.'i 11 ..'.17 0.~5~ 0.2Sú o.~:':; ll,2)rl o.~.~7
Spi.:rifíe charge q (kp.·rn.111) O.\; O..\.\ O. >3 o.~:~ o.3.1 o__n n.~3 o.Yí

Drillín~ .a1H! ch:irgín~ l~ibh.' for hh<.thok di;11l'!etcc h 1 mm.


Í~Xplt):--,Í\·C: Fmnlitc l:"ll
lluk indin:ition: 3:1

!knch h1.:ígl11 K (111) (>.[) X.O \1.11 ill ll 11.!1 l.'.ll


1lok diam1..·t~'l d (!lllll) ¡,¡ (J.¡ {\.j 11-1 (,.j (,.(

l lok dcpth !I {lll) 1>.lll 7.211 •Ull llUll 11 ..lll 12 ..w 1.' :i11
Pi ;1clical bunk'n B (m) 2.511 2..1:; 2.-lO 2.~ll 2.::.:; 2.30
P1ac1i,·al :-.pai.:ínµ s 1111) .\ 1) '.;,OS .'~ 00 2, 1 J~ 2 I):') 2.90
Stl'JlHHÍilp. li .. (111) .~.su 2x; .~ .. 10 2 .. 111 ~.,;:-:; ~.311

B1.)(tom charµc:
( 'onccnt rat 1011 l.. lkg.m) :;_ 70 .~ 7() .1.7ll .1.70 1.711 .l. /ll \70 .\. 71l
Jkigln h,, (111) :l,illl .\ NI :l.llll .\.W 1.h!l .1.W 3.611
·' (i(I
Weígltt O,. tkµJ ! ~- 30 u_;o ¡_:;,.;o l.Ull IL;ll ¡ >.311 1.1.~n 1.l.311
( ·olunrn t'har~(.':
( 'onccnlr:1tÍ<Hl 1.(lllL· ... l .S:i 1.X5 l .X.'> l .S:i l .S5 J .S5 \,:-;:; l.S:i
l·kiglll h,.(m) · 11.011 1.lll ~ 1 s .1.2~ no 5 .10 i>.45 7 (,{)
\\\'i~ht º· (k¡:) 11.llll 2.1111 -l.1111 !> OIJ S.011 lll.111) 12.00 1~.llll

·1·<:)ta! clnrµc o,,., {kµ) 1.' ..111 15 . .lll 17 ,l{) l'UIJ 2l.3ll 23.30 27.30
Spccíi'ic drílling b (nn·u.m) O. l .'i2 ll. 152 ll. l:i~ ll. Li<i O. l:i9 ll.\()\ ll.1!>2 ll.111'!
Spct:ifit.' char,µe q (kg·cu.m) 11..\3 fl ..~~ O..i2 0.32 0.3:; 0.,13 0.\.1 o.:;.¡
For hole inclinatíons other tban 3: l, the correct burden B and spacing S are
obtained by multíplying by the appropriate reductíon factor in table 2, page 69.

Drílling ami L'harging table for hl¡1sthoh: di¡111H.'lc.'r 7<i mm


Fxpl<1...;ivt·· Fmulik 1511
l lok i11di11alio11: :1:1

lk11rh lwighl K (m) 6.0 8.0 llUI 12.0 l.J.O l:'>.0 l/i.() 18.0
Hok diamelcr d (mm) 7fl 7(1 711 7(1 76 76 76 76
Hok dqith I! (m) 1.:m 9,4(1 11.)(J l:U11J 15. 70 111.80 17.80 19.90
Prac1lc.il hurden ll(m) 2.9) 2.85 2.80 2.75 2.70 2.h) 2.60 2.55
Pr;tc:tical spacing s {lll) ~.65 }.(11l -~-55 .t.f) :1.35 3 30 3.30 3.20
St(·n1111ing h.. (rn) 2.9) 2.H) 21\0 27) 2.71l 2.h) '.'.60 2.55
Bonom t.:harg.c:
( \mcenlration 1,. (k¡:'m) 5.00 5.011 5.t)[) 5.00 5.00 .5.00 5 ()() 5.00
J·ki¡:ht h,. (111) .j 20 4.20 4.20 :!.20 4.20 4.20 .j20 4.20
Wci¡:IH o. (kg) 21.110 21.00 21.1111 21.00 2 l.00 21.00 21.00 21.00
( ~o!umn chargL~:
(,\)ncentration 1, (m) 2.50 2.511 2 ..'\0 2.;\0 2.50 2.:iO 2.50 2.50
lkighl h, (m) 0.15 2.1-S 4.50 (1.f1'i 8.81l 9 9'i 11.!XJ 13. 15
Wdght O. ¡kg) 0.40 5.911 l l..'\O lh.60 22.1111 24.90 27.50 32 90
Tnt;ll ch:ir;:c º··· (kµ)
21.-lll 26.90 .)2 ..\0 37.W 43.fJO 4'.'i.90 48.50 SJ.90
Specilic drillin)! b {miru.m) 0.113 0.115 O.llil 11.119 0.124 0.128 0.130 o. ns
Sr1.'cifít' ch~1q.!(.' q (kµirn.111) !U3 0 ..13 o.:n 11.:n ll.34 O.:lS O.:lS lU7

D1 il!inµ and 1.:harµ.in_µ tahk' for hia~thole diam~t~r 89 mm.


Explo:-;ivc: Emulitc 150
1tnk: in¡_·!inatiun: .1:1
-----·
~h'nch hi..'iµhl K (rn) X.O 10.fJ !2.0 1.1.0 15.0 j(},(J IX.O 20.0
flDk dÍ;imct~.:r tlí>nml ~() 8t) 89 XI) 89 89 tN 89
Hok dcplh ll (m) 9.(l(I 11.711 13.80 IS.lJO 17.llfl 18.00 20.10 22.20
l'ractirnl hurtkn B (m) 3..:15 :uo 3.>5 ~.:10 3.25 .no 3. 15 3.10
Pf al·íica! ~p~1l·i ng s (lll) ~.:m 4 ..10 4.20 4. )() 4.10 .ui:;
4 ºº 3.90
Sl1.'mn11nµ lr .. (m) ~.-15 .uo .1.,\:; .\ ..\() 3.25 3.20 _;, 1;) 3.10
Bottom ~h;irge:
( 'onccntratinn 1,. (kg.'rn) 7.111 7.10 7.10 7. lil 7.10 7. Ill 7.10 7. JO
!kiµht
Wt'iµh1
h,, (m)
o, (kµl
S.Oll
.15.511
5.011
3:UO
).011
:is.so
5.011
35.)(1
5
35.SO
ºº 5.00
35.50
5.llll
:'5.)0
5.00
35.50
C'olurnn ch<>rgt·:
( \HH.·i..~nt r~11 i()!l 1, (m) --~.55 J.:),"l .\SS 3.:'\:'i 3.55 .1.55 3.55 .'l.55
lki~hl h. (lll) l.l:'i :uo :i.45 7.W 8.75 9.80 ll.9:'i 14.10
WeiglH O. (kg) 4.10 11 70 19.40 27.00 31.00 .\4.SO 42..+0 50.IJO
l'ut;ll char~c o,.., (kg) 39.(i() 47.20 )4.90 62.50 MJ.50 71l.:lll 77.Yll 85.50
S¡iccific drilli11? b (mjcu.111) 11.081 O.OXI 11.082 0.084 ll.!185 o.mn 0.089 0.092
Speriflc char~c q (kg.\'U.111) o.:n o.:n ll..'l.\ 0.3:"1 0.3.\ 0..'\4 0.34 0.35
81
EXAMPLE OF CHARGE CALCULATION FOR BENCH BLASTING WITH
ANFO IN VERTICAL HOLES.

Conditions:
Bench hcight: K ~ 18 m
\Vidth of the round: w = 40 ll1
Blas1 hole diarnctcr: d "" !02 111111
Holc indi1wtion: Vertical
Explosive: ANFO. pourcd inlo !he blastho!c
Charging condition: Dry holcs

Calcuhltion of drilling pattcrn.

1. Maximum burden.
B""" = l.J6\,'i1, X R1 Charge concentration. 11,. is found in table 1a
and is in this case 6.5 kg/111. Corrcction for
vertical drilling is found in table 2 and is 0.95.
No concctíon for rock constan!.
B,,.,,,, = 1.36 X \/6.) X 0.95 = 3.29 m

2. Subdri!ling.
u ,.. 0.3 X B,,1."

3. Depth of b!astho!e.
H .. ,~

K + u H 18.0 + 0.99 "' 19.00 rn

4. Error in drilling.
d !02
E - + o.m X H r + 0.03 X 19.00 ·oc 0.67 111
¡()()() 1(l()()

5. Practica! burdcn.
B -· B,,,,,., .... F J3 '" 3.29 - lUl7 "" 2.62 rn

6. Practica! spacing.
s= 1.25 X B S = 1.25 X 2.62 = "i.27 m

7. Adjustment for width of r-ound.


w 4()
!2.21= U spaccs
s 3.27

Width 40
"" .,, .07 ll1
No. of spaccs/row

82
Note that thc numbcr of holes in a row is thc numbcr of spaccs + 1.
8. Spccific drilling.
nxH 14 X 19.00
b =---- b = - -..· - - - - = 0.141 m/cu.m.
BxKxw 2.62 X 18 X 40

Calculation of chargc.
In the case of ANFO thc chargc cannot be dividcd into bottom charge and
column chargc as it consists of only one column of chargc wíth thc samc chargc
conccntration.
9. Stemming.
h .. "" B h.. =2.62m

lO. Charge concentration.


I¡, = l¡, for dctcnnínation l¡, = 6.5 kg/m
of Bm:.x· Accordíng
to table 1a.

11. Hcight of chargc.


h =H - h,, h 19.00 - 2.62 = 16.38 rn

12. Wcight of charge.


()=]¡,X h Q = 6.5 X 16.38 = 106.5 kg

13. Speciik charge.


11 X Q 14 X 106.5
q = . q -------- = 0.79 kg/cu.m.
BxKxw 2.62 X 18 X 40

Surnmarv of importan! data:


1
Iknch Holc Spccific
height 1 dcpth Burdcn Spacing Charge dril!ing charge
m 1 rn m rn kg rn/cu. rn. kg/cu.rn.
!
18.0 1 19.0 2.62 3 07 106.5 O. 141 0.79
Thc high spccific charge dcpcnds to a largc cxtcnt on the ovcrcharged column
part of the blast.

83
Dril!ing and charging tables for blastholcs chargcd with ANFO.
For holc inclínations othcr than 3: l. the correet holc burdcn B ami spacing S are
ohtaíncd by multiplying by the appropriate reduction factor in table 2. pagc 69.

Dril!inf! ;ind ch~nµing i:tbk fnr hb"tlmk di:llik'kl <>I (j.j min
Fxp!osÍ\'t..': .·\Nl:o
llok índínatíon· .~: 1
-------- ------··-~·-·~ .. --
~ '""' ''"•••v-••-•·-'" --··--·---·------~~·-~---··-

lknch hcight K (m) h.11 7.1) s ti <i.ll l!J.tl 11.ll 12 t) 1.1.11


l!ok dia1rn.·1cr d (111111) (,.¡ (1.t (l.1 (,.1 (,.¡ (¡.¡ ()~ e,.¡

lfok depth H (ll1) 7.111) .~.111) 9.10 lil.10 11 20 12.?ll 13 ..>0 IS.~ll

Practit·.al l)HJ'l..!1.:n Jl (lll) l.</¡) I.90 l .SS 1.80 U\O 1. 7.' 1.70 1.6S
Prac1i<.\1l sp~H.:ing s (1!1) 2 ..10 2 ..~5 ?.30 !.30 ?.J) ?.20 2..?IJ 2. 1il
St1.·mmiog h.. (lll) 1 l)(J l.'111 1 X:' 1 so 1.•~11 1 75 1 70 J .h)

Chargr.:. ,\NFO:
Conccnl r;i 1ion L. ¡kgiln) 2.1111 2.W 2.110 2.úU 2.liO 2 (¡{} 1.<)o 2.W
l h:ight ¡, (1!1) .u,11 ).(){} () 7~ 7.Kll 8.YIJ 9.'}~ 11.111 1.1.25
\Vcí,t:.ht o (hgl 1.: 1111 11 (¡fl !7.<1H ~0 .. )0 2.;.111 2) 90 1S.'!ll .1-1.:'0
Primer: 1:rnulill' 1)O. "º:<))O rnrn l .31l 1..>11 1 3H 1 311 1..>11 1 ~o 1 ,;11 l.:ill
Total ehaq.::c o..., {kg) J.1.)0 1),\!() IS.'!11 21.hll 2.J .. j(l ~7.20 :;11 211 .\:'.~{)

Spccilíc drillínµ \l (m·rn.m) li.2.S(l 0.25h 0.2h7 ll.271 n.2í7 11.2SS 112% IU17
S¡'lL·eific eh<lr!!c q (kg rn.m) tJ .. \ 11 o.~! {) )h ns: 11.flO 11.1,.J !l hi o 7.¡

Thc spccific chargc inncascs with thc hok dcnth as the unchargcd p:1rt of thc
holc (stcrnming) is long compmed !o the bcnch hcight in lowcr bc~nchcs.
Thc use or primer will nor cfkct lile hurdcn or s¡;:1cing unlcss thc primer is of
considerable sízc.

Dril!ing and cll;trginr. table for hb-...tho!c di:nnckr of ih 1l1m


Exph~si\'c: .'\:\H)
link incli11;11ínn: .>:!
--··-~-······--·--·-···-·---~---~~.- --~~-~---~~~~---~-·--·-·

lknch hci"hl K (In) s.o 111.11 l.'..O l·l.11 l:'.11 l!>.ll 1;:.11 c11.11
l ~11h.· dia!!lf..'!t;r d (llllll) 7ú 7ü 7h 7h íú /(, 7h 71l
Jlole dcplh JI (111) 9.20 11 . .ill 1.>.·lll 1s )[J IC,.W 17.nll l '.l. 711 21.;{ll
[>raclical IHrnlcn H (ml 2.20 2.2!1 2. lil 2.11) 2.110 2.0tl l.'111 i .~;)
Practical sp;ici nµ s (111) 2.Sll 2. 711 2J,) 2..S~ 2.)11 2.. t:i 2.10 2.'.'lll
Stcrnmi11~ h.. (111) 2.20 2.2{) 2. 111 2.0.;:; 2.rn1 2 no 1.'.lll i .x;;
Clwr~c·. ANFO·
c·onrt.•i11r;1ti1H1 1,. (kµ..:1111 .1.W
(¡ )1)
·'X.iill
()(} .llill
111.c:11
3.h!l
12.'!)
.1.llll .l hll
1).10
.1.lill }611
19.~)
lkighl h {ll\Í 14 .111 17 ..111
\Vc:ight o (kg) 2.1 -HI .11 011 ,X.'Jll .16.llll :'ill.SO i.1 . .Jll f12JO 711.llll
Piimz.·1: Ernulitc ISO. ()~;..- )50 mm 2 20 2. ?11 2 21! 2.~(l 2.20 2 20 2.20 2.20
Total charg~ o. ., (kg) 2).hO ·u.20 ,¡¡ 111 4X.XO 5tno .)h.Ml llLiO n.211
Spc'cifk drilling b (111.'Cll.lll) 11. IR7 0.1'!11 11.2110 ll.212 11.221 0.22.J () 240 0.25fl
Sp1.Tífir rh:11 µe q (kg.'rn.m) o.~2 {) ·'li 1161 11.1,7 11.71 0.72 º· 7'J 11.X)

H4
Drilling and chargíng tables for blastholcs chargcd with ANFO.
For holc inclinations other than 3: 1. the corrcct bur<len B an<l spacing S are
obtaíncd by multíplying by thc appropriatc re<luction factor in table 2, page 69.

DríHín~ and ch;O"g_í11g: table for hl;i:-;.tholc di;.1rndcr of 89 mm .


Exp!oo..:ivc: .:\Nl·O
Hole inc!inali()n: .>: 1

lknch hciµhl K (m) X.ll lll.O 12.ll 14.0 l).ll lil.O 18.0 20.0
1~oh: diamctl'r d (111111) X9 8() t\9 8<) 8 11 89 89 89
H"k dcpth 11 (lll) 940 IUll U.illl 1:do 16.70 17.80 19.90 22.00
l'r;ictical burdcn 13(m) 2. 70 2.60 2.55 2 ;)ll 2.45 2.41) 2.35 2.30
Practica! :...p:Kinµ s (1\l) .> ..'lO .·uo }, l:i }. !O 3.10 }.1111 2.95 2.85
Stcmming h.. (in} 2.70 2.W 2.5.'i 2 :iO 2..i:; 2.40 235 2.}0
Charg,·. ANFO:
('011cc1)tr;1!.itH1 1,. (k¡u·m) 5.0IJ :i.llO 5.IJO :i.llll :i.00 5.00 5.00 5.00
lkight ¡, (rn) 6.20 iUll 10.:i:i 12.70 Ll.75 14.90 17.05 19.20
\Vci~h! ü (k¡.c) ·' 1.110 42.0IJ 52.80 63.SO 68.70 74.50 85.}0 96.00
f>rinit.:r: rmulill' 1511, ú:'ix.~~O mm 2.2(1 1.~ll 2.20 2.20 2.20 2.20 2.20 2.20
Total d1argc O,., (kg) :~.1.20 44.20 5).0() fl:i. 711 70.<Jl) f(l. 70 87.50 98.20
S¡wcific drilling b (1wcu.rn) o. 132 O. 1.\4 0.141 11. 145 0.147 O. 155 ll.159 0.168
Spl'C:if1c chargi.~ q (kg!cu.m) 0.47 O.:í2 0.57 0.(il () 62 0.(>7 0.70 0.75

Drillin~. ;111d chargi11g t;ihk ror hlastholc di;imclcr of 102 mm.


Explosi"c: ,\Nl'O
Hok i11clinatin11: .1:\
-~~~~····~~·~-·--·~-··-·-~-···-·--··--------·

Bcnch hcight K (m) !ti.O 12.0 ¡.l.I) IS.O H1.0 18.0 20.0 22.0
l lnk di;itllc'll'I' d (mm) 102 lll2 102 102 102 1112 102 102
link l'kp1h ¡¡ (m) 11.()(1 !} 70 1).80 16 xo 17.911 20.00 22. 111 24.20
Pra<:tÍ<.';d hurdcn B(m\ 3.00 2.95 2.90 2.85 2.85 2.75 2.70 2.65
Pr~u.'tic~1l sp;11.·int: s (lll) .u:o 3.70 3.611 3.60 3.55 :i.:SO 3.40 3.30
Stcmrning h,, (111) 3.011 2.95 2. 1JIJ 2.~5 2.85 2.75 2.70 2.65
Cliargc. ANFO:
Conccnl! .:ll ion !,. (kg'm) 6.50 6.50 ti.50 6..'.11 6.50 6.:\0 6.50 6.50
Ht:íght h (m) 8. JO lfl.25 12.40 13.45 14.Yi 16.75 18.90 21.05
Wcigltt () (kg) 53.110 1<7.00 81.0ll 88.00 95.lltl 109.00 123.00 137.00
Prirn.c.~r: Enw!itc 150. 7Sx))Omm 2.70 2.70 2.711 2.70 2.70 2.70 270 2.70
Tot<il rharg_c O,,., (kg) 55.70 (1'!.70 8}.70 90.70 <)'), 71l 111.70 125.70 139.70
Specific drillin~ b (mirn.m) O. 102 O. 104 O. 108 O. 109 0.111 O. l 15 11. 120 O. 126
Specifi(· diarpe q (kµ;cu.mJ 11.49 0.:\3 (J.)7 o 59 0.60 0.64 0.68 0.73

85
Drílling ami charging tables for blastholcs chargcd with ANFO.
For holc inclinations othcr than 3: 1. thc corree! burdcn B and spacing S are
obtaincd by multiplying by thc appropriatc reduction factor in table 2. pagc 69.

Dr illing and 1.:h;irginJ-.! í~1hk r~){' bl;1sllH)k' dí111ll1.'!t.'r ni J.?7 1nrn.

Explnsi\·e-: A:-;l'Cl
Hok indinatinw .1:1
----~--···~·~-·-·~·-·-··-~··- ... ~~~~-··-······-~·-·---·~ ..··--··-·~-----·--·~-----

Bcnch h1.~i~ht K lm) 111.11 l:'.O 1.10 l).ll !ll,{I 18.11 211.0 22.11
1-h>k dí:imcli..'r d (llllll) J 27 127 ¡ 27 127 l 27 \O',- 127 127
llok ckpth ¡¡ (m) 11 ')ll 14 1111 lh.lll 17 111 18.20 211:\11 22.~ll 2.uo
Practi<.:<11 hurd1.:n ll In>) .1.X) .\,;-;¡¡ 3 711 .UO 3 h5 }.110 3.'íO 3_.j'í
Pnictít'~d spat:i ng s (11\) .jX() ~. 711 .j h'í 4.110 ~.55 ~.'íO 4 40 4.:r;
St(.·rnrníng h.. {11\) 3_,-..;5 ."U·m 3.70 3. /O ·'·(}) >.hO .1.)0 3_..¡;;;

Charg~. :\NFO:
c·onn:nrr;i11nn 1,. (kµ.m) 111.111 10 IO lll.IO 111.IO I0.10 10.111 lll.10 10.10
lkight h (lll) 7.S) <J.711 11 <)I) 12.'}ll l·l.ll:i 11>.20 18 ..10 20.)5
Wci¡¡l11 () lkµ) ifi.1111 <)"·ºº 1211.1111 1311.1111 1.12.110 1!1-l.Oll 1811.IHI 2118.011
Pri111ct" Fmulik 150. 7~x )50 mm 2.711 2 711 2.70 2.70 2.70 2.711 2.70 2. 711
Tot;d ch;11p_l.' O ... , lkg¡ 7>:. 711 1011.70 !22_70 132. 70 l .J-l. 71J 16(1.70 188.70 2111.70
Spceifi<: drilli11µ h (111/eu.m) 11.llh~ 11.0llS !l.llhi 11.ll(i/ 11.llil<J 11.11711 11.07.1 11.117-l
Spccil !e ch~tr,;!L' q (~µ_;n1_m) 11.1,; 11. 17 11 'i 1 o.s~ 115-l tl.57 11.iil ll,(1.!

Dril\inp. ;1nd ch:1rgíng t:1hk i'or hbs1hoh.' di;1m1..'11..:r t\f 15! IHIH
í=.xph)si,·c: /\NI O
Hok i11din;ili<>1i: 3: l
-~-~--,··~·---,·-~---·--•-AHO•O•~-----
-~-------

Bcncll hci~ht K (111) 12.0 1-l.ll 15.11 111.11 18.11 211.11 22.ll 2-1.ll
I {ok' diamcll.'I d (111111) ¡5~ 15~ ¡ 52 I:'2 l'í2 ~ )2 l:i2 l ~2
1!ole dcpth 11 (111) l.J 20 ll'..111 17 . .J(I llUll 211.'ill 22.hl) 2·Ull 2h.811
Practi<..'al hurdcn 13 (m) ·Uill 4.)5 -l.:iO --1...f) -1.411 .u5 c.Ull .J.20
Practi<.:al :-:paci11g s (lll) .'i.7'i ),('.') ).illl 5.W :i.:ill 5A) 5 1:\ 'í ..ill
Stl'mming 11 .. illl) ·l.fifl .._¡5.:; .¡511 ·J..15 .l,.HJ .u,; .uo ~.20

Charµc. ANFO:
Conccnt1 ation 1,. (kg•111J 1-l.50 1-l.)IJ l-1 50 1~.Sil l.J.511 \.j 50 lcUO 14.511
Jkighl h (111) 9. lll 11.:!5 12 ..lll 1.US 15.úO 17.75 19.'JO 22. 111
Wcight ü lk~) 1.12 011 lii.\.1111 IXll.flll 195 1111 22ú.Oll 2'í7.llll 289.00 .\211.1111
Prírner: 2 X Emulil(.' J ='º· 7.\>:))() ll)ll) 5 411 5 .. lll s.. m 5..JO 5 .111 540 :i..Jll ),.HJ
Total charg.c O,,, (k¡'.l 137..lll 168.-HI lX.'.·lll ?1111.4(1 2.11.-lll 21>2.40 29.JAO :12:1 ..111
Spccific drilli11~ b (111/cu.111) 11.045 0.11.¡5 11.0.Jli 11.11.J(i ll.1147 ll.11.JS 11.11·19 O.ll:il1
Spccific rh:ll !:!\.' q (k~\·u.111) 11 ..1.1 11 . .J7 11,.l<.I 11.:ill O.).) O.:':'. IJ :i8 11(11
8<1
The main problcm when blasting with ANFO is the breakagc in the bottom part
of the blast as thc bottom part of thc blasthole, more oftcn than not eontains
water. 1f thc ANFO is eontained in plastie hoses. thc diamctcr of the explosives
column will be reduccd and thc charge concentratíon will not be big cnough to
break thc constrictcd bottom part. lf thc ANFO is pourcd into thc wct blastholc
it wi!I deteriora te rapid!y and thc cffcct will be thc samc.
A shortencd bottom chargc to re in force the priming of the ANFO has shown to
he effective. The hcight of the rcinforccd priming should be 0.4x13"'ª" giving a
bottom charge which is extended above thc theoretical grade. The reinforced
primer makcs it possible to inerease thc burdcn and spacing with 7 % each. The
savings in eosts of dríllíng and sccondary blasting of thc toe are sufficient to
justífy thc highcr eonsumption of high cxplosives in the blast.
Thc following eharging tables give thc guidc lincs for blastíng with Emulite 150
as reinforccd primer and ANEO as column chargc.
For hole inclínations other than 3: l, thc correct burden B and spaeíng S are
obtaincd by multiplyíng by the appropriatc rcduction factor in table 2, page 69.

Drillin~ '"'d char¡úng table for bl"stholc diamctcr of b4 mm.


Exp!o~h·c: Rt!ínfürccJ prinu:r Emulitc 150, hcight 0.4 X J3"""
Ct)lumn chargc /\NFO
I iok índin;itiDtl: 3: 1

llcnch hciµht K (m) 6.ll 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 JI.O 12.0 14.0
f {ole díamc.::t1..'r d (mm) (i.+ M 64 M (,..¡ ()1 (,..\ 64

l lok dcp1h ll (m) 7.10 8. lll 9.20 10.20 IUll !2.30 13.40 !5.50
Pra<.·til.·~11 bunk'n ll{m) 2.10 2.05 2.05 2.00 1.95 l.95 l.90 1.85
Practica] spacing s (lli) 2.h) 2.W 2.55 2.50 2.:'iO 2.40 2.40 2.30
StL'lll!Hl!1f! h., (m) 2. 10 2.ll5 2115 2.00 1.95 1.9) 1.90 1.85
Primer Emulitc !'iO:
(\)l)Cl'lltfillitH\ 1,. (k¡!'nl) .l.70 3.70 J.70 3.70 3.70 3. 71l 3.70 3.70
!kighl h,. (lll) 1.20 l.20 1.20 !.20 1.20 l.20 l.20 I.20
\Vci)'.hl o,. (kg) 4 .-lil 4..10 ,¡,¡o -4.411 4.40 ,l_.lll 4.-W 4.40
Chal1!l'. i\NFO:
Co1H..·entr;1til)!1 1, (k{m) 2.60 2.(i() 2.llO 2.f)O 2.60 2.60 2.60 2.60
lkíg.ht l\ (m) 3.80 4.85 5.95 7.00 8. !5 9.15 10.30 12.45
Weíglll O. {kµ) 9.90 12.60 15.50 18.20 21.20 23.80 26.80 32.40
Tola) rhart~c O,.,, (kg) 1-l . .'\O 17.00 19.90 22.60 25 .60 28.20 ."\1.20 36.80
Specific drillíng b (micu.m) 0.2 l:l 0.217 0.220 0.227 0.232 0.239 0.245 ll.260
Specifíc charge q (kgicu.m) ll.4.l 0.46 0.-48 0.50 0.53 0.55 0.57 0.62

87
For holc inclinations oihcr than :>: 1, thc co1-rcct hurdcn B and spacing S are
obtaincd by multiplying by the appropriatc rcduction factor in table 2, ragc 69.

!\cinlúrced primer l'.111ulit<· 1511. hc·i~hl 11 .. !;-o B... "


(\)furnn <.:har~~· ;\\TO
.1· 1

Bend1 héi¡dll I< (m) X.11 111.(1 I" O 1-1.11 l.'.11 l<i.O IS.O cll.11
f lok dianwtc•r d (llllll) "7h 7h 7h /(1 7() °7{) 7() ((1

H.11e dcpth JI \mJ 9 .111 11 .JIJ 1.1.:'iO l:'i.i1ll lh.i>:'i 1?.70 l'J.SO 21.lJll
Prnctic;ll hurd1..'1J !l (m) 2..t5 2.·lO 2 . .\0 2.2S 2.20 2.~0 2. lO 2.11'
Pr.actical !'-paci11g S (m) .),OS 1 ()) ~.'>O 2.~0 2,7S .2.70 2.ú) 2.)0
Stcmming. h. (lll) ~ .. r:. 2.-10 ].3o 2.~:S 2.211 2.~o 2.111 2.115
l'rimcr bnulitc 1511·
Corn:cn1r:1ti(Hl !,. (kg'm) :'i.1111 S.1111 5.1111 :'illO 5.1!11
lki~.hl h,, lm) l ..\S l .i) 1 y; 1 35 U5
Wei¡:ht (),, ikµ) h.XO h Sil (1 80 1>.Sll i>.Kll

Char!!c. ANFO:
(~onccmra! Í(H) l. lkp·'lll) ,i.r,o ).úll \,()!) ~.(1{) ,).úO :l.i>ll :".60 .1.W
lki!!hl h, (111) ~.~{} 7.t1S '! 85 12 IJll 1.1.111 1-1.15 li>..1.S lK.:iO
\\'cíght º· lkµ) 1'1.811 ~7.50 JS.5tl .L).~0 ~7.20 'il .1111 .'í<J.911 i>l\.llli
To1ai chargc o,., (kµ) 2(\,(\() 3-l..)fl 511.110 :'i-1.011
Spccilic d1i!ling h (lll.:C::U.111) !l.!:\() 11.11>1 11.li>'J 0.177 11.1s.1 11.ISI> 11. l'IS r1.::1-1
Spn·i 1ie cha1 gv q (kg.\:U.lll) 11 .. 1' O,.jX 11.5.' U.57 11.i>ll O.i>I (1 (,¡ o 72

l{l·inlnrrcd pi i111,:r rmulih: 1..;íl. h..._·1)!.IH ll. l ;-: H._.,,


('olumn l·h;1r~t' :\Nl·()
l 1ok·. 111clin:itino: .1:1

lkncl1 hcighl K (m) S.11 !O.O i .'.11 1-Ul 15.11 lii.!1 lS.11 20.0
llok dianwlcr d (mm) x<J K<J S'! x<.> S'! gq gt) ;\l)

!lok <kpth 11 (111) '1.511 11.W 13.711 !5 . XIJ 11>.KO í 7 '.lll 211.1111 22 .111
Practíc1_1l hurtk'n 13 (m) 2.(){) 2.~5 2_KU 2..75 2.70 2 <iS 2.úO 2.~0
Practica! :-:p~1cing s (lll) .) 7o 3.ho .).:\!! 3, . m :;_y; .1.,;::; 3.20 .~.15
Stcmming h .. (ml ~ 90 ~ 8 ..:; : 0(] 2 7'> 2' 70 2.h) ?,üll 2.)0
Primer f:nrnlílc ISO:
('om:('ntr~i!Ít)n 1,. lkµ'11\) 7.1 ll 7 111 7.111 i.10 7. 111 7 111 " 111 7 111
!fright h,. (m) l.hll 1 iiO l.1>11 l.W 1 (¡(I !(>() l.W 11111
\Vcigh! 0, (k~I 11 .j(I 11 .¡() 11 111 11.·lll 11 .10 !J ... 111 11 ..W 11-lli
C'har~e. ANF( l.
Conccntratl(rn l. (kg.'m) ).Oll 5.1111 5 1111 5.1111 s.1111 :i.1111 ,_l\11 :'i.1111
lk-ighl h, (111) ~ 1111 7.15 \) ..~ll 11.-!S 12.Sll 13,llS l.' KIJ IS.llfl
\VciJ.!ll\ O. (hµI ~s n11 .~5 ~() ·le, ~o :;¡ ,,l!J 62.50 hX ..~tl /</ 1111 "111111
Touil chal'f.L' ü,.., (k~l _)ú,.Hl .¡-; 211 73.90 i'I 711 ~0.~11 1111 ·111
Specific drillin~ h (m.'ct1.111) 011! ll.11.\ 11. 117 () 121 0.12-1 0.121\ 11.i:q 11. !~11
sr~cific d1:irµ1.' q (!.:p.:"cu m) 11.1::: 11.·li> 11-1') 11 .'i? 11.:'i·l 115() 11.ilO 111>-1

88
For holc inclinalions 'lthcr lhan 3: 1, thc corree\ hurdcn B and spacing S are
obtaincd by multiplying bv thc appropriatc reduction factor in table 2, page 69.

Rew1nn:1..:d prilllt.'I Em1d1!1.: 1.-=iO. h1._·1g.IH fl . ...t :< n,,.,,


( "oiuinn d1~1rt!1..: :\~¡:()
1lnk· indi11:1!Hrn· .i:[ .

))l_'Jl(h hL·i~~iJ! K 111•) 11111 l:?.11 1-111 150 1<>.11 11'.0 :'ll (1 22.ll
J h)k' di:uni._·!Cr d (mm) 111:? 111:? 102 111:' 102 1oc 10:' lll2
link <kplh H 1111) 11 711 l.'.Sll 15 <)11 17 1111 IX.llll 2!l. lll :?:1.20 2-1.::0
Pr;¡1.:lil';li burd<.·n 13 :rn¡ 3 ~o .1.111 .\.11:\ "1111 2.911
Pi artical ,p.1(1 n~~ S (rn) .l.()11 3.90 \~U ,;_70 3.hO
Skmmin~ 11 (mi .\~{) 3. !fl 3 ()) .1.(Jll 2.'!0
Prinl<..'r Ernuli!c L:;ll,
( \1nn.:111r;1tiun l. (i;~ 111) lJ.30 l},1.tl Y. .\11 'UO l),)(J 9 . .>o 9 ..)11 9.30
!kiµl11 h,. lm) l.i'5 1 ~:; l.X5 1.XS l.S:\ 1.S'i 1.8) 1.85
\\\·1¡'.hl o. d,µ1 i7.~ll 17.20 17.~ll 17.20 17.20 17.211 17 .211 17.211
Ch;irrc· ..·\!\H)
(·nnn.'1ltr:{ti,1n 1 ih~ 111) {),)() li ..'11 11.)() 11.:'ll {),.')(} 6,:'.() (L50 (l,::;(l

lkiµh1 11, (lll) h.)~ iUll 10.X) 12 1)1) 13.11:\ 15.211 17.:15 19 ..\5
\\'1..:íphi <). lkpl ~2.hO ~ú.úil /O.W 7S.Oll S'.llO '111 .011 l J.\ illl 126.{}()
Tntai <.:h<tq.:.c o... rk~ 1 7.1.Sll X7.Xll 9:\.211 1112.20 111>.:'fl i,';11.211 l.\~.211

Spccifi<.: drí!linµ ¡, (rn,.cu.inl Cl.OX) 11.llX7 O.OXlJ ll.11'12 O 11'!.1 11.0% 11.1011 11. \05
Spn·i! ic ,.-h~1:-g1..' q {l--p\'\f,lll) (l ¡.¡ ll -17 () i!J !l .::;2 O..\~ O 5f1 O 5tJ 0.62

RL·iidnic•.:d primt..'r J:mulitt· !~O. hl.'i1-!hl íl ·l><B ... ,,


('011111111 d1"rpc t\Nl:O
;:!
- - - -.. ..- - - - - - -
-~

!knd1 hcighl K !111) 111.11 12.il 1-l 11 l'i.11 16.11 liUI 20.ll 22.11
l lnk· di;rnwlt'! d trnrnl 127 l 27 127 !17 127 i::·.' 127 l 27
J!nk ckplh ll rrn 1 1:1.1111 \.\.Jil lh.211 17 ..;o JX . .111 211..\11 :2.)11
l)ract Í<:;1[ t~i.1rd(. 1 Jl ll (lll) .\.211 .\,l:; .J.111 -l.Ull ).l)O ).~()

Pr:i<-'íic:d -.:p;it:ing s (llll S.?5 'i 211 5.10 ).011 .l,l)ll .J.8() 4. 7)
Stl'!lHnín~ h.. (11'1) 4.20 .1.J) .\.111 .1.00 3.lJ'!' 3.l,Jll .1.XO
P1 rnh:1 1:irnditi.: l 51J·.
( \11)\'<..'n\1 ;1!inn !.. {kµ·m} 14.-10 !-1 ..\() 1.\ ..\0 14.-111 J.l,cj() l.J ..11J 1.\.-HI 1-1..lil
lkiµJ11 11 .. {m) 2.30 ..?.30 2.:m .?.3o 2.>n 2 ..~o 2 ,\{) :Lill
\\\·i~l\I o 1k~!) :n.nn \'UHl :n,(I() >3.oo .\;,on ~).00 .\.1.00
-'·'·ºº
('h;11gc .\NJ'()
( ·onn.·nir:itti:in 1. 1 k~·1111 10.111 lll 10 111 10 1(1. IO 111.10 111.111 lll.111 JO. IU
lkiµh1 h. ( 111) ~ ~(} 7 65 9.~o lll'l'i l?.1111 ¡.¡ I' 111 . .1(1 18.'.ill
\\.'¡.,:t~ht o (kµl )(, 1111 7i.CO 9')011 lll.00 121.00 1-BOO \h)OO 1~7.00

1\ll;d1.:h;11gt.' O, ... ih_~I ~'! 1111 1111011 1.12 (111 l.\-l.!111 1)-11111 !lh.llll l'JX.1111 220.011

Spc..'cifo.: dril!in~ h(m:n1.m) 11.11).j 0.0.'.1 0.11)5 0.0'iil ll.ll'i7 11.oW 11.0110 11.062
Spi.:<.'ÍI 1c rk11 ge lj 0.;í!.'t'lUl\) 0 ..10 0.-12 ll.-1' o..n 1148 O.) 1 0.5.~ 0.55

89
As can be observed in the charge ca!culatio11s, more drilling and cxplosives are
necded in thc case of blasting with ANFO compared with blasting opcrations
with Ernulite 150.
Thc highcr consumption of cxplosives docs not affcct !he ovcrall cconomy of thc
blastíng operntíon. as ANFO is an incxpcnsivc blasting agcnt. but thc increascd
use of acccssorics (cord. dctonators. prímers etc.) has Lo be considered.
Thc drilling cost will also increasc considcrably duc to denscr drilling pattern.
lt is always a good habit to sit down and analyze tllc blasling opcralion bcforc
sclccting lhe cxplosivc. taking into considcration thc following paramcters:
Thc cxplosivc. cost per ton or cu.m. of blasted rock
* Detonators. ..
' Cord. ..
Primers.
Drilling.
* BJasting,
~;· Sccondary hlast lng,
' Mucking.
" Hauling.
~~ (~rush in g,

Bcsides the above parametcrs. considcratíon has to he givcn to wcather co1H.li-


tions and ground water Jevcls. Blasting agcnts of ANFO typc havc poor water
resistan ce propnt ics.

5.3 Low bcnches, levcling.


Lcvcling is thc kind of b]¡1sting wherc thc bcnch height is hclow 2xBm'"' but
llormally applics to hcllch heights undcr 1.0 m.
The hlastholcs for lcvc!ing gene rally ha ve a srnal! diametcr. drill series 1 l (34. :n.
32 .... mm). or srnallcr.
Thc design of the firing pattern is important in leveling. Duc to the Jow bench
hcíghts and small burdcns, thc rock movcs fastcr than in normal hench blasting,
which calls for shortcr dclay times betwccn the holcs. lf thc delay time is too
long. thc protcctivc cffcct of short cicla y firing will nol occur. incrcasing the risk
of flyrock.
Thc risk of flyrock is howcvcr always greal in lcvc!ing ami this is why the round
should be gíven a heavy covcr and severa! la~1crs of splintcr protective covcring
on top. (Scc also Chaptcr 5. 9 Covcring.)
To reduce drilling costs. 22 mm blastholcs are now more widcly used. This is
becausc blasting with small diamctcr boles decrcascs thc drilling cost and also
the explosives cost dueto bcttcr utilization of cncrgy of !he explosive compared
with the conventiona! tcchniquc.
Using small diametcr blastholcs a!so reduces the risk of flyrock and ground
vibrations.
For the charging of small diametcr blastholcs. Nitro Nobel produces a lubc
charge. Primcx l7x !50 mm which can he cut in suítablc lcngths.
90
Leveling with drill series JI.
Drilling and charging table for drillscrics J t.
Blastholc diamctcrs 34-26 mm.

Expl1)sivc: Emulitc 150.


Hok indination: 3: 1

Bcnch hcight K (m) 0.20 ll.30 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00


Holc diamctcr d (mm) 34 34 34 34 33 33
Holc dcpth H (m) 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.90 1.10 1.40
Practica} hurdcn B (rn) 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.80
Practical spacing S (rn) O.SO o 50 0.50 ll.65 0.75 J.()()

Bottom chargc:
Conccnlration 1, (kgim) 1.00 1.00 l.00 1.00 l.00 1.00
Hcight h,, (m) 1L05 0.05 0.05 IJ JO 0.20 0.40
Wci¡!.IH ü,. (kg) 0.05 0.05 ().()5 il.10 0.20 0.40

Column chargc: Ü, (kg) (J.I)() 0.00 11.00 0.00 ().()() o.no


To1 al chargc Ü,,,, (kg) 0.05 0.05 0.05 O.JO 0.20 0.40
Stcmming h" (ni) IJ.511 0.50 0.50 {),80 0.90 l.00
Spccific drilling h (mlsq.rn) 3.00 3.00 3.00 2.80 2.45 l75
Spccific chargc q (kglsq.m) () 25 0.25 0.25 0.31 0.45 o.so
Spccific char¡!<: q; (kg/cu.m) l.25 0.83 0.63 0.51 0.56 0.50

The specifíc drílling and specific charge are calculated in relation to the blasted
arca cxpressed in m/sq.m. and kg/sq.m.
Thc consumption of dctonators and explosives is high in Jow bench blasting. The
cosr of drilling is high duc to thc dosc drilling pattern.
lf thc bottom of thc cut is not restricted to a certain leve!, it is economically
favorable to incrcase the subdrilling and subsequen!ly increase the spacing
bct wccn thc blastholes.
As a conscquencc of the decper drilling, the risk of flyrock will be reduced.
A suitablc dril! depth is 1.6 m which ís the length of the seeond drillrod in the
integral series No. l 1. Thc diameter of the drillbit is 33 mm.
Comparison of consumption of explosives and detonators as well as specific
drilling for a bench height of 0.4 m when drilled conventionally and with
incrcascd subdrilling.
lncreased
Convcntional subdrilling
Bench height 0.4 m 0.4 m
Holc depth 0.6 m l.6m
Practica! burden 0.4 m 0.9 m
Practica! spacing 0.5 m 1.1 m
Chargc of explosives per hole 0.05 kg 0.5 kg
Charge of explosives per sq.m. 0.25 kg 0.5 kg
Nurnber of detonators per sq.m. 5 pes 1 pe
Drilling per sq.m. 3.0 m 1.6 m
91
Thc highcr spccific chargc in the case of incrcascd subdril!ing is wc!I compcnsat-
cd by thc lcsscr co11su111ptio11 of dctonators ;md lhc dccrcascd spccif'ic dril!ing.
ln ccrtain cases largcr blastholc sizcs must be uscd for low bcnchcs duc to
avai]¡¡hility of cquipmcnt ;1nd drillhils.

The following tables are rccommcndations for blasting of lmv bcnchcs with
hlast holc diamctcrs of 'i 1. 64 <ll1d 76 mm.

!)¡i!!in~ and ch:ngin~ i:ihk f<11 !{1\\ h;.·n'-.'!h·,


Bf~istholi: 1li:inh.'ll'r :' l tllm.

Explmi ,.e: [rnu/Ílt' 1)0


I lok indination: .1.:!

Iknd1 lwighl K (111) \.1111 1 )11 2 tlll ~ .~!)

J foic dÍ:!!lll'IL'f d (1111111 ) 1 'il 'il s1


llok dcptl1 lf ( tn) l .~ti ~ 1111 2.i>O J.~n

Practic;d hwdcn !3 (rn) tl.KO l.tlll 1..>o 1.)11


Pradi<.:al :-.p;1c111~ s illl) 1 ()() 1 :n 1.1111 i.l}()

Bot1(H11 ch:irµe:
( 'onc1...~ntr;llinn !!, ikg:m) 1 '11 'iO l'i!l 1.)0
lkiµh1 h,. (rn) 11.2!1 0.)0 1 (}() 1 .110
Wcight ü, (kg) 11.)tl () 75 1.)0 2.~ll

Fxp!o:-:i' . .·s dinh.·nsion (rnn1) .j{) 10 .j(} -10


Cnlumn chatgc: u, ( kg) 11.lil 11.ltl 11.::io IUO

lütal ch:11éc' O,, (f;¡: 1 ().ji) 11.;:~ . 711 .?. 70


Stt:mminf! h.. (111) 1.10 1 ~n ..111 l.:'O
Spccífit drill¡n!-! h (m/cu.m) 1. 7.' 1 11 fl.()3 0.-!5
Spccil íc 1..'h(tl'J~l' q n~~.:ni m) o so (1.j/ ll-11 IU8

Drilling :rnd r!1~1rµi111-! l¡ibk for lc1\\ ht.' lh.'lh.''.


BiasllH1k di;11l1L·tcr 6-1111111.

Fxrlosi,·e: bnulilc 150


l !nlc i11di11a1inn: .~: !
-·~···~~~······-···--·~·····-~~·-

lknd1 kigln K (m) 1011 2.00 \.tlll .¡ .00


! lolc diarnck1 d (mm) (1~ (i.j h-1 (i.j

! lnle dcp1h 11 (rn) 1.40 2.7ll 3.811 4.lJtl


l'r;1c1ic:li hu 1dcn 13 (111) tL80 1.:rn ¡ (10 2. !O
Pr~1ct icil sp~ici ng s (rl1) 1.1!0 1.1111 2.1111 2J1il

Bclll<>m ch;ngc:
{ :onccnt r~1! i<l11 !,, (kg-'111) ~.2tl 2.211 2.20 2.211
fkight h,. (m) il. IS ti.Sil 1 '() 2. /()
Wcigln (),, (kg) 11..)() l .Sil 3 ..10 h.00
f'xplosÍ\"CS dimcnsÍon (rnrn) 50 Sil 511 Sil
Colurnn chargc: O, (k¡!) il.lll 11.lll ll.Stl 0.)11
Tot~I chargc ü,., (kg) 11.40 l .'Jll J.80 6 ..'0
Stcrnming h.. (in) 1.10 l.'itl {.(10 2.llll
Spccific clrilling b (rnicu.rn) 1.75 0.65 0.4(1 0.22
Spccific chargc q (kµku.m) 11.SO 0.-1() 0.4() O.JO
92
Drilling and chargíng table for low bcnches.
Blaslhnlc <líarncter 7<1 mm.

Explosivc: Emulitc 150


Holc indin;1tion: :u
lknch hcight K (m) l.00 2 ()() 3.00 4.00 5 00 6.00
1!nle díanwtcr d (mm) 76 76 76 76 76 76
Hok dcpth H (m) !.60 2.(1() 3.80 5.00 6.20 7.40
Practical htmkn B (m) l. lo un 1.)0 1.70 2.00 2.60
Practícal spacíng S (m) 1.30 1.(10 1.80 2.10 2.50 3.20
Bottom chargc:
Concentration 1,, (kg/rn) 1.51 l .50 2.40 2.40 3.50 4.50
Height h,. (m) 0.38 l.00 l. 1() 2.00 2.00 3.00
Wcight (\ (kg) 0.57 1.50 2.60 4.80 7.00 13.50
Explosí\·cs Jimension (mm) 40 .j() 50 50 60 70
Colurnn charge: Ü, (kg) 0.00 0.20 0.60 0.80 3.00 4.60
Total chargc ü, .., (kg) () 57 1.70 3.20 5.61) 10.00 18.10
Stcmming h.. (m) 1.20 1.30 1.50 l.70 2 00 2.60
Specific drilling b (mlcu.111) 1.12 0.63 0.47 0.35 () 25 0.15
Spccific chargc q (kg/cu.rn) 0.40 0.41 () 40 0.39 0.40 0.36

Leveling with mini-hole tcchniquc.


Nitro Nobel has dcveloped a ncw tcchnique for rock blasting in sensitive envi-
ronrncnts. The new technique, blasting with 22 mm blastholes and small charges,
is prcscntcd in dcpth in Cilaptcr 12. lO Mini-hole blasting.

93
5.4 Secondary blasting.
Sccondary blasting means thc trcatmcnt of houldcrs that are still considcred big
cnough to cause obstruction in subscqucnt opcrntions likc exeavatíon, transport
and crushing.
Thc handling of bouldcrs is normally very expensivc and the aim in ali b!asting
operations must be to avoid sccondary blasting. Carcful planning ami cxccution
of a blast may dccrcasc the nccd of sccondarv blasting to a minirnum. (Scc
Chapter 5.6 Fragmcntation.)
As it is ímpossible to complctcly avoid bouldcrs in bhisting opcrations, thc
problcrn has to be takcn carc of by blasting.
Thc most widely uscd method of blasting bou!dcrs is by drilling onc or more
blastholes in thcm. Thc blastho!c/s is/are drillcd so that the cxplosivc can be
placed in lhc ccntcr of the mass of thc bouldcr. which rcquires a holc slightly
dccpcr than half thc thickncss of thc bouldcr.
As bouldcrs rcsulting from blasting llave bcen cxposcd to strcsscs during the
blast. thcy con ta in a lot of microscopie cracks, thus rnaking thcm rclativc!y casy
to b!ast compmcd with natural st\\ncs. (Scc Chapter 12. ! Blasting of natural
bouldcrs.)
For blastíng of bouldcrs rcsulting from blasts. a spccific chargc of approx.
0.(16 kg/cu.m. is nccded.

Secondary blasting.

Sizc of Thickncss Dcpth of Numhcr of Chargc


boukkr of houldcr hlastlwlc b!astholcs kg/holc
cu.m. m m
·-·~ ----···--·-~

0.5 0.8 0.45 0.03


1.0 l.() 0.5) (). 06
2.0 l.() 0.55 2 0.06
:u1 u 0.80 2
__,____
0.09
-~-~-•'V•'••-•<•~··~-·-~- ·--------~------------~--------·.,.,

When severa! blastho!cs are uscd in a houldcr, the initiation should be carricd
out \.vith instantancous dctonators or dctonators with the same interval number.

Fig. 5.6 Secondary bfasling.


5.5 Opening of the bench.
Gene rally. bencb b!asting is understood to be blasting of vertical, or el ose to
vertical. b!astholcs towards a free facc.
Occasionally. no free face is available and the conditions for ben ch blasting ha ve
to be crcatcd.
Thc simplcst way to do this is by using a fan cut of the typc shown below.
The drilling pattcrn and charging of thc blasthole depend upon the blasthole
<liamctcr and cxp!osíve used. Guide values for drilling and charge calculations
are found in Chapter 5.2 Charge calculations.
Note that thc burdcn must be ca!culatcd in rclation to thc charge concentratíon
in thc bottom of the holc.
The fan cut crea tes a ccrtain risk offlyrock. Carc must thcrcfore be taken close to
inhabitcd arcas. espccíally if thc blasthole diametcr is greatcr than 40 mm.

1e 4• 5•

•5 1. 2e 3e 4o

2o 3• 5•

Fig. 5. 7 Operzing of 1he bench.


95
5.6 Rock fragmentation.

Fíg. 5.8 Bla.1·t wilh good rock ji-t1g111enrurio11, rt'.rnlt o{ h/ast in Fig. 4.1.

5.6. l Small rock fragmcntation.


Good rock fragmcntation is a subjcctivc mattcr ;111d dcpcnds on the cnd use of
the rock.
Thc dcsircd dcgrcc of fragmcntation also dcpcnds upon thc typc and sizc of
cquipment which is uscd for thc suhscqucnt h<1ndling of thc rnck.
Largc loadcrs. írucks and crushcrs can allow larger fragmcntation. but it is a
common misconccption that !argcr fragmcntation can be allowcd becausc largc
loadíng. transport m1d crushing cquipmcnl is uscd. Thc largc siz·~ cquipmcnt is
dcsigncd to handk largc vo!urnes of material. not largc sizc rnatcrial.
The ideal!y fragmcntcd rock is the rock thnt necds no further treatment aftcr the
blast. Thercforc. lhe pararncters for thc subscqucnt operations are thc guídc
líncs for deciding on the dcsired fragmcntatíon or 1hc rock. lf thc rock is just to
be transportcd to a dumping arca, it should he easy to load and transport. lf thc
rock is in tended for crushing, thc sízc of thc largcst bouldcrs shou!d not exceed
75 pcr cent of thc lcngth of thc shortcst sidc of thc opcning of the primary
crnsher, thus al!owing a free lfow through the plant.
Sincc thc size of thc broken rock ís of the utmost importancc for the subsequcnt
opcrations. ali possíblc cffor!s havc to be rnadc to kecp thc sizc down.
%
1n hcnch bl<1sti11g, thc fragrncntatíon is iníluenccd by thc fo!!owing factors:
* Thc gcology of thc rock (faults. voids etc.)
Spccific drilling
Spccific chargc
Dri!!ing pattcrn
' Firing pattcrn
Holc inclínation
'' Holc dcviation
' Sizc of thc round
By considcring thc abovc factors during thc <lri!ling and blasting operation, it is
possible to influcnce the fragmentation. Howcver, it is not possible to make a
completcly rcliable calculation beforehand. Test blasting of sorne rows is a good
way to obtain some irnprcssion of the b!astíng charactcristics of thc rock.

The geology of thc rock frcqucntly affects thc fragmcntatíon more than the
explosivc uscd in the blast. Thc propertics that inílucncc the result of the blast
are comprcssíon strcngth. tcnsílc strcngth. dcnsity, propagatíon vclocíty, hard-
ncss and structurc.
Most rocks havc a tensile strength whích is 8 to 10 times lower than the compres-
sion strength. This propcrty is an importan! factor in rock blasting. The rock's
tcnsi!c strength has to be cxceeded. otherwisc thc rock will not break.

Compression and tensile strengths of dífferent rocks.


Compression strength Tcnsilc strcngth
kg/sq.cm. kg/sq.cm.
Grnnik 2000- 3600 100-300
Diabase 2900-4000 190-300
Marhlc 1500-1900 150-200
Limcstonc 1300-2000 170-300
Sandstonc (hard) approx. 3000 approx. 300

Rock with high density is normally harder to blast than a low <lcnsity rock
beca use thc hcavicr rock masscs rcquirc more exp!osivcs for the displaccment of
thc rock.
Thc propagation ve!ocity varíes with diffcrcnt kinds of rock. Field tests have
shown that hard rocks with high propagation vclocity are best fragmentcd by an
cxplosivc witb high vclocity of dctonation (VOD). In conscquence a rock with
low propagation vclocíty may be blastc<l with cxplosivcs with low VOD. EMU-
UTE and DYNAMEX with a VOD of 5000 to 6000 m/scc. are suitabic for
b!asting granitc, marblc and di abase (propagation velocity 4000 to 7000 m/sec.)
whilc ANFO is suitable for limestone, sandstonc cte. with low propagation
vclocítics.
Thc hardness or brittlcncss of the rock can have a great cffcct on the blasting
rcsult. Sof! rock is more "forgiving" than hard rock. lf soft rock is somewhat
97
undcrcharged, it will still be muckable and if it is somewhat ovcrchargcd,
excessivc throw rarely occurs. On the other hancL undercharging of hard rock
frcqucntly results in a tight and blocky muckpilc that is tough to excavatc.
Overcharging of hard rock may cause flyrock and airb!ast. Thc dcsign of blasts in
hard rock requires tighter control than in soft rock.

Granite, gneíss and marb!e represen! the hard rock whílc soft limcstone and
shalc are considcrcd soft.
Thc structure of the rock shou!d be docurncntcd beforc thc b!asting works start.
The direction, severity and spacing bctwccn the joint sets should be mapped out
so that drilling and firing pattcrns can be adjustcd to the prevailíng conditions.
The planning of the drilling with rcspect to thc dircction of thc joints is vcry
importan t.

Fig. 5. 9

Advantages Advantages
Effcctivcly cxploits thc cncrgy in Rcduccd o ver break.
thc explosive. Good displaccmcnt
of the blasted rock giving good Disadvantages
digging conditions. Normally no Bad displaccment with tightcr
stumps in the bottom part. muckpilc. Risk for stumps in thc
(no toe-prnblcm) bottom par\. Ovcrhang may occur
in thc back rmv.
Disadvantages
Back break

When the rock is full of fau!ts aml incompctcnt zoncs. much of thc cxplosivc's
encrgy is lost in thc faults instead of bcing used to break thc rock. Alternatc
zones of compctcnt and incompctcnt rnck normally rcsult in too blocky frag-
mentation. Highcr specific charge wi!l rarcly corree! this problcm; it will only
increase the risk of flyrock. The best way to lcsscn thc problcm is to use smallcr
blastholes with a closer drilling pattcrn in ordcr to obtain bctter distribution of
thc explosives in the rock. The explosivc chargcs should be concentrated in thc
competent rock while the faults and incompctcnt zoncs should be stemmed if
possiblc.
98
Joint

zone

Fig. 5. JO S1emmí11g of incompetent zoncs.

Thc collar part of thc biastholc, which contains the stemming. has an unfavor-
able effect on the rock fragmentation.
As a general rule a collar distance equal to the burden is left uncharged. In tough
rock and rock with horizontal planes, the uncharged part of thc hole will cause
problcms in forrn of an incrcascd amount of bouklers. To improve the blasting
result. thc following steps may be taken:
'' Shorten thc collar distancc. thus charging higher in the blastholc.
Drilling of rclievcrs in the stcmming section of thc blast.
Highcr charges in thc blasthole can only be recommended when a large arca can
be cvacuated and no de!icatc structurcs are in the viciníty of thc blast, dueto thc
incrcascd risk of rlyrock.
Occasionally a small charge in thc sternming section of thc blastbole can ímprove
thc result of thc blast.
Thc drilling of relievers hetwecn the main blastholes helps to break the upper
part of the round.
Thc relievcrs are short holes, normally with smaller diameter than the rnain
blastholcs.
Thc drilling of relievers betwcen the blastholes does not usually makc economic
sensc. More often than not, it is advisable to to!erate a certain amount of
boulders from the b!ast and break them by sccondary blasting or other rnethod.
99
® @ e
e e e

e
• e
$
• e

l!l
e
e
• • e

0
@

$
• • e

111
e
0
• &
@

~ @I

fl~¡;. 5. J 1 Rc/in1e1s hNwern 1he 11111í11 hlas!l10/es.

-
U)

o

Cost of mucking,
transport and
cruehing

·~-e::::::::::=:::::::::-- Cost of drífling


and blasting

50 mm 250 mm
Fig. 5. 12 Ejfect o[ s11111!1 a11d large díami'ler h/11s1ho!es 011 cosl.

Specifíc drilling.
Thc sizc of thc blastholc is thc f'ii"st considcration of any blast dcsign. Thc
blastholc diamctcr togcthcr with thc cxplosivc uscd will determine bur<lcn.
spacing and holc dcpth.
Practica] holc diamctcrs for bcnch blasting rangc from 30 mm to 400 mm.
Gcnerally the cost of largc diametcr drilling is cheaper per cubic meter rock than
srnall diarncter drilling. Furthermorc. cheapcr blasting agcnts can be uscd in
large diamctcr blastholcs.
l {)()
Thc !argc diamcter blastholc pattcrn givcs a rclativcly low dri!líng and blasting
cost. lfowcver, in geologically difficult situations the blasted material will be
blocky. rcsulting in high mucking, transport and crushing costas well as requir-
ing more sccondary brcakagc.
Thc geological structurc is a major factor in <.kterrníning thc blastholc díameter.
Joints and planes tcnd to isolatc largc blocks of rock in thc burdcn arca. The
largcr the drílling pattcrn. the greater the risk that these are Jcft unbroken.
Highcr spccific dríllíng with smallcr diamcter blastholcs distributcs thc cxplo-
sívcs hcttcr in the rock resulting in belter rock fragmentation.
Lately. button bits ha ve re placed inscrt bits to a grcat extent thanks to their
cxccllent drilling charactcristics and convcnicncc in use (casier sharpcning of the
bit and longer intcrvals bctwecn thc grindings). Addcd to thc abon: advantages
ís a lifc span which ís twícc that of an ínscrt bit.
Beca use of thc construction of thc button bit. thc diameter dccreases wíth wear
and 1.vhen the bit is worn out. thc diameter is up to 15 mm smaller than that of a
ncw bít.

lf thc samc burdcn and spac-


ing is maintaincd duríng the
en tire lifc span of thc bit, lhe
fragmentation tends to be
blockicr at thc cnd of thc lifc
span. due to thc smallcr dia-
mctcr rcsulting in a smaller
spccific chargc.

Fíg. 5.13 Comparison of diameler of new and


worn bwton bit.

Spccific chargc.
Rock will be broken up more if thc spccific chargc is incrcascd and the drilling
pattcrn maintaincd.
Thc bottom part of thc blast usually has thc optima! spccific charge and the
fragmentation in this part is normally satisfactory.
Thc incrcasc in spccific chargc can on!y be done in thc column and stemming
parts of thc blast. The fragmentation will thcn be better but a greatcr forward
movcmcnt of thc rock has to be expccted as well asan increased rísk of flyrock.

Drilling pattcrn.
The typical drilli ng pattcrn has a spacing/burdcn ratio of 1. 25 (S/B = 1. 25), which
has provcd to give good rock fragmcntation in multiplc row blasting.
101
l n thc 70s. tests wcrc carricd out in Swcdcn with widc-spacc holc blasting with
S!B ratios grcatcr than l .25. Thc rcsu!ts of thc tests showed improvcd frag-
mcntation up to an S/B ratio of 8. Thc mcthod is now common practicc in
Swedish quarrics.
Thc burdcn and spacíng must be normal in thc l'irst row, othcrwisc thc burdcn
will be too small. incrcasing thc risk of flyrock.

S/B = 1.25

Fig. 5.14 Normal dri/ling pa11em.

®----··----. . ······T.
:B S/B = 5
s * ~

I~I 1
[: El~IT. .!
Fig. 5.15 Wide-space blas1ing.
lll2
Fíring pattern.
Bcnch blasting is normally carried out as short dclay blasting. The firing pattern
has to be dcsigncd so that cach blastholc has free breakagc.
Thc dclay time bctwccn blastholcs and bctwecn rows has to be long enough to
create spacc for thc blasted rock from thc succccding rows.
Bcrnt Larsson of Nitro Nobel has studicd the cffect of thc dela y time on multiple
row blastíngs. He statcs that thc rock must be allowcd to movc 1/3 of the burden
distancc bcforc the ncxt row is allowed to detonatc. Thc dela y time be_twcen the
rows may vary from JO ms/m (hard rock) to 30 ms/m (soft rock) but generally
15 ms/111 of thc burdcn distancc is a good guidc valuc.
This lcngth of dela y gives good fragmentation and controls flyrock. lt also gives
thc burdcn from the previously fírcd holcs cnough time to movc forward to
accommoJatc the brokcn rock from subscqucnt rows.
lf thc dela y bctwccn thc ro\vs is too short. thc rock from the back rows tcnds to
takc an upw<Jrd dircction instead of a horizontal. On the other hanJ_ too long a
dela y may cause f!yrock. airblast and bouldcrs, as the protection from previously
fircd rows disappcars due to too grcat a rock movcmcnt between detonations.
The increase in boulders is due to the fact that the blast in this case may be
compared with a 'ingle row blast.

Fíg. 5.16 Too short a de/ay between rows.

103
hg. 5. 17 l'erfcct de!m· he111'ee11 m11·s.

-e- - - - · - - - - ··- - - - -o- - - -


"
6
0 - -
,,.-s
- -
s s 5 s
;>- -
s
- - -·
s'.....

6

'
e/ é - - - ·- - - · - - - - - • - - - - - - · - - - - - ;> - - - - -• - - - - - • " ••
5 / /4 4 4 4 4 4 4', 5
/ ',
/

e/ ~- ____ .,_ -- - -· _____ ., __ --- o-----·-----·


4 // 3 3 3 3 3 3 3',....,

"'
/
@--- -- -
/,..?
G ------G-----·-.>----- ·$-- ---
'1 2 2 2
-e-----$
2 2'-,
'
•3

// '
<11---- -e--·---e-----o----- e-- - -e-- --o
\ 1 , 1 1 1 1

n
V
Fig. 5. JH Firing ¡wttem, mu/tiple ro11• hlasríng.

Simple firing pattcrn for a latcrally constricted multiplc row round. Ali boles in
thc row havc the sarnc dc!ay except the pcrímetcr holcs, which are dclaycd one
interval m11nbcr to avoid excessive ovcrbrcak outsidc thc límits of ihc cxcava-
tion.
104
•8 ,,
/ / 7 ,,1 ~ ..A>, •s', •O', •, •8
/
/ 4 ' 7 '
/
/
/ ;
'' '' ' '
..
/
' ' ... ' '
/
" ' 'e
/
/ / '
/
'
,•
;

•7
/

/6
fj/
/
/s / 4
/
/ ... ~,, ' 4' s',
'e
6', 7

•'6
/
/
;
/

/(
/
/
/

,'4
./ /
/
/

/
~
3
/
/
;

,,,.~ .........
' '·
'
' •3'
''
'

''
''
''
...4'-,
'
'
'•S'
''
'
''
' 'O
6

./ ./
/
/
/
/ ;
' ''
.
/
/
/
/
/
/

/
/
;
' '' '' ''

/ /

•'
5
e'
4 3 2 •1
'
2
'•
3 •4
'
5

Fig. 5.19 Firing pa!lem.

This firing pattcrn gives better fragmcntation. The ratio betwecn true spacing
and true burdcn. S/B, becomes more favorable. (Sec widc-space drilling
pattcrn.)
One disadvantage with the abovc firing pattern is the risk that thc center hole in
thc sccond row of thc blast may detonatc before the dctonators in thc front row
with thc same dclay numbcr, duc to thc scattcr within thc delay intcrval.
The hole will then be quite constricted causing incomplete breakagc which will
form bouldcrs and possiblc butts abovc the theoretical grade.
e
10 •9 /~ /
,$
7 .....
,o,
6 '
o,
7 '...._
......
8 -, •9 •
10
..... /

$ .....
8 •'
7
......
/ 6
..... /
e
..... 5 ,.,.. ...-º-
4 .............
--·-5
. ' 6
-...
'
'19
7
-. 8

. /
'
...._ ...._ ...._

·- ....., -. ......
.....
...... ..... ...... /
' ...._ '
6 5 ..- .... ,,... 4
.....
..... /
,e
3 /
,G,
2 ' 3 ' 4'- 5 '• 6

e ...
4
......
3
/
/
/

. ·--- -·-- -· '• ..


2
.....
1 - 1 - 1
..... .....
'
2 3
...._
-...
'• 4

Fig. 5.20 Firing pattern.


This firing pattcrn provides separnte delay time for practically ali blastholes and
givcs good fragmentation as well as good breakage in the bottom part of the
round.
105
8
Hole inclination.
lnclined boles wit!J an inclínation of approx. 3: l reduce the back break and thc
amount of bouldcrs from the uppcr part of the blast.

'' /
/

' /

Fíg. 5.21

Hole deviation.
Precision in drilling is important for the b!astíng result.
Poor precision in drilling will form boulders duc to irregular burdcns and
spacíngs.

Fig. 5.22
106
Fíg. 5.23

Size of the round.


It is a known fact that most of the boulders ín a blast come from the front row.
Thercforc, multiple row blasts give proportionally fcwer boulders than single
row blasts.
Howcvcr, thc length of the blast should not be grcater than 50 % of the width.

5.6.2 Large size fragmentation.


Frcqucntly !arge size fragmentation is required. In thc construction of ports,
large size rock is used for the construction of breakwaters.
The blasting to produce !arge size rock may be as difficult as producing small size
fragmentatíon. The geology of the rock may form the greatest obstacle to obtain
a good blasting result. A hornogenous rock ís preferable in large fragmentation
blasting to a fissured rock.
Thc method of blasting large sized blocks is somewhat different from normal
bcnch blasting.
Thc specific charge has to be low.
' Thc spacing/burden ratio (S/B) should be less than 1.
' Blasting of one row ata time, preferably instantaneously.
The specific charge should be decreased down to 0.20 kg per cubic meter (and
occasionally lower) whích may be sufficient to loosen the rock but not move it
forward. Rock fragmentation will not occur to any large ex ten t. The charge
should be well distributed in the blasthole witb a reasonable bottom charge
although srnaller than normal. Due to the smaller bottom charge, a certarn
secondary blastíng of the bottom has to be tolerated.
The choice of larger burden than spacing will definitely givc blockier fragmenta-
tion with an optimum blasting result when the S/B ratio is betwcen 0.5 and 1.0.
107
Thc instantaneous firing results in larger fragmcntation than short dchy hlast-
ing, as thc tcaring bctwecn thc b!astholcs bccomcs Jcss.
A combinalion of low spccific chargc, S/B ratio of 0.5 to 1.0, ami single row
instantancous blasting. nonnal!y rcsults in largc fragmcntation.
Thc following. sketch givcs an cxamplc how to blast to obtain !argc blocks.
" Blastholc diamctcr 76 mm
* Bcnch hcíght 15 m
:::
Burdcn 3.2 111
;;:
Spacing 1.6 m
Chargc
Bottom 5.0 kg
Column 11.0 kg
Spccific chargc 0.2! kglcu.m.
Emulitc 150. 50x550 mm as bottom chargc.
Ernu!itc L'>O. 32 X550 mm tapcd on a 1O gram/mctcr dctonating cordas column
chargc.
lnitialion: Dctonaling cord.

¡-®
1S .. 1.6
..L. -@

i..a. B .. 3.2 m
@

Fig. 5.24
108
5. 7 Swelling.
Whcn the rock is fragmcntcd by a blast, its vol ume increases consíderably, up to
50 Si, this is known as the swclling.
Thc increascJ rock volume nceds more space and if there is not space cnough ín
front of the round, the rock must move upwards.
The samc applics to long blasts where the rock piles up in front of the round as
thc blast procecds row by row.
As mcntíoned in Chaptcr 5.2 Charge calculation. thc specific chargc should be
increascd if thc blastings are carricd out without mucking between thc blasts.
According to Langcfors. in his book Rock blasting. the requisite extra specific
charge to compensa te for the elcvation of the blastcd rock masses is 0.04 x K
(bench height) if thc inclination of the blasthole is 2: 1. If thc holc inclination is
stcepcr, the compensation of the specific charge has to be increascd and is
0.08x K ata holc inclination of 3: l.
Whcn no cxcavation is carricd out bctwecn thc blasts. thc holc inc!ination must
not be !css than 3: I. Furthermorc. the ben ch must not be too high. High ben ches
must havc such a high spccific chargc to compensa te for the swelling that the risk
of flyrock makcs it prohibitivc.
For long blasts, the rule of thumb is that thc clcvation of the swclling has to be
considcrcd whcn the lcngth of the blast exceeds 50 %1 of thc width. Expcrienced
blastcrs usually compensa te for thc swclling by incrcasing thc chargc in thc back
rows.

Fig, 5.25

109
E 100 r-
ai
o
! 1

~ 80 ¡~
..,
(/)

"~ 60 ~
1

o...
.s::;
..... 1
40 ~

1
201 1
oi L _ _ __ _L_ ___ ~--· - - - - - - - ' - · - - · - · - · · - - - . - - : .• _. ____ ... ,,_,,_______ _

o 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8


Specific charge, kg/cu.m.
Fip,. 5.26 Maximum forward moi·cmenr as a .fi111ctio11 o{ speci(ic charge.
5.8 Throw, flyrock.
In bcnch blasting we have to differcntiatc bctwcen two typcs of rock movcmcnt.
Firstly wc havc thc forward movcmcnt of thc cntirc rock mass which is mainly
horizontal.
Sccondly. thc f!yrock. which is scatlcr from thc rock surfacc and the front of the
bias t.
Thc forward movcmcnt of thc rock mass is dcpcndcnt on the spccific chargc.
Rcscarch pcrl'ormcd by SVEDEFCY shows that a spccifíc chargc of0.2 kg/cu. rn.
docs not cause any forward movcmcnt of the rock, but only brcaks thc rock.
A normal specific chargc of 0.4 kg/cu.m. moves thc rock forward 20 to 30 m.
which is the expected normal displacement of thc rock mass.
Too short a forward movcmcnt causes a tight muckpile which is hard to excava te.
whilc cxccssivc forward rnovcmcnt s¡;rcads !he muckpilc. rcsultíng in highcr
loading costs.
The fonvard movcmcnt of the rock rnass rarcly rcprescnts any hazard in thc
blasting operation hut may cause inconvcnicncc whcn miscalculatcd.
F!yrocks are rocks ejected frorn thc blast. Thcy tcnd to travc! long distances and
are thc main cause of on-site fatalitics and damagc to cquipmcnt.
F!yrock is rnostly causcd by an impropcrly dcsigncd or irnpropcrly chargcd blast.
Research pcrformed by SVEDEFO shows that thc maximum ejcction ofllyrock
is a function of thc blastholc diamcter.
L
'""''
= ?('() (
- J 25
.J!..)
2''.\ Lm;n in meter
d in míllimctcr
which is valid for a givcn specific chargc. Fig. 5.27 shows thc cjcction distanccs
* Swedísh Dctonic Rcsearch Foundation.
110
of flyrock as a function of the specífic charge at blasthole diameters of 25 to
100 mm.

A burden of less than 30 times the diameter of the blasthole gives too high a
specific chargc. espccially if the explosive is poured or pumped into the blast-
hole. Thc cxccssíve explosives content in the blastholc may result in rocks
travc!ing long distances.
Too large a burden may cause flyrock jf the explosive cannot break the burden
and thc gases vent through the collar of the hole creating cratcr cffccts.
An ínappropriate firíng pattern may cause the same effect as a too large burden.
The gases from thc blast tend to vent through the collar if the blasthole does not
havc free breakagc.

E 700
¿ 0.75 l<.g/cu.m
.2 600
ü
"'
'(i)
500 0.56
o
.e 400
o,
e:
-- 0.43

"'
_J 300.

200 .

100

o
o 25 50 75 100
Diameter, mm

Fig. 5.27 Maximwn trave/ing distance of f!yrock as a function of blasthole


diamercr for differcnt specific charges.

E 800 '
¿ d • 100 mm
.9
0
<l>
.., 600
o
.e
o,
e
.3 400

/ ---d·25mm
200 ·~

-----
/
/

o ...... .../~-·
o 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
Specific charge, 1<.g/cu.rn.

Fig. 5.28 Maximum travcling disrnnce of flyrock as a fw1c1io11 of rhe specific


chargl' f or 50 and 100 mm blasthole diamerers.
111
To¡¡-iJ1iria1io11 n(}//0111-i 11 ir ial ion
Fig. 5.29 Cmrer efj('cr, i·errical ho/es wi1!ww free /Jreakage.

Too short or too long a de lay lime betwcen thc blastholcs may a!so cause flyrock.
Too short a dclav time crea tesan cffcct shown in fig. 5. l 6. Thc !ravcling distancc
is rclativcly limitcd. A more scríous hazard appcars whcn thc dclay time bc-
tween thc blasthoks is too long. In a corrcctly dcsigncd firíng pattcrn. thc rock is
held togcthcr and thc rock frorn thc front rows acts as a protcction whcn thc
chargcs in thc fo!lowíng rows dctonatc. lf thc dclay bctwccn thc rows or single
blastholes is too long. the protcctívc cffcct is not achícvcd.
Delay times between adjacent blastholes must not exceed 100 ms if the hurden is
less than 2 m.
Whcn largc díarnctcr blastholcs are uscd. longcr dela y bctwccn rows/holcs must
be used duc to thc slug¡.>:ish 1110\'l'rncnt of thc largc rock nwss bctwccn thc
rows/holcs.
Blasting of low bcnchcs. lcvcling. nonnally causes flyrock bccausc of thc fast
movcmcnt of thc rock mass. Thc low bcnchcs ami the short burdcns makc it
nc,~cssmy to use short dela y times hctwccn thc hL1stholcs. l..cvcling hlasts should
always be covcrcd with hca\'y covcr as wcll as light splintcr-rrotcctivc covcring.
Yarious ínvestigations, both in thc U.S.A. and Swedcn indicatc that flyrock is
more frcqucnt whcn the blasthole is top-initiatcd than whcn it is bottom~
initiated. (Sec Fig. S.29.) Dctonating cord with high corc load top-initiates the
explosivc and tcnds to blow part of thc stemming material out or thc holc thus
lowcring thc confíncmcnt of thc cxplosivc.
As mcntioncd in Chaptcr S.2 Chargc calculations. thc stcmming should havc a
particle size of 4 to 9 mm for best confincrncnt. Thc bes! material for stemming is
crushcr run.
l l2
Volds contalnlng
excessl\le chatge Crater effect at the collar
Too short stemmlng
Unsu!lable stemmlng material
Large blasthole d!ameter
Top lnltlatlon
lncompetent rock Too short burden dlstance
Too farge burden dfstance
t--."i~!!ll¡~Too short delay time
' Too long delay time
Weakened zone from Too hlgh speclflc charge
l;Jr1'!vlous blast

Fig. 5.30 Causes of jlyrock.


Flyrock is oftcn causcd by incompetent rock whcrc thc gases may break through
casily duc to Jess rcsistance than in thc more competent parts of thc rock.
Neccssary carc must be taken during thc charging of !he blast. cspccially the first
l"OIV.
Thc incompctent zones may be natural but a!so caused by thc prcvious blast,
cspecially in thc hcavily charged bottom part of the hole.
lf the blastholcs are drilled with poor prcdsíon so that the burdcn is considerably
srnallcr than thc calculated one in the firsl row, thc specific charge wíll locally be
high. A dcviation of l m for a 76 mm blastholc dccrcases the burden from 2.70 rn
(Emulite l 50) to l. 70 m. The specific charge will locally be increased from
0.40 kg/cu.m. to 0.63 kg/cu. rn. asan average for the hole. The bottom part of the
hole will havc even higher specific charge. The possible result of such an
overchargc rnay be cvaluated from Figures 5.27 and 5.28.
How to avoid flyrock.
* Clcan thc rock surfacc from loose st<mes which may cjcct casily íf gases vent
through thc collar of the blasthole.
* Avoid stcmming shortcr than thc burdcn distance. Too short sternming may
crcatc cratcr effccts.
Use good stemming material. No drillfines.
8
Check that thc drilling pattcrn is corree! and that the blastholes are drilled with
correct inclination.
* Dcsign the firing pattern so that each blasthole has free breakage and ad-
equatc dclay time betwccn each other.
' Look out for incompetent zones and voíds and charge with carc, stem íncom-
pctcnt parts of the boles.
* Charge the first row carefully. Look out for back break which shortens the
burdcn.
113
Fig. 5 .31 Rock jimn previous bias! in fím11 o( rhc fáce prn·mrs flyrock from rhc
heavily c/w1si!d ho110m part o( 1he hofe.

' Check that thc right amount of cxplosivcs is usccL Whcn flyrock is a problcm,
do NOT use free flowin!l cxplosivcs unlcss confincd in plastic l10scs and
wcighted.
~ Lcave rock frorn the prcvious blast in front of thc facc. up to 1/3 of the bcnch
height.
* In built-up arcas. covcr thc blast.

5.9 Covering.
To further protect against flyrock, thc blast may be covcred by cnergy-absorbing
coveríngs which are placed on thc top of the blasl. This measurc can be uscd for
smallcr blasts with small diamctcr b!astholcs, lcss than 76 mm.
Blasts with larger c!iameter blastholcs are practically irnpossiblc to covcr
efficicntly. Howcvcr, Jargc diametcr blastholcs are rarcly u sed whcre flyrock is a
problem, i.e. closc to populatcd arcas. Other limiting factors such as ground
vibratíon leve Is and aírblast lcvels will rcstrict thc amount of cxplosivc that may
be dctonated in ca ch blasthole thus makíng largc diarnctcr blastíngs irnpractical.
The general rule for coveríng a blast is that thc covcring material should havc thc
samc wcíght as the blastcd rock. This is valíd for !ow bcnches, lcvcling, whcn
small rock masscs are looscncd and thc distancc from thc chargc to the rock
surface is short.
For normal bench blasting, whcrc thc bcnch height is more than twice thc
maximum burdcn (K~2xB,,,,"). it is hardly possible to use such <1 heavy
covering.
What we havc to strive for in this case is to shortcn the forward movement of thc
rock rnass and to avoíd flyrock.
114
The forward movement may be shortened by well-balanced charging of the blast
and by leaving blasted rock from the prevíous blast in front of the rock face.
The t1yrock can be stopped by placing covering material over the blast and by
Vv'cll-poiscd stemming.

Two typcs of covcring are used and should be used togethcr:


" Hcavy covering.
'' Splinter protcctive covering.
The heavy covering is intended to hold the blast togcther so that no part of it
escapes whcn the round is fired.

The splíntcr protectivc covcring is intended to prevcnt flyrock from thc surface
scction of the round.

Hcavy covering material:


'' Rubbcr blasting mats made of scrap tires which are cut ínto scctions
and !wined togethcr with steel wires.
The sizc of the blasting mat should be approximately 3 x4 meters and
havc a weight of aroun<l 1 ton. Smallcr mats which can be connected
togcther to larger uníts can also be usc<l.
* Mats madc of logs shackled together.
Thcsc blasting mats are heavy and energy absorbing (at least the rubber mats).
Thc gases produced by thc blast vcnt through the mats without displacing them
to any grcater cxtent.

Splintcr protective covering material:


Industrial felt.
* Tarpaulins.
Mesh ncts.

The heavy covering should be placed closest to the rock surface with the lightcr
splínter protective covering on top.

Thc covcríng with heavy mats should start from thc back of thc b!ast and work
forward, each mat ovcrlapping the previous
When the b!ast is fired, the mats ripple and do not follow the blast forward,
which may happen if the blast is covered from the opposite direction, leaving the
back rows without cover.

The covering work with heavy covcring material has to be carried out with a
crane or a retro excavator. For smaller-scale works small rubber mats may be
used. but must be connccted together with hooks to form covering units that are
largc enough.

Thc splinter protective material is then placed on top of the heavy covering,
startíng from the back and working forward.
115
Fig. 5.32 Principie o/ coi·ering.

l !6
FiíJ. 5.34 Blas1ing with heavy covering in Abha, Saudi Arabia.

Note that no rock travels any great distance. Ali rock remains within 5 m of the
blast.
117
5.10 Blasting economy.
Economíc aspccts on blasting operntions.
In order to evaluatc thc cost of the blasting opcration, it is not rational to isolatc
thc drí!ling and blasting operations from thc subscqucnt operations in the work
cyclc.
A!l operations in the work cycle havc to be considcrcd:
* Jrilling
* charging anJ blasting
* boulder blasting
' mucking (cxcavation)
' transport
" crnshing
lf the cost of the drilling and blasting opcration is minimizcd, thcrc is a great risk
of increascd costs in Sllbsequent opcrations, which may givc an íncreased total
cost.
Thc factor that affects most on the operations following thc blasting operation is
that of rock fragmentation, which has to be considered whcn the cost of drilling
and blasting is calculated.
To quantify the rock fragmcntation in relation to thc blasting opcration and the
subsequent opcrations (bouldcr brcakagc, loading. transport and crushing) is
quite a problcm.
Harrics and Merccr havc vísualizcd thc rclationship bctwcen blasting cosL
transport and crushing to rock fragmcntation in thc following way:

...,
(,/} Total cosl
o
o

Mucking, transport
and crushing coa!

Dri!ling and
blasting cost

Coarser FRAGMENTATION Finer

Fig. 5.35 Relatíons!tip henveen bfasting cosr and subsequent costs to rock frag-
mefl/ation.
l 18
Despite the abovc. we will look in to the cost of the drilling and blasting opera-
tion and ways of lowering the blasting costs.
The drilling and blasting costs may be lowered by using bigger blasthole dia-
mctcrs.

Thc cost per meter blasthole increases with the diameter.


.....
(/)
o
o

o 50 100 150 200 250 300


Blastho!e diameter, mm
Fig. 5.36 Relatíve dril! cost per meter blastho!e.

Thc cost pcr volume of thc blasthole decreases with larger diameter blastholes .

Vol ume, lite r O


...... r·--
1 12 3 4 6 7 8 g 10

Diameter, mm 51 102 152 254

Fíg. 5.37 Relative dril! cost per liter o[ blasthole.


119
When largc diameter blastholes are uscd. lcss cxpcnsivc blas1i ng agcnts may
be uscd in thc blastholcs. lowcring thc total cost of thc dri!li11g and blasting
opcration.
As mcntioncd in Chaptcr 5.7 Rock fragmcntation. largc diamctcr blastholcs
tcnd to givc a tight and block y muckpíle, rcsulting in more difficult loading and
transport. Fur!hcrmorc, the handling of bouldcrs h;is a dctrimcntal cffect on thc
work cyclc.
More oftcn tlian noL thl' crushing opcr;ition is thc bottlcncck of thc total
workcyclc. Thc free flow through thc crushcr can in such cases havc such a grcat
influcncc, that extra cxpcnditurc on thc drilling and blasting operation may be
thc only way to assurc fu!I capaeity in the plant and improvcd ovcrall cconorny.
Thc most cffcctivc utí!ization of thc cxplosivc chargc is ohtaíncd when thc
maxirnum hurdcn is 35 (ANFO) to 45 (Dynamex M) times thc blastholc dia-
mctcr. As thc blastholc diamctcr is incrcascd. thc burdcn approachcs thc
dimcnsíons of thc bcnch hcigllt. making thc cxplosivcs work lcss cfficicntly.
Such largc burdcns also i11crcasc thc risk of flyrock and airblast as a stcmming
dístancc with thc samc dimcnsion as thc burdcn is impossihlc to obtai11.
I11 thc l 980s it has bccn a trcnd among thc rock produccrs to aba11do11 thc use of
largc diamctcr blastholcs to mcdiurn sizc holcs. Thc trcnd is oppositc in crushing
cquipmc11t. thc manufacturcrs are going for Jargcr cquipment. Largcr cquip-
mcnt has bccn insta!lccL but as mcntioncd carlicr: "Big crushing cquipmcnt is
designed to handle large amounts of rock material, not large sizc material".
Thc bcnch hcight will also influcncc thc cconnmics of tbc blasting opcration.
Wc know from cxpcricncc that drilling dcvíatcs from thc thcorctical drill linc.
The magnítudc of thc dcviation dcpcnds on thc skill and carc or thc opcrator as
we!! as the drilling cquipmcnt uscd. Thc gcologícal charactcristics of thc rock
may also influencc thc dril!ing prccision.
In normal blastíng opcrations wc calcula te with a dcviation in drilling of 3 cm pcr
meter of b!astholc dcpth. Thc dcviation has to be compcnsalcd for in thc drilling
pattcrn.

The highcr thc bench - thc more dosel y spaccd 1he dri!ling pattern.
The highcr spccific drilling incrcascs thc costs of thc opcration.
If thc drilling pattcrn is not adjustcd for tllc dcvíation in drilling. thc bottom
part of the blast will most ccrtainly 11llt be blastcd to thc intc11dcd leve! (toc-
prob!cm). This will add extra costs lo thc subsequcnt mucking opcration.
as thc !oading cquipmcnt wíll havc a problern loading beca use of stumps. T!lc
sccondary blasting of thc toe adds unncccssarv cost to thc operation.
It is of vital importance to thc economics of thc h!asting opcration that thc right
explosive is uscd on each occasíon. In dry condítions, chcap hlasting agcnts can
be uscd with cxccllcnl rcsults. ANFO has bccomc thc most uscd blasting agcnt in
thc world duc to its avaílability and cconomy. In dry conditíons no cxplosivc
bcats ANFO in overa!! economy including dril!ing. blasting. sccondary blasting,
loading, transpon and crushing.
120
Whcn the blastho!es contain water, ANFO should not be used, at least not in the
bottom part of the holc. ANFO deteriorates fast and should be rcplaced by
Emulitc 150 or Dynamex M which have excellent water resistance properties. If
the bottom part of the hole is charged up over the theoretical grade wíth
Emulite l 50 or Dynamex M instead of ANFO, the risk of stumps in the blast will
be practically eliminated. Furthermore, the rock fragmentation will be improved
becausc of greater effectiveness of the explosive.
Tests carried out by Langefors (The modern technique of Rock Blasting) show
that ít ís possible to increase the burden and spacing with 7 % each íf the bottom
charge of ANFO is rep!aced by a more potent explosive such as Emulite 150 to a
height of 0.4XBmax·
There are overall economic benefits frorn su ch a potent charge in the bottom part
of the blast. The charge should be considered a reinforced primer rather than a
rcduccd bottom chargc. Thc advantages are de ar:
!:: I~cllable initiation of the blasting agent.
Water resistant explosive in the water contaminated bottom part of
thc blast.
Good brcakage in the constricted bottom part of the blast.
Lcss stumps above the in tended grade, simplifying thc loading opera-
tion.
:~ Less drílling.
' Lower consumption of firing devices.

9
121
6. TRENCH BLASTING

fl¡;. 6. J Charging tre11ch hlasl.

6.1 General.
Trench blasting is an important part of today's blastíng activitíes. Pipeline
trenchcs are blastcd across contíncnts for thc dístribution of oil and gas. Furthcr-
more, thc growing citics require incrcascd cxcavatíon of trcnchcs for water
supply, scwcragc, cables etc.
Trench blasting is a forrn of bcnch blasting, but thc bcnch is narrowcr. Nonnally
thc blasting is callcd trcnch blasting if the width of thc ben ch is less t han 4 mctcrs.
The charactcristic featurc of tren ch blasting is that thc width of thc bcnch is small
in comparison to its hcight. Thc rock will be more constricted than in normal
bcnch blasting, thus rcquiring a highcr s¡Kcific chargc and highcr spccific drill-
ing.
The friction against thc sidcs of thc blast is grcat and extra chargc is also nccdcd
to compensate for thc swel!ing.
The holc inclination is of utrnost importancc in trcnch blasting. lt decrcases
122
Fig. 6.2 Fig. 6.3
Expected resu/r of rrench blast with Expected result of trench blast wíth
mediwn sizc blastho/es. (50 to 75 small size blasthofes. (Dril! series 11 ).
mm).

the fixation in the bottom part of the blast and makes the swelling of the blasted
rock easier, especially in deep trenches. The hole inclination should not be less
than 3: l.
Vertical holes must be avoided as they will most probably !cave stumps above
thc theoretical grade.
The hole diameter must be carefully considered in the planning of trench
blasting. Medium size blastholes (50 to 75 mm) increase the ovcrbreak and the
risk of flyrock. Duc to larger charges in thc blastholes ground vibrations will also
increase.
The use of mediurn sizc blastholes is economical!y favorable from a drilling and
blasting point of view, but the cost reduction must be weighed against the
incrcascd cost of such subsequent operations as excavation and transpon of
excessive rock (overbreak) and the increascd rcfi!I with stonefrcc material.
Normally thc choice of thc blasthole diameter is a compromise between high
production and final cost.
As a rule of thumb. the blasthole diametcr should be chosen in relation to the
width of the trcnch:
w
d =- for normal trench blasting (d and w in mm).
60
Two maín trench blasting methods are uscd:
* Traditional trench blasting.
'' Smoothwall trench blasting.

6.2 Traditional trench blasting.


In the traditional trench blasting method the middle holc/holes is/are placed in
front of the lateral boles. All thc boles have thc same chargc, but the column
charge concentration is lower than in normal bench blasting. (The main part of
the charge is placed in the constricted bottom part of the blast.)
123
B
[/
/1
//
rl
/[
11
//
11

11
11
//
//
11
/!
/!

//
1/
//

4

Fig. 6.4 Charf!,e dísrnbwio11 in the hlastho!e.

B
l B
rr--~
1

.l l 'f ! ! ;~~,:.

Fíg. 6.5 Tmdiliona! trench blasting.


124
Chargíng table for traditional trench blasting.
Explosíve: Emulite 150.
Width of thc trcnch: 1.0 to 1.5 m.
Blasthole diameter: 34 to 26 mm ( drill series 11)
Number of boles in the row: 3
Hole inclination: 3:1
Trcnch depth K (m) 1.0 l.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
Hole depth H (m) l.6 2. l 2.6 3. l 3.7 4.2 4.7
Holc diameter d (mm) 33 32 32 31 30 30 29
Practica! burden B (m) 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.7 0.7 0.6
Bouom chargc:
Conccntratíon lb (kg/m) 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.8 0.8 0.7
Hcight h¡, (m) 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.8 0.9
Wcight Ü¡, (kg) 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6
Colurnn chargc:
Concentration l, (kg/m) 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3
Hcioht he (m) 0.3 0.7 l. l l.5 20 2.5 3.0
""
Wcight Oc {kg) O.l 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.6 0.8 0.9
Total chargc 0101 (kg) 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1 1.2 I .4 1.5
Stcrnming h" (m) 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 (). 9 0.9 0.9
Spcc.chargc ( 1.5 rn)q (kg/cu.m.) 1.3 1.2 l. l 1.1 1.1 l. l l.1
Charging table for trnditional trench blasting.
Explosíve: Emulitc 150.
Width of thc trcnch: 2.0 m.
Blastholc diamctcr: 34 to 26 mm (dril! series l I)
Nurnber of ho!cs in !he row: 4
Holc inclination: 3: l
Trcnch depth K (m) 1.0 l.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
Hole depth H (m) 1.6 2. l 2.6 3. l 3.7 4.2 4.7
Hok diamctcr d (m) 33 32 32 31 30 30 29
Practica! burdcn B (rn) 0.9 !.O J.() l.O 0.9 0.9 0.8
Bottom chargc:
Conccntration l¡, (kg/m) 0.9 o. 9 0.9 0.9 0.8 0.8 0.7
Height hb (m) 0.3 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.8 0.9 0.9
Wcight Q¡, (kg) 0.3 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.6
Colurnn chargc:
Concentration le (kg/m) 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3
Hcight h, (m) 0.4 0.6 1.1 l.6 2.0 2.4 2.9
Weight Oc (kg) O. 1 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.9
Total charge 0101 (kg) 0.4 O. 7 0.8 l. 1 l.2 1.4 l.5
Stcmming h 0 (m) 0.9 1.0 ! .O 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9
Spcc.chargc q (kg/cu.m.) 0.9 0.8 0.8 0.8 O. 9 O. 9 0.9
125
6.3 Smoothwall trench blasting.
To reduce overbrenk it is advantageous to move the b!astboles in the midd!c
backwards so that ali holcs in !he row are in linc. Thc angle of breakagc for the
lateral holcs íncreases, thus reducing thc constriction. This makcs it possiblc to
reduce thc chargc conccntrntion in thc pcrimctcr boles furthcr. but the charge
conccntratíon in tilc middlc hole/holes has/llave to be íncreased. Thc lowcr
charge conccntration in the lateral ho!es reduces the overbrcak.
Thc spccífic chargc will be the samc as in traditional trench blasting, ít is jusi a
redistribution of thc explosivcs in thc round.
The low chargc conccntration in thc lateral boles means that it is possiblc to
reduce the stcmming distance in thosc holcs, giving a bcner cut along thc
perimctcr which reduces ovcrbrcak.
Howcvcr, the short stcmming distancc in the pcrimeter holcs increascs the rísk
of flyrock.

h 0 =0~i4.·B
\

\
\ 1
\ I
/
\ I
\ 1
\ I
\
\ I
\ le 7 0.29 lb
\ 1
I
\
/
\ I
\ I
I
\
1
¡,
'

Fig. 6.6 Charge dislJ'ilm1io11 in hlas1ho/e, smoothwall trench hlas1i11g.

126
~ 1

·1 1
1
1
1

</'.=J i.s-2.om 1
1
''-l 1
1
1
'
._i_
\' ! 1 \ j l ¡ i' í l ¡1 \

Fíg. 6. 7 Smoothwall trench b!astíng.

Chargíng table for smoothwall trench biasting.


Explosivc: Emulitc 150
Width of thc trcnch: l.0 to 1.5 m.
Blastholc diamctcr: 34 to 26 mm (drill series 11)
Numbcr of holes in thc row: 3
Holc inclination: 3:1
Trcnch dcpth K (m) LO l. 5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
Hole depth H (rn) 1.6 2.1 2.6 3.1 3.7 4.2 4.7
Hole diamcter d (mm) 33 32 32 31 30 30 29
Practica] burdcn B (m) O. 7 07 0.7 O. 7 0.6 0.6 0.6
Bot!om charge:
Middlc hole oh (kg) 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.7
Perimctcr holcs oh (kg) 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.6
Column charge:
Middlc hole Oc (kg) 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.0 1.2
Perimetcr holes Oc (kg) 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
Total charge:
Middle hole 0101 (kg) 0.6 0.7 1.0 1.2 1.5 1.7 1.9
Perirneter holes 0101 (kg) 0.4 0.5 0.7 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.3
Stemmíng:
Middle hole h0 (m) 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7
Perimeter holes h0 (m) 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3
Spec. charge (1.0 rn)q (kg/cu.m.) 2.0 1.7 1.7 1.7 l.9 1.9 1.9
127
Charging table for smoothwall trcnch blasting.
Explosivc: Emulitc l:'iO.
Width of the trcnch: 2.0 m
Blastholc diamctc.r: 34 to 26 (dril! series l l ).
Numbcr of boles in thc rnw: 4
Holc inclination: 3: 1
Trcnch dcpth K (m) l.O l.:' 2.0 2.:'i 3. [) 3.:'i 4. tl
!!ole dcpth 1-1 (m) !.() 2.1 2.() :u 3.7 4.2 4.7
Hole diameter d (mm) 33 32 32 31 30 30 29
Practica! burden B (m) 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.7 0.7 0.7
Bottom chargc:
Middlc holes Ü11 (kg) 0.4 o.s 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 0.9
Perimctcr holcs Ü11 (kg) 0.3 04 O..'í 0.6 0.6 0.7 () 7
Column chargc:
Míddlc boles Oc (kg) 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.6 () 8 0.9 l.l
Pcrimcter holcs
Total chargc.:
º'" (kg) [}.2 0.2 0.3 0.3 ll.4 0.:'i 0.6

Middlc boles 0 1,,,(kg) 0.6 0.8 l.() 1.3 1.6 1.8 2.0
Pcrimeter boles Ü1,11 (kg) (). :'i ().() 0.8 0.9 l.() 1.2 1.3
Stcmming:
Míddlc holcs h., (rn) 0.8 0.8 0.8 O. 8 0.8 0.7 0.7
Pcrimetcr holcs h,, (m) 0.3 0 ..1 O. 3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3
Spec.charge q (kg/cu.m.) !.O 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8

Brcakagc pattcrns:

4• 6• se

3e so 7•

4• 6• 8•

Fig. 6.8 Tradiriona[ trem1i hfasting.

Advantagcs:
Uniform charging of ali boles.
Lcss ground vibration.
Disadvantagcs:
~· Asymmetrical drilling pattcrn.
:;:
Overbreak is normal and can be considerable.
128
4•

Fig. 6. 9 Smoothwa!l trench hlasring.

Advantages:
' Symmetrical drilling pattern.
" Reduced overhrcak.
Disadvantages:
' Varying amounts of cxplosives in míddle and perimeter holes.
* Highcr ground vibrations due to higher amount of explosives in the
middle hole/s.

6.4 High productivity trench blasting.


Trench blasting for oil and water pípelines frequently requircs high productivity
blasting. In thcse cases larger diamctcr blastholes are uscd, normal!y 51 to 64
mm. The disadvantagcs with high ground vibrations and cxcessive overbreak are
compcnsatcd by big advance per day. Saudi Chemical Co has in thc recent years
blastcd trcnches over the Saudí Arabia península and kept up a spced of 3
kilometcrs per day. In these cases it is necessary to use firing devices like
detonatíng cord with relays or NONEL UNIDET. Careful planning ís also
nccdcd.

Fig. 6.10 Pipeline blasting in Saudí Arabia


129
Charging table for high productivity trcnch blasting.
Explosivc: Emulite 150 (primer)
ANFO (bulk)
Wídth of the trcnch: 3.0 m
Blastholc diamcter: 64 mm
Number of holes in the row: 4
Hole inclination: 3: l
Trcnch dcpth K (m) 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
Hole depth H (m) 2.6 3.2 3.7 4.2 4.7 5.3 5.8
Hole diameter d (mm) 64 ó4 64 64 64 64 64
B (m) J.6 1.6 l.6 l.6 L5 1.5 l.5
Practica! burden
Primer:
Emulitc 150. 50x550 or 40X550 mm
Wcight o
(kg) l.25 1.25 l.25 1.25 l.25 J .25 L25

Chargc:
ANFO
Concentrntion 1 (kg/m) 2.6 2.6 2.6 2.6 2.6 2.6 2.6
Hcight h (m) 0.6 l.2 1.7 2.2 2.7 :u 3.8
Wcight Oc (kg) 1.55 3.1 () 4.40 5.70 7.00 8.60 9.90

Total cbargc Üto1 (kg) 2.80 3.35 5.65 6.95 8.25 9.85 1 l .15

Stemming h., !.5 l.5 1.5 l.5 1.5 1.5 1.5

q (kg/cu.m.) l.2 l .2 1.6 l.6 1.8 1.8 1.8


Spec. chargc

In the case of hard cap rock. 22 mm pipccharges may be uscd in thc sternrning
arca to break up the surfacc rock and avoíd "tunneling".

110
7. UNDERGROUND BLASTING

Fig. 7. 1 Tunneling.

7. l Tunneling.
There are two reasons to go undergrouncl and excavate:
~ to use the excavated space, e.g. for storage, transport etc.
~ to use the excavated material, e.g. mining operations.
In both cases tunneling forms an important part of the entire operation. In
underground construction it is necessary to gain access to the construction si te by
131
tunncling, but thc \Unncl can he a purposc in itsclf e .g. road, water, cable tunncls
etc.
In mining opcrations tunncls are uscd as adits to thc mining sitc and for prcpara-
tory work as wcl! as for interna! communícation.
Tunne!s are drívcn mainly in horizontal or c!osc to horizontal dircctions but also
inclined, from vertically upwards to vertically downwards. In the followíng,
tunneling. raise shafts and sink shafts will be dea!t with in dctail whilc storage in
rock cavcrns and miníng \Vill be dcalt with more briefly.
Tunncling is thc most frcqucntly ocurring underground operation which a!so
forms part of the construction of rock clrnmbcrs cte. and is normally an integral
part of mining operations.
The development of tunnel driving techniqucs has becn tremendous during thc
Jast few years. Thc drilling techniques havc dcvelopcd from pncumatie drilling
machines to cleetro-hydraulic drilling jumbos with a vcry high capacity. The
charging of thc blastholes can be carried out quick!y either rnanually with plastic
pipe charges or mechanically with pneumatic charging equipmenL
The dcvclopment of cxplosives has moved in the dircction of safer products with
bctter fumes charactcristics. Modcrn cxplosíves like Emulítc and Dynamcx M
are wc!I oxygcn-balanced wíth a mínimum of noxious fumes.
Initiating systems likc NONEL havc shortcncd the charging time and addcd
further safcty to thc blasting operation dueto thcir insusceptibility to clcctrieal
hazards.
The modern drilling equipmcnt has shortcncd thc drilling time. the NONEL
systcm has madc connecting of thc dctonators safer and faster and Emulite. with
its cxeellcnt fumes charactcristics. has shorte1;ed thc ventilation time.
Ali thc above contributc to a faster work cycle:
drilling
eharging
blasting
ventilation
scaling
groutíng (if nccessary}
loading and trnnsport
setting out for the ncw blast
The shorter work cycle calls for bctter work planning as \vcll as bctter prccision
anJ accuracy in the different opcratinns of thc work cyc!c.
In the following, tbc drilling. charging and blasting operations will be dcalt \Vith.
1t is obvious that it is of thc utmost importanee that the boles should be drilled at
the right locations and with thc right inclination. Thc marking of thc holes on the
rock face as well as collaríng and drilling must he carricd out accurately.
Langefors in "Thc modern techniquc of Rock Blastíng", says about drilling
precision: "Thc scattcring of thc dri!l holcs as a quantitativc factor is often
disregarded. It is included quite indefinitely in the technical margin together with
the rock factor. In discussing blasting as a whole it would be a grcat advantagc if

132
attention could be paid to the drilling precision in calculating the charges and in
constructing the drilling pattern; for the blasting of the cut it is essential."
The main diffcrence betwcen tunnel blasting and bench blasting is that tunnel
b!asting is done towards one free surface while bench blastíng is done towards
two or more free surfaces. The rock is thus more constricted in the case of
tunneling and a sccond free face has to be creatcd towards whích the rock can
break and be thrown away from the surface. This sccond facc is produced by a
cut in thc tunnel facc and can be eithcr a parallcl holc cut. a V-cut. a fan-cut or
other ways of opcning up thc tunncl face.
After thc cut opening is made, the stopíng towards the cut wíll begin. The stoping
can be compared with hench blasting, but ít rcquires a higher specific charge due
to highcr drilling deviation. desire for good fragmentatíon, and absence of hole
inclination. In addition, ovcrcharge of a tunnclblast does not havc the same
disastrous dfect as in an open air blast, where hígh precision in calculation is a
mus t.

Stoping ho!es

Floor holes

Fig. 7.2 Nomencfalllre.

In thc case of V-cuts and fan cuts, the cut holes will occupy thc majc)f part of the
width of the tunnel.
Thc contour holes - roof boles, wall boles and floor holes - havc to be angled
out of the contour. "look-out", so the tunnel will retaín its designed arca. The
"look-out" should only be big enough to allow space for the drilling equipment
for the coming round. As a guicle valuc. the "look-out" should not exceed:
1O cm + 3 cm/m holedepth
which kccps the "Jook-out" to around 20 cm.
133
Fig. 7.3 l.ook-0111.

Thc consump!i()ll of cxplosivcs in tunncl hlasring is hi¡.d1cr than in bcnch blasting.


The spccific chargc is 1 to l Otimes highcr than lhat for bcnch blasting, dcpending
mainly on rcasons mcntioncd abovc likc !arge drilling scatter, higher fixation of
the holes, hcavc of lower rock upwards lo cnsurc swcll ami lack of coopcration
hctwccn adjaccn! blasthoks.

E5
:::i
()

"'01
-".. 4
Q)

...
Ol
a;I
.e
() 3
()
;;::
o
{l)

fjj 2

1
11 4í
:!-~ ~b
1
;; iJ, ·1~
1 "

o '-"-----'---.. ~~'-'""' . ~~-'-----'---'-'"·-·-'-· --·~- ..--..... ~_ . _,____, , ____ -· -··-·.


~

o 20 40 60 80 100 '
Tunnel area in sq.m. ( •,¡)'">

Fig. 7.4 Spccijic charge /or d1Jiere111 tunnel arcas.


114
....
'O
()

13
Q)
4
a.
(/)

~
2
1 • d•38mm
---r------------- d • 51 mm
o 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
Tunnel area in sq.m.

Fíg. 7.5 Specific drílling for differenl tunnel arcas.

Thc consumption of cxplosivcs will be grcatcst in the cut arca of the blast. A 1 X l
marea around thc cmpty hok/s in a parallcl cut wi!l consume approx. 7 kg/cu. m.
and the spccific charge will decrease with the distance from the cut until it
rcachcs a mínimum valuc of about 0.9 kg/cu.m.

7 .1.1 The cut.


Thc most commonly used cut in tunneling today is the circular cut or large hole
cut as most of the modcrn dri!!ing equipment is designed for horizontal drilling
perpendicular to thc rock face. (Othcr cuts will be dcalt with in thc cnd of this
cltaptcr.)
All cut boles ín thc largc holc cut are drilled parallcl to cach other and thc
blasting is carricd out towards an cmpty largc dril! holc which acts asan opening.
Thc para lle! holc cut is a dcvclopment of thc burn cut, wherc ali thc holes are
parnllcl ami normally of thc same diametcr. Onc holc in thc middle is givcn a
heavy chargc and the four holes around it are lcft unchargcd, in other cases the
míddle holc is lcft uncharged and the four boles are chargcd.

Howevcr. the burn cuts gene rally result in less advance than the large hole cuts.
Thc burn cut will thercforc be disrcgarcled and only the Iarge hole cuts will be
dealt with.
Thc cut may be placed at any !ocation on the tunnel face, but the Jocation of the
cut influences the throw, the explosives' consumption and generally the number
of boles in the round.
135
• • •
o o
• o •o •
• • • Pig. 7.6 Bum cut.

. -·-r-1-· -·
1 1
1 '
""--.J

r·--
't..--J
t
i'

hg. 7. 7 /,ocarion of rhe cur.


lf thc cut is placed close to a wall. therc is a probabílity of bcttcr cxploitation of
the drilling pattcrn with lcss boles in thc round. Furthcrmorc. thc cut may be
placed alternativcly on the right or lcft sidc thus placing thc cut in rc!ativcly
undisturbcd rock. To obtain good forward movcmcnt and cenicring of thc
muckpilc, thc cut may be placed approximatc!y in the mid<llc of the cross scction
and quite low down. This position will givc lcss throw and less explosives'
consumption bccause of more stoping downwards. A high position of the cut
gives an extended and casily loaded muckpilc, but highcr cxplosivcs' consump-
tion and normally more drilling due to more upwards stoping.
Thc normal location of thc cut is on thc first hclpcr row abovc thc floor.
As mcntioncd befo re, the largc holc cut is thc most cornmon cut toda y. Thc cut is
composed of one or more unchargcd largc diametcr holes which are surroundcd
by small diametcr blastholcs with small burdens to thc large holc/s. Thc blast-
holcs are placed in squarcs around thc opcning.


.o.

Fig. 7.8 Typical designs of large hole ·curs.

Thc numbcr of squarcs in the cut is limited by tbc fact that the burden in the last

·-: -·:
square must not cxcecd the burden of the stopíng boles for a given charge
conccntration in thc holc.

- - - - - - - - - - - - -

1 //
~' ', 1
1 / ' 1
1 //•--.--•', 1
1

: .t
/
/ 1 ¡ 1 '

¡ :e, '. --~


1
'• :
1

1 '' 1 \().! 1 / / 1
1 ' 1 \·-J 1 / 1
1 ',•--~--·// 1
1 ' / 1
1 '
' / 1

·-
1
1
- - - - - - - -
'.//
- -
Fig. 7. 9 The complete cut.
- - - -·
1
l

The cut boles occupy an arca of approx. 2 sq.m. (Small tunnel arcas. as a matter
of fact. consist only of cut boles and con tour boles.)
137
10
a

~1.~ ~ --
203

¿1.6 ~
154
~ i .4 ~- Large hole
~ ~ diameter, mm
102
~ 1.~ ~ 76 89

g0.8 ~
o~0.6 't
~0.4¡
5 0.2 ~
o ~¡~----j'--~-+-~-+.~~<--~.-+-~-r-~~,-~~

o 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45


Max C ~ C distance, m
Fig. 7.12 The mínimum req11ired charge co11ce111ra1io11 ( kglm) and maxinwm
e-e disfa¡¡('('
(m) fm di((ere!ll large hole dianu'len-.

The requisite chargc concentration for diffcrent C:-C distanccs bctwecn thc
large holc and thc ncarcst blasthnlc/s may be found in graph 7.1a for diffcrcnt
largc holc diamctcrs. Thc normal relation for the distancc is a= 1.5 0. An
incrcase in the C-C distancc bctwccn thc holcs wil! cause subscquent incrcmcnt
of thc chargc conccntration.
Thc cut is oftcn somewhat ovcrcharged to compensa te for error in drilling which
rnay cause too small an angle of breakage. Howevcr. too high a chargc con-
ccntration may cause rccompaction in thc cut.

Calculation of the remaining squares of the cut.


The calculation rncthod for thc remaining squares of the rnt is essentially the
same as for thc lst squarc, with thc diffcrcncc that thc hrcakagc is towards a
rectangular opening instcad of a circular.
As is the case of thc lst square, the anglc of brcakage must not be too acule as
small angles of breakagc can only be compcnsatcd to a certain extent with higher
chargc concentration.
Nonnally the burden (B) for thc rcmaining squarcs of thc rnt is cqual to thc
width (W) of thc opcning. B=W.
l 40
1"'ª:•/fJ
Ol
.:.:;
g
16
.. .

:;;; 1.4
'1 •' , -.'"'-... .'.''
¡
: 8 •,,¡,.._A~---
,' - - ---- ~
'
!

~
.!: 1.2
e:
Q)
c.;
c:
o
() 0.8
Q)

~0.6
.e:
ü 0.4

0.2
o~~~~--'-~---'--'--~'---~~~~~--"---~--~-----~~-

o 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 o. 7 0.8 0.9 1.0


Max. burden, m

Fig. 7.13 The required minirnum charge concentration (kglm) and maximwn
hurden (m) for dif(erenr widrhs of the opening.

Thc chargc conccntration obtained in graph 7.12 is that of the column of thc
holc. In ordcr to break the constrictcd bottom part, a bottom charge with twicc
thc charge concentration anda height of l .5x B should be used. The stemming
part of thc hole has a length of 0.5XB.

141
Dcsign of cut.
The following formulac are uscd for thc gcomctric design of thc cut arca:
The cut:

. o.
a
lst square: a= 1.5 0 t' -·~


W¡ ""a\/2 'b,, .
"-10.
0mm 76 89 l 02 127 154
------·-·
a mm !10 130 150 190 230
W 1 mm = 150 180 210 270 320

2nd square: B1 -- W1 ·(}~''


,\ 00.
e-e= l.5W 1 I> ~·
, _ _w2.....,
W2 ·°" L5W 1 \/T

0 mm 76 89 !02 127 154


~----~---~---···-·~·----

W 1 mm 150 ¡ 80 210 270 320


e-e 225 270 310 400 480
W 2 mm 320 380 440 560 670
..
3rd square: B2"" W2 e-e
e-e= l.5W2

0mm
W2 mm 320
76
w,""
·'
89
380
l.5W 2 v2
102
440
127
560 670
154

EB
\.)


'~··
(~ ~>

"

·. ti- ,,, '!! 2.


'<J
..
B2
,
;)

e-e 480 570 660 840 1()()() ·-


..
W;.mm 670 800 930 l 180 1400
e ./><.':q,
ú _/
4th square: B~ = w,,
C··-C "º l.5W\ ~/ <Q':>

w~ -· l.5W, \/2 ~(, z·.


t_;

0mm 7ó 89 102 127 :' -~é; ,,


:)
:;
\V.\ mm ú70 800 930 l l 80
./;,-
e-e 1000 1200 1400 l 750 \.?
W4 mm 1400 1700 1980 2400

• W4 ·•
The above distanccs apply to 38 mm blastholes. If largcr blastholcs are used
which can accommodate more explosives, the values can be adjusted.
However, an increased amount of explosives in the cut holes may not increasc
the burdcn to any greatcr extent.
142
7.1.2 Stoping.
When the cut holes have been calculated, the rcst of the tunnel round may be
calcu!ated.
Thc round is divíded into:
f!oor holes
* wall holes
* roof holcs
' stopíng holes with breakage upwards and horizonta!ly
" stoping holes with breakage downwards
To ca!culate burdcns (B) and charges for the different parts of thc round the
fo!lowing graph (7. l 4) may be u sed as a basis.

E 1.2~~~~~~~~-.-~~...,-~~,..-~--.~~-.-~~~~~...-.,,,.....,

¿
<!>
1:
::i
a:i 1

o.sl--~-4.~~_¡_~~L._~......L~~..l._~.-.....lL-~-'-~~-'-~--'~~~

o6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 24 2.6


Charge concent ration. lb, kg/m

Blasthole 30 35 38 41 45 48 51
diameter, mm
Emulite 150 in paper cartridges. Packing degree 1.20 kg/liter

Blasthole 30 35 38 41 45 48 5.1
diameler, mm
Dynamex M in paper cartridges. Packing degree 1.25 kg/!iter

29 32 39 Pipe charge diameler, mm

Ernutite 150 in plastic tubes

38 41 45 48 51 Blasthole diameter, mm

ANFO, pneumatically charged

Fig. 7. 14 The burden B in relatíon to the concentration of the bottom charge for
d({ferent ho!e diameters and different exp!osives.
143
For Emulite 150 in papcr cartridgcs, thc uppcrmost blastholc diarnctcr table is
used as input data.
For Emulite 150 and Dynamex M in plastic pipe cartridges. thc pipe diameter is
used as input data and for ANFO thc Jowest blastholc diamctcr table is used as
input data.
When the burden (13), thc hole dcpth (H) and the concentrntion or thc bottorn
charge (!¡,) are known. thc fnllowing table wi!I givc thc drilling and charging
gcomctry of thc round.
~--··--~--··-··---· -----·-·--Tt~c¡g¡;¡-·- ··-·--
Charge
Part of bottom conccntration
the Burdcn Spacing chargc Bottom Column Stcmming
round: (m) ( lll) (m).·, (kg/m) (kg/m) ( 111)
~----- f------ ------ · - - - - · · - - ---·--M~
Floor lxB l.l xB J/3xH I¡, l.Ux I¡, U.2xB
Wall 0.9xB 1.JxB l/6xH l¡, 0.4Xlb 0.5X13
Roof 0.9XB l.l XB l/6XH ]¡, 0.3Xl¡, 0.5xB
Stopíng:
Upwards JxB l. l xB l/3xH l¡, 0.5XI¡, 0.5xB
Horizontal JxB 1.1 xB l/3XH I¡, 0.5 XI¡, 0.5 X B
Downwards lxB 1.2xB l/3xH lb 0.5Xl1; 0.5XB

Thc design of thc drilling pattern can now be carried out and the cut Jocated in
thc cross section in a suitablc way.

7.1.3 The cc>ntour.


Thc contour of t he tunnel is dividcd in to floor boles. wall boles and roof holes.
The burden and spacing for the f!oor boles are thc same as for the stoping boles.
However, the floor boles are more heavily chargcd than the stoping boles to
compensa te for gravity and for the wcight of the rock masses from the rest of thc
round which lay over them at thc instan\ of detonation.
For thc wall and roof boles two variants of contour blasting are used, normal
profi!e blasting and smooth hlasting.
With normal profile b!asting no particular considcration is given to the appcar-
ancc and condition of thc blasted contour. Thc samc explosivcs as in the rcst of
thc round are utílized (but with a lesser charge concentration) and thc contour
holcs are widely spaced. Thc con tour of the tunnel beco mes rough. irregular and
crackcd. Thc smooth blasting tcchníquc has bcen dcveloped to obtain a
smoothcr and stronger tunncl profilc.
Smooth blasting is carricd 0L1t by drilling thc con tour ho!cs rather closc to cach
other and using wcaker cxplosivcs. (Gurit l7x500 mm ami Gurit l 1 X460 mm
have bcen specially dcvclopcd for thc requircments of smooth blasting.)
Smooth blasting ís toda y a cornmon technique in undcrground rock cxcavation
as it produces tunncls wíth a regular profi!c, rcquiring substantially lcss rcin-
forccment than if normal pro file blasting is uscd.
Smooth blastíng is dealt wíth in detai! in Chapter 8.4 Srnooth blasting, whcrc
charging tables for smooth blasting can be found.
144
7. l A The firing pattern.
The liríng pattern must he designed so that each hole has free breakage. The
angle of breakage is smallest in the cut are a wherc it is around 500. In the stoping
arca the firing pattern should be designed so that the angle of breakage does not
fa!! bclow 90º.

¡
11

'º" o
20 .
20 !
"
IB "
20
s;.. l ./
.. " "20" ;•8~2
20
10
18

1a
0
,,.. '8· '! .6
"
15 "
16
190

9
11

¡4
.. 16
o IS•

190

13• 15• is•


199

14

"
16. 20 ..
.
JI
..
21 .(/

"

Fig. 7. 15 Firing sequence for tunne! in numerica! order.

lt is importan! in tunnel b!asting to havc long enough time delay between the
ho!cs. In thc cut arca, the delay bctween thc holcs must be long enough to allow
time for brcakagc and throw ofrock through the narrow empty hole. lt is proved
that the rock movcs with a ve!ocity of 40 to 60 metcrs per second. A cut drilled to
4 m dcpth would thus requirc a delay time of 60 to 100 ms to be clean blasted.
Nonnally dclay times of 75 to 100 ms are used in the cut.
In the first two squares of the cut only one detonator of cach dela y should be
u sed. In the following 2 squares two detonators of each dela y may be u sed. In the
stoping arca, the dela y time must be long enough for the movement of the rock.
Norma!ly the delay time is 100 to 500 milliseconds.
For thc contour boles the scatter in dela y betwcen the boles should be as small as
possible to obtain a good smooth blasting effect. Therefore, the roof should be
blasted with the samc interval number, normally the second highest of the series.
The walls are also blasted with thc s<.ime period numbcr but with onc dclay lower
tban that of the roof.
Detonators for tunneling can be electric or non-electric.
The electric detonators are manufactured as MS (millisecond) and HS (half-
second) delay detonators.
145
Thc non-electric detonators are manufactured as dcci-sccond and half-seeond
delay dctonators.
Rccommended detonators for tunncling:

E!ectric dctonators:
lnterval No. Dclav time
VA/MS i. 25 ms
VA/MS _±_ 100 ms
VA/MS i !75 ms
VA/MS .HL 250 ms
VA/MS JJ__ 325 ms
VA/MS i6_ 400 ms
VA/MS .18- 450 ms
VA/MS _20 500 ms
VA/HS 2 !.O sec
VA/HS 3 l .5 scc
VA/HS 4 2.0 sec
VA/HS 5 2.5 see
VA/HS 6 3.0 scc
VA/HS 7 3.5 scc
VA/HS 8 4.0 sec
VA/HS 9 4.5 scc
VA/HS J () 5.0 scc
VA/HS ll 'í.5 sec
VA/HS 12 6.0 sce
The MS and HS series givc 19 pcriods which is sufficicnt in rnost cases. Thc
V A/MS and V A/HS detonators may be used in the same round, as the electric
characteristics of the V A dctonators are t he samc. índcpcndent of thc dela y
times.
Rccommcndcd lcgwire lengths for a 4 m hole depth are 5.0 and 6.0 m.
Non-clcctric detonators:
lntcrval Dclay time Dclay time
numbers betwccn
íntervals
Nonel GTrr o 25 ms
Nonel GTff 1-12 100--1200 ms 100 ms
Nonel GTrr 14, 16
l8, 20 1400-2000 ms 200 ms
Nonel GTff 25, 30, 35
40, 45, 50
55, 60 2500-6000 ms 500 ms
This tunnel series gives 25 díffcrcnt pcriods and is tilus even more versatílc than
the electric tunnel series.
146
Recommcndcd tube lengths for bunch blasting with Noncl are 6.0 to 7.8 m.

~o .. .
10
. 12

. 40
~
40


f..0

.
~s
:1:,
35
"" 40

• 40
...
4
9
2 6

40
35
30
..
<5 •
30
35 .• 40 •8
.. •
0•8•1 B•

.:!> 45 7 3 5

J5
.,30
. o ..
18
o

3<f
<~~

35 ..
'º '" 35
ll 10

)0 20"

D
•1(· lo"
:,1~ 35

35
" '""
35
ei1..:. 149 'ª"
35

,5 .70 ,.1a 16.


'ºo 35

50 .~ 5 45 05 45 45 50
~--·-·•·----4-~~~·-~·"9-~-·

Fig. 7.16 Typical firing pallem for NON EL GT!T

ll 11~1~
". .. ..
" ..
l\

.

10
10

..
" l1 e;.

., 1•8·~
"3
i
1
.
22

"
.
O,

/,'l 10
~ "
B 9
10
11
. o
2•

!
f"
" H.)
.' "5 " "
10 ""
"

.
12
3
12

j· .
5 )

10
s"
s•

o
"6
10 lO

.,
r 10

ll

.....
112
... .
l1
·-····-~-.o---
'"
8

11
...............
11 11
50

5
"
ll
'"
8
..
10

·l)1
1l
The underllned ligures denote
~-~S delonalors. The reet are
V.-.-HS delonators.

Fig. 7.17 Typical firing pallern for VAIMS ami VA!HS de!onators.
In thc 4th square of the cut, four units of VA/HS interval No. 4 are used. This is
made possible by wide range of scatter (±200 ms) within the interval for HS
detonators.
147
7. LS Cuts with anglcd holes.
The V-cut.
The most common cut with anglcd boles is the V-cut.

A certaín tunncl width is rcquircd in order to accommodate thc drilling cquip-


mcnt. Furthermore, the advance pcr round increases with thc width and an
advancc of 45 to 50 o/r of the tunncl width is achicvable.
Thc angle of the cut must not be too acute and shou!d not be lcss than 60º. More
acutc anglcs rcquire highcr chargc conccntration in the boles.
Thc cut normally consísts of two V:s but in deepcr rounds thc cut may consist of
triple or quadruple V:s.
Each V in the cut should be fircd with thc same intcrval nurnbcr using MS
detonators to ensure coordination bct\vecn thc blastholcs with rcgard to break-
age. As cach V is blasted asan cntity one aftcr the othcr. the dclay bctween thc
diffcrcnt V :s should be in the order of 50 ms to allow time for displacerncnt and
swclling.

--·--·--· -----·--·
o

:1
o o o

o o o o

o o o o

/ /
I /
/ /
' /
I I
I I
//

Hg. 7.18 V-cur.


Calculation of the V-cut.

Thc following graph (7. 19) givcs the hcight ofthc cut (C) and thc burdeos B 1 and
B 2 for the cut.
1
E 1.9
¿ 1 1 1
,g; 17 H eight of the cut C
....
1
ci5 1 5 .1 --· ~
Surden for th~ cut holes 81 ___.,,.,.
1.3
!! 1 l -----~
1.1

0.9
~:1
Surden tor ttie
1 .
~ .. +
--
0.7
...
0.5
o6 0.8 1.0 1.2 '1.4 1.6 t.s 2.0 2.2 2.4 2. 6
Charge concentration, lb, kg/rn

Blasthole 30 3p 38 41 45 48 51
d1ameter, mm r
}

Emulite 150 in paper cartrídges. Packing degree 1.20 !<g/liter

Blasthole 30 35 38 41 45 48 51
diameter, mm !
Dynamex M in paper cartridges. Packing degree 1.25 kg/liter

29 32 39 Pipe charge diameter. mm


1 1
Emulíte 150 in plastic tubes
''

45 51 Blasthole día meter, mm


'
ANFO, Pl'eumatical!y charged
Fig. 7.19 The hurdens B 1, lh and the cut height C ín relation to the hottom charge
for differe111 hlasthole diameters and d1fferent explosives.

Charging the cut holes.


The charge conccntration in thc bottom of the cut holes (1 1,) can be found in
graph 7.19.
The hcíght of thc bottom chargc (h¡,) for_ alJ~\!l boles is:
1
h¡, = - x H where H = hole depth (m)
3
Thc concentration of the column charge (U is:
l" = 30 to 50 % of l¡,
149
The uncharged part (stemmíng) of the holcs in thc cut (h.,) is:
h0 = 0.3 X B1
The uncharged part ror thc rcst of thc cut is:
h0 = 0.5 X B2
For the rest of thc round. the mcthod of calculation is the same as that in Chapter
7. l .2 Stoping.

Thc fan cut.


The fan cut is an othcr cxamplc of
ang!ed cuts. Líke the Y-cut, a ccrtain
width of tunnel is rcquired to accom-
modate thc drílling equípmcnt to at- ó Zo 4otoc
tain acceptable advance pcr rnund.
o {o ªº~ºo
Thc principie of the fan cut is to makc zo tfºÉP o

a trench Jíkc openíng across the tun-


ne! and the charge calculations are ------~ ~ ___ __........,·-------~~-

similar to thosc in Chaptcr 5.6 Opcn-


ing the bcnch. Duc to thc gcomct-
rical dcsign ofthc cut thc constríction
of thc boles is not large. nrnking the "' .............. ........._,

cut easy to bias!. ·~-~ .··•


Thc drílling and cl1arging of the boles ,,
are similar to that of the cut holcs in g;,.
--¡;:_,,
thc V~cut.

Fig. 7.20 Fí.m rnl.

150
7 .1.6 Example of calculation.
Thc project is a 1,500 m long road
tunncl with a cross scction arca of 88
sq.m.
A blastholc diamctcr of 38 mm is
chosen as thc tunncl con tour is to be
smooth blasted. A largcr blasthole 2.6
diametcr might cause overbrcak
from the stoping part of the round. 12.0
The drilling equipmcnt is an electro
hydraulic jumbo with 4.3 m stecl
lcngth and fccd travel of 3. 9 m.
Thc cxpectcd ad vanee ís over 90 1/r, of
thc blasthole dcpth.
The explosive ís Emulite 150 in 29
and 25 mm cartridges for thc cut,
stoping and !loor. Gurit 17x500 mm
in plastic cartridges is uscd for thc
contour. Noncl GT/T is used for ini-
tiation.

To attain an advance of more than


90 é!c of thc blasthole depth, 3.9 m, a
Jargc ho!e diameter of 127 mm should
be chosen.
2x89 mm Jarge ho!es can be an altcr-
nati\'c.

~1~
¡¡1.6
•. _01$ 154
203

/'•·2$
lst square. ·- 4 . Large hole .
'§ 1· diameter, mm
102
~27 1/ .. · /

The distance from the centcr of the C: 1. 2 ag / 1. . /

:;jj!ff/... . '." '"


!argc holc to the center of thc closest ;:; 1 76/~. / /
blasthole is: eos
Q)0.6.
:.-a. 1.54>
a= 1.5 0 ~0.4 .... / /
., ~,%/.a.$
a= 1.Sx 127 = !90 mm ºº·~ ~>{ .. . :
Thc width of the l st square is: o 0.1 0.15 0.20.25030350.40.45
Max C - C distance. m
W 1 = aV2
W 1 = 190\/2"= 270 mm
The rcquisite charge concentration
for the holcs in the l st squarc is 0.4
kg/m of Emulite 150. For practica!
reasons Emulitc in 25 x 200 mm cart-
ridges are used giving a charge con-
centratíon of 0.55 kg/m.
151
An overcharge of this magnítude
docs not cause any inconvcnicncc.
Thc unchargcd part of thc holc is
cqual to the e-e
distancc: h.,""ª
Thc charge of thc hole is thc lcngth of
the charge H-h 0 times the actual
charge concentration.
Ü = le(H-ho)
o = 0.:15(3.9-0.2)
Q = 2.0 kg
Key data for the lst square:
a= 0.19 m
W 1 = 0.27 m
Q = 2.0 kg.

2nd square. C (1
'o
N • ~

$
.v-::.<.:t,
Thc blasting of the 1st squarc crcated '"
an opcning of0.27X0.27 m. The bur-
den in thc 2nd squarc is cqual to thc ''
width of thc opcning creatcd. 06

13 1 = W 1
B 1 = 0.27 m
e-e= i.sw 1 0ljf;~Oü09~0

e-e"" o.4o m
W2 = i.5W1\/2
w" ~ O.:'ill m

Thc requisitc chargc concentratíon


for thc boles in thc 2nd squarc is
approx. 0.37 kg/m.
Emulitc 150 in 2:'iX200 mm papcr
cartridges is used makíng the practi-
ca! chargc conccntration O.SS kg/111.
Thc unchargcd part .of thc hole is
0.5xB.

O = lc(H-h,,)
0 = O.S5(3.9-0.15)
Q = 2.0 kg.
Key data for the 2nd square:
B = 0.27 m
W2 = 0.56 m
Q = 2.0 kg
152
3rd squarc.
w ~o e fl'l
Thc opcning has now a width '"•6 o W ~ 0.:1 m

... "-'"-t w ~elle...


W =0.56 m. Thc burdcn Bis cqual to ,,
\2
W2.
B 2 = W, ou

13 2 = 0.56 m
0€

o'
e-e= 1.sw2 o<
e-e= 0.84 m o
e Cl O< C'.'"s Oo! 05 o~ e: ºª 09 'º
W, = l .5W.~ v'2-
W3 = !. l 8 111

Thc rcquisitc chargc conccntration is


approx. 0.65 kg/m. Now thc 25x200
'
mm cartridgcs do not rrovidc suffi-
cic11t chargc conccntration to cnsurc /
-l---------+
840
brcak;igc. A largcr dimcnsion of
/
.· i

Emuliie 150 must be uscd unlcss thc


carí ridgcs are tampcd.
Emulitc 29x200 mm in ¡-iapcr
cartridgcs givc a chargc conccntra-
tion of 0.90 kg/m. Thc holc will thus
be ovcrchargcd.
Thc unchargcd part of thc holc is
0.5xB.

O= JJH-h..)
o = 0.90(3.9-0.3)
o "" 3.2 kg
Kcy data for the 3rd squarc:
B = 0.56 m
W3 = 1.18 m
Q = 3.2 kg.
J 1
1

4th squar('. ~
Thc width of thc opcning is now ! . 18 lf) :-(' 2? ;j.;
.J
;((.,

m. lf B is chosen cqual to W. thc


burdcn will be grcatcr than that of
the sto¡-iing ¡-iart of thc round. Thcrc-
forc. thc burdcn must be adjustcd to
that of the stoping part and tbc
chargc ca!culat ions are ma<lc as for i -- .."'
L.
~~0
stoping holcs. 1(\

:l(l 41 .:.5
Thc burdcn is choscn from the graph .L.....L

7. 14 to J O rn.
11
153
The charge concentration of thc
bottom chargc is found in t he samc
graph to be l. 35 kg/m.
From the adjoining table tbe chargc
of thc hole can be e<1lculated.

!¡, == J .35 kg/m


hi- = l/3H
hi- = 0.33x3.9
h¡, = l .3 m n,),/. (; ,, ¡:, • •. íl 1 •: •• e:¡.;. (~ ;i · B

Q¡, = ]¡,Xh¡, * "'"'


U;1.;,i!;!::.
H~~· ;~;n::,'
·E
· , B
: ¡ · B
·b
~J - !1
1J !(
O '.1 :.
.:; '.' i.
C:, · B
(.1 !~ n
Q¡, = J.35 X l.J U::',·;~1;»,1 ' ;1 n ' '5 :i ~· '.> ' IJ ~ 1 . !~

Q., = I.75 kg

In the bottom chargc Emulitc in


papcr cartridges with 29 mm dia-
rnctcr is used and tampcd wcll.

The column cllargc is:


]" = 0.5X]¡,
lc=0.5XJ.35
1,. = 0.67 kg/111

Thc product with dimrnsions closcst


to this is Emulitc 150, 2CJx200 111111
with an le=0.90 kg/m

Practica] I" = 0.90 kg/m


l\, = 0.5B
h0 = 0.5x 1.0""0.5 111
he ""' f ] - h¡, - h"
he = 3. 9- J .3-0.5
hc=2.lm.
Q,. = lcXhc
Oc = 0.90x2. l
Oc = 1.9 kg
Ü101 = Q¡,+Üc
0101 "" 1.75+ 1.9
Q(tl( = 3.65kg
.. - . é
Key data for the 4th square: 2250 . --·-·-~,.---.r

.B = 1.0 m
\V 4 = 2.2 m
Q = 3.65 kg.
154
Aftcr thc cut has been designed. the
rest of thc round is calculatcd.

This is most simply done in the fol-


lowing ordcr:
l. Floor boles.
2. Wall boles.
3. Roof boles. 4-<'-

4. Stoping. upwards and horizontal.


5. Stoping downwards.

Thc rcason for starting with the pc-


rimcter boles is to decide the burdens
and spacings for thc outer bounda-
ries of the round.
Whcn thesc calculations are com-
plctcd thc cut and the stoping boles
may be located in accordance with ::·;-1
thc paramctcrs which apply to them.
'li--

'
1

l. The floor holes.


! "l
In thc calculation of a!! pcrimetcr
boles, the "look-out" has to be taken
(l~t

C-(;l-·
i
:
e¡~: ":-. '' 1 e
j
into account. As mentioned earlicr,
the "!ook-out'' should not exceed l O
cm + 3 cm/m of hole depth. In this
case the '"Jook-out" should be limitcd
to 20 cm.
Thc burden is l .O m according to thc
graph and the spacing is I.lxB.
Duc to "look-out''. the boles above
the íloor holcs are set out 0.8 m abo-
vc thc !loor. Thc spacing is l. l m.

Bottom charge:
]¡, = l .35 kg/m
h¡, = l/3X3.90=J.30 m
Q¡,= J.35xl.3=l.75kg p,~~; <":·~
)i(:;f¡l)!
~):1füi:i\
01,Jcü(;
C<-'nC('n~1,~:,o·'
\!W ih.!~ <l<::1 $p,i.c::1:; C~<<l~qc n ;tlc:>: C:::un1r1 Sk!::tr::~1c
Column charge: r;;.;.i~\(,! 1n~) \'ll; {;n) li\(j i\~) ih(jrnl ím)
r:,);;1
* E 6 1 3 ·H 02 ·3
'. 1 '.
le = lb= l .35 kg/m :6 os, l3
W;il!
lki:)!
G9 ··B
G9 • B
1 '.
1 , ·!3 G
1 6. il
" o'~
o~. '. o.s. B
b0 = 0.2XB=:0.2 m . Sto¡;mq
Urw•.·ur~:; G ll ,,3. I~ I~, o ó·8
he= H·-hh--h 0 =2.4 m !
' ''. a º"
Oc= l.35X2.4=3.25 kg
H;)f:.'OrH<1:
Do-m<<'{a:é~
!
·. f3
B
' p,
1·3 'H
1.·3 ·H
OS·
o:,.:,,'· o$>
5, 8
6

"
'. 1)

Total charge:
o = l .75+3.25=5.0 kg
155
Key data for floor holes:
B = I.0 m
S = I.l m
Q = 5.0 kg.

2. The wall lwles.


In thís particular case thc walls are
vcry low and do not makc a good
cxamplc for thc dcsign of thc drilling
and charging pattcrn.
Thc drilling pallcrn is takcn from thc
smooth hlasting table and thc burdcn
is clloscn to 0.8 rn and thc spacing to
0.6 111.
Thc unchargcd part of thc l10lc Í\
0.2 ll1.
Thc chargc conccntratíon for Gurit
!7x500 rnm i> o.n kg/m. Thc ho!cs
will be chargcd with 7 tubc chargcs
ami l stick of Emulitc 150. 25x200
mm in thc bottom.
;•,,,.,

Boltom ch;trgc:
Ü¡, = 0.1 l kg n: e;,;.: e:J i' O:'.:'; n:•·.
n .. 1: Ci,"! ·,l ;· {) ó·.;íi 1J /\)

¿,- '"" ()·.; < ;; G $0 ü ~f~J


Column chargc:
O,= 7x0.l l5~0.81 kg
Total charge:
o"" 0.11+0.81""0.92 kg
The "look-out" has to be considcrccL
so thc burdcn to be set out on thc facc
is 0.8-0.2=0.6 m.
.
,.
:
Key data for the wall holcs:
B = 0.8 m ' : ;060
e:
S = 0.6 m
Q = 0.92 kg
J)ó
3. The roof ho!es.
Thc condítions for thc roof holcs are
.·· .. .... •.
•: • • • • • :
"'Q._,'
.,<::>


.•.
cqual to thosc of thc wall boles. Thc
••

.. ••
burdcn is chosen to 0.8 m and the
spacing to 0.6 m. : :

Thc chargc conccntrntion is thc samc • " :
as for thc wall boles. • •
Thc .. look-out .. rnust be consídercd
in this case as welL
Key data for the roof holes:
=
B 0.8 m
S = 0.6 m
Q = 0.92 kg.

4. Stoping upwards and horizontally.


Thc stoping boles are ca!culated in a
similar way to thc floor boles, hut less
cxplosivcs are ncedcd. Whilc thc
floor boles rnust be clrnrged to corn-
pcnsate for gravity and heavage of
brokcn rock. thc stoping boles can
normally contain less explosíves as
the directíon of brcakage is horizon-
tal or clnsc to horizontal.
Charge: 13ottonL tampcd Emulitc 29
mm.]¡,= 1.35 kg/m.
Chargc: Column. Emulite 29 mm in
.... ,..• •
papcr cartridgcs with 1"=0.90 kg/m.
Thc burdcn B is 1.0 m. according to
thc ¡:iraph 7. 14.
:
• •
e
o
• .
• 'f.
'i.10'


J

•· t 100
¡ 1.00
·,
1
1
.......
... . •
...


• •
~-- ,_·

Thc spacing S will be 1.1 m according


to adjoining table.
Bo!tom charge:
l¡, = l.35 kg/m
h¡, "" ]/3X3.90= l.30 tn
H.;1;¡!·~
Q¡, = l.35xl.3=1.75 kg :.:-o::vr:~

~1,1a..;n S;i0C·0.'i (;h,1rq.~

Column charge: ( il~ l (~:":: {l"nj !~-s mi \fn)

ll '.B 3. f1 : Ü· :. O2 · B
1,. = 0. 90 kg/m '
G9 · 8
1
B '
~ ·(>. H
º'· o r,. n
h0 = 0.5x B=0.5 m
fl1)i)~ 09 r,
1
1 ': .!) •·5. h o:;':. OS· H

he = H-h¡,-h 0 =2. 1 m **
. s~0r-·~g
Up-,'<<l!~::> B
e
l
' ·ll
·ll 1
¡ 3. >' os.
o:,. l..
1:, o b. ü
{15. s
Ho~:1.;..r,1;,;
, Dow:•>'•<'.l.ld~. 8 ''
1 ,. ll
3 "'
1 3.. l~ ü :- • !~ 0 5·B
Oc = 0.90x2. l"" 19 kg
Total charge:
o= i.75+ l .9=3.65 kg
157
Kc_y data for stoping holes upwards
and horizontal:
B =LO m
S = 1.1 m
Q = 3.65 kg
;::,)~'' ~ !i ; < • !l ' '.~ H
ti\<¡ r ~· :
1G : o,.. "
i"':

\!; :i:: (} :1 t; '. e .. H


Ho::~
$1(~;l:!~<i
()~¡.
:~
H
:
'. ·
~ ·
U
1;
't> i:
ll
(~ o '·
' "..
0 :~

o e l\ ,.
U¡r:.-,;r(~~~ :·l3 ·~.:~ ~J·t•
.. ''·
~)

'. 3 · I~ e; ~ H
! !1 ..'(;::::1: i~ '. \ ~3 (;.
,, "
*. ¡;':'.·.;~"'•·~:~:·. ' · I! ~ ~· t'.í : .} · H
" '• •O

S. Stoping downwards.
The dcsign of thc drilling pattern for
stoping downwarcls is similar to stop-
• •• ••• • .
' . .' ..
:
ing in othcr clircctions with thc diffe-
rencc that larger spacing may be per- :. e
• • e

mitted. Thc charge of the holes is thc • + t


'
o :
samc in ali stoping.
0
• • T1~0 • • e:
Ke.y elata for stoping holcs down-
f ' .t • • •
wards:
i.......
1.20 !
.,. t
' - - - 'l

H = l.O m
S = l.2 m
Q = 3.65 kg

SUMMARY
Thc rouncl consists of 127 blastholes wi!h 38 mm diametcr and 1 largc lrnle with
127 mm diamctcr.
The rnund is chargcd as follows:
Part of the No. of Kind of cxplosivc Weight pcr Total
round holcs hole
(kg) (kg)
Cut
lst squarc 4 Emulitc 150, 25 mm 2.0 8.0
2nd square 4 Emulitc 150, 25 mm 2.0 8.0
3rd squarc 4 Ernu!itc 150, 29 mm 3.2 12.8
4th squarc 4 Ernu!ite 150, 29 mm 3.65 14.6
F!oor boles 12 Ernuiite l50, 29 mm 5 .o (Í{). ()

Wall boles 8 Emulite 150, 25 mm (). l l 0.9


Gurit 17 mm 0.81 ó.5
Roof boles 30 Emu!ite 150. 25 mm 0.ll 3.3
Gurit 17 mm 0.81 24.3
Stoping:
Upwards 8 Emulite !50, 29 mm 3.65 29.2
Horizontal !6 Emulite 150, 29 mm 3.65 58.4
Downwards 37 Emu!itc l 50, 29 mm 3.65 135.l
158
Consumption per round: Emulite 150, 25x200 mm 20.1 kg
Emulitc 150. 29x200 mm 310.lkg
Gurit 30.8 kg
Nonel GT/T 127 units

The cxpectcd advance per round is over 90 %. It is assumed to be 3.55 m.


361.l
Spcciíic charge: "" 1.16 kg/cu.m.
3.55x88.0

Explosives consumptíon for the whole project:


Number of rounds: 1500/3.55=425
Consumption of
Emulite 150, 25X200 mm 20.2X425 = approx. 9 tons
Emulite 150, 29X200 mm 310.1X425 = approx. 132 tons
Gurit 30.8X425 = approx. 13 tons
Nonel GT/T l27X425 = approx. 54000 units.

•9 12

4 2 6
•••
O•Q•1
•••
73 5

0
35
4
30

50 •35 et2$

40 .30
55.
60 55 55
,,z_

Fig. 7.21 Drilling and fíring pattern.

)/'
'' (
:(1

159
7.2 Shafts.
1n míníng. sh~lfts form a systcm of vcrtícally or inclincd passagcways which are
uscd for transportation of ore. rdíll. pcrsonncL cquíprncnt. aír. clcctricíty.
vcntilation cte.
In undcrground constructiotL shafts are dri\"c!l for thc building of pcnstocks.
cable shafts. vcntilation and clcvator sharts, surge chambcrs cte. In additíon.
shafts are drivcn as "glory boles" for transportation of material which is not
acccssiblc by othcr mcans than vertical or closc to vertical tunncls.
Sharts are cíthcr drivcn dmrnwanls, sink shafts. or upwards. raisc shafts.

Fig. 7.22 7~vpical 11111nel sys1em in a hydroeleuric pml'er plan!.


160
7.2.1 Sink shafts.
Sink shafts are passageways sunk from the surface downwards or underground
from onc !cvcl to a !owcr onc. The majority of thc sink shafts are driven
vcrticallv.
Shaft sinking is one of thc most dífficult and risky blastingjobs as the work arca is
normally wet. narrow and noisy. Furthcrmore. the drilling ami blasting crews are
cxposcd to fa!ling objccts.
Thc advancc ís slow as thc rock has to be removed bctwccn each blast with
spccial cquipment whích has límitcd digging capacity. The blastcd rock must be
well fragmented to suit the cxcavatíon equípment.
Thc dcsign of the cross scction of thc shaft principa!ly depends on the qua!ity of
the rock. Nowadays most of thc shafts are made with a circular cross sectíon
which gives better distribution of thc rock prcssurc. thus decrcasing thc need for
rcinforcement. especially in dccp shafts.
The most common dri!ling and blasting mcthods are benching and blasting with
pyramid cut.
Thc benching mcthod is a fast and efficient method as the timc-consuming
clcaning of the floor bctween thc blasts can be mínimizcd. It is also casy to kecp
the shaft free from water as a pump can always be placed in the lower blasted part
of the shaft. The drilling and charging pattcrn is similar to that of smallcr surface
blastings.
The burden and spacing vary with the hole diamctcr but the dríllíng pattern is
more closcly spaccd than for surface blasting duc to highcr constriction.

¡.)

Fíg. 7.23 Shaftsinking by benching.


161
Fig. 7.24 S/wfl sinking with pyramid nil.

Shaft sinking with pyramid cuts is similar to tunncl blastíng wíth V-cuts. Thc
drilling is done with a "dril!-ring" which is composed of a circular I-beam to
which thc drilling machines are fixed. The "'dríll-ríng" may be fixecl to the shaft
walls with bolts. Duc to the construction of thc "drill-ring". the cut will be
conical.

Thc cxplosives uscd in shaft sinking must always be water rcsístant. E ven if the
ground is dry. !he flushíng water from thc drilling will always stay in thc
blastholes.
For this rcason explosivcs with cxccl!cnt water rcsistancc properties are prc-
ferrcd. Emulitc 150 and Dynamcx M are casily tampcd to utílizc thc holc volumc
wcll, thus dccreasing the number of boles and thc drilling and charging time.
Thc spccific chargc in shaft sinking is rather high. ranging from 2.0 kg/cu.m. to
4.0 kg/cu.m.
The initiation of the blast rnay be done with elcctric dctonators or non-clectric
detonators. As a sink shaft is a small confincd arca. thunderstorms are a
particular hazard as stray currents tcnd to be transmittcd down thc shafi on pipes
and cables. To avoid problcms with cvacuation of the blasting crcw during a
thunderstorm. NONEL dctonators should be used.

7.2.2 Raise shafts.


Thc drifting of raise shafts - shafts whic!J are drivcn from blastcd undcrground
charnbers or tunnels, vertically or inclincd upwards - is one of thc most diffícult,
most costly and most dangerous undcrtakings in mining and construction.
As the drifting of raíse shafts has incrcasccl in thc world, new methods havc bccn
dcveloped to makc thc work more mecbanized, cheaper and safer.
Raíse shafts wcre drifted in more or less the same way for dccades until thc
1950's when new types of raise shaft clcvators were taken into use.
162
Various raise shaft drifting methods where blasting is part of the method.
Oldcr methods:
·• Timbercd shafts
* Open shafts
Modcrn mcthods:
* Bolidcn elcvator type Jora
* Alimak Raisc Climbcr
* Longhole drilling
To start with the older methods, the timbercd shaft method was the most
common mcthod in Sweden untíl sorne 40 years ago and is stil! occasionally used
for shorter shafts. Thc mise shaft is driven vcrtically and divided into two
sections by a timber wal! which is
extended beforc cach blast. Whcn
thc round is fired, onc section is fillcd
with rock. The blastcd rock wíll thcn
actas a working platform for the ncxt
round. In order to maintain the
working heíght at thc facc sorne rock
has to be excavated after each blast.
Thc second scctíon is used as a lad-
dcrway and for transportation of
cquipmcnt, drill stecl, explosivcs and
timbcr. Thc ventilation is also placed
in this scction which is covcred dur-
ing blasting.
Timbcrcd raise shafts have been
drivcn up closc to 100 m, but normal-
ly thc maximum hcight should not
cxcced 60 m. Thc cross section arca is
usually 4 sq.m. and thc advance per
round approx. 2.2 m.

Fig. 7.25 Timbered raise shaft.

Thc tirnbcrcd shaft mcthod was rcplaced by open shaft methods when the cost of
timber beca me too high. In one of thesc methods a working platform of planks is
laid on tímber which is supported by bolts in the shaft walls. New bolt boles are
drilled in the shaft walls when the rouncl is drilled so the platform can be moved
upwards as thc work proceeds.
Anothcr open shaft mcthod is to use steel tubes instead of timber. The steel
tubcs are bolted to thc shaft walls and the tubes support the platform.
The open shaft methods are rarcly used and when used, only for short mises, up
to 25 m. From a safety point of view none of the open shaft mcthods is to be
recommcnded.
The cross scction is normally 4 sq.m. and thc advancc approx. 2.2 m.
163
The JORA lift method.
Raisc shafting using a lift cagc hanging on a wirc which runs through a largc
dri!lholc has bccn uscd in Swcdcn and othcrcountricssincc thc ¡94o·s. but it was
not un ti! thc 19'.'iO's whcn Bnlillcn A B dt:vdopcd thc .1 ORA 1ift. that tlw mcthod
camc into widcr use.
A !argc holc. di a meter 1 l Oto l '.'iO mm. is dri!lcd from an uppcr leve! in thc ccntcr
of thc in tended shaft. Through thc holc a wirc is sunk dmrn to thc !owcr lcvcl and
a working platform with a lift cagc is fastcncd to it. By a lifting gcar thc platform
is clcvated up to thc shaft racc by
remole control from lhc !ift cagc.
Thc drilling and charging are carrícd
out from thc p!atforrn on thc top of
thc lift cagc and sorne sca!íng can be
done from the cagc with thc protcc-
tion of the p!atform. During thc scal-
ing. drilling and charging opcrations
the platform is fixcd with bolts to llK
l)
shaft wa!!s. Bcforc blasting thc plat-

!
form is lowcred down and placed on a
sledgc. like ve hiele and towcd asid e.
The wire is liftcd up through the !arge
;I

ho!c before b!asting. Thc largc holc is
li! uscd as cut hole in thc blasting of thc
round. Duc lo thc largc sizc ofthc cut
holc. advanccs of up to 4 m are ob-
taincd. Thc arca is approx. 4 sq.111.
and the maximum hcight is !00 rn. In
this mcthod it is ncccssary to havc
free space abovc the shaft for thc
drilling of the large hole and for thc
placing of the lift i ng gcar.
Fig. 7.26 TheJOR!l !ifl

Thc ALIMAK Raíse Climber.


The Alimak raise shaft driving method was introduccd in ! 9'.'i7 and be.carne thc
most utilizcd systcm in thc wnrld he.cause of its f!cxibility. safcty. cconomy and
spced.
Thc cquipmcnt consists of a raisc clímbcr wíth a working platform. which covcrs
practically the en tire arca ofthc shaf"t. Undcr thc platfonn thcrc is a cagc for \he
transport of personncL material and cquipmcnt. Thc raisc climbcr ís propcl!cd
by a rack and pinion systcm along a spccia! guidc rail. Thc mil systcm incorpo-
rales a tubc system for thc air and water supp!y to thc dril!ing cquipmcnt. Thc
system also provídes aír for thc blasting with NON EL and tn ventila te thc raisc
after the h!asting.
¡ (,4
Thc platfonn is cquippcd
with a protcctivc roof undcr
which the blaster stands dur-
íng scaling and drilling op-
crations. 1f the inclination of
the raíse shaft is 60º or Jcss
thc scaling may be done
gradually during the ascent
under the protcction of the
prcviously scaled hanging
wall.
Thc Alimak mcthod can be
uscd for vertical as well as
inclincd shafts. Thc Jower
limit of the inclination de-
pcnds on thc anglc of repose
of thc rock.
Unlíkc othcr modcrn rncth-
ods for raisc shaf!ing. the
Alimak nccdsonly onc point Fíg. 7.27 The AUMAK Raise Clímber.
of altack. thc lower one. The
uppcr hrcak-through point may be prepared while thc raise is tlrivcn.
The lengths which may be driven are only limitcd by the time which is at thc
blasting crcws' disposal for asccnt. scaling, drí!ling, charging. deseen! and blast-
ing. For an 8 hour shift. thc upper limit shoul<l be around 2.000 m. The Icngths
are also límítcd by thc typc of drivc. Thc air·driven mise climber may be used for
up to 150 rn shaft lcngth. clcetric drivc up to 900 m. For longer shafts <liescl-
hydrnulie clrivcn elimbcrs are uscd.
Thc arca is normally 4 sq.m .. but inclincd shafts havc bccn drívcn ft! ll facc upp to
36 sq.m.
Drillíng and chargíng pattcrns are thc same for ali above mcntioncd raisc
shafting mcthods. Normally a raisc shaft of 4 sq.m. is drivcn upwards and thcn
thc shafl is stoped to its final a rea. However, sometímes thc shaft is driven
"ful!face" andas mcntioned earlicr arcas up to 36 sq.m. have becn succcssfully
blastcd.
Thc drílling and firing pattern for a raisc shaft <loes not diffcr from that of a
horizontal tunncl of thc samc sizc.

165
The Alirnak work cyclc:
Drilling: Blasting:
Thc drilling and charging is carricd After drilling and charging thc
out from the raise climber's platform roun<L thc raisc climbcr is drivcn to
under a spccially dcsigned protcctivc thc bottom and undcr thc roof of thc
roof. Both air and water to the drill- drift. During thc blasL thc climber is
ing machines are supplicd through thercforc well protcctcd from falling
tubcs in thc guidc mil scctions. rock.

Fig. 7.28 The AL!A1AK work cycle.

Ventilation: Scaling:
Aftcr blasting the ralsc is vcntilatcd Scaling of thc roof and walls of thc
and sprayed with water. Thc top of raise is done from undcr the protec-
thc guide rail is protected by a header tive roof which gives the workmcn
plate which also acts as a water diffus- good protcction.
er during the vcntilation phasc.
166
Gencrally largc hole cuts are used and the design of the cut varies with the
di ame ter of the large hole. (See 7. l. l The cut, in Chapter Tunneling.)
The normal hole depth is 2.4
m and the expccted advance
2.1 !O 2.2 m.
The dri!ling is done with rt- - - .,.,
18 20
stopcrs. which are designed '"'-rr ....1
1 1
for raise driving, overhead ~4J.~
drilling and roof bolting or •
14 •
16
drilling machines with ,iack
legs. •
For thc blastholes dril! series
16
•12 10 •
12
16
11 (34 to 32 mm) is used and •4 5•
the large holc diamcter is •2
nonnally 75 mm.
•9 •o o 1• 8•
3
For the stability of thc walls ,.1 • s.
and to avoid overbreak, the
walls of the mise are norrnal-
18 14
ly smoothblasted. The
smooth blasting method is
also used if the shaft is to be
Fig. 7.29 Drilling andfiring pat!emfor4sq.m.
widencd at a later stage in
raise shaft.
ordcr to avoid excessive sca-
ling and to decrease thc risk
of rockfall.
A normal pilot shaft has an arca of 4 sq. m. Norrnally one round is drilled and
blastcd per sbift with an advance of 2.2 m. Working 2 shifts pcr day, tbc advance
should be 4.4 m but taking disturbances in the work cycle into account, tbe long
term advance is approx. 3.5 m/day or 70 to 90 m per month.

Shaft raising by long hole drilling.


In this method, all drilling is done downwards with parallcl boles and thc whole
arca is drillcd at the samc time.
Grcat precision in drilling and cbarging is a must and the lack of precision has
earlicr limited the practica! height to 25 to 30 m. Now, with new drillrigs e.g.
Atlas Copeo Simba, the drilling can be earried out with great prccision in any
dircction from vertical to 500. With the Simba the devíation can be kept under
0.5 % for holes up to a length of 50 m.
The long holc drilling method is also advantageous frorn a safety point of view as
a!l drillíng and cbarging work is carricd out from a safe location.
Two different cuts are used:
~ largc hole cut (blasting towards a
largc bol e).
- cratcr cut (blasting towards the
lower free face of the mise).
l67
Fig. 7. 30 Si111ha.
Thc lar ge holc cut carne first aml is stil 1 the most common eme.
Thc drill boles in thc round ha ve a di ameter of 50 to 75 mm and thc centra! largc

Large hole 153 mm


Blastholes 64 mm
Fig. 7.31 Firing sequrnce fór 4 sq.111. Fig. 7.32 R.ound sequencc f{!r raises
raíse. wirh larger cross section.
168
Thc dcsign and charging of thc cut follow the samc principlcs as dcscribed in
Chapter 7.11 Tunncling. The cut. Thc firing scquence depcnds on thc faulty
drilling so the hole with the smallcst real burdcn is fired with thc lowest period
number. It is thcrcforc ncccssary to map cvcry ho!c wíth regare! to the faulty
drilling.
Thc charging is done from thc upper level. A pieee of wood is lowered down
on a rope and when the wood passcs the lower mouth of thc hole the rope is
tightened and thc piecc of wood forms a plug for the lower part of the hole. The
charges are lowcrcd to thc bottom of thc holc. The hole should not be stemmed
as thc stemming may sintcr and block the hole for the subsequent blast. The
boles may be rclatívc!y overchargcd comparcd with a tunncl cut as thc charges
are not confined at cither cnd. Furthermorc. the b!astholcs are normally of
largcr diamcter than thosc used in tunncls. The risk of rccompaction of the rock
in the cut section can be considercd as low even if thc ho!es are considerably
ovcrcharged.

Crnter blasting.
The blasting of a long holc drillcd raisc can a!so be carricd out towards thc free
lowcr surfacc of the mise with a crater cut. No largc diamctcr centcr hole is
nccdcd but the blastholcs normally have a !argcr diameter than in the previous
mcthod. The era ter b!asting metbod is uscd only for the cut scction to open a holc
of ap¡mix. 1 sq.m .. thcn normal stoping wil! follow.
Thc era ter cut consists of fivc holes, onc center hole and four cdgc boles. Thc
centcr holc is blastcd first whcreupon thc cdgc holes are blasted onc by one with
diffcrcnt de!ays.
Bcforc charging. the boles are
pluggcd with a piccc ofwood which is
lowcred down from the upper surfacc
on a ropc and securcd to the lower
rock surface. The hole is then filled
with sand to the calculated leve! of
thc cxplosivcs chargc. Thc charge
should havc a diametcr closc to that
of thc hole.
Tbe chargc is then stemmcd with
water. (Any othcr stcmming may
sintcr and block the hole, making
subsequcnt b!asting operations im-
possiblc.)
Thc requisitc chargc wcight and o 3•
1
dcpth of thc charge are calcu!ated
from Livingstonc"s theories as fol-
lows:

Fig. 7.33 Drilling, charging and firing


pattern for crarer cllí.
12
169
1. Thc lcngth of thc chargc shall be 6 times the blasthole diamctcr.
1 ""'6Xd (mm)

2. Thc optimum dcpth of thc charge is 50 '/r, of the critica! depth.


Lupt ""0.5XLnit (mm)

3. The critica! dcpth depends on the chargc wcight.


Lcri• = SxO'' (mm)
whcrc S = thc strain cncrgy factor approx. J .5 (dcpcnding on the
explosívc uscd and !he typc of rock)
O = chargc wcight in kg.

4. Thc chargc wcight is thcn


3xcFxuxp
o º". (kg)
2
whcre p = charging dcnsity ( 1.2 kg/litcr for Enrnlite 150 ami
1.35 kg/litcr for Dynamcx M)

5. The optinrnm charge depth is thcn rclatcd to chargc wcight, cxplosives


dcnsity, blasthole diamctcr and strain cnergy factor as follows:
3 X Tí X d
L.,,P, "'0.5xS x - - - - - · - XdX 10 (mm)
2
The era ter thcory is val id only for the ccntcr holc. Thc chargc of thc cdgc holcs is
placed so that thc burdcn is lcss than !he chargc dcpth of the cratcr hole. The
chargc dcpth in creases with 1O to 20 cm bctween ca ch holc.
fW ,H,.·_:.
rl !
···
H~ U1.:
~
~
j

~
!f~ ;·H'~.!:· .'t
¡¡j
•:.,h_,,·.
. 1
.

'

: l Ll
'
f
~
H:
1 ·

¡ ¡¡¡
iH
1.' ¡<
Hi
!'
..-.e

~--.;+' ~---''~.

..
Fig. 7.34 Comparison of crntcr rnt and standard fargc holc rnr.
!70
The advantages with crater cut compared to largc holc cut are:
l. Lowcr cost for drilling and explosives as lcss holes are drilled in the cut. The
samc holc díameter is used in ali holcs.
2. Drilling precision is not as essential as for largc hole cuts.
3. Simpler blasting practice with lcss need for well trained personnel.
The disadvantage with the crater cut method is the relatively short rounds that
may be shot cach time.

7.3 Underground chambers.


Thc military dcfense forces started early to utilize solíd rock for construction of
fortifications which gave many advantages over surface construction. Solid rock
is difficult to pene trate and underground chambcrs are difficult to discover and
easy to guard.
Thc ficld of application is huge: Protection for guns. ammunition and soldiers,
protection for submarines and smaller warshíps. storage for material. fuels and
foodstuffs and not least as air-raid sheltcrs for cívilians.
Oil was inítially stored in surface tanks, but after WWII storage in unlined
storagc chambers has become the most common method. The increased exploi-
tation of sub-surfacc storage has to a great extent been dueto the rapíd develop-
ment of rock blasting techniques. The increased mechanization of the operations
has rcsulted in rclatively unchanged construction costs over a number of years,
while at the same time the price of land has increased considerably.
Common to ali types of underground chambers is that they are wcll protcctcd
from a military point of view. They are well camouílagcd and more difficult to
damagc than surface storage facilities if attackcd from thc air or overland. They
require líttle land: surface spacc is only nceded for access roads, ventilation etc.
From an cnvironmenta! point of vicw sub-surface storage is safer, as lcakage
docs not oftcn occur from underground chambers. It is safer than surface storage
in case of firc, as thc supply of oxygen is often ínsufficient to allow a bigger fire to
develo p.
Underground chambers have many fields of application:
- storage for differcnt products
cold storagc for food, wines. water. oil etc.
- garages, telephone exchanges, swimming pools
- military and civil stores and workshops
- air-raid sheltcrs for people
aircrafts
warships
archives
- storage for lightly contamínated nuclear wastc
- storagc of nuclear residue
- hydro-electric powerstations
Sorne of thc applicatíons may be combincd. In wartime, the space which is
normally used for garages, workshops or swimming pools can be utilized as
air-raid shelters.
171
The basis for undcrground chambers is a qualitativc sound rock to build in. Somc
economic asrects ha ve to be considered. ff thc chamber is located at too shallow
a leve!. thc cost of reinforcing the rock may be high as the qua lit y oí the surface
rock is norma!ly poorcr than rock at decrcr lcvcls. 1-lowcvcr, dccp location
rcsults in long acccss roads. which may cause prob!crn both during construction
and when tbc chambcrs come into use.
From thc point of view of rock b!asting techniques, the construction of undcr-
ground chambcrs docs not differ from that of tunncls of the samc magnítudc.
Thc width of undcrground chambcrs cannot be too great duc to the inability of
the rock to support the roof by its own strcngth. For oil storage chambers and
machíne halls for hydro-electríc power-plants, widths of 20 to 24 m have bccn
constructcd without nccd for hcavy rcinforccmcnt. Thc hcight of the chambcrs
may be up to 40 rn.
Small undcrground chambcrs, with a hcight of !ess than 8 m are b!asted as
tunnels. In largcr chamhcrs, thc opcration has to be dividcd into severa! stages of
dri!ling and blasting in which differcnt mcthods are used:
* pilot tunnel with side storing
* horizontal bcnching
vertical bcnching.

Fíg. 7.35 Drifting s1ages in wuiergmund clwmber.


172
The pilot tunnel is <lrifted at thc roof of the chamber to facilitate scaling and
rcínforcemcnt. The side stopíng to full width is then carríed out. Scaling and, if
necessary, bolting an<l shotcreting of thc roof are done simultaneously to avoid
futurc cxpcnsivc reinforcemcnt work.
Thcn blasting is carried out in one or severa! bcnches. lt is common for thc first
bcnch to be a horizontal bench utilizing the drillíng equipment for the tunnel.
Sorne rock charnbers are also dcsigned in such way that no space is available
closc to thc wall for the boom of thc vertical dri!ling equipmcnt. The disadvan-
tage with horizontal benching is that thc height and depth of the round depends
on thc drilling equipment. Thc height is normally limited to 8 m an<l the depth of
the round to 4 m. Other limitation on the blast <lesign is that the blasthole
diametcr can rarely exceed 51 mm.
Excavatíon of the blasted material must be carried out betwecn each blast.
Vertical bcnching is the dominant method for benching in rock chambers. The
advantagcs with vertical benching is that drilling and excavation may be carried
out simultaneously. The bench height may be varied within a wide range and
largcr blastholes may be used, often with bettcr cconomy as a conscquencc. It
is a!so easier to obtain a smoother contour with vertical benches than with
horizontal.
The charge calculations for the pílot tunncl, si de stoping and horizontal benching
are thc same as presented in Chaptcr 7 Tunneling. where the sidc stoping is
calculated as stoping boles with horizontal breakagc and thc vertical bcnch as
stoping holes with upwards breakage.
The vertical bcnching is calculated in accordancc with Chaptcr 5 Bench blasting.
If excavation is not carried out between the blasts. the specific charge has to be
incrcascd in ordcr to compensate for movcment of rock from previous rounds.
Sce 5.8 Swelling.
Access tunne!s are rcquired for each bench for the transpon of rock and
cquíprncnt.
In certain cases, rcstríctíons due to
¡
geologica! reasons, ground vibra-
tions etc., may affect thc cxecution of l~~:~:t!t;i, ,,<;; ~~~(Jt _____ ;
thc work. ~- St benai ; 1 ' ! ~-·· ·-

In Fig. 7.36 thc roof rnust be boltcd 2 na ·<


:,,r-:

with 8 rn long bolts and sprayed wíth ' l: !
"i '''
1!!
concrete bcfore any side stoping can ~ -; . .
',·!
be done. si;¡
6tii
:l~;
Thc vertical bench ís limited to a 1''
7th , ' . ~ , ,
\, ¡
'
height of 4 m which makes it feasible 1
. 8Ú¡
to make a raíse shaft, "glory hole", '1
¡.
for the transport of the blasted rock.
Thc raisc shaft is a long holc drillcd
one, from the upper level and the
blasting starts at the lower leveL See
Chaptcr 7.2.2.
Fig. 7.36 Drifting stages for machine
hall in hydro-electric power plam.
173
8. CONTOUR BLASTING

Fif{. 8.J,

8.1 General.
rrom thc beginning of the cxplosivcs era in thc mining and construction indus-
try, many attcmpts have bccn madc to find mcthods to control ovcrhrcak and
damagc lo thc rcmaining rock.
In tunncling, road and raílroad cuts. it is of the utmost importance that thc
remainíng rock is of high qualíty in ordcr to avoid rnckfalL rockslidcs and
cxcessive maintcnancc work.
Accuratc blasting is nccded especially in thosc tunncls whcrc thc ovcrbrcak has
to be rcplaced with expcnsive concrete.
Numerous blasting tcchniques have been usecl to control ovcrhrcak. Thcy ali
havc onc objectivc in common: To minimizc thc stress and fracturing of the rock
bcyond thc theoretical cxcavation linc by rcduction and bctter distribution of thc
explosivcs chargcs.
174
Thc approach was initially mostly by tria! and error, but lately more sophistícat-
cd and scicntific mcthods havc bcen worked out in both Europc and U .S.A.
lt is often claímcd that good ovcrbrcak control cannot be expected in ali
gcological formations. That is true, but careful!y executcd blasting wi!! mínimizc
the overbrcak evcn in severe geologícal conditions.
The first approach to control overbreak was by Line Drilling, which simply
in volved a single row of uncharged holcs closely spaced along the perimeter of
thc cxcavation, providing a weak plane to which the blast could break. Linc
Drí!ling was modificd over the years, ali or just sorne of the boles were charged
wíth light charges. The spacing between thc boles was thcn modified and was
madc largcr.
Ncw methods likc Cushion B!asting ami Smooth B!asting wcrc crcated and the
perimeter holes wcre blastcd aftcr thc main blast.
Thc idea of cutting thc b!asting area from the remaining rock by forming a
crack along the theoretical cxcavation plane created thc dcvelopmcnt of Pre-
splitting Blasting, where thc perimeter holes are blasted before the rest of the
round.
The above mentíoned mcthods havc applications in both underground and
surfacc blasting work.
Common to ali four methods is that in the chargc calculations, not only the
peri meter boles havc to be considcred, but also the holes closest to the perimeter
lincha ve to be charged in such a way that thcy do not create cracks which reach
beyond tbe pcrimetcr of thc blast.
The mcthods which will be described are:
Line dri!ling
' Cushion blasting
'" Smootb blasting
$ Presplitting
Line drilling and cushion b!asting will be dcscribed bricfly as thc use of these
methods has declined as they are too time~consuming and costly. The develop-
ment of spccia! chargcs for controllcd con tour blasting has turned the b!asters to
smooth blasting and presplitting methods.

8.2 Line drilling.


Application: Mostly surface excavation.
The idea with line drilling is to creatc a p!ane of weakness by drilling closely
spaccd, small diameter holes along the perimeter of thc excavation to which the
blast can break.
Line drillholcs are usually not ovcr 75 mm (3") in diameter and tbe spacing is 2 to
4 times the diameter of the hole. To use larger hole diameters is often too costly.
Prccision in drilling is very important for good result. Any deviation from the
plane will have an adverse effect on the result.
l75
Line drill holes
ooqo•ooooofe9ooa•oooooo••ooooceo6oooo••o••oooooo•
81
is 1 , 0.5 to o.75 x s t- -;
\ i" $ ,¡º l o
• 0.5 to 0.75 X 8

Ch;¡rge 50 % of tl1e s
main bl<1sthole

o o

..... 8
'

Fig. 8.2 Li11e drílling.

Thc blastholcs dircctly adjaccnt to thc linc drillholcs are usua!ly more closcly
spaccd than thc holcs in thc rcst of thc round. They are also more lightly
charged. The cornmon practice is to reduce thc burden and spacing by 25 to 50 cyr.,
and to reduce the chargc by approx. 50 %'. Thc charges shou!d be wcll distribut~
cd in thc hole i.e. by using Emulitc ISO or Dynamcx M. 25x200 mm cartridgcs
tapcd to a detonating cord downlinc.
Thc bcst rcsults are obtained in homogcncous rock formations with a mínimum
of joints. planes and dirt scams. In fracturcd rock formations. smooth b!asting
and prcsplitting will give a bct ter rcsult.
Advantagcs:
Applicab!e whcre cvcn light chargcs may cause damagc beyond thc cxcavation
line.
Disadvantages:
Unprcdictable rcsult cxccpt in vcry homogcncous rocks.
High drilling costs duc to closc spacing.
Time consuming duc to thc cxtcnsive drílling.
Thc s!íghtcst dcviation in drilling causes poor rcsult.

8.3 Cushion blasting


Application: Mainly surfacc cxcavalion.
Cushion blasting was first introduccd in Ornada.
A single row of holcs is dril!cd along thc pcrímctcr of thc cxcavation. Thc sizc of
thc drillholcs varíes bctwccn 50 mm (2") and !64 mm (6 li2").
Cushion blastholcs are chargcd with small. wcll distributcd charges in complctc-
ly stemmed boles. which are fired aftcr the main blast is cxcavatcd. Thc stern-
ming "cushíons" the shock from thc cxplosivc to the rock to remain. minimízing
cracking and tcnsion. The charges in cushion b!asting should be fircd with no
176
delay, or minimum delay, between the holes. Detonating cord is the best means
of initiation where noisc or aírblast do not cause any problem. Thc uníted force
of the charges cuts the web bctween the holes fonning a srnoth rock surface.
The burden and spacing wíll vary
Primacord downline
with thc holc dimnctcr in the pcri-
metcr drilling.
Thc boles are charged wíth exp!o-
sivcs cartridgcs tapcd to a dctonating
cord downline. Cap sensitive explo- Charge
sives cartridgcs with a diameter of 25
to 32 mm anda length of200 mm are
taped to thc downline with a relative
distance of 30 to 50 cm depcnding on Stemming - - - . m
the hole diameter.
To avoíd stumps in tbe bottom par!
of the cxcavation and to promote
shcaring between the boles, tbe lncreased bottom .
charge concentration rnust be in- charge to ensure ·
creased in the bottom of thc hole. breakage ----.i.-
Prccision in drilling is important and
deviation of more than 15 cm from
Fig, 8.3 Cushion blastíng.
thc theorctica! plane tcnds to givc
poor rcsult.
When cushion blasting is used in 90º corncrs it may be combincd with presplitting
for bctter result.
Proposcd charging and drílling pattern for cushion blasting:
Pcrir11eter Charge con- Recommcnded Burden Spacing
hole diam. centratíon chargc type
mll1 Emulite or m m
Dynamcx kg/m
50 -64 0.12-0.35 Em'' 150, DxM', 25 mm 1.20 (}. 90
75 -89 () 20-0. 70 Em 150, DxM, 32 mm 1.50 J.20
102- 114 0.35-1.10 Em 150, DxM, 32 mm 1.80 1.50
denser charged
1 !27- 140 l l 0-1.50 Em 150, DxM, 55 mm 2.10 1.80
~ -165 J.50-2.20 Em 150, DxM, 65 mm 2.70 2.10
* Em 150 = Emulite 150 ~ DxM = Dynamex M
Advantages:
lncreased spacing between the boles, less drilling.
Functíons reasonably wcll in incompetent rock formations.
Disadvantages:
It is neccssary to excavate the main blast before firing the cushion blast.
Difficult to cut 900 corners without combining with another method i.e. pre-
splitting.
177
8.4 Smooth blasting.
Applicatíon: Surfacc and undcrground cxcavation.

\r' ..6 ..3 4..


(
o •5 "
4 •3 •5 ..6"
(fV ..56 • • .. •2 • •
6

3• 4 5
;,,;' ..5 43 2

..5 o
3
•1 •1 •1 .. 3• 5••
1 5

Fig. 8. 4 Princi¡;/e of" smoOEh blasting.


Smooth blasting was dcvclopcd and refined in Swcden during the l 950s and 60s.
The principie is mainly thc samc as for cushion blasting, but thc smooth blasting
holes may be fircd togcthcr with !he rcst or thc round. Thcrc is no nccd for
excavation of thc main blasl beforehand.
Ncw explosives wcrc dcveloped for :;mooth blasting. small diametcr light cxplo-
sives witb low VOD and rclativcly low gas contcnt wcrc tricd. with good rcsults.
The trials led to tbe devclopment of GuriL a nítroglyccrin based explosivc
containing kiesclguhr (thc original material that Alfred Nobel used to tame thc
nitroglycerin) and other components to obtain a suitablc explosive.
Gurit is availablc in l L 17 and 22 mm diamctcr cartridgcs to suit ali possiblc
applications.
Smooth blasting is carricd out in connection with thc rest of the round and the
smooth blasling boles are fircd with highcr pcriod numbers than thc rcst of the
round.
Not only the pcrimeter boles should havc light chargcs. Thc ho!cs directly
adjacent to the perimeter boles must be chargcd wíth wcll balanced charges. as
excessive charge may break beyond the intendcd rock cxcavation line bcfore the
perimctcr holcs are blastcd, spoiling thc fín:li contour.
178
Fig. 8.5 Crack zone from blasring Fig. 8.6 Crack zone from smooth
with co11ven1ional exp!osives. blasting with Gurit 17x500 mm.

Thc peri meter holcs must be carcfully charged with joined-up charges, which are
lockcd in the hole by stemming. To preven! the sand from running down thc
holc. a paper plug can be placed on top of the last cartridge.
Thc quality of thc rcmaining rock dcpends to a large extcnt on the rclation
bctwecn thc spacíng of thc holes (S) and thc burdcn (B). For a good result, the
ratio S!B should be ~0.8. The burden should be grcatcr than the spacing.
It is in undcrground excavation that smooth blasting has become an undisputed
succcss. The increased demand for stable rock surfaces in underground cham-
bers has resulted in the smooth blasting mcthod being prescribed as the standard
method for controllcd con tour blasting in pcrmancnt underground installations.
Not only is a srnooth surface called for but also less fissurcs in thc rcmaining rock,
dccreasing thc need for subscqucnt reinforcing works.
In underground blasting it is evcn more importan! than in surface blasting to
charge the boles adjacent to thc perimeter holes carefully. Thc holes ín a tunncl
blast are normally more closely spaced than in surfacc blasting and are also more
constrictcd. If the stoping boles in the blast are heavily charged, thc crack
formation from thcsc holcs may extcnd beyond the final contour.
SVEDEFO" has workcd out an empírica] formula to predict the vibration
velocity which can be expected from different linear charge densíties at different
dístanccs.
v "" 700xQ'"/Ru (rnm/scc.)
wherc v = vibration velocíty (mm/scc.)
Q = charge (kg)
R = distance (m)
* Swcdish Dctonic Research Foundation.
179
V mm/s
Small diameter blastholes
3000

2000
3m ...._____,.
R

10001--.......l'l.~~~~~ioc-'~m::-~--="="_:.'--~~~~~~~

700j---j-~;:--~-3""":=-t~.......~1""8¡¡¡;;;;;;::::~~~=====~~

2 3 R, m

Fig. 8. 7 Vibration ve/ocity (v) as a fimcrion of' 1he distance (R! wi1h di(fcrenr
chwge concemrations.

The graph shows that a 45 mm holc fully clrnrged with ANFO, charge conccntra-
tion 1.5 kg/m, forms a crack zone extcnding 1.2 to l .8 ni_ while 17 mrn Gurít
(0.23 kg/m) has a crack cxtrnsion of 0.2 to 0.4 111.

Blasthole diameter 45 mm

, ,,,,..-
/
/
I
! .
I Gurrt 17

' 1.0

Emulite 20
\

' ' ....


Fig. 8.8 Crack extmsion with different expfosives.
180
irrn@~l~I
DAMAGE

Fig_ 8. 9 The holes adjare111 to the peri.111e1er ho/es may cause more damage to the
remai11i11f, rock 1ha11 the perimeter holes.


Fig_ 8. JO The adjacenl holes must a/so be carefu!ly blasted.

Wcl!-balanccd chargcs in thc hoks ncxt to the pcrimcter are a must for the best
rcsult.
As mentioncd beforc. smooth blasting is carricd out with special explosives in
closely spaced blastholes. The following table gives the recornmended charge
and dri!ling patterns for different diameters of the perimeter holes.
181
--~-·

Perímctcr Chargc con- Charge typc Burdcn Spacing


holc diam. ccntration m m
mm kg/m
25-·32 O.I 1 11 111111 Guri! 0.3-0.5 0.25-0.35
25-48 0.23 17 mm Gurit 0.7~0.9 1 0.50-0.70
51-64 0.42 22 mm Gurit 1.0-1.1 1 0.80-0. 90
51-64 0.45 22 mm Emulitc .,,_~~--
1.1-1.2
~·~-
0.80-0.90

Fig. 8. ! 1 The gas press11re locks the plug more úghilv 10 rhr:' 11•tllls of rhe hlastltole.

Thc charges shou!d be conncctcd togcthcr, string chargcd, and thc ho!c pluggcd.
othcrwisc thc chargcs will be suckcd out of thc ho!c by thc cxplosions from thc
previous blnstcd holcs in thc round.
A spccial blastho!e plug has bccn dcvclopcd for this purposc. Thc plug locks thc
charge in the holc cfficiently.

Thc firing of thc peri meter boles should be madc with !he samc pcriod numbcr
for thc best rcsult.
Advantagcs:
Increased spacing reduces drilling cost.
Better result in incompetcnt rock fonnatíons.
No excavation nceded bcforc the smooth blasting is cxccutcd.
Specia! charges givc light and well distributed charging of the peri meter ho!es.
Disadvantages:
No real disadvantages comparcd with prevíous!y prcsentcd contour blasting
methods.

182
8.5 Presplitting. •1
., 1•
1•
Applications: Mostly surface blasting. •! 1•
1'
The idea of presplittíng is to isolate •1 ,.
the blasting arca from the rcmaining •1 1•
rock formation by forrning an artifici-
al crack along the theoretical excava-
•I
•1 • . 1•
1•

.
., "l5 14 13 !Z 13 l4 15
1•
tion plane. •1 • 1•
This is done by drilling a single row •1 1.'.l 12 1l ~o 11 12 13 1•

of relativcly closely spaced hales •1 •


lO 9 8 9 10
.
11
1•

along the peri meter of the blast. The


holc diarnetcr is usually 30 to 64 mm 8 6 8 11
and in most cases ali hales are
s s
. . .
chargcd. 6 4 6
t'resofit fri::im previous bla.t
Prcsplitting díffers from smooth and 4 3 2 3 4 5
cushion blasting in that way that the
prcsplitting boles are fired bcfore thc 2 3
main blast. The presplit may be fired
together with thc main b!ast but with
thc lowest intcrval number.
Sometí mes thc presplítting of the pe-
rimetcr is done before the drilling of
Fig. 8.12 Presplillinf!,.
the main blast.

The thcory of presp!itting is that when shock waves from simultaneously deto-
nating chargcs in adjoining blastholes collidc, tension occurs ín the rock, forming
a crack in the web between the holes. For that reasan it is important that the
charges are detonated simu!taneously oras close to that as possible. For the best
resu!t, detonating con! or instantaneous detonators should be used for initiation.
Jf noise or ground vibrations make it necessary to use other means of initiatíon a
rcduction of the distan ce between the holes is necessary.

./

i
'-·-1
Fig. 8.13 The theory o[ presplitting.
183
Presplitting crea tesan artificial planc a long tbe limits of thc cxcavation against
which the subsequent main blast rnay break, resulting in a smooth wall with little
or no overbreak.
Sorne of thc shock waves from thc subscquent rnain blast are ref!ected against
the prcsplit plan, prcventing thcm from bcing transmittcd in to thc remaining
rock formatíon. This tends to reduce ground vibrations.
Precision in drilling is of thc utmost importan ce for the final resulL even small
deviations may advcrscly cffcct the prcsp!it.
As mentioned before, thc bcst result is obtained by firing the boles simulta-
neously using detonating cord. l f long prcsplit lines are fircd. the lines may be
parted and delayed with relays.
In incompetent rocks the rcsult may be improvcd by drilling guide boles bctwccn
the charged boles to promotc the cut a long thc in tended planc. Unloaded guidc
boles bctween the charged boles give bctter final result in ali rock formatíons.
but are rare!y uscd due to the increased drílling costs.
The presplit holes are normal!y more closcly spaced than they are in smooth
hlasting. Thc holcs are chargcd with light spccia! charges, Gurít, and usual!y
initiated with detonating cord. A dctonating cord downline will also sccure
initiation of the charges, cspccially in incompetcnt rock.

Proposcd charging and spacing for prcsp!illing.


,----------··------- r·------------·--··---- -,------·----· ..... -------·---- --------- ··-- -- - -----------........
Peri meter Chargc con- Recornmended Ho!c sracíng
hole diam. ccntration chargc type Jll
mm
25-32 0.11 l l mm Gurit 0.2-0.3
25-41 0.23 17 mm Gurit O 4-0.6
41-51 ,1 0.46 2xl7mrnGurít 05-0.7
41 -5 l 0.42 22 mm Gurit O 5-0. 7
~---5_1-_f_A___L____o_.4_5_ ____._ ___2_2_111_11_1_E_M_U_L_r,_r___E__'' ·----'---------º-·6_)-_(_)._8__,
':' Papcr cartridgcs taped to a detonati11g cord tk)\vnlinc.

The bottom is chargcrJ with a higher chargc concentration to rromotc shcar in


the bot!Om part. Emulitc J 50 or Dynarnex M are suitable for this purpose.
lf rhe dcpth of !he hole is lcss than 1.5 m it rnay be neccssary to reduce thc
distance betwcen the boles.

Recommende<l bottom chargc for different hole dcpths.


Hole depth (m) 2.0 2.0-4.0 4.0-6.0 6.0-1 O.O
Bottom chargc (kg) (). 05 (). l () 0.20 0.30

Thc holes should be chargcd up to 3/4 of ihe hole dcpth. In rock with horizontal
planes it may be nccessary to chargc highcr in the holc for bcttcr shcar ofthc rock
in the uppcr part of thc round.
184
e •
• •
• • @

s
8
• • •
• •
•B • r 1 • • •
í1=l •

I • ({;
Js •
• •



e
I
Fig. 8.14 Dri!líng pa11ern Jor presp!iui11g.
Thc holcs should not be stcmmecl. Whcn long lincs are presplit and thc lines are
partcd with dclays it may be ncccssary to preven! thc chargcs frorn bcing blown
or suckcd out of the holcs by using blasthole locks.
Thc distancc from !he presplit planc to the adjaccnt holcs in thc round should be
half thc spacing in thc round. B=S/2.

Fig. 8. J5 Coveríng of prespÍftting hlast.


Thc risk of' flyrock frorn prcsplitting blasts is grcat. Good covcring is a ncccssity.
Thc covcríng material must not be placed too closc to thc rock surfacc. Space for
the gas cxpansion has to be provídcd for. Scc fig. abovc.

Prcsplitting of trcnches is oftcn done to reduce overbrcak outside the thcorctícal


plan e. Prcsplitting of thc two parallel lincs cannot be done simu!tancously if the
dístancc bctwecn thc lines is lcss than 4.0 rn. Thc shock wavcs frorn thc two
presplit blasts disturb cach othcr and no real tension occurs in the web bctwcen
thc holcs in thc !ine. If para lle! presplit !incs are fired in the same blasL one line
should be dc!aycd at lcast 50 ms.
Ground vibration. aírblast and noise are thc thrcc problerns which restrict the
use of prespli!ting in contour blasting.
Ground vibrations are nonnally grcatcr in prcsplittíng operatíons than in other
metlwds of contour blasting because prcsplít boles have no free brcakagc,
making constriction of the hole complete.
i3
185
The airblast and noíse problcms are greatcr than in othcr mcthods of contour
b!asting. As thc prcsplitting holes are not stemmcd and the normal initiation
method is dctonatíng cord, carc has to be takcn when working el ose to populatcd
arcas. E ven if instantancous elcctric iniliation is u sed. thc airblast problcm has to
be considcred.
Advantages:
Gives cxcellent rcsu!ts in hornogcneous rocks and bctter results than othcr
mcthods in íncompctcnt rock. cspccially if guidc boles are dri!led.
Disadvantagcs:
More drilling than in smooth blasting.
Noise and ground vibration problerns.

8.6 Combined methods.


As mentioned prcvíously. it may be ncccssary to combine differcnt methods for
contour blasting. ln unconsolídatcd rock a combination of line dril!ing and
smooth blasting or presplít tíng givcs a hettcr rcsu!t than i f only the la ter methods
are uscd. The line dri!I bctwcen thc smooth blasting or presplitting boles acts as a
guidc f'or thc shear bctwccn thc boles.
Whcn smooth biasting or prcsplitting in curvcd lines or corncrs. thc use of guíde
ho!es givcs bcttcr result. lt must al so be considcred that closcr spacing is rcquircd
than in straight line blasting. 90" corncrs may be presplit or line drillcd. The
presplit is prcfcrablc íf blastings are not rcstrictcd by grnund vihrnt ion. rrnise cte.

Fig. 8. 1(¡ Co111hína1ion.1· o/ co111our h!as1í11g me1hods 011 90° comers.

8. 7 Economic aspects of con tour blasting.


The cconomic advantage of contour blasting appcars mainly in tunnel hlasting.
In solid rock the ovcrbreak has to be transportcd out of the tunnel and an
overbrcak outsidc thc thcoretical paylinc of l cu. m. pcr meter ol' thc tunncl givcs
extra handling of l.000 cu.m. per kilomctcr.
The situation is more scrious in incompctcnt rocks whcrc concrete lining is
needed.
186
Payment line

Fig. 8. 17 Water tunnel.

Examplc:
A 5.000 m long water tunnel is going to be blasted. Its cross section is 55 sq.m.
and thc circumfercnce of the roof and walls is 20 m.
The extra cost for contour blasting is 19 USD/sq.m. and thc cost of concrete is
!30 USD/cu.m. (Prices 1984.)
lf convcntional biasting is applied. without doubt an overbreak of 30 cm more
than if smooth blastíng tcchniques are used must be cxpcctcd. (Scc fig. 8.5. 8.6,
8. 7 and 8.8.)
The ovcrbrcak will requirc rcfíll with concrete, in this case 6 cu.m. extra per
meter of thc tunnel. 5.000 m will thcn rcquírc 30.000 extra cubic mcters of
concrete ata cost of 130 USD/cu.m. Totally 3,900.000 USD.
lf smooth blasting tcchniques bad bcen applicd, thc cost would have becn
20x5.000x 19USD= 1.900.llOO USD.
In this examplc no costs for extra scaling, bolting and shotcrcting during the
opcration have bccn taken ínto account, but may reach substantial sums.

187
9. CHARGING THE BLASTHOLE

Fig. 9. J (:/rnrging.

9.1 General.
Tbc charging mcthods are diffcrcnt ror diffcrcnt blasthole diamctcrs. For that
reason, the blastholes havc bccn classificd according to thc diamctcr as follows:
small sizc <50 mm (2"}
medium size 50-100 rnm (2"-4")
largc size > l 00 mm (4")
Small diamcter blastholcs oftcn havc a limitcd depth. They are mainly uscd in
srnaller bcnch blasting opcrations, trcnch blasting, tunncl blasting and míning.
Thc inclination can rangc from vertically clown to vcrtically up. The boles are
normally chargcd with high explosivcs anda wmping rod is uscd to introduce and
compact thc cxplosivc.
The medium sizcd blastholes are uscd in construction and production blasting.
The inclinatíon is usually vertical or close to vertical downwards (an inclination
of 3: l is recommended and gíves a good breakage). Thc holes are normally
188
primcd with a high cxplosíve and the main charge in the hole may either be a high
explosive ora b!asting agenl. The holes may be charged with a tamping rod (if
thcy are not too deep ). In deep holes, the charges may be compacted with a
loading weight. Liquid or dry free flowing blasting agents may be poured into the
boles.
Large size blastholcs are used in large sGde operations like quarrying and
mining. The inclination is usually vertical and the explosives uscd are normally
blasting agents whích are primed with a high cxplosive. The blastíng agent is
poured or purnped into the blasthole.
Bcforc charging is startcd thc b!asthole should be chccked for obstructíons, hole
depth and watcr/soil content. In shallow boles a tamping rod is suitable, while in
deep boles a weighted measuring tape should be uscd. lf the hole is too deep it
should be fílled up to the íntended leve] with dril! cuttíngs or similar. (Holes
which are too deep in a blast are more constricted and cause more ground
vibration.) Holcs that are too short should be flushcd with comprcssed air to be
clcared for soil. If thcy still are too short thcy should be dcepened by drilling ora
ncw hole drilled. Sorne times too short holes ha ve to be blasted beca use of
equipment shortage or other reasons. In these cases sceondary blasting of the toe
has to be countcd on.
übstructions in sma!l boles may be removed with a tamping rod. In Jarge
downward holes, a heavy weight tied to a rope and dropped rcpeatedly on the
obstruction may clear thc hole. If thc obstruction cannot be cleared with a
tamping rod or a wcight it may be nccessary to redrill thc holc. cithcr in thc
blockcd holc or a ncw holc closc to the obstructed eme.
No new hole shou!d be drilled in the round where there is a risk of drilling into a
charged hlasthole.
Thc blastholes should be clcared from water bcfore the charging of thc holes
hegins. This is important especially when dry blasting agents like ANFO are
used. ANFO detcrioratcs fast when it comes in contact with water. As tbe water
is in thc bottom of the holc, thc most constricted part of the blast has to be
brokcn by a water contaminatcd cxplosive, rcsulting in b~d toe breakage.
Wherc water is present. a water rcsistant explosive should be uscd in the bottom
of the hole and up above the water leve!.

9.2 Priming.
Thc tcrms "primer" and "booster" are often confused. MSHA (The Mine
Safcty and Health Administration of U.S.A.) defines the primer as a unit of
cap-sensitíve explosive used to initiate other explosivcs or blasting agents. A
primer contains a detonator or other initiating device i.e. detonating cord. A
booster is usually cap-sensitive but docs not contain a detonator. A booster is
used to maintain or intensify the explosivc rcaction.
The primer cartrídge should be assembled at the work-site. The transport of
cappcd primers adds further risk to the blasting operation and is against the
189
rcgu!atíons in most countrics.
The primer cartridge must be rnadc of a cap-scnsítivc cxplosivc with high VOD
and hígh detonatíon pressurc.
Exp!osives like Emulitc and Dynarncx havc thc propertics nccdcd to be uscd as
primers.
The detonator may be íntroduccd into soft plastic explosivcs by gcnt!y pushing
thc dctonator into the cxplosivcs cartridgc.
In harder explosivcs. a woodcn stíck should be uscd to makc a ilolc in thc
cartridgc bcforc thc dctonator is introduccd.
Factory madc primers are delivcrcd with cap wclls suitablc for most dctonators.
Thc dctonator should be introduced in to thc primer cartridgc from thc end and
not from the sidc. lntroduction from the sídc may cause misfirc if there is
ínsufficient cxplosi\·e around the end of the detonator.
The primer cartridgc should be placed in the bottom of thc blastho!c wilh the
base of thc detonator facing thc cxplosives column. Bottom primíng gives thc
best confincment at the ínitiation point and makcs sure that no explosive is lcft
undetonated in the bottom of thc hole if it should be blocked during thc charging
operation. The primer cartridge must not he tamped nor droppcd into thc
blastholc.
Whcn príming blasting agcnts. the primer should havc a diametcr which is close
to thc díarneter of thc blastholc.
This is cspccially importan! whcn priming ;\NFO.

Fil!,. 9.2 Corrcctlr asscm/J/ed primer rnrtridge to 1/ic right.


190
9.2. l Priming of ANFO.
When ANFO is cfficicntly primcd it rapídly rcachcs its stcady state velocity of
dctonation and maintains it.
Thc stcady statc velocity dcpcnds on thc density, thc confincmcnt and partícle
size of thc ANFO as well as the blastholc diamctcr. lf none of the above
conditions changcs, thc ANFO will detonate at one, and only one velocity.
lf onc of the conditions is changcd the steady state velocity changcs.

STEADY STATE VELOCITY FOR DIFFERENT BLASTHOLE DIAMETERS.


Blasthole diametcr VOD
mm m/sec
89 3.700
102 3.800
152 4.200
270 4.400
Thc VOD íncreascs as the blasthole diametcr incrcases and reacbes its highest
valuc ata blastholc diamcter of 300 mm.
As mcntioncd abovc, the purposc of the primer is to initiate thc ANFO so that ít
rapidly reaches its steac!y statc ve!ocity. Thc primer may inítiatc the ANFO with
low ordcr vclocity (VOD lower than stcady statc VOD) or overdrivc velocity
(VOD highcr than stcady statc VOD).
Low order initíation is causcd by too small primer or too low dctonation
prcssurc .
.....

Cl
o
>
600 mm

Primer 25x200 mm
;\
, .. "· ~ '

~
mm
O 1000 2000
Fig. 9.3
3000 4000 m/sec
IWect o/ inef{icient primer.
19!
Overdrive iní tiation

Steady state VOD

of ANFO, 89 mm ho!e

./low order initiation

o --,·----¡---·····-;··--·--,~--,-"·--,
1
··-,----~----- .,....·-----

º 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600
Distance from initiation front, mm

Fig. 9. 4 Ej/éC! o( primer.


The ,·c!ocity distancc curve shows that it takcs approximatcly thc lcngth of four
hlastholc diamclcrs to lluild up thc VOD to stcady st;1tc. Thc low cncrgy
ínítíatíon in thc bottom or lhc blastho!c lllll:V h:ivc a scrious cllcct ()Jl thc hlaslÍ11¡!
rcsu!l.
Sma!l ineffícient prirncrs initiatc ANFO with low ordcr vclocity 1\·hilc powcrful
primcrs with a diamctcr closc to that of thc hlastholc initiatc wíth ovcrdrivc
velocíty.
Thc two most importan! propcrtícs tifa primer are
" its detonation pressure
' íts diamctcr

The effect of the primer detonation pressurc.


The detonation prcssurc is thc prcssure gencratcd by thc explosivc in its dctona-
tion wavc. Thc prcssure is a function of thc vc!ocity ami the dcnsity of the
cxplosive.
Detonation pressurc for diffcrcnt explosivcs:
Explosivc Detonation pressurc
kbars
Composition B (mílitary) 225
Dynamcx M 110
Emulite 150 95
40 %· dynamitc 40
ANFO 20
192
A, Composition B
B, Dynamex M
06
o C, Emulite 150
$2 A
D, ANFO
X 5 ··i

g iB
~41~ ~
g3 .J v ~-~--~---------s_te_a_d~y:..-,s~t~at~e~v_o_o~
> ! .. ""ot ANFO. 89 mm hole
D
2

o
o 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600
Distance from initiation front, mm
Fig. 9.5 EfjécI of detonation ¡m:s.rnre 011 initia{ VOD of ANFO.
Cornposítion 13 gives the highest dctonation prcssurc initiating thc ANFO with
thc grcatcst dcgrec of overdrivc. Dynamex M and Emulite also give a good
degrcc of ovcrdrivc, thus initiating the ANFO efficiently.
Primcrs with lcss than 50 kbars detonation prcssure do not initiatc ANFO
cffícic11tly and should not be uscd.

Thc cffcct of the primer díametcr.


Thc sccond importan! property of a primer affecting thc initial velocity of ANFO
is the diameter of the primer.
A Composition B, 75 mm
B Composition B, 64 mm
C Composition 8, 50 mm
D Composition B, 25 mm

o
2

o~ ·-----------
º 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600
Distance from in itiation front, mm
Fig. 9.6 Effect of primer diameter on initial VOD of ANFO.
193
As rnay be sccn frorn thc graph thc initial vclocity of AN FO is rcduccd whcn thc
diametcr of lhc primer is rcduccd. The drastic rcduction of initial vclocity whcn
25 mm primer cartridgcs are uscd is worth noting.
Atlas Powdcr Company of U.S.A. has cxplained thc cffcct of thc primer dia-
mctcr as follows in thcir brochurc. "The Basic Principies of priming ANFO":
"lnitiation of ANFO is cffccted by transferring the dctonation pressurc from
thc primer 01110 thc surf"acc of the ANFO. In the case of matching diarnctcrs
betwccn the primer ancl ANFO. the pressurc wave is transferred uniformly ovcr
tllc entire surfacc of the ANFO. lf dctonation prcssurc is higb enough. the rcsult
wi!l be efficicnt initiation of the AN FO. pcrhaps with ovcrdrivc. Howcvcr. if thc
primer is small in rclation to the ANFO colunm. thc arca of prcssure transfcr is
grcally reduccd. Conscqucntly. only an equivalen! arca of ANFO (cqual to thc
diamctcr of primer) wi!I rcccive thc prcssurc wavc. For cxample. when !he 75
mm column of ANFO was initiatcd wíth a 25 mm diamelcr primer. the initial
vclocity of thc ANFO will be cqual to a 25 mm diamctcr ANFO colurnn. As thc
dctonation prog:rcsscs throug:h thc eolurnn. it will ¡zradually expand to thc 7'.í mm
diamctcr of AN FO and wi!I then fi-
d
nally achicve steady state velocity.
Thc adverse combination of low de-
tonation prcssure and srnall di ame ter
in a primer has g:ivcn initial \"CJocitics
as !ow as 600 111/sec.
r d
Thc lcngth of thc primer should for
gcomctric reasons. always he cqual
10 or longcr than ils diametcr. Prcfer-
ably al lcast two diamctcrs in lcngth
to assurc that a stablc lfat pressurc
wave is formcd in the primer. ..
Fi¡:;. 9. 7 ne1onario11 \l"(ll"Cfrom (/ dl'lo-
ll!llor.

Tbc w;c of standard ( l Ogr/m) delonating cordas downline in blastholcs charged


with ANFO is nol recommcnde<i. The cord ínitiatcs thc ANFO column along its
cnlirc !cngth at vcry low ordn. with suhstantiallv teduccd cnngy output frnm
thc blastingagcnt. Lately Ensign Bickford of U.S.A. has íntroduced a downline
cord \VÍth 3 gr/m core load which neithcr initiates nor dcad presscs thc ANFO. It
may be used in hl;1s1holcs wíth 64 mm (2 1/2") diamcter ;1nd ahon~.
To surnmnrize the Chaptcr "l'riming o! ANFo··:
Effícicnt initiation of ANFO requircs a primer of sufficicnt diamctcr which
wiH ncarly fil! tbe blastholc and havc a mínimum lcngth of al lcast onc blastholc
diamctcr.
The clctonation prcssurc should not be !css than 80 kilohars.
Reinforccd priming of ANFO as mentioned in Chaptcr 5.2 Chargc calculations.
is an cconomic altcrnative. cspccíally if the blastholcs contain water. Thc con-
strícted bottorn part of thc hole is chargcd with a water resistant cxplosivc of high
and stablc velocity and high dctonatíon prcssurc. The burden and spacing can be
widcncd considcrably.
194
9.3 Different charging methods.
Charging with tamping rod.
Tamping rod is uscd to tamp explosives cartrídges in boles of smal! to medium
diamctcrs. Thc tarnping roJ should be made of wood or plastíc. IRON RODS
ARE ABSOLUTEL Y PROHJBITED. Any mctallic fitting or pikc should be of
copper or brass. Thc diarneter of thc rod should be approx. 1O mm smaller than
that of thc blast hole thus giving spacc for legwires, Nonel tubc, safety fuse or
Jctonating cord. To obtain a good standard of packíng duríng the charging, only
onc cartridgc should be tamped at a time. DO NOT T AMP THE PRIMER
CARTRIDGE. For the best rcsults, cartridgcs with a diamcter el ose to that of the
blasthole should be used. lf more than one cartridgc is introduccd in the
blasthole between tamping operations. it will rcsult in inadequate packing of the
cxpJo,ivc.

Charging with tamping weight.


A tarnping weight is uscd in medium and largc sizc b!astholcs which are charged
with cartridgcd cxplosives, nonnally in plastíc hoses.
Thc tampíng weight could consist of wooden casing. normally oak. with cast-in
lcad or a copper casing containing lcad. Thc woodcn wcight is an oak cylinder
which is soakccl in water for a couplc of days bcforc thc lead is cast in. A hook or
a loop should be includcd for a ropc. Thc copper weight is made thc samc way as
thc woodcn wcight.
Thc tamping wcight should be uscd bctwcen thc introduction of cach cartridge,
esrccially in the bottom part of the holc. A tamping weight with a measuring
tape is also uscful for the prcblast investigation of the blastholc.

Charging with pneumatic machines.


Principal!~· t\\'O types of pncumatic charging machines are availablc:
scmi-automatic clrnrging machines for cartridged cxplosives
' prcssurc-ejcctor vcssds for ANFO.
Scmi-automatic charging machines are uscful for upward holcs. underwater
blasting and in fissured rocks whcre cartridgcs tend to jarn but where a scmi-
rigcd plastic hose could be introduced to the bottom of the hole.

Clrnrging of cartridgecl exp!osives.


Thc principlc ofthc charging machi ne is that the explosive is transportcd through
a plastic hose by pneumatic pressurc. Thc prcssurc is reduccd by a reduction
val ve to 3 kg/sq.cm. to eliminate the risk of accidental initiation. Only high safety
cxplosives likc Emulitc or Dynamcx should be used in charging machines for
cartridged explosives.
Thc scmi-automatic charger permits continuous insertion of cxplosivc cartridges
at the same rateas they are charged in the hole by the hose, The cartridges pass
through an airlock betwecn two valves, The air pressure, 3 kg/sq.cm., is always
maintained in the hose while the cartridges are bcing inserted. The semi-
195
Fig. 9.8 Sc111i .. allfom1tlic char¡.;cr 11·i1'1R0130T1a111per.

automatic charger pcrmits a considcrnbly highcr clwrgíng capacity than when


chargíng with a iamping rod.
Charging can be done with 25. 32 or 40 mm cxplosivcs cartridf>:CS.
"I'hc charging hose is madc from an anli-static plastic material. with a nozzle
fittcd al the ene!. The nozzle contains knivcs which cut thc papcr/plastic arouncl
the cartridgc whcn it is forced t hrough t he 1wzzlc. to rnake compaction of thc
cxplosive casicr.
During the charging, thc charging hose is moved backwards and forwarcls in thc
blasthole with short movcmcnts to cnsurc good tamping of thc cxplosivc.
When charging undcr water. thc charging work is more dífficult beca use of thc
counter prcssurc cxcrtcd by thc water. lf charging is carricd out at considerable
dcpths. the reductíon val ve may be immcrsccl in thc water to compensa te for thc
counter pressure. Thccompcnsatíon wi!I be 1 kgisq.cm. pcr 10 m water dcpth. lt
is rccommendcd that thc pressurc at thc nozzle should be at lcast 1.5 kg/sq.cm.,
mcaning that the val ve should be lowcrcd 15 m bclow thc surfacc whcn charging
at a watcrdcpth of 30 m.
196
\VARNING!
It is under NO circumstances permitted to change the pressure leve! in the
reduction valve. (3 kg/sq.cm.)
In underground operations with upward ho!es, the semi-automatic charger may
be combincd with a ROBOT tampcr. whích carries out the tamping work with
thc charging hose.
Thc principlc of thc ROBOT is that the charging hose is firmly held by a
pneumatic gripper whích moves the hose bacbvards and forwards by a double
acting cy!inder. If thc aír pressurc in the gripper is varicd. the friction between
thc hose and the grippcr varíes. making it possible to change the tamping degree.
Charging and tamping \Vith thc scmi-automatíc charger and the ROBOT tamper
rnay be carricd out by one man making it an cconomic and tcchnically suítable
rncthod for charging upward blastholes.
Charging machines for ANFO.
Free flowing ANFO is normal!y pourcd into blastholcs which are vertical or
close to vertical downwards.
For horizontal and upward blastholcs, the principal method of chargíng is by
means of pneumatic charging deviccs. Such dcvices are also uscd for the charg-
ing of downward blastholes whcre a higher charging density is required.
Thc principlc of thc charging machines is that thc ANFO is transported from a
container, through a plastic hose, in to thc blastholc by pneumatic pressure.
Two main types of pneumatic charging machines for thc charging of ANFO are
availablc:
pressurc vcssel machines which work with high prcssure in the container. The
ANfO is pressed through thc hose into the blasthole.
'; cjector units whcre the ANFO is sucked frorn the container and blown
through the hose into the blasthole.
Combincd prcssurc/ejector machines are also availablc.

ANOL is a pressure vesse!


dcvicc for the charging of
ANFO in ali kinds of app!i-
cations. Prilled ANFO can
be chargcd in upward blast-
holcs with an inclination of
up to 35º without running
out.
Thc flow of ANFO is rc-
motcly controllcd by the
chargcr.
As ANFO 1s highly cor-
rosive, ali machi ne parts
that come in contact with
ANFO are made of stainless Fig. 9.9 ANOL charging machine.
197
steel.
ANOL is rnanufacturccl in
sizes of 100, 150. 300 and 500
lí!crs.

The JET-ANOL chargíng


machi ne is a combincd pres-
surc/cjcctor unit for the
charging of prillcd ANfO in
upward blastholes with dia-
meters bctween 32 and 5 l
mm and a dcpth of up to
45 m.
Thc ANFO is transportcd
by thc cjcctor with such a
high vclocíty into thc blast-
hole that thc prills are crush-
cd and stay in thc blastholc.
Thc f!ow of ANFO as wcll
as thc vclocity of thc ANFO
through thc hose are rc-
motely controllcd by thc Fig. 9. I O .T ET-A NO L chargin¡.; machi ne.
chargcr.

As for thc ANOL. ali parts in contact with ANFO are madc or stainlcss stccl.
JET-ANOL is manuf:icturcd in sizcs of 100. l'ill. JfHl. 'i'iO ami 7'i0 lilcrs.
Thc charging hose has to be anti-static as thc ANFO is transportcd through thc
hose with high vclocity causing a ccrtain rísk of accumulatíon of static clcctricity.
Because of the risk of statíc elcctricítv. ali J\NFO charging units havc to be
cart hcd during charging opcrations.
ANOL and JET-ANOL are rcgistcred trndcmarks of Nitro Nobel J\B Swcdcn.

Charging with pump trucks.


In largc scale blasting opcrations with largc diamctcr blastholcs (ovcr 100 rnrn).
the explosive or blasting agent may be charged into the holc by a pump truck.
The explosive or blasting agcnt (Emulite or EMULAN) can be manufacturcd in
a plant on thc sitc and pumped dircctly from thc plant in10 thc pump truck. Thc
explosive is then transponed to the blastíngsite in thc truck and pumpcd into thc
blastholc with a capacity of approx. 200 kg/mínutc.
Care must be taken when chargíng boles contaíning water. Thc charging hose
must be introduccd below thc water leve! to the bottom and liflcd with the same
pace as the hole is filled to avoid separation in thc cxplosives column by
waterpockcts.
198
Fig. 9. 1l Pumping Emuli1e with a pump 1ruck.

199
10. CAUTIOUS BLASTING

Fix. JO.! Cawi;ms h/(lstíng.

10. l General.
Thc dcvc!opmcnt of blasting tcchníqucs has madc it possiblc to carry out
advanccd blasting opcrations closc to and undcr cxisting struclurcs.
l n thc last dccadcs. blasting activitics in popu!atcd arcas havc incrcascd duc to
thc necd for better communications like metros. tunne!s for telcphonc cables as
wcll as tunnels for water supply. scwcragc. clcctric cables cte.
Another arca of cautious blasting is thc cxpansíon of cxisting hydroclectric and
nuclear powcr plants. whcrc it is of thc utmost importancc that powcr produc-
tion is not disturbcd during thc construction pcriod.
200
Thc increascd prices of land in urban areas have also made it feasible to utilize
the ''bclow street levcl" spacc for various purposes such as garages. offices,
bomb sheltcrs etc.
ln ali thcse blasting operations. ground vibrations and to a certaín extent air
shock waves and flyrock constitute a threat to property and life and it is therefore
ncccssary to control thcse hazards to avoid damage.
lt is primarily the ground vibrations which affect neighboring structures but
spccial attention has to be givcn to the possible occurrence of flyrock, whích is
thc main cause of on-sitc fatalíties and damage to cquipmcnt.

10.2 Ground vibrations.


10.2. 1 The theory of ground vibrations.
Ground vibrations are scismic movcments in thc ground caused by rock blasting,
piling, traffic. cxcavation. vibration compaction etc.
Ground vibrations. which are a form of energy transpon through the ground.
rnay damagc adjacent structures when they reach a certain leve!.
Sorne of thc energy relcased from a blast propagates in ali dircctions from the
ho!c as seismic waves wíth diffcrent frcquencics. Thc cncrgy from thcse seismic
wavcs is dampcd by dístance and thc waves with thc highest frcquency are
damped fastcst. This means that thc dominan! frequencies from the blast are
high at short distances and lower at longer distances.
Thc size of the grouncl vibrntions depends on:
'=- quantíty of co-opcrating chargcs

''' constríction
characteristic~ of the rock
~ distance from the blastíng sitc
geology of covcríng carth dcposits
By sclccting the right blasting mcthod and corre.et drillíng and firing patterns the
size of the ground vibrations can be controlled.

Rock characteristics

Fig. 10.2
14 201
Ground vibrations nrc a comp!icatcd typc of scismic wavcs and consist of
diffcrenl kinds of wavcs:
* P-wave. Thc P-wavc ís A bbrcviations:
also callcd the prímary or SH = Shcar wavc, horizontal
compressíonal wave. lt is thc SV "" Shcar wavc. vertical
fastest wavc through the R Raylcigh wavc
ground. The particlcs in thc P Comprcssíonal wavc
wavc movc in the samc di-
rection as thc propagation or
thc wavc. !he densíty of thc
material will changc whcn
the wavc rasscs.
* S-wave. The S-wavc is
also callcd thc sccondary
or shear wavc. lt movcs
through thc mc<lium at right
angle to thc wavc propaga-
tion but slower than thc P-
wavc. Thc S-wavc changcs
the shape of the material but
Fig. 10.3 Sr.?ismic 1w1ves.
not thc density.

Thc common dcnomination l'or P-wavcs and S-waves is hody \\'aves.


'' R-wave. Thc R-wavc (Rayleigh wavc) is a surfacc wavc which fadcs fast wi1h
dcpth. It propaga1cs more slowly than thc P a11d S wavcs ami thc partidcs movc
clliptically in the vertical plane and in the samc dircction as thc propagation. At
thc surfacc the movcmcnt is retrograde to the movcmcnt of 1hc wave,
Thc mcasuring of lhc ground vibralions is usu:dly done at onc or severa! points at
ground leve!. For a total analysis, the practicc is to mcasurc in thrce dircctions:
vertical. longitudinal and transvcrsc. Normally thc vertical componcnt is domi-
nant at shortcr distanccs. lt is thcrcforc, usuallv sufficicnt to rncasurc in the
vertical dircction. For vibration analysis of thc mcasured valucs. the vibration
phcnomenon may be recorded as a function of time - time history. Thcn the
disp!accmcnt. particlc vclocity ;1nd accelcration c;1n be rcconkd.
Thc basic rule is that thc vibration vclocity is mcasurcd on structurcs (buildings
etc.) with a geophonc and thc accclcratíon 011 installations (computcrs etc.) with
an accelcromctcr.
If thc vibration velocily is mcasured, thc aceclcration can be calculatcd and vice
versa. Whieh of thcsc parametcrs that is thc most intcresting dcpcnds on the
damagc critcrion for the slrueturc to be prntcctcd. If thís is knovm, it is normally
sufficienl to measure thc peak valuc of thc dcsircd parametcr.

10.2.2 Darnage criteria and recommendations.


Experícncc ovcr man y ycars of rneasuring has shown that thc particlc velocity of
202
the ground vibrations affecting a foundation constitutcs the best parameter for
thc risk critcrion for damage. As ground vibrations is approxímately a sine
formed vibration. thc particlc velocity can be calculatcd in accordance with thc
fo!lowing formula:
V = 2nfA
whcrc v = particle vclocity (mm/scc}
f = frcquency (periods/scc)
A = displaccment in mm
From the above formula. thc acceleration of thc vibration can be calculated:
a = 4nTA
\vhcrc a = acccleration in g (9 .81 m/scc')
A= displacemcnt in mm
Control of thc particle velocity is importan!, as it has becn shown to be dircctly
proportional to thc stress to which thc building material is cxposed.
Thc rclationship betwecn particlc veloci!y and stress in an ideal case, when a
planc shock wave passes througb an infinitc clastic medium can be expressed as
fol!ows:
V
y
c
whcrc y = shcaríng anglc (mm/m)
v = particle vclocity (mm/scc)
e = propagation velocity (m/scc)

,,,.-_··

Tll rccommcnd rca!istic pennitted


lcvels of ground víbrations for buíld- ~ '
ings. enginccrs with extcnsivc expcri- ~ :
cncc of rock blasting and vibration ~ j
mcasurcrncnt cva!uation should be ~ j
consu!tcd. Any restriction in thc
form of rcducccl vibratio'n leve!s will
incrcasc !he cost of dri!ling ancl blast-
ing considcrnb!y.
For that rcason ít is important to start
a!I blasting operations in populated Free b!asting
arcas with an inspcctíon of surround-
o 18 25 35 50 70 100
ing buildings. This will be followcd Admitted vibration velocity, mm/sec.
by a risk analysis in order lo assess
the scnsitivity of thc bui!dings and Fig. 10.4 The ejfcct on cost of d1ffer-
foundations to grnund vibrations. ent levels of vihralion velocíty.
203
Thc most importan! paramctcrs are:
Vibration rcsistancc of thc building materials.
The general condition of the building.
:~ [)uration and charactcr of thc ground vibration.
Prcscncc of cquipment scnsitivc to ground vibrations wíthín thc
building.
How thc foundation is constructcd.
Thc quality of thc foundation.
Thc \"clocity of thc wa\'c propagation in rock, soil and construction
material.
Thc followíng table shows thc values that are normally pcrmitted anc! whích are
uscd to evaluate the potential damage rísk through ground vibration to standard
rcsidential housing.
Although thc vibration vclocity is statcd as thc pcrmittcd valuc it is thc shcaring
anglc which determines thc dimcnsions. Thc accuracy of thc valucs in thc table
has bccn confinncd by hundrcds of thousands of rcadings ovcr more than 40
ycars.

Víbration velodtics normally 1·ccommcnclcd in appraising ground


vibration damage risk to residential buildings with respect to
the foundation of the buílding.
-----·-·--·---------~n••~•"•--·-----•

Wavc 1()()()-- 150{) 2000- 3000 .¡500---(1(}(){) Result Leve] a\


vclocity Sand. gravcl Morninc Grani!c 111 C""45()()
e c!ay undcr slatc, soft gneiss, hanl tyrical to 6000
mise e ground limcstonc limcstone, housing m/scc.
water di abase st ructurcs
quartzitc,
sandstonc
---~~ .. ~--··-

Vibration 9 18 :l'i No 0.008


vclocity 13 ')-
;..) 5() visible () () 15
V
mm/scc 18 35 70 cracking 0.03

Fine
)() 55 1()() cracks, (1.06
fallíng
pi aster
-----------··..· · · · · - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ·
Noticc-
40 80 150 ablc 0.12
cracking

Scvcre
60 l 15 225 cracking 0.25
204
1n the case of older buildings of poorcr quality. it is customary to decrease the
pcnnissib!e vibration velocity from 70 mm/sec. to 50 mm/sec .. in buildings of
light concrete it should be decrcased to 35 mm/sec. Conversely. there have been
occasions where velocity val u es of more than 100 mm/sec. wcre attained without
darnage to bui!dings. In the case of individual blasting opcratíons. sturdy con-
crete structurcs can stand values cxcccding 150 mm/scc.
lf thc limit valucs in thc table above regarding "no visible cracking" are trans-
ferrcd in to a thrcc-party graph. the curve wi!l look Jike in Fig. 10.5 curve 3.
Howcvcr. in the curve the lirnit val u e for buildings founded on rock has been
reduccd from 70 mm/sec. to 50 mm/scc. Curve 3 can he said to represen! thc
recommcnded límit values for normal residentia! arcas. For frequencies exceed-
ing 40 Hz thc partícle ve!ocity is the criterion for damagc but at lowcr frequencics
thc displaccmcnt rcprcscnts thc critcrion.
Thc dominan! frcquencics for vibrations passing through soft kinds of rock,
moraine. sand, grave!, clay etc. are lower than for example granitc. This is shown
in thc abovc table and curve 3 rcflects this for !ower frequencies where dísplace-
ment is used as the críteríon. Curve 2 in Fig. 10.5 rcpresents valucs at which
buildings rcccivc dircct damagc. (Langcfors and Kihlstrom, l 967.)
lt mus! be pointcd out that curve 3 only indicatcs thc rccomrncndcd limitíng
valuc and cxpert .iudgmcnt is nceded to determine more accurately which upper
lirnit values should be set for structurcs adjacent to blasting opcrations.

Fig. 10.5
205
Critcria for damagc and rccommcndations:
Curve 1: Rccomrnendcd uppcr lirnit f"or !B!'v1 computcrs wíth a duratíon
of vibration lcss than 5 scc.
Curve 2: Dírect damage from vihrations to huildings during blasting.
Curve 3: Rccornmcndcd upper Jimit for blasting.
Curve 4: Vibrations disturbing to human beíngs.

In conncctíon with hlasting operations closL' to tclephonc arnl rclay stations or


buildings conwining othcr scnsitivc cquiprnent such as computcrs. clcctron
mícroscopcs. turbincs <.'le. cnnsidcr<1tio11 must he given to thc accclcration in
ordcr to nvoid disturhanccs.
Thc rccommcndcd pcrmissihlc rnlues for grnund vibration closc to this typc of
cquipmcnt are:
Tclcphonc -- rclay stations
v=50 mm/scc. amiª""º· J -3.0 g depending 011 typc of station.
TV-statíons
v=35 mrn/scc. and ª"':>.Oµ.
Axe-clcctroníc switch hoards
v=20 111111/s,~c-.
Computcrs
a 0~0.25
g.. (For cenain parts of thc co111putc1 .)

Blasting closc {O computer installations (not micro computcrs or l'C:s). whcrc


the manufacturcr prescribes a nwximurn accelcration of 0.25 g. is diffícult ami
under ccrtain circumstanccs impossiblc, if specíal anangemcnts are 110t made.
N itrn Consu lt A B. a subsidíary of Drno 1ndust ries, Norway, has lhcrdorc
dcvclopcd a spccial mcthod to dampcn thesc installations. thus rcdueing thc
vibrations coming in to thc equípmcnt. D:m1pe11í ng shou Id ahvavs he follownl up
with vihration mc~1surcmcnl.

Thc sizc of thc ground vibrations depends on:


numher of eo-opernting clwq1cs
thc constrietion or thc blast
thc charaetcristics of the rock
thc distancc frnm thc blasting sitc
thc gcology of the surrounding ground

For lhc planning of blasting opcrations whcrc ground vibration prohlems oecur.
it is important to be aware of thc rclationship bctwcen distance. chargc and
ground vibration.

206
Using Langcfors' formula for dctcrmining thc chargc leve! thc vibration velocity
c¡rn be calculatcd:
Q
Chargc lcvcl
R'"'

Fig. 10.6.

lns1antaneous
ct;arge quantity (QJ

whcrc O indicatcs thc chargc in one hole in kg or severa! instantancously fircd


chargcs at thc sarne distancc R in rnctcrs.

Vibration vclocity:

v -K~ Vfbtalion velocity (vJ ·,.¿;


/j~

"~~~!!~·~···
\_Q\$~~....c.._.,....
......
.. '

Fig. 10.7. Rock transm1ss10t factor (KJ

whcrc Q = instantancously dctonating charge (kg)


R dístm1cc (m)
V vibration (particlc) vclocity (mm/scc)
K t ransrnission factor, constan! dcpending on thc homogcncity of the
rock and thc prcsence of faults and cracks. For hard Swedish
granitc it is approx. 400 but it is normal!y lowcr.

Thc rclationship hctwcen charge/distance and ground vibrntion can be used to


makc a simple table which may serve as rcady-reckoncr for thc planning of
blas!ing opcrations.
207
Distance Chargc in kg (instantancous dctonation)

m Leve]: 0.008 {J.015 o.rn 0.06 0.12 0.25 0.50


() .5 l) ·.·' 0.02 0.04 (). 08 0.16
0.008 .!1 0.1Jl5 0.03 0.06 o. l 2 0.25 0.50
2 0.023 O. 04 0.08 O. l 7 0.34 0.68 l.35
3 0.04 0.08 0.16 0.32 0.65 l .30 2.60
4 0.06 0.12 0.24 0.48 l.O 2.0 4.0
5 0.09 0.17 (J.35 (). 7() 1.4 2.8 5.6
6 0.12 0.22 0.44 0.88 1.8 3.7 7.3
7 O. l 5 0.28 0.56 l.I 2.2 4.6 9.2
8 O. 18 0.34 0.68 l.35 2.7 5.7 11.3
")
9 0.22 0.4 0.8 l .6 ~
.1.~ 6.7 13.5
10 0.25 0.5 1.0 2.0 4.0 8.0 16.0
12 0.3 0.6 l.2 ")
.<..)- 5.0 10.4 20.8
14 0.4 0.8 1.6 3.1 6.3 13.0 26.0
16 0.5 l.() l.9 3.8 7.7 16 32
18 O.ó l.2 2.3 4.6 9.2 19 38
20 () 7 1.3 2.7 s...¡ i{J.7 "))
44
25 l.[) l.\) 3.8 7.5 15 31 62
30 l.3 2.5 4.9 9.8 20 41 82
40 2.0 3.8 7.6 IS 30 63 !26
50 2.8 ).J 1()J) 21 -f2 ~8 176
(J() :u 7.0 14 28 56 1!(\ ..,.,,
--)~

70 4.7 8.8 18 35 70 1-46 292


80 5.7 10.7 21 43 86 178 358
90 6.8 12.8 25 'íl 102 213 427
100 8.0 15.0 30 (){) 120 250 500
120 10.5 19.7 39 7<) 158 .128 657
j.:l() 13.2 24.8 50 l ()() 200 410 820
160 16.2 30 60 120 240 5()() ![)[)(]
180 19.3 36 72 !45 290 61)() 1200
200 22.6 42 85 170 340 7()(1 1400

Thc chargc levcls in thc prcvious table corrcspond to thc following vibration
velocitics if thc rock lransmission factor K=400.
Leve! Vibration vclocity
~~-~----~

Q/R'' mm/sec.
0.008 35
0.015 50
0.03 70
0.06 100 (thrcshold valuc grnnitc)
0.12 150
0.25 225
0.50 300
208
Thc rclationship chargc/distancc and vibratíon vclocity can also be cxpressed
graphically:

g1oo":::=J==t3::EI:EttE~"4o'O:±EJEEI::=?O;;;;~
.......=t-1----t--+--+-+-l-H-+1+-._K_· 40Q-_,_'-._,·_;..;_;_w:' - - 70 mm/ sec
+----1-+--+-+-1-+1-+-1---+--+;-t·-·-·t-++++'J----/-''-4-50 m mis e e
O 50 +---+---+--+-+-H-1-+¡·•--+---+;--l·--+-H-++-1---/..1-/---L-/--:.....' 3 ~ m mi sec
1
~----!-+-~-
~ \ 1 !7 / .- '~
~ 1 i ll / i
f5 li ·11
\
11
1 ;
/
1¡ J
,' ·1
1 \ 1
1 !ji

g 10
t==~t:!:t:~:J::±l:t±;t1 :t==~:=E.=/e~:~ ':B,,~:d,~t=:=E=. _=i+:~+-1=3
.... +--~:-.....;'-l--+--+-'--i'-4----:.'-..l.IJ../...:!_;_'/../--"-;4~·--t--+-H
~ s ...___........¡__..,. --+--1-++++-:f----4-:-¡¡-/~·+tn .==i---rh
li_

m ..__L ' i 1 I_ !/ ! li !.-r ! i i ! 1 1 1


o.
o 1
1 íl 1!/, y· ''I'
¡\ ¡ ' i' \ !

1
1 : ..-
'
b !>::.." ¡ / L/ _.1 \ ¡ ¡
ll
1
1'·--r-~1H·- ¡
·¡ 1 1
;.
:
·¡

u 1 1 1

1
; ! t l 1 r "!/ ¡1 1 ! 1 ti i ,·

5 10 Q
- ";
rv 50 100 500
r,';
\)'
rv
Distance R, m
Fig. 10.8 Clwrge (Q) as a jimcrion of dislance (R) for di{ferent levels of vibratíon
vdocíry. Rock 1rans111issio11 factor K=400. Ata distan ce of 20 m, the charge must
1101 excer:d 1. 3 kg IO ensure a vibration velocity of !ess tlum 50 mmlsec.

Thc dístance and charge tables which are based on thc dctcnnincd rock trans-
mission factor K should be used with carc close to buildíngs whcrc the foun-
dation is unknown c.g. buildings built partly on rock and partly on soil and
buildíngs founded on wooclcn piles in clay cte. The val u e of the rock transmission
factor K will also change clepending on the characteristics of the ground and the
dístance. Looscr matcrials such as morainc and clay have lower K values than
homogcncous hard rock. The rock transmission factor K is also lower in
weathercd and fissurcd rocks.
The actual valuc of the factor K is best determincd by test blastings at thc actual
sítc. fo!lowcd up by scrupulous vibration mcasurement.
To evaluate the test blasts, the constriction of the blast must be considered e.g. íf
the test hole has free breakage, if ít just cracks thc rock or if it <loes not affect the
209
rock al ali. To cvaluate a test blast corrcctlv. cxpcriencc of test blastings and
knowlcdgc of thc fícld of ground vibrations is nccessary.
Whcn thc rock trnnsrnission factor K is dctcrmincd. thc graph in fig. l 0.8 may be
adjustcd accordingly and !he realistic rclationship bctwccn chargc/dístancc and
vibration vclocity adaptcd to thc local conditions.

o
Q)

e
(\S
.r:.
C,)
C)
e
ctiL..
(!)
o.
o
f
o
()
1

5 10 50 100 500
Distance R, m
Fig. JO. 9 Charge (Q) a.1· 11 júnclion of diswnce ( R) j'or dij/'erent /eve/s of vibration
Fefociry. Rock transmission fác1or K "'' f OO. Ar a di.1·rancc o( 20 m. 1fu: charge 11111s1
1101 exceed 20 kg to e11surc a i·ihra1io11 1·cloci1y o( h'ss rhan 50 111m!scc.

Thc comparison of thc two graphs with rock transmission factors K""400 ami
K= lOO rcspcctivcly shows that thc dampcning cffcct is highcr in thc softcr rock
(K= lOO) and thc vihration vclocity is Jowcr if thc rclatíonship chargc/distancc is
maintaincd.

10.2.3 Geological factors inlluencing ground vibrations.


Soils and rocks are porous materia Is with a relativcl:>' rigid skclcton or particles.
The porcs are fillcd with water or air. In soil, t he soí! skc!cton consists of mineral
210
grains which are held together by frictiona! and cohesivc forces. In sedirncntary
rocks the mineral grains are cemcnted together and in magma rocks and meta-
rnorphous rocks the minerals havc crystallized to a rockmass whích usually
contains watcr-bearing fissures and .ioints. In practicc ít may be difficult to statc a
precise propagation velocity of the seismic wave in diffcrent soils and rocks.

m/scc
500 JO()() l )()() 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500
~----·-·--------~-----~-~--~-~-~--~

C!ay D
Clay. saturated CJ
Sand. grave]
Sand. saturatcd
e:::••
CJ
Morainc c:=±i•••ll'
Morainc. saturated ••••
Sandstonc. schist
Granitc, gnciss
e , shcar wave
l!lllilllllllll compressíonal wavc

Fig. JO. JO The ¡;ropaga1ion velocily of compressionaf all(f shear waves through
dif{ffc111 soif.1· muí rncks.

Thc propagation vc!ocitics of thc Rayleigh wave dcpend on the frequency and
are lowcr than those of thc shear wavc.

Evcry geological envíronmcnt has íts own ground víbration characteristics which
affcct tbc propagation of thc vibration wave. The ground vibratíon characteris-
tics dcpend on tbc following propcrtics of thc ground:

thc elastic constants of the ground (c!astic and shearing moduli)


which determine the propagation velocity of th:c wavcs.
the typc of soi! and íts depth which determine the predominan! rangc
of frcqucncy and type of waves.
* thc 1noistness of the soil and the ground \vatcr level.
thc topography and morpho!ogy, which may Jcad to focusing of
seismic waves.
the damping characteristics of the ground.

An examp!c of gcological factors intlucncing thc rock blasting operation is the


diffcrencc in permitted charges at differcnt distances in Swcdcn and thc U .S.A.

21 ¡
0>100---....,.._""1"""".,....,."'l"'l"'l""!"'l".~....,..--io.....,....,..,.."l""!'lll'T-__,,_."""""',....,

~~ :==so mm/sec SWEDENfm~4~/l/ffi


a so~-+--- . .--;-+-+-<-++-<f-.·-=1---1-··-- -•-+#-+-+-r+----+/-+/-+-1---+--+-t
-s. o. so~:::j::::j:;¡:1:.,_;~.71- .
C!J
O>
l...
-- ---··--- -- ----·-r- -7 --~ · 1
77r--+·~+---t

qS
.c.
--- ---· ----s. o. 2 ot-,c-+-l-+++-H.
·~ v~..,,.__.._.---1- __ ,__
o .v 1 / ·~

O> 10
e
--
i 11
I )
qS 5
L...

·-7/ · --¡1-,--,;.
¡:
C!J
c. >-----------· --···-1---1--+--l-+-H --+-+-1--H·+-----l--- ·-r
o
1
/ . '

ü
o / //
1 J / /
/
/

5 10 50 100 500
Distance R, m
Fig. JO. J J Comparison of qua111i1y-dü1ance re/(l{ionships for speclfled vafues of
vihralion velocí1y in Sweden and U S.A.

In U .S. A. thc highcst pcrmitted vibration vclocíty is 50 mm/scc. and safc scalcd
distanccs havc bccn cstahlishcd for use ín thc fíeld. Thc cquations for blast
designare:
D!\ÍW ~ 50 ft/l!F = S.D. (!)
Dl\ÍW ~ 20 ft!lb'' "'S.D. (2)
whcrc D ís thc dístance in fcct from blasting sitc to structurc in question
W is maximurn chargc weight in pounds pcr delay
S.D. is scalcd distancc

Equation #l is recornmcndcd for sitcs whcrc no instrumcnt mcasurcments are


made as thc cquation contains a rathcr high safcty factor.
Equation #2 is only rccommcndcd for si tes wherc instrnment recordings of thc
blasts are madc.
212
A scaled distance oí 50 or more will protect against vibrations greater than 50
mm/se c. As may be seen in Graph 10.11. the scaled distance equstion # 1 gives
rather conscrvative values. especially on shorter distances, e.g. ata distance of
JO m. 0.2 kg pcr delay is permittcd according to scaled distance equation in
U.S.A. while 0.5 kg is perrnittcd instantaneously in Sweden. (Which can be
doublcd or trcblcd per dela y if MS detonators are used, see page 219.)
On thc othcr hamL the Graph IO. l l also shows that, when using equation #2,
thc charge leve! rnay be increased considerably. e.g. ata distance of 1Orn 1.0 kg
can be fircd simultancously. However. equation #2 is only recommended for
si tes where vibrations are measured and peak particle vc!ocities of 50 mm/sec or
less are obtained. lf the blaster wants to use a smaller scaled distan ce, that is, he
wants to use more explosives per dela y, then a consultant and/or permission
from regulatory authorities is/are rcquircd.
At larger distances S.D. 50 is not so conscrvativc, at 100 m 20 kg per delay may
be charged compared to 15 kg in Swedcn. but S.D. 20 permits 100 kg per delay.
The charge levcls are considerably higher in U .S.A. especially at larger distan·
ces. The rcason for that is that the rock characteristics in U.S.A. are different
from those in Swcdcn. The rock is gencrally softer and more weathered with
lowcr propagation velocity of the vibratíon wave. Furthermore, and equally
importan t. the vibrations are dampened faster and the vibratíon vclocity is thus
lowcrcd.

10.2.4 Planning of blasting operations.


At thc planníng stagc of thc blasting opcratíon, attcntion must be paid to the
geo!ogical eharacteristics of the rock. lf there are zones of weathered and
fissured rock between the blasting si te and objects scnsitive to vibrations with a
damping effect on the ground vibrations, the geological characteristics of the
rock may change to more homogeneous rock as the work proceeds, íncreasing
thc ground vibrations. lt may than be necessary to decrcase the charge to avoid
damage.
Thercforc the test blastings should be measured to make a seismic profíle where
the seismic waves are rneasured at various points giving information on how the
charactcristics of thc rock varies.
When planning and executing the blasting operation, it is important that the
constriction of thc round is minimizcd by correct clrilling and firing patterns.

213
." ." ¡~
." ". . . :,,
·~

. ."
t:j
. . ". ."
'º "

. l\)
.

l intcr:i:,d burd<'.'n
1
~

Fig. JO. 12 By changinr, thcfiring partcm. rhc intemu! !mrdr!n mar he 111i11imizcd
rmd tlu: co11.\'lriclio11 fm\'cred.

The víbration vel()city also dercnds


on thc inclinatinn of the holc. Stcep-
cr holc ínclinations or othcr condi- 300
tions incrcasing thc constriction of
!he blast (mísfircs etc.) may cause
200
considerable incrc;1sc t)f thc \ihr;i-
tion vclocity.
The ground vihrations will also in- 100

crease if thc hlast fails to break thc


rock down to thc intcndcd lcvcl. o-------"·
_,...
10-1 3 1 2 1
Hoic incllnation

hg. JO. 13 \libmlion Pefociry in refa-


tion lo ho!c i11di11atio11 with the samc
lmrdcn allif cxplosivc charge (trc11ch
hlasting).

The first rounds blasted ata work sitc must be considcred as te:;t blastings and thc
vibratíon mcasurements should be used as n guídancc for thc planning of an
optimum blasting opcratio11. Thc rcsults from tlic vibration rncasurcmcnts
should be utilizcd during ali blasting opcrntions to find thc most cconornic
drillíng and firing pattcrn. Howcvcr, a certain rnargin to thc pcnnittcd vibration
velocity should always be maintaincd as thc ground vibrations may incrcasc
sharply if thc blast does not go according to plan. This can be díffícult in cases
when the drilling is far ahcad or thc blasting opcratío11, hut usíng thc rcsult of thc
214
initial risk analysis and a thorough follow-up during the blasting operation, the
dril!ing pattcrn rnay be selected in such a way that severa! charges may be used in
each holc if the vibratíon vclocity values become too high.
Invcstigations show that people in llln1'Sl'l'

general rcact to vibration valucs far 1:iO ·1'· Rcíni'orccd ctmcrc'!e strncturcs
bclow the !imít for darnagc on build- . .. 011 h;mf rnch
1.)0 -;1
ings. lt has also been demonstrated !
i
that blasting opcrations which are ex- 110 .j 1'iorn1al huildin¡!~ nn hanl rock
ecuted in a short time are bctter ac-
1
cepted by people in the arca than -1
opcrations lasting for a long time, 1'
even if thcrc are long gaps between 711 ·'!' t\faxí111un1
\';duc in Swcdcll ft>r
the blasts. ;· huíldí1H!s on hanl rock
¡ "
Thc best way to forestall complaints )O .•. Normal huildii1!!S tlll sort rock
!.

rcpc·;1tcd bl;1~ts
is if those rcsponsible for the blasting
operations give comprchensivc in-
formation to thc people affected.
.)O .j l'c<lpk s1wngl\' dislurhcd

mm.-\. noticc;1hlc to p~t~pk


(J l 1

Fig_ /O_ f 4 1'vfaxim11m ¡wn11í11ed Fibra-


1io11 vdocitiesfor r1'.~idenrial huí!-
dings_

More oftcn than riot it is a good investmcnt to employ a consultant at the


heginníng l)f a blasting opcration. The consu!tant wil! take care of the primary
risk ana!ysís and bdorc blasting starts point out the problems which are likely to
occur. Using thc knowlcdgc gaincd from thc rísk analysis the blasting operation
can be bcttcr planncd both technícal!y and economícally. It is norma!ly cheapcr
to prevent problcms than take mcasures when they arise.

10.2.5 lnstruments to measure ground vibrations.


Differcnt typcs of instrumcnts have bcen devclopcd for ground vibration meas-
urcmcnts.
Thc carly instrumcnts were mechanical. Thcy wcrc fixed to the object which
was subjccted to ground vibrations. The principie was that the instrument
containcd a heavy weight which was suspended in a spring, acting as an ínert
mass. During the vibration the instrumcnt moved but the weight did not. Thc
rnovemcnt of the instrument was recorded on paper and thc leve! of ground
vibration could be cvaluated. The mcchanical instruments have nowadays been
replaccd by elec!roníc ones.
In the e!cctronic instrument, the mechanical víbratíon is sensed and converted
to an electric signa] by an electro dynamic transducer called a geophone. This
transduccr gives an clcctric signa! which is direct proportional to the particlc
vclocity of the vibration, which is thc parameter being recorded.
215
Thc gcophone consists of a spring
(1) loadcd ~ moving mass (2) sys-
tem. A coi! (3) is wound around thc
moving mass. The system movcs
frccly in a magnetic ficld crcatcd by a
pcrmanent magnct (4). Whcn thc
coi! movcs in the magnctíc fic!d an
clcctric current is induccd with a
magnitude proportional to thc vclo-
city of thc coi!.
In thc gcophonc ín use. thc coil is
stcady while the magnet rnounted in
the outer case moves in relation to
the reccivcd mechanical vibration.

Fig. 10.15 Basic dcsign of geophone.

Thcrc are instruments availablc for the mcasuremcnt of vertical and horizontal
cornponents at onc or severa! rncasuríng points. As rcgards blasting i1 is the
magnitudc of thc vertical cornponcnt that is important. Thc instrumcnts may
also be supplcrncntcd with an accclcromctcr to mcasurc thc accclcration.

The two main typcs of availablc vibration mcasurcmcnt instrumcnts are:


Peak valuc monitors for continuous rcgistration
- Tirnc-History rccorders for rcg.ístratíon of cvcnts.

Thc peak valuc monitor UVS 1201


mcasurcs thc peak particlc vclocity
(PPV) of a víbration wave at onc
single point usíng. a gcophonc. Thc
ve!ocíty signa! is also proccsscd into
corrcsponding peak valucs of dis-
placcrnent and accelcration. Thc val-
ues are updated continuously and
storcd in an clcctronic mcmorv at
2-minutc intcrvals.
The UVS 1201 has onc month's
mcmory capacity.

Fig. 10.16 uvs 1201.


216
Measuremcnt values from any part of the memory can be displayed on an LCD
(Liquid Crystal Display). and hard copy reports may be obtained by connectíng a
printcr to thc UVS l20l. By sclecting start and stop times and sctting suitable
threshold values, thc printout can be cdited according to preference.
Furthcrmore. the content of the memory of the UVS 1201 can be copied to a
portablc disc drivc for furthcr processing.

The UVS !404 is a four-channel instrument for measurcment and rccording of


peak particlc velocity. acceleration. water shock wavcs and air shock waves,
dcpcnding on thc type of sensor used for each channel.
Thc rccordcd data are prcscnted on a dual LCD system. The primary LCD
shows a continuous grapbical diagram along a horizontal time-axis while alpha-
numeric information (including date. time. graphical sea le and channel number)
is givcn 011 thc sccond LCD.

Thc onc-month mcmory of thc UVS


1404 is updatcd continuously in the
same manncr as for the UVS l 20 l.
Printed copies can be produced by
connccting a printcr to thc machine.
Stored data can also be duplicatcd to
a portable disc drivc for later cditing
and printout.

Fíg. 10.17 U\IS 1404.

Thc Time History recorder UVS


1608 records complete Time Hístory
sequen ces of vibration or shock wave
transients. Thc incoming signals are
ck:ct ronical!y stored and readily
availablc for prcsentatíon on an illu-
minated LCD scrccn. The buílt-in
printer provides on dcmand an cxact
hard copy of what is shown on thc
display at any particular momcnt.
Furthermore, the cntirc contcnt of
thc UVS 1608 memory can be copied
to a 3. 5" disc. which can be reread,
proccsscd and printcd by thc UVS
1(108 at any time. Fig. I0.18 U\IS 1608.
217
\5
The UVS 1608 is available in 4-channel and 8-channcl versíons. Each channcl is
compatible with gcophones as wcll as accclcrornctcrs and microphones.
The UVS 1608 can also be interconnccted with a UVS 1404 Vibration Monitor
whcn Time History rccording.s are requircd in parallcl with long-term monitor-
ing of peak valucs.

Ali the instruments dcscríbcd abovc are dcsignecl to stand harsh working aml
anvironmental condítíons. The clcctronic componcnts whích are placed in
hcav;'-duty casíngs are spccia!ly dcsígncd to rcsist extreme lcmpcrnlurc vari-
ations. frnm thc tropícs to thc arctic.
The UVS 120!, UVS 1404 ami UVS 1608 instrumcnts are manufacturcd by Nitro
Consult AB Swcdcn.

J0.3 Chargc calculations.


10.3.1 General.
Whcn blasting c!ose to buildings and othcr installations scnsilivc to vibrations it
is 1101 always possíblc to utí!izc thc hlastholcs in thc samc way as in normal
blastíng operations. Thc ground vibratíons which always occur· in blastíng opera·
tions depcnd on thc maximum co-opcrating chargc wcight. Thus, thc chargc
wcight for cach dela y must be kcpt within certain limits for differcnt distances.
Howcvcr, for big blasts miel long distanccs thc total amount of cxplosivcs may be
a dctcnnining factor for thc sizc of thc vibra!ions.
The constriction of thc blast is another factor which affects !he sizc of thc ground
vihrations. A constrictcd charg:c g1vcs higllci vibrations tlrnn onc with free
brcakagc.
Thc maximum ClHlpcrating .F 1 OO .r'C:..,.,..,.--,.~-,..,......,...,..,----.-~~-.-70_m_m_/sec
chargc can be dctcrmincd 6 50 :· :j'-1º3~~~~~ec
from thc chargc/distancc Ai·¡ ii
graph. Knowing thc distancc / ,: :
to thc scnsitivc objcct it 1s
casy to determine thc cor-
ree! charge weight.
The chargc wcighr depcnds
on thc pcnnitted vibration
vc:ocity and thc rock trans-
míssíon factor.
05

5 10 50 100 500
Distance R, m

Fig. JO. 19 Chargeldistance grnph for dijj'erent


vihrarion velocities.
218
The maximum co-operating cbarge can be reduced in thc following way:
Thc firing pattern.
The number of holes with the same pcriod number is reduced so the
maxirnum co-opcrating chargc is not cxceeded.
Reduccd drilling patteni,
The blasthole volume is not utilized to thc maximum for thc cxplo-
sivcs ch argo:: asín normal blastíng. Thc drilling pattern is more closely
spaced with Jess explosives in each holc.
Divided charges.
The requisite charge amount for the hole is divided into several
partial chargcs fired with different delays. The charges are separatcd
by sand stemming.
Dívided bcnchcs.
The bench is not blasted to its fu]] depth in one go but divíded into
severa! lower benches.

10.3.2 The firing pattcrn.


In cautious blasting it may be necessary to decrease the co-operating charge.
This can be done by dccrcasing thc numbcr of dctonators with thc sarne period
num bcr.
Detonators with the same period number always have a eertain scatter. In othcr
words, thc dela y time of the delay ciernen! is not cxactly thc samc for detonators
with thc samc pcriod numbcr. This mcans that only sorne of the dctonators
within thc period wil! co-operate.
Thc co-opcration within thc period or bctween various periods dcpcnds on thc
frcqucncy of the g.round vibrations. For hard homogencous bedrock the fre-
qucncy is nonnally over 60 Hz and here thc following practica] rule for co-opera-
tion will apply:

Dctonator typc Period number Co-operation within period


(reduction factor)
VA/MS 1-10 1/2
Nonel GT 3-10 1/2
VA/MS 11-20 l/3
Nonel GT 11-20 l/3
Noncl GT/T 1-20 l/4
25-60 116
VA/HS 1-12 l/6
The table is based on the scatter within thc pcriod which is lowest for MS
detonators but may be as high as 200 ms for HS detonators.
219
According to Langcfors, thc risk of co-opcration is grcatcr at low frcqucncics.
Lcss !han 60 Hz:
VA/MS 1- l{)
VA/MS l 1-20 1/2
VA/HS 1-12 1/6

Lcss than 20 Hz:


VA/MS 1-20
VA/HS l-12 l/}

Thc low frcqucncics occur in soft rocks and whcn hlasting al rclativcly grcat
distan ces.
At the lowcst frcqucncics it may thcorctically be co-opcration bel wccn diffcrcnt
pcriod nurnbcrs.
In the U .S. A .. with its softcr rocks, thc chargcs are supposcd tn co-opcratc if thc
delav bctwccn thcm is shortcr than 9 ms.
Thc following cxamplc shows thc cffcct of thc rcductíon factor in cautious
hlasting:

Condítions:
Rock. granitc
Bcnch blasting
Blastholc cliameter. drill series 11 (34-29 mm)
Bench height 4.0 m
Chargc pcr hok l. 95 kg
- Maxímurn pcnníttcd co-opcrnting ,·lrnrgc 5.0 kg

A. Blasting without considcring thc rcduction factor.


2X l.95 kg ""' }.9 kg
Conc!usion: Maximum 2 blastholcs may co-opcratc. which in this case im-
plics 2 dctonators pcr pcriod numbcr.
B. Blasting considcring thc rcduction factor.
MS dctonators with pcriod numbcrs 1 to 1O havc a rcduction factor of l í2.
whích mcans that only half thc dctonators within thc sarnc pcriod are likcly to
co-opcratc.
lf 4 dctonators with thc samc pcriod numbcr are uscd only 2 wi!I co-opcratc.
Thc maximum chargc whích wíll dctonatc instantancously is thcn
(4x l .95)x 1/2=3.9 kg. lf for cxamplc 5 dctonators are uscd ín the samc
pcriod thcrc is a risk of ovcr-charging. as} of thc 5 dctonators are like!y to
co-opcratc (3x l.95 kg~~5.8.'í kg).
Conclusion: 4 dctonators 1\·1S l to 10 may be uscd in thc samc pcriod wíthout
risk oí cxccssivc chargc.
MS dctonators with pcriod numbcrs 1! to 20 havc a rcduction factor of 113.
mcaning. that onc third of thc dctonators wilhin thc pc:riod are likcly to
co-opcrntc.
220
l f 6 dctonators are used with the samc period number only 2 will co-operate.
Thc maxímum charge which will dctonate instantancously is (6Xl.95)x
l/3"'3.9 kg.
Conclusion: 6 dctonators MS l l to 20 may be u sed in thc samc pcriod without
risk of cxcessivc chargc.
lf a firing pattern starting with 4 pes MS No. l is changed to one starting with 6
pes MS No. l l, it will no! increase thc co-opcratíng chargc.
In thc case of different amounts of explosives in the blastholes, the lcast favor-
able case has to be reckoned on, that is. the holes with the biggest amounts of
explosives will co-opcratc.
When thc number of detonators within each period is limited because of
restricted ground vibrations. it may be a problem to obtain enough periods for
thc blast. In cases like this it is practica! to use NONEL UNIDET with its
unlimited number of delays (Scc Chapter 3b.2.4 NONEL).
In blasting operations vcry closc to objccts which are scnsitive to ground vibra-
tíons. whcre vibrations over thc pcrmittcd limit may rcsult in scvcrc damagc, no
reduction factor should be uscd and only thc real numbcr of detonators per
period takcn into account.

10.3.3 Bench b!asting with reduced drilling pattern.


When the maximum pcrmitted co-opcrating chargc is smallcr than thc requísitc
chargc for thc blastholc, it is no longcr possiblc to reduce the co-operating
chargc with thc firing pattern. One possibility to reduce thc charge ís to reduce
the blasthole diamcter, which gives less explosives in each blasthole. Thcn
normal drilling and charging tables may be uscd for thc actual blasthole dia-
mctcr.
Howcvcr. it is often practically impossible to changc the drilling cquipmcnt. In
these cases a reduccd drillíng pattcrn is used, drHlcd with the existíng equipment,
whcre thc pcnnittcd charge determines tbe drilling pattern.
Thc rcduccd drílling pattern increases the specific drilling which naturally in-
creases tbe cost. To what dcgree the specific drilling may increasc from an
economic point of vicw must be dccided upon in cach case.
Onc basis for forming a judgmcnt is to compare with the specific drilling whcn
thc blaslhole is fully utilized:
Holc diamcter Specific drilling
mm m/cu.m.
Drill series 11
34-27 0.8- l .3
Dril! series l 2
40-29 0.6-0.9
51 0.3
64 0.2
76 0.15
221
To calculate the reduced drilling pattcrn, thc permitted co-opcrating charge
must be known. Thc pcrrnitted co-operating charge may be found in thc chargc/
distancc table or in thc graph [0.8. Knowing thc vibration vclocity which is
pcrmittcd for thc objcct in qucstion and thc distancc to thc blasting sitc. thc
actual permittcd co-opcrating chargc will be found.
The correct permittcd vibratíon velocity is found in the table on page 204, which
shows thc vibration velocity that is normally permissíble for rcsidential huildings
for the kind of material on which thc buildings are built.
The basis for the calcu!ations is that thc spccific charge sllould be 0.40 kg/cu.m.
This valuc is the normal value and changes may be needed dueto the blastability
of the rock. The change of specific charge does not changc the calculation
procedure.
By carrying out test blasts followed by analysis of thc vibration mcasurement
results, ít is often possib!e to use more explosivcs than indicated in the graph thus
lowering the blasting cost.

Charge ca!culation procedure.


Specific charge q (kg/cu.m.)
Perrnitted co-opcrating chargc Üpor (kg)

Orilling pa!tern.
1. The vo!ume of rock which
is blasted by cach hole:
Üpcr
Volume = - - (cu.rn.)
q
oi 100
:X: 70 mrn/sec
2. Whcn the volume is ·· l. SO
mm/se e

known, the drilling pattern o 50 ! ~ 35 mrr\/sec

can be calculatcd.
Ql
Ol
....
I f..~::¡ ¡ l
t1l /
The surfacc arca cach blast- .e
ü
holc can cover: Ol 10
e
·~
vo!umc ....Ql 5
Arca -····-·-- (sq.rn.)
o.
K o
1
o
o
(K. in thís case is bcnch
hcight) 0.5

o.1..__........_........._..:..;..-1-~'--''-'-"'-'_....~..._..:......:_
1 5 10 50 100 500
Distance R, m

222
3. Practica! drillíng pattern.
When the surface area for o
the blastholc is known thc
practica! burden is:

~
B ""--\
v--us
Practica! spacing:
S = J.25xB (m) K
The practica! spacíng should
be adjusted to the width of
thc ben ch íf necessary.
4. Hole depth
The holc dcpth H may be
J_
cstímatcd from tables in
Chapter 5.2 Charge ealcula-
tions.

5. Specífíc drilling

b =---~ (m/cu.m.)
BxSxK
An estímate should be carried out to see if the specific drilling is acceptable. If
not, the use of dividcd charges in the holes or severa! lower benches should be
consídcrcd.
If thc spccific drilling is acceptable, the calculations continue as follows:
6. Drilling error.
d
E = - - + 0.03K (m)
]()()()

7. Subdrilling
U= 0.3(B+E) (m)
8. !-!ole depth
H=a(K+U) (m)
a = 1. 05 for ínclination 3: 1 B Bmax - E
and 1.0 for vertical boles.
9. Maximum burden
(m)

223
Bottom charge.
10. Charge concentration
Bmax:
111 = ~~ for Dvnamcx M (kg/m)
2 - ~

Bm:tx 1 1. l 5 .
]¡, = - - X - - for Emuhtc 150
2 1.25
11. Height
h¡, = J .3XBmax (m)
12. Weight
Q¡, = !11Xh11 (kg)

Column charge.
= lb·hb
13. Weight
Oc= Üpcr-Qh (kg)
l 4. Stcmming
h0 = B (m)
15. Height
h'" = H-h 0 --h 11 ( m)
ló. Chargc conccniratíon
Oc
!,. =~· (kg/m)
h,.
1,. should be at lcast 40 % of
I¡,. Explosives of suitable di-
mensions should be sc!ected
for the charge.
17. Total chargc weight

º"" = Ob+Oc (kg)


Check that Üwt~Üpcr· If this is not the case, thc column charge should be
rcduced. lf that is not possiblc thc dríllíng paltcrn mus! be reduccd furthcr.
J 8. Specific drillíng

number of drillcd metcrs per row nX H


b = =---- (m/cu.m.)
volumc pcr row wxBxK
19. Specific chargc
Total charge per row
q = (kg/cu. rn.)
Volume pcr row wxBxK

224
Calculation example.
Condítions: Blasting to be carried out close to a TV transrnitting station.
Thc permíttcd vibration vclocity is 35 mm/sec. and the distance to the blasting
sitc is 20 m.
Blasthole diameter: Dril! series 11, 34-27 mm in this case 31 mm.
Bench height: 2.5 m
Hole inclination: 3:1
Width of thc round: 12 m
Rock transmission factor K: 400
Explosive: Dynamcx M
Gurit
Specific chargc q: 0.4 kg/cu.m.
Permitted co-operating charge: 0.65 kg
(in accordance with graph Fig. 10.8)
1. Rock volume pcr holc.
Üpor 0.65
Volumc =- - = --- = 1.63 cu.m.
q 0.4
2. Surface arca pcr holc.
Volumc I.63
Arca = = - - = 0.65 sq.m.
K 2.5

Spacing:
S = l.25X0.72=0.90 m
Adjustment of the spacing to the width of the bcnch.
12.0
Number of holc spaces - - = 13.33, that is 14.
0.90
Sed¡ = 12/14 = 0.86 m
Numbcr of boles per row 14+ 1=15.
4. Estimatcd hole depth
From table in Chaptcr 5.2 Chargc calculations
Hcsi = 3.05 m

5. Specífic drilling
3.05
- - - - - - = l. 97 m/cu.m.
BxSxK 0.72 X 0.86X2.5()
Thc specific drilling for drill series 11is0.8 to 1.3 m/cu.m. when the blasthole is
225
fu!ly utilízed. Thc specific drilling is somewhat high in this case. but may be
accepted.
6. Drilling error.
d 31
E = ~- + 0.03K = - - +0.03X2.5=0. I 1 m
l ()()() 1{)()()
7. Subdrillíng
U = 0.3(B+E)"'0.3(0.72+0.11)=0.25 rn
8. Ho!c dcpth
H = a(K+U)::ool.05(2.5+0.25)=2.89 approx. 2.90 m
9. Maximum burdcn
B,""' = B+ E=0.72+0. l 1=0.83 m

Bottom chargc.
!O. Chargc conccntration
Bm:ix~ 0.83 2
l¡, = --·- = - - · = (J.35 kg/m
2 2 -
1 l. Hcíght
hb =1.3Xl3m:1x""l.3x0.83=l.08 approx. 1.10 m
12. Weight
Q 0 = l¡,Xh¡,=0.35X J. l0=().39 kg
The bottorn charge may consist of 4 cartridgcs of Dynamc:x M. 22x 200 mm with
a weight of O.! kg each = 0.4 kg.
The practica! hcight of thc bottom chargc. h¡,. will be 0.8 rn.

Column chargc.
13. Weight
Üc = Üpcr-Qh=0.65-().40=0.25 kg
14. Stemming
h0 = B = 0.72 m
15. Height
he= H-hb-h 0 =2.90-0.80-0.72=L18 m
16. Chargc concentratíon
Oc 0.25
!0 =--=--=0.18 kg/m
h0 1.38 -

The concentration of thc column chargc should be at lcast 40 !;;(, of thc con"
centration of the bottom charge. which is found to be the case.
")")¡'..
The column may be chargcd with 2 canrídges of Gurit 17x500 mm with a
cartridgc wcight of 0.1 !5 kg each. Total weight 0.23 kg.
The total lcngth of the bottom charge, 0.8 m, and the column charge, 1.0 m, will
lea ve a stcmming lcngth of 1. l m whích may cause sorne boulders from the upper
part of thc round.
17. Total chargc
º'º' = Q¡,+Q"=0.41 +0.23=0.64 kg
18. Spccifíc drilling
nxH 15x2.90
b = = 2.01 m/cu.m.
wXBXK 12.0x0.72x2.5
l 9. Spccifíc charge
nxQ, 01 J5x0.64
q - - - - = 0.44 kg/cu.m
wxBxK 12.0x0.72X2.5

Summary of importan! data:


Ben ch Hole Burden Spacing Bottom Column Specific Specific
hcight dcpth charge chargc drilling charge
K H B s Qb b q
(m) (m) (m) (m) (kg) º"
(kg) (m/cu.m) (kg/cm.m)

2.5 2.9 O. 72 o 86 0.40 0.23 2.0l 0.44


10 "'8 "'
6 •s •
11 "'
12 •
13

14
o
15

"'
7 • 5 •3 •
5 "'
8 •
11 •
12 •
13
o
14


4 • 2 •
1
e
2 •
4
o
7 •
10
e
12 •
13

lt may be assumed that only halt the


number ot detonators will co-operate
withln the period numbers 1 - 10 and
1/3 with!n the period numbers 11 -20
See page 219, Chapter 10.3.2

Fig. 10.20 Firing pattern.

227
10.3.4 Bench blasting with divided charges.
In blasting operations. it is common that the drilling is carricu out wcll ahcad of
the blasting operation, with the result that the dril!ing pattern is fixed and cannot
be changed if it is found that thc rcquisite chargc for the blastho!e is higber than
thc permitted one.
In cases like this, the charge may be divided in to two or more smaller charges in
the hole which are shot wíth diffcrent pcriod numbers. The uppcr charge must
then always be initiatcd with the lowcr period numbcr.
An intennediate sand stemming divides thc chargcs from each othcr to avoid
flash-o ver between the charges. An cxplosive ·s susceptibility to flash-ovcr dc-
pends on parametcrs like agc of tbe cxplosivc. ternperaturc. chargc diameter,
quality and Jength of thc stcmming. The length of !he stemming nccded bctwcen
charges varíes from 0.4 m for dril! series l l (34-26 mm) to 2.0 m for a blasthole
diameter of 150 mm. Too long intcrmediatc stcrnming could rcsult in more
difficult breakagc for the !owcr bottom charge resulting in higher vibration
va!ues. The best stemming material has a particlc sizc of l/10 of thc blasthole
diametcr (for diamctcrs up to 100 mm).

Charge calculation procedure. TABU.ó 1' 1

Drilling pattern. Dctcrrnination of B, 11 ." 1111d 1,, wi1h


rcp.ards. tn Üp~·i,
J. Maximum burdcn. !'n111ittcd MaxinH1111 ( 'h¡trg_c
Bmax depends on 0 11 n and is ch;:irgc hunkn cntH. 'cnt ra-
found in table P 1 • kg 111 1ion kp.im
2. Charge conccntration. 1,,
lb dcpcnds on B"'"' and is
º""'
0.2:i
B"'"'
0.7 o 2:;
0.5 O.<J O..!
found in table P 1• Chosc 1.0 l.:' {I 7
suitable cxploisivcs units 1 :i 1.35 n9
consíderíng thc l¡,. 2.0 1.5 l. l
2.5 l.h 1.2:;
3. Subdrilling. 3.0 1.7 l.¡
.J.() l .C:) L7
U= 0.3XBmax (rn)
),1) 2 [) 2.0
4. Hole depth. 6.0 2.1 2.2
7.ll 2.2 2.-1
H = a(K+U) (m) 8.11 2.3 2.7
a = 1.05 for holc inclination 'J.O 2.~ 2 l)
!O.O 2-S 3.1
3: l and 1.0 for vertical boles.
12.0 2.65 3.S
5. Error in drilling. 14.0 2.0 3.0
16.0 2.9 ·+2
d 18.0 3.0 .\.5
E = - - +0.03H {m) 20.0 3.1.'i 5.0
1000
2:'i.O 3.-l

228
6. Practica! drilling pattern.
Practica! burdcn:
B = 13 11 ,,,,,-E (m)
Practica! spacíng:
S = l.25xB (m)
The holc spacing is adjusted
to the width of thc round.

Charging.
Lowcr partía! charge.
7. Weight
01 = Opcr (kg)
8. Height
h1 = l .3XB""" (m)
9. Length of thc intermedi-
ate stcmming, h,. is betwecn
0.4 and 2.0 m dcpcnding on
thc hole diamcter.
Approx. 15 times the charge
di a meter.
Uppcr partial ch:irgc.
1O. Residual chargcable
!ength of blastholc.
h, = H-h 1-h, (m)
Uppcr bottom chargc.
11. Wcight.
Ü¡, 11 "" 0.75XQ¡ (kg)
Lcss bottom charge is re-
q llircd as thc chargc has free
breakage which is not the
case in thc lowcr charge.
12. llcighL
h¡,,, = 1.3 X Bmax (rn)
Uppcr column cbarge.
13. Stemming part.
(m)
The lengtb of thc stcmming
may be adjusted depcnding
on thc charge conccntration
in thc column.
229
14. Height.
hcu = h,-h¡,"-h" (m)
15. Concentration of column
charge.
Üpcr-Obu
lcu :=~~~~- (kg/m)
hrn
Judge if the calculatcd charge conccntration in thc co!umn is sufficicnt in rclation
to the bottom chargc. lt should be at !east 40 % of thc conccntration of thc
bottom charge. If the remaining charge wcight is not large enough to obtain an
acceptable charge conccntration in the column. a third charge mus! be uscd in
the ho!e.
16. Total charge weight -
uppcr partial chargc.
o.,= º""+o,.. (kg)
Check that Ou~Op";.

10.3.5 Bench blasting with divided benches.


Thc blasting of thc arca closcst to <i building oftcn 111c;111s that thc mc!hods of
reduccd drilling pattcrn or divídcd chargcs will no! sul'ficc. bu! thc bcnch hcights
ha ve to be reduced.
Over short distanccs. undcr 5 m. thc ground vibrntions are on!y slightly
damped so thc valucs in thc charge/distance graph should be followecl. Thc
blastings must also be continuously follO\vcd up with ground vibration rncasurc-
rncnt. Any cbange of tbe vibration velocit:"· must be takcn ínto account for thc
planning of subscquent hlasts.
Faults and incompetcnt zones may
cause unexpccted problems in the
immcdiate vicinity of buildings by
6 5 2
displaccmcnt of surface rock or gas
cxpansion undcr the building. 1
9
The rounds close to thc building 8 4
sl1'luld havc free brcakagc to avoid
upward movement of the surface 3
10 7
rock. Thc blastholcs closcst to the
building should havc weak column
charges which cut off thc rock thus Fig. J0.21 B!asting order close ro
prevcntíng backbrcak. b11ildí11g\'.

10.3.6 The slot drilling method.


Lately SKANSKA (Major Swedish con tractor) has patcn!ed a method of reduc-
230
Fig. 10.22 The SKANSKA slot drilling method.

ing ground vibrations from hlasting closc to cxistiog buildings.


A slot is dril!ed which separa tes the building from the blasting si te. The slot
consists of boles drilled in paralJeJ to forma fully open slot. The slot must be free
from drill cuttings and water and extend a certain dístance outside the object to
be protectcd to give the best rcsult.
Ground vihration measurements have shown that the slot acts asan effective
damper of ground vibrations. This implies that the drilling aod blasting costs can
be reduced, as more cffective drilling and charging patterns can be used.
Furthermore, the method may imply further savings as the need to reinforce
the rock is reduced or in certain cases eliminated.

10.3.7 Trench blastíng with reduced burden.


A lot of today's trench blasting is done in populated arcas and consequently in
thc immediatc proximity of huildings.
Due to the increased constriction of the rock in trench blasting, the ground
vibrntions incrcase and consequently the risk of damage. Therefore, it is of the
utmos! importance that the b!asting operation is planned and executed in a
scrupu!ous way.
Thc charge calculations for cautious trench blasting wi!I genera!ly follow the
same pattern which is used for bench blasting. As in bench blasting, the basis for
the calculation is the required specific charge in kg/cu. rn.
231
Charge calculations procedure.
Drillíng pattern.
l. Number of ho!cs in each
GRAPH Rt
row, n, ís found ín thc dri!l-
ing and charging tables for Specific charge as func-
trench blastíng, Chaptcr 6. tion of depth and wídth.
É 2 ' ··---------·----·-·--.. --·--
2. Permittcd charge is found :::i Width,
in chargc/dístancc graph ami --..o ''
m
the charge pcr row is: F. 1.5 r-
i
Q) !
Q, 0 "' = n X Üvr (kg) ...OJ 1
.

73"'
3. Hole depth.
H (m) is found in the dríl!ing 1 ~
.2 i
and charging table for trcnch - 1

blasting. Chaptcr 6. ~ i
~ o_s l
4. Specífic charge.
q (kg/cu.rn.) is found in
graph R 1•
5. Practica! burdcn. 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
Depth, m
Ü1ow
B =----- (m)
qx!ixw GRAPH R2
Charging. E 1.0 K • 1.0 m 2.0 3.0 4.0
6. Botrom chargc. e:
Q¡, in accordancc with graph ~ 0.9
...
:::i
R2 ID 0.8
7. Height of bottom chargc
0.7
Q¡,X J(J()()
h¡, ;:::,---- (m)
0.6
8. Height of stemming
0.5
h0 = B (m) Bottom charge, kg
h 0 should be adapted to the o.e o.e 1.0 1.2
burdcn B and thc conccntra- 0.5
tion of thc column chargc.
From a ground vibration 0_6
point of víew ít is favorable
to have short stcrnming 0.7 4 ho!es per row
(highcr column chargc) on
E 0.8
condition that throw can be
e
controlled by covcring thc (1) 0.9
blast and that the requircd
charge conccntration is
" ....
:J
ID 1-0
K • 1.0 m 2.0 3.0 4.0
oblaincd.
232
9. Wcight of colurnn charge
O,= Opcr-Ob (kg)
10. Hcight of column charge
he= H-h¡,-h 0 (m)
11. Conccntration of column
chargc
Oc
le = - - (kg/m)
he
12. Weight of colurnn charge
Üc=lcxhc (kg)
13. Total chargc wcight
º"" = Ü¡,+Üc (kg)
Check 1hat Ü101~Üpcr·

TABLE R,
Recomrncndcd charge conccntration of the column chargc in relation to the
practica! burdcn in trench blasting.

Practica! Minímum rcquired Suítable Real charge


burden chargc concentration explosive concentration
B (m) le (kg/m) 1, (kg/m)
0.3 0.05 Gurit. 11 x460 mm 0.08
0.4 0.07 Gurit, 11 x460 mm 0.08
0.5 0.1 Gu 11"' + 114 Em 15U8 0.12

0.6 0.15 Gu 11' + 112Em150* 0.15


0.7 0.18 l/4 cartr. Em 15W + 0.20
10 cm wooden stick
0.8 0.22 1/2 cartr. Em 150" + 0.25
0.9 0.25 10 cm wooden stick 0.25
Gu 11" = Gurit, 11 X460 mm
Em l5W = Emu!ite 150, 25x200 mm.

16
233
10.3.8 Trench hlasting with divided chargcs.
The rnethod of using divided charges in trcnch blasting can be uscd when the
hole depth exceeds 2.0 m. This is becausc thc intcrrncdiatc stcmming and thc
normal stcmming occupy a mínimum lcngth of 1.0 rn.

Charge calculation procedurc.


Drilling pattern.
J. The number of holcs in each row is found in thc drilling ami charging tables for
trcnch blasting.
2. Holc dcpth.
H (m) is found in thc drilling and charging tables for trcnch blasting.
3. Practica! burdcn.
B (m) is found in graph R 1 if thc lowcr bottom chargc is cqual to O¡m·

Charging.
Lower bottom chargc.
4. Wcíght.
Ü1>1 = Üpcr (kg)
5. Hcight.
Q¡, 1Xl000
h¡, 1 = - - - - - (m)
cF
6. Height of int..:rmcdi<.itc stcmming.
h, = 0.4 to ! .O m. Thc valuc dcpcnds on thc circumstanccs. c.g. the blastholc
diametcr. Approx. 15 times thc chargc díamctcr.
Uppcr partial chargc.
7. Residual chargcablc hcight of thc blastholc.
h, = H-hh 1-h, (m)
Uppcr bottom chargc.
8. Oniy 60 % of chargc Qh 1 is ncedcd for thc brcakagc of thc uppcr part as thc
holc has free brcakagc. i.e. no constriction.
Üh., = 0.6XQ¡,¡ (kg)
9. Height.
hbu is estímated from the chosen chargc unit.
Upper column cbargc.
10. Charge conccntration.
!"'' from table R 1 (kg/m)
J 1. Stcrnming.
(m)
234
Adjustcd to thc chargc concentration in the column of thc holc.
12. Height.
he"" h,-h¡,,,-h., (m)
l3. Wcight.
(kg)
14. Total charge weight.
Upper partial chargc.
Q., = Ü¡,u+Ücu (kg)
Check that Üu~Üpcr·

10.3.9 Cautious tunnel blasting.


An inc;easing number of tunnels are bcing constructed under built-up areas
where they pass under inhabited buildings as well as buildings with equipment
sensitive to ground vibrations.
Cautious blasting followcd up with ground vibration rncasurcment has subse-
qucntly bccomc more common.
The blastholcs in a tunnel round are very constrictcd. To dccreasc ground
vibrations, it is nccessary not only to lowcr the co-operating charge, but also to
endeavor to reduce constriction of the rock. This means that dri!líng pattern,
holc depth, charge per hole and firing pattern have to be adjustcd so that the
permittcd co-operating charge is not exceeded and that ali boles have free
breakagc.
Sorne of the most importan! points to consider are:
Choice of blastholc diameter and explosive.
Choice of !argc hole diameter, one or severa! large cmpty boles in
the cut to decrease constriction and the rísk for flash-over.
Accuracy in drílling.
- Suitablc firing pattcrn which minimizes thc co-opcrating chargc and
guarantees most favorable anglc of breakage.
Dividing the round into partial rounds.
Rcduction of the distance bctween the holcs so the charge in each
hole can be reduced.
- Reduction of the hole depth.
The firing pattern is of the utmost importance in cautious tunnel blasting. The
const riction of the blastholes can be dccreased by using thc right period number,
so that each ho!e has an angle of breakage of at least 90º in the stoping part of the
round (See Fig. 715 in Chapter 7 Underground blasting). lf thc tunncl round is
of such a size that the number of periods does not suffice without excceding thc
pcrmíttcd co-opcrating charge, the blast must be divided into two or more partial
blasts e.g. blast thc constricted cut boles as a separate blast, then the stoping
holes and finally the contour boles. In order to obtain the bcst result in the
235
contour. the perimcter holcs (except the f!oor holes) should be blasted with the
samc pcriod number. This is normally no problcm as thc contour holes usua!ly
have very low charge concentration.
In cautious blasting, ccrtain types of cuts likc Y-cuts are not suitablc bccausc
of thc risk of co-opcration and flash-over betwccn the large numbcr of holcs in
the cut. Large hole cuts ha ve carlier becn considered to give rise to largc ground
vibrations but measurements of ground vibrations analyzcd overa long pcriod
contradicts this. A parallel hole cut with two or more large holes is a vcry
prnctícal way of rcducing constriction and unsuccessful breakage and is thus to
be recommended.
lt is often more advantageous to dri!l more boles in a roun<l with rcduced chargcs
than to shorten the hole depth, thus maintaining normal advance of the round.
Howcvcr. somctimcs the holc depth has to be reduced in ordcr to kecp thc
co-opcratíng charge within thc pcrmittccl limits.
A continuous fo!!ow-up of thc blasting activities by ground vibrntion mcasurc·
rnent may be beneficia! by disclosing more favorable practica! ground víbration
valucs than those determincd by theoretical ca!cu!ations.
Thc adaptation of thc bfasting opcration to thc mcasured rcsults mcans an
optírnum rate of dríftíng on thc basis or vihration mcasurcmcnt.
Problerns with flyrock and air shock waves do occur in thc initial stagc of the
tunnelíng operation and constitutc a risk whcn the work is started in populated
arcas, which is often thc case nowadays. Thereforc. it is importan! to investiga te
thc rock with rcgard to fissurcs and íncornpctent :wncs and than covcr thc blast
wcll. Thc air shock wavc ís troublcsome not only in the init ial stagc of thc work
but also when thc drifting has advanccd furthcr ínto thc rock. espccially in thc
dírcction of the tunncl.

10.4 Blasting close to hardening concrete.


Blasting works are often carricd out simultancously wíth construction work
which give risc to problcms with blasting closc to hardcning concrete.
Thc problcm has bccn studied by tbc Ontario Hydro. Concrete and Masonry
Rcscarch Scction and the fo!lowing rccommendations are given for concrete
with STD cemcnt. without entering too decply in to theories and research rcsults.
If ít is prcsumed that concrete which hardens in a tcmpcraturc of + 5º C can stand
a peak particle velocity of 100 mm/scc. aftcr 90 days. thc following vibration
vclocity values are rccommended:
Hanlening Maximum pcrmitted
time vibration vclocity
days mm/sec
2 8
3 11
7 35
28 80
90 ]()()
Note: Up to l Ohours after casting, the concrete can stand ground vibrations of
up to 100 mrn/sec. Between lO and 70 hours after casting no blastings should be
undertaken closer than 30 meters.
On the other hand. if it ís presumed that the concrete is hardening in a tempera-
ture of + 2 l º C and that the concrete stands 100 mm/sec of ground vibration after
90 days, the following is recommended:

Hardening Maxírnum permitted


time vibration velocity
days mm/sec
1 14
2 30
3 40
7 60
28 85
90 100

Note: The concrete can stand ground víbratíons of up to 100 mm/sec up to 5


hours after casting. No blastings should be undertaken closer than 30 rneters
hetween 5 and 24 hours after casting.

10.5 Flyrock.
Cautious blasting does not only mean thc control of ground vibration but also the
control of llyrock.
The control of flyrock and its prevention has been dealt with thoroughly in
Chapter 5.8 Throw. ílyrock.

10.6 Air shock waves.


The immcdiate effect of blasting is not only to cause ground vibrations and
throw, but also an aír shock wave.
In most routine blastings, in which the explosives are cndosed in blastholes, and
which are designed for ground vibration velocitics of 70 mm/scc or less, the
blasting does not cause air shock waves of the magnitudc that may cause damage
to buildings.
Howevcr. a Jow leve! of air shock wave overpressure does play an important role
in distressing neighboring rcsidents by rattling windows etc. Thercfore, com-
plaints may be reduced by taking actions to reduce overprcssure from air shock
waves.
237
Aír shock wavcs are pres-
sure wavcs whích radiatc in
thc air from a detonating
chargc. Thc intensity of the
pressure dcpcnds on thc sizc ~
of thc charge and on its de- ~
grce of confíncmcnt. Whcn ~
a prcssurc wavc passes a ..... o.
givcn positio1L thc pressurc .._
of tlJc air rises \'Cry rapidly ~
to a value ovcr the ambient O
atmosphcric pressure. lt
then fal!s rc!atively siowly to Time
a pressurc below t he atmos-
pheric value bcforc rcturn- Fig. J0.23 Pressurdrime curve for air shock
íng to the atmospheric pres- wave.
surc after a series of oscilla-
tions. Thc maximum prcssurc is known as thc peak air overprcssure. The aír
shock wavcs are within a wídc rnnge of frcqucncks. typícally betwccn O. l Hz and
200 Hz. ln the portion of thc spcctrum lying: ovcr 20 Hz thc air shock waves are
audible and known as noisc, whilc concussíon is thc portion undcr 20 Hz and
inaudible.
Thc lowcr. inaudible. frcqucncies are dampcd more slowly than thc highcr.
audible, frequcncics ami cause ovcrpressure ovcr grc<itcr distanccs. Thesc low
frcqucncics cnn occasionally eause dircct damagc onto structures. but can more
commonly induce highcr frcquency vibrations which are noticcd as noisc in
windows, doors. crnckery cte. Under such circumstanccs it is impossiblc to
determine whethcr the ground vibration or air shock wavc is bcing perccived
without monítorin¿.? thc blast. p p
kPa bar
100 (1 , •o
The air ovcrprcssurc is V
mcasurcd as units or pres-
surc and usually prcssurc
10 n
'
-- 1- -- ¡-J
unit rníllibar (mbar) is uscd.
The units dccibel (dB) and
/
n
,
j

~··
kilopascal (kPa) are also - :
uscd. ---
Thc decibcl unit is cxprcssed
·¡
/ --
as:
p
1
, n.01

dB = 20 lo!!:--
- Po /
whcre P is thc mcasurcd o .•IJ
140 160 180 100 dB
prcssurc and Po thc rcfcr-
cnce prcssure of0.00002 Pa. Fig. 10.24 Re!ation k Pa!d B.
238
Knowing the charge wcight O (kg) and the dístance R (m) to the charge, the
overpressurc can be calculatcd from thc formula:
0 1r1
P = 700 - - (mbar)
R

Thc rclationship applics to TNT, which means that for civil explosives type
Emulítc l 50 and Dynamcx M thc charge weight should be reduced by 25 % when
uscd in thc formula.
The rclationship applics to unconfincd charges.
Thc unconfined charges
which cause problems in
populatcd arcas are concus-
sion chargcs (mudcapping),
trunklines of detonating
cord. wclding of powcrlincs
with cxplosives. prcsplitting
wi!h unstcmmcd boles etc.
As can be sccn in Fig. !0.25,
a trunklinc consisting of !00
m 1O gr dctonating cord can
cause brokcn windows at a
distancc of up to 100 m.

Thc propagation of the aír shock wavcs is influenccd by atmosphcric conditions


1.vhere thc wind dircction, wind velocity. tcmperature and air prcssurc ha ve a
great cffect.
Rcflcxions in thc a1rnospherc rnay be causcd by tcmperature inversion, where
thc air shock wavc is reflectcd agains! thc boundary laycr of air strata with
diffcrcnt tempcraturcs. Tcrnpcrature invcrsion frcqucntly occurs on cloudless
cvcnings, nights and mornings. Thc phenomenon can cause local amplification
of the air ovcrprcssurc, which is greater than that whích wou!d normal!y have
bccn cxpected at a certain distancc.
E ven if thc air overpressure is kcpt under thc threshold value for buildings (0.4
kPa), it is not always sufficicnt to safcguard agaínst complaints. Thc blasts
should thcrefore be dcsígned for the mínimum practica] lcvel.

Air overpressure in confincd spaces.


ln the case of b!asting in underground chambers and tunncls, diffcrent condi-
239
tions prevail as the prcssure wave is confincd and ín the case of tunnels concen-
trated in one direction. This means that the pressure is amplified cornpared to
blasts in an open spacc.
l<Pa

'ººººº ~r+¡¡: ~~ílW~ílll!:,

10!--=-:~,.-.,.,-+-~~,-,+,....,..,,-,;,..,..,---.¡........~-,--,j
P = pressure
5~~c::.;~~.;-1~_.:_.~~-­ O = chargc
o.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 V = volurne of confincd
Q/V, kg/cu.m. spacc
Fig. 10.26 í;ress11rf as a .f1mclio11 of c/wrgf and vo/ume from a deto11atio11 in a
confined spacc.

The principal sources of air overrressure are:


Detonation of Lrnconfincd chargcs. Thc most common are concussion chargcs
(p!astcr chargcs). trunklincs of unconfincd dctonating ccmL hlastwelding of
powcrlines and prcsplitting with unsternrned boles.
Too short stcmming and/or wrong stemming material. Inadcquatc stcmming
might not confine thc cxplosivc on dctonation.
Vcnting of high vclocity gases may occu1" in poorly dcsigned blasts where no
considcration has bcen given lo incompetcnl zoncs. príncipally in thc burden
arca. Overcharging of a blasthole could cause the samc cffcct.
Thc sudden rnovcment of thc blastcd rock mass towards the free face or faces
will raise the air pressurc.
In ordcr to control! he air shock waves. thc followíng steps should be considcrcd:
Design the blast ín such a way that thc amount of exrlosivcs is in accordancc
with blastíng requirements and mínimum air overpressurc.
Pay particular at!cntion lo incompctent zoncs, overbreak from previous
round, mudscams cte. through which gases may vcnt and cause ovcrprcssure.
Accurate drilling is necessary to maintain the designed blasting pattcrn. Too
biga burden could cause venting in thc collar par! of the holc. Use sctbacks to
determine the hurden of the ncxt round.
Bottom ínítiation decreases venting in the stemming are a. See Chaptcr 5.8
Throw, ílyrock.
240
Reduction of the size of the round tend to reduce the air overpressure.
If possible, the developrncnt of the benches should be such that the blasted
material is thrown away from residential arcas.
Thc sternrning material should be of sufficiant quantity and quality to confine
the explosives on detonation. Crushed stone material size 4 to 9 mm gives
better confinement than dril! fines.
Check the rise of the explosives colurnn during chargíng to minimize the risk
of overcharging in any void or fault.
A void excessive delays between holes to prevent underburdening the holes.
In multiple row blasting the dela y between the rows should be longer then the
delays between the holes in the row. In deep rounds, this promotes forward
rather than upward movernent of the burden.
Do not use concussion charges in populated arcas for secondary blasting and
bouldcr blasting.
lf misfired underburdencd holes ha ve to be fíred, use screening materials e .g.
sandbags or loosc sand to cover. The thickness of the cover has to be
sufficient botl1 to avoid flyrock and to darnp the air shock wave.
Surface lines of detonating cord should be avoided in resídentíal areas. If
electric firing is not allowed or possible tbe non-electric firing system NON EL
should be used. If dctonating cord is the only firíng device available, trunk-
línes and connecting lines should be covered with at least 600 mm of absor-
bent material. prcferably sand.
As specd and direction of the wínd are major influenccs on the magnitude of
air overpressure, blasting should, if possible be avoided when the wind is
blowíng towards critica] arcas.
Blasting should be avoided in early mornings, late afternoons and cvenings
whcn !empcraturc inversions are likely to occur.
Schedule blasts to times when the noisc leve! from surrounding sources is at
íts highest and when the neighbors are busy or cxpect blasting to occur.
Employ an audible warning system immediately before every blast. If the
blasting is an isolated occurrence. give specific warning indicatíng approxi-
mate time of the blast.
Maintain good public relations. Give good and adcquatc information about
the work. duration and disturbances to be cxpectcd. The most stringent
measurcs agaínst air overpressure can be rendcred useless without good
relationship between the blasting crew and the neighbors.

241
11. UNDERWATER BLASTING

Fíg. l l.! Undenrara hlastíng in cc111ral S1ockholm.

i 1.1 General.
Underwatcr bl<tsiing includcs rcrnoval of' rock which is fullv or partly covcrcd by
water.
Thc undcrwatcr hlasting opcratío11 rcquírcs grcatcr carc and more thorough
planning than similar opcrations abovc water. Both drilling and chmging be"
come more complicatcd and sorne factors whlch llave to be considcrcd for thc
succcssful underwater blasting operatíon are:
" spccial opcration mcthods and drillin¡! equipment
diffcrcnl charging mcthods
highcr powder factor to displace rock. ovcrburdcn and water
use of cxplosivcs with goocl undcrwatcr propcrtics
use of safe and rcliablc initiation svstcm
kccping vibrations and water shock wavcs undcr control hy using thc
right products and dclay pattcrn.

11.2 Drill and blast methods.


Thc most common mcthods prcscntly in use for undcrwatcr bl;isting are:
~ dril!ing and blastíng through rockfill
::: drilling and bJasting frorn platfonn
• drilling and blasting wit h <livcrs
blasting with concussion chargcs
242
Dríll and blast methods.
Bench heigh!, m
o 0.5 1.0 .2.5
1.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
E Q--i-~~-'-~~--'-~~~..._~~...J..~~......~~~"'-~~-'-~~-'

-
.2
a
Q)
'O

2 .20
~

40

Using shaped charges

60·

80·
Fii. J / .2 Economic hench heights al1(f warer depths .fór d(IJ(:renr methods.

11.2. l Dri!ling and blasting through rockfill.

Fig. JJ .3 Driflíng and hlasting through rockfil!.


243
I tnke
' . a

Whecothe wotern
roe kfill over and
. "'.":~be
the are<1
o d'ep. Jt nmy
bl"sted d~"semed
, economically ach,.a ntaoeous
""dbe ·11 ""d eh0<ge
charge calculations are .
ln Clrnptc1
u "'h the torockfill.
th m . ' 11 .2. 3 Clmge
The dm··1·ng
1

rnlrnl•llons. . ¡;

·mng and bl>Sting from p


latform. .
·~¡, ,g
f rock w1th t is
In! lln' "'"' bl°'tmg. ''" 1""' rnn be
11.2.2 Dn
SpedaJ eq '"P7i":: '11::,,,, ng
suo
r"" fomt. ~"K~';,,, pecooss~<'~n" ~~·
. i·eqn1ml forthec

º" \~!·in
cted "btwe wotecw1 . operntlons
dtlll lng nnd ,;""'' dnlllng
motbod U Y the bottom. "
equipped tb ""'"' . ' " ' " íl"lb1 h ty.
"
extended downis tono rmally ived
p· latform on trae s .four directions or
The
maehme., S W h'1e h can be me

4 ·/finp (rom plarform.


Fig. 11. D" · sldely osed,
W b ·den covers the roe'k the ·11·
followmg
') . ' rnethods are '
hcre over ui l rdcn Dn mg
* OD rnethod (O D _ Ovcr Ju
* Kelly bar metho~ the drill rod.
* Chargíng throug
244
The 00 method.
The drilling is carried out by usíng powerful drilling equipment. The blastholes
diamctcr can vary bctween 51 and 102 mm, but largcr holes are occasionally
drillcd.
A set of stccl tubes with ringbits is used to drill through the overburden and a
few decimeters in to the bedrock. (ln case of underwatcr blasting without over-
burden, thc tube is drilled into position at the collaring point in the same way.)
Drilling is then carried out through the tu be with extension rods anda dril! bit.
When the hole is completed, the set of drill rods is withdrawn anda plastic tube is
inserted through the steel tu be in to the collar of the drill hole. The drilling tu be is
thcn withdrawn and the plastic tube remains in the blasthole for the charging
operatíon.
Charging is mostly carried out by using pneumatic cartrídge chargers, which
gives a good tamping of the explosives. Each dril! hole contaíns at least two
detonators which are connected in different series to ensure maximum initiation
depcndabi!ity.

-=\\---:~=­
•· \\J\~\ ·.

~.·_: :~· ·_.:,~,,~-;_·,.:"-&~; _:·.~ ·-:.~ ;:~'_·. ;:_-,· .~:, ·:•~~.-· .:~_·' _:·,~:_·.'\,:-·.~ '_.·:'·":_.'\-~),·.:_-~·:'.; "_· :·:.-•~,·:~-_~·. ,:' ~r~xm¡w:;~-~~:~1J?-
..

:
.••.·.·
..... ..-·_._'·_;
...·___
· .. __ .......

:..._>; - . · ;
.. .. .. .. .. •. .. .. ..
-.:í'::·._
.....
'··;_·.··

_-,
.• .. •. ;~?~.!Ü¡~ J~lÍ{*j ..

4 5 6
Fig. JJ.5 Principie of Overburden Drilling.

l. Drilling tube and extension rods penetrate overburden.


2. Dril!ing tube penetrates a few decimeters into the bedrock.
245
3. Dril! ho!e to be completcd and clcancd.
4. Extension rods are withdrawn.
5. A plastic tubc is íntroduced and fixed ínto the drill hole.
6. The drill tube is now withdrawn and charging can takc place through thc
plasiic tubc.

The Kelly bar melhod.


Wherc ovcrburdcn ovcrlies thc rock. a wl'ightcd stcc! pipe is first lowcrcd from
lhc p!atform. Thc diametcr of thc pipl' is sli¡Ihtly largcr than that of thc dri!I bit
and serves as a guíde for thc dri!ling. As dril!ing advances. thc pipe sinks through
thc ovcrburden to the surface of the rock. It then acts as a casing to kecp soil frorn
entering thc holc and is uscd as a guidc for thc charging of the holc whcn drilling
is comp!eted.
(Sec Fig. J 1.6 below.)

Charging through the drill rocl.


In this mcthod, which is similar to thc Kelly har mcthod. a supporting lcg is
lowcrcd from the platfonn to thc ovcrburdcn. scrving as a guidc for thc drilling.
When the drilling is completcd, thc drill bit is re placed by a ringbit and lowercd
in to thc hole. Thc charging of thc hole is thcn carried out through thc dril! rod.
As the charging procccds, thc dril! rod is liftcd.
(Scc Fig. J 1.7 bclow.)
The typical dril! holc range for thc two mcthods dcscribcd abovc is !02 to IS2
mm.

Fig. 11.6 Kelly bar method. Fig. J l. 7 Charging tlzrour;h dril!rod.


246
11.2.3 Charge calculations
The most important poínts in undcrwater blasting are to ensure good fragmenta-
tion and avoid stumps abovc the stipulated bottom.
Normal bi:nch blasting requires a specific charge of approximately 0.50 kg/cu.m.
(Emulitc 150 or Dynamex AM) to ensurc good fragmcntation. Sincc misfires
can be cxpcctcd in sorne blastho!cs, the specific charge is doublcd in the case of
undcrwater blasting to 1.00 kg/cu.m., implying that if one ofthe blastholcs does
not dctonate. but the adjacent boles do. the specific charge remains 0.50 kg/
cu.nL ín this arca.
rn the case of vertical holcs the specific charge should be increased with approx.
JO o/r, to l. JO kg/cu.m.

In undcrwater blasting, the rock movemcnt is obstructcd by the water pressure,


thc wcight of thc ovcrburden and the weight of the rock itself. To cnsure good
brcakagc and displaccment of thc rock, the specific charge is increased to
compcnsate for thcsc conditions.

The water prcssurc is compensated for by increasing the spccific charge by


O.O! kg/cu.m. per meter wakr dcptb (Kw)-

For rock covered with overburdcn. the specífic charge should be increased by
0.02 kg/cu. m. pcr meter of ovcrburden (KoB),

For the rock scction, thc compensation is 0.03 kg/cu. m. pcr meter of thc ben ch
hcight (KrndJ,

Thc rcquircd specific chargc should than be (for Emulitc 150 or Dynamex AM):
Q;nc1 = l.00+0.01XK"+0.02XKos+0.03XKrock
q,w 1 = l.l0+0.01XK"+0.02XKou+0.03XKrock
Thc real specific churgc will be even higher duc to increased subdrílling.

Whcn the required spccifíc chargc is known. the hole spacing may be calculated
with rcgard to the possible charge concentratíon per meter blasthole. If Emulite
150 or Dynamex AM in papcr cartridges are charged with a pneumatic charger or
bulk Emulite is used, thc chargc concentration ís found in table J ,a Chapter 5.2
Charge calculations.

]¡, = sec table l .a (for the explosivc used) (kgfm)

For largc diamctcr blastholes, where large diameter charges are used, the charge
concentration is given by thc actual unit of chargc. See table 1.b Chapter 5.2
Chargc calculations.

The drillíng pattern in underwater blasting is usually square.


B = S (burden = spacing) (m)
In order to calculate the drilling pattern, the area which cacb hole will blast is
computed by dividing the chargc concentration with thc requircd specífic
chargc.
247
A rea (sq.m.)
q
Thc burden and spacing are then:

B = s =
~
V~
¡-¡::- (m)

The subdriHing should he at least of the samc magnitude as thc burden, hut no
less than O. 8 m.
U=B (m)
The hole depth is the bench height plus thc subdrilling.
H=K+U (rn)
The unchargcd section of thc hole should he l /3 of thc burden.
h,, = 1/3 X B ( rn)
In deeper water, it is rccommended that the holes are charged el ose to the
blasthole collar to cnsurc disp!accmcnt. lf thc holcs are not charged close to the
rock surfacc, thc top of thc rock is rncrcly liftcd and rclurns unbroken to its
original positíon cluc to the weíght of thc water.

EXAMPLE
Undcrwatcr blasting to be carricd out undcr thc following conditíons:
Blastholc diametcr: !JO mm
Water depth: 12m
Overburden: 2m
Bench height: Sm
Vertical drillíng.
Explosívc: Emulitc 150. 75x550 mm
Initiatíon: V A/OD MS (mil!i-sccond dclay)
Required specifíc charge:
q = l.l0+0.0lx12.0+0.02x2.0+0.03x5.0
q = 1.10+0.12+0.04+0.15= t .41 kg/cu.m.
The charge concentration is:
10 = in accordance with table l .b = 5.3 kg/m.

Area per drill hole = charge conccntration/requircd spcc. chargc.


5.30
A = · - - = 3.76 sq.m.
l.41
BxS=3.76 sq.m.
B = \13)6= l. 94 m approx. l. 90 m
B = 1.90 m
S = 1.90 m
?4R
Suhclrilling = lmrden
U"' B
U""l.90m
Holc dcpth = hench height + subdrilling
H = K+U
H = 5.0+ l .9=6.9 m
Unchargcd section of the hole = l/3XB
h0 = l/3X l.90=0.63 m approx. 0.60 m
Charge = charge concentration x height of charge.
O = l 1,x(H-h 0 )
O = :'i.30x(6.90-(L60)=33.4 kg
charge per hole
Spccific chargc = - - - - ' · - - - - - -
blastcd volume pcr hole
o
q
BxSx K
33.4
O=·----- l.85 kg/cu.m.
l.9X l.9X5.Ü

SUMMARY OF IMPORTANT DATA


Ben ch Hole Burden Spacing Charge Specific
hcight dcpth charge
K H B s o q
5.00 111 6.90 m l.90 m 1.90 rn 33.4 kg l .85 kg/cu.m.

The charge calculatíons are bascd on thc assumptíon that K ? 2B. (Thc bench
hcíght is grcatcr than twicc thc burden.)
On !owcr bcnchcs it may be feasible to incrcase the subdrillíng and keep the
same hole dcpth and drilling pattern.

Opening the cut.


Thc rcsult of the b!asting operation depends on a succcssful opening of thc cut,
thus drilling and charging must be carricd out wíth utmost carcfulncss.
Oftcn cnough thcrc is no free face agaínst which the cut can be opcned.
Thcrcforc. the first rows havc to be drilled with a denser drilling pattern.
In thc case of inclined holes the opening of the cut causes less problem than
vertical boles.
17
249
Fig. 11.8 Opcning 1he rnl.

11.2.4 Explosivcs.
Explosivcs for underwaler blasting should liave high strcngth, good water rcsist-
ancc and should rctaín theír sensitivity when subjcctcd to hydrostatic prcssurc.
Ernulitc 150 and Dynamex AM mect thcsc rcquírcmcnts cvcn tbough less
sophísticatcd cxplosivcs can be uscd if thc water dcpth docs nol cxcccd 1Ometcrs
and the time of cxposurc to water is short.
Thc explosíve mus! give full detonation evcn whcn it has bccn s!Orcd undcr
water for a long time as it must be takcn in to account thal more often than noL
unprcdictablc circumstanccs in underwatcr blasting, add time to the operation.
Emulitc 150 and Dynarncx /\M are guarnntecd to resíst water for at least onc
week.
Thc cxplosive may be chargecl into the blastholc by means of a pncumatíc
chargcr, whích will rcsult ín a ver y good charge conccntratíon.
Cartridgcs which are charged wi!h !amping rods give a chargc conccntrntion
which is more or less equal to thc chargc conccntrntion of t he cartrídge.
The best chargíng result is obtained by pumping Emulitc exp!osivcs into thc
blastholc. The Emulitc will thcn fill up thc holc complctcly, giving a vcry good
chargc conccntration. In rock formations contaíning fissurcs and voids. pump-
ablc products should not he used beca use of explosivcs mígratinn in to thc voids.
resulting in exccssivc local chargc concentrations.
Thc low blasthole-to-blastholc propagation charactcristics of Emulitc is a great
advantage in undcrwater blasting, whcre propagatíon bctwcen boles must be
avoided from the point of vícw of both fragmcntation and víbration.
250
11.2.5 Initiation.
lt is imperativc that a safe and reliablc initiation system is used in underwater
blasting. Since the blastíng procedure requires míllisecond delay blasting for
proper breakagc and disp!accment, e!cctric or NON EL detonators are preferred
to thc use of dctonating cord.

Electríc detonators, specia!ly designed for underwater blasting, should be used.


VA-OD is a detonator with double alurnínum capsules and doub!e insulation on
the legwires to wíthstand the considerable stresses to which the fíring system is
subjccted during the charging opcration. Two detonators should be uscd in each
hole ami be connected in different series. Continuous control of the detonators
must be carríed out during the charging of thc hole and damaged detonators
rep!aced.

In underwater blasting, water must be considcrcd an elcctrolytic so!ution with


curren! lea ka ge as a hazard to successful opcration. Thus_ only dctonators with
good insulation should be uscd. l f possib!c all conncction \VOrk should be carried
out above the \vatcr surfacc. lf it is nccessary to have thc connections under
water, thcy must be beddcd in to a box or slecve whích is absolutely impermeable
to water: ordinary connccting slccvcs or insulating tape are insufficient. lt is
ad visa ble to makc thc dctonator lcgwircs long enough to allow for a number of
detonators to be connected at onc point. The ideal situation is whcn the detona-
tors can be connected togcther above water level i.c. on small floats, ropes etc.
As mcntioncd earlicr. continuous control of the initiating systcm with rcgard to
damagc, currcnt leakagc and resistance rnust be carried out to check that the
curren( lcakagc is on a tolerable leve! and that there are no brokcn circuits in the
round.

Thc non-elcctric initiation systcm NONEL-OD, is similar to the V A-OD, exccpt


that the c!cctric lcgwires are rcplaccd by a plastic shock tube. (Sec Chapter
3b.2.4 NoncL) The dctonator has doublc aluminum capsules and rcinforced
plastic tubc to withstand the rough handling which is normal in underwater
charging works. The detonator and thc shock tubc are a closed systcm in to whích
water can not penctratc.

The connectíon of the round has to be carricd out with the greatest carc, but the
disadvantages of the electric initiation are clirninated. NON EL ís delivered with
thc samc time dclay as V A-OD, 25 ms.

Dctonating cord is occasionally used in underwatcr blasting opcrations, but thc


difficulties in obtaining accurate delays betwccn the rows and prob!ems with
cutoffs caused by crossing cords, have detcrred the blasters from its widcr use.
251
11.2.6 Drilling and blasting by divers.

--~---:

Fig, J J. 9 /)ri/lí11g mu[ h/11sri11g h1· di1·ers.

Undcrwater blasting with the assístance of divers is usually used for limitcd
operations. ;\s !he vísihility undcr water is mostly ¡JOll!' when drilling operation is
taking plaec. spccial rncasurcs have to be lakcn to hclp thc divcr lo oricnt<itc
himsclfsn he can dril! lile holes in the right place. Í.l'. a grill ol'stcd wlll'rc 1hc
locations of !he boles are marked,
Thc chargc calcu!ations are thc sa1m· as undcr Chaplcr 11.2.3 Charge calcula-
tions,
11.2. 7 Blas!ing with cofü·ussion chargcs.
Thc FRAGMEX-system has hccn dcvclnpcd !or rock blasting wilhoul drillinf!..
Thc systern is particularly adaptcd for undenvater blastíng. but is alsn used in
surface applications i .e. boulder blast ing and seisrnic bias! ings.
Thc tcchnique of using shapcd charges (líned cavity cffect) has previously only
becn used in military applícat ion s. The efl'ect or the shapcd charge is obtaincd by
dirccting thc cnergy of the cxplosívc. Thc bcst effect is sccured if thc charge has
thc shapc of a cone with a ecrtain anglc in thc top. lf the cone is intcrnally
covcrcd with a metal. thc metal wíll be comprcsscd on dctonation creating a
projcctilc of mo!ten metal with a high pcnetration eapability. To givc the
projcctilc time to f'orm before it strikes the rock surl'acc. the charge has to be
placed at a ccrtain distance from thc sur fa ce. This distance (stand-off) is oftcn
built inlo the charges.
252
When shapcd charges are uscd for undcrwatcr blasting. thc "stand-off" must be
kept free from water to obtain thc desired effcct.

V
"). . ·í>
<l {>
<l I>

Fig. 11. 1O S/wped charge. Fig. 11. J1 The fj/i'cl of


sha¡;ed clwrge.

The FRAGMEX-system is simple to


use and thc clrnrgcs are easi!y placed
at thc right locations by divcrs. As
the spccific wcight of thc charges are
c!ose to that of water. the chargcs
tend to move unlcss thcy are weighed
down by sinkers. Sinkcrs can easíly
be madc ,1f concrete with a shapc to
fit the FRAGMEX chargc. Frc-
qucntly thc charges are prepared in
metal framcs onboard a barge and
thcn placed at thc right location by
divers.
Fir;. 1J.J2 Fragmex 8 charge.

Thc FRAGMEX chargcs are suitable for bcnch hcights up to 1.5 manda water
dcpth up to l 00 m. Tbc charging pattern with FRAG MEX 8 depcnds on the rock
charncteristics, but sorne guidc values will be givcn:
Hard rocks (granite. basalt, diabasc etc.)
Charging pattcrn: 1.OX1.0 m to 1.5 x l .5 m
Softcr rocks (limestone. conglomera tes etc.)
Charging pattern: 2.0x2.0 m to 2.5x2.5 m
To obtain better knowlcdge of thc blastability of thc rock, test blastíngs are
253
Fig. 1/.13 Chargi11g with FRAGk!EX c1111rgcs.
rccommcndcd. lf thc rock is covcrcd with ovcrburden, this should be removed
bcforc the blastings start.
Caution is rccomrncndcd if thc water dcpth is less than 2.0 m. Throw from thc
material uscd as sinkcrs tcnds to occur. Furthcrmore thc air shock wavc has to be
considercd in buill-up arcas.
Thc dceper the water depth, thc bettcr thc cffect of thc FRAGMEX charges as
the eonfinemcnt becomes bcttcr duc to thc water prcssurc.
The FRAGMEX chargcs mus! be initiatcd instantancously. Conncction of thc
charges with dctonating cord is thc bcst mcans of initiation.

For the blasting of occasional bouldcrs or stumps abovc the stipulatcd grade, a
box (approx. 25 kg) of Dynamcx or Emulitc can be placed on the objcct. Thc
charge must be sccurcly anchored using availab!c material as ballast. Note the
risk of throw from thc ballast in shallow watcrs. If more than onc chargc is
blastcd, thc chargcs should be conncctcd wíth dctonating cord for ínstantancous
dctonation.

11.3 Ground vibrations and water shock waves.


ln undcrwater blastíng, thc ground vibrations are more unprcdictablc than in
ordinary blasting duc to thc grcatcr risk of propagation bctwccn thc boles. This
254
makcs the cstimation of the ground víbrations uncertain as there is no certainty
how and to what extent propagation wil! occur. Propagation between the holes
not only causes larger total charges to be dctonated at the same instant, but also
stronger ground vibrations, due to greater fixation caused by thc faulty ignitíon
scqucncc.
Water shock waves from underwatcr blastíngs may cause problems not only to
adjaccnt constructions like lock gates, water intakcs etc. but also to shipping and
pcop!e ín the water.
Thc prcssure of the shock waves is considerab!y higher if the explosive is
detonated free!y in the water than if it is confíned in a dríll hole in the rock.
The maximum pressure in the water is approx. 1Otimes higher if the explosive is
placed on thc rock surface than if the same amount of explosive is charged insidc
the rock.

The water shock wavc is not such a substantial risk when the rock is drilled and
the explosives are confincd in the rock. The duration of the shock wave is short,
thc peak value is reduced to half in a fraction of a millisecond. This implies that
co-operation between charges wíth different delays docs not occur (as the time
del ay is normally 25 ms). Neither should co-opcration between different charges
within the same delay pcriod occus as thc scatter within each period is ±5 ms.

Concussion charges such as FRAGMEX cause higher pressure in the water, as


thc charge is placed freely on thc rock surfacc. The charges are often located in
pattcrns of l .Ox J .0 m to 2.5 x2.5 m and connccted with detonating cord. The
dctonating cord detona tes with a velocity of approx. 7000 m/sec., meaning that
the charges are ignited with a delay of 0.15 to 0.3 ms. In this case it has to be
anticipated that co-operation of the water shock waves from the different
chargcs occur.

Thc great difference in peak pressure values between a free charge and one
confincd in rock indicates that drilling and charging must be thc first choice c!ose
to dc!icatc structurcs.
Differcnt mcasurcs havc bcen suggested for reducing thc prcssure of water
shock wavcs. for example an air bubble curtain. The air bubblc curtain is
produced by placing perforated steel pipes on the bottom, through which air is
pumpcd and bubbles up to the surface. When thc water shock wave arrives at the
air bubblc curtaín, part of it is absorbed in the bubbles. These are compressed
during fractions of milliseconds and emit, for sorne fractions of a millisecond to
sorne mil!íseconds, compression waves, with lower peak value, in all directions.
Thc part of the shock wave that passes between the bubbles receives a reduced
peak value anda more rapid fade out than thc original undisturbed one. The aír
bubble curtain reduces the peak pressure of thc shock wave, but <loes not
esscntially affect the impulse of the wave. In practícal terms it can be said that the
air bubblc curtain may be effective in reducing structural stress in compliant
structures, but may not be particularly effectivc in reducing stress in massive
structures.
255
Thc rnost effcctive way of rcducing both thc pressure and thc impulse of thc
water shock wave is to reduce thc chargcs and confine them in the rock. Thc
rcduction of thc chargcs can be done by reducíng thc spacing between thc
blastholes and charging less exp!osivc in cach hule (the specific chargc should not
be altcred).
With a reliab!e short del ay initiation systcm and an cxplosivc with tow propaga-
tion eharacteristics it is possible to kccp both ground vibrations and water shock
waves under control.
The following diagrams show thc safcty distanccs for diffcrcnt mcthods of
undcrwater blastíng.

Distance, m
iOOO
-
Safety dlstance ---
~ ------
100
..-- -
~
....---

\el'> \O
?eº~
1
\0 \t\
_,.s.\e<
-\\\)
~\9...,Q~
-- -- -----
~

\~\ú( ~i Q~ -----
-----
-----
~~
\\\ º"
<1\,,¡Grt.~
-----
10
~
-- -----
- ~
?-\&...

-~ ---- Absolutely lefhal to humans

1
1
i iO 100 1000 10000
Charge per round, kg
Fig. JJ. 14 Safr:1y distan ces for c!wrges confined in hlastholes, rora! charge per
ro un d.

256
Distance, m

1000
1
1

-
--
Safety d !stance

¡___--- \O
_..,.
o\>\e \fl
--
"'ª\e\'
('(\~
--
__. ~e ' ee\u\9 -:---
iOO \ur\e& \tiee."'t
\~
.-\0 -ó"'e t&
~

-
l~
\fl\U o~ óQ~ -

10
v-------=::- ~
i -----

-
Absolutely lethal to humans
---~ -~-·

1
1 10 100 1000 10000
Charge per round, kg
Fíg. l J .15 Sa{eiy diswnce for shaped charges in u11derwa1er b/asting.

257
12. SPECIAL FORMS OF BLASTING
12.1 Blasting of natural boulders.
Two methods are used for bouldcr blasting:
* Drillíng and blasting.
''' Concussion charges.
Thc lattcr mcthod has its lirnils for tcchnical and safcty rcasons. Two typcs of
boulders can be distinguishccL natural bouldcrs and bouldcrs originating from
previous blasts. (Sce Chapter 5.4 Secondary blasting.)
The natural bouldcrs requirc more cxplosives as they have not been subject to
strains frorn previous blasts. Furthcrrnore. thc natural boulders are oftcn partly
covercd by earth.
Factors to consider when blasting natural bouldcrs:
* Kind of rock~ sizc nnd shapc.
Dcsircd frngmcntation.
'' Frcc-lying or partly buricd in carth.
Thc avaílabílity of covcring material with rcgard to pcrmittcd travel-
ing distance or flyrock.

Drilling and blasting.


Thc rncthod of drilling one or more blastholes in the houldcr is thc most widely
uscd method of fracturing bouldcrs.
The blasting requircs approxirnatcly douhlc thc chargc uscd in secondary blast-
ing for free lying boulders and around three times as much for buríed houldcrs.
The specific clwrgc for blasting natural houldcrs is approx. O. l kglcu.m., which
gives a good fragmcntatíon of the bouldcr. Howcvcr. the risk of f!yrock is grcat
so carcful covering with heavy blasting mats must be done in built-up arcas. !11
thc vicinity of buildings it is also rccomrncndcd to reduce thc spccific chargc to
0.08 kg/cu.m., stil! using carcful covcring.
Charging table for frec-lying natural bouldcrs:
Thc charge should be placed in the ccnter of gravity of the boulder.
··~--~~-··---~···----~-~·-~------··

Sizc of Thickness Depth of Number of Chargc of Ernulitc


boulder of boulder bl astholc blastholcs or Dynamex
cu.m. m 111 kg/hole
·--------·. ·----·-~---·-·~·º

0.5 0.8 0.45 ().()5


1.0 l.0 0.55 O. \O
2.0 1.0 0.55 2 0.1 o
3.0 1.5 0.85 2 0.15
.....- - -..- -............. -.--.. ·---~"""--·~· ..· - - -
Natural bouldcrs which are partly or completcly buried in carth are more
difficult to bias\ than thosc lyíng on thc ground.
Thc charges must be estimated considering the shape and extcnt of the boulder.
Thc chargc should be placed in the center of gravity of the boulder. which may be
difficult to determine.
One way to determine the thiekness of thc boulder is to dril! through it and than
fíll thc hole with sand up to the suitab!c Jocation of the chargc.
Chargíng table for buried boulders:

Size of Thickncss Buricd Depth of Numbcr of Charge of Emu-


bouldcr of boulder scction blasthole blastholes lite or Dynamex
cu.m. rn m m kg/hole
l .O LO 0.5 0.6 0.15
1.0 LO l.O 0.6 0.20

When the bouldcr is fully buried in earth the specific charge can be increased to
0.2 kg/cu.m.

Concussion charges.
Concussion chargcs mus! be used only outside built-up arcas. The air shock wave
crcatcd by the concussion shot may cause scverc damage to surround[ng buíld-
ings. See Chaptcr 10.6 Air shock wavcs. Fig. 10.25.

Fig. 12.l Driffing and b!asting. Fig. l 2.2 Concussion charge.

Thc spccífic charge for a boulder fully above ground leve! is 1.0 kg/eu.m. The
concussion shot is placed on thc top of the boulder and stemmed with wet clay or
similar material in abundance. No largcr particles which may form projeetiles
should be íncludcd in the stemmíng.
Whcn !he shot is fired a shock wave gocs through the boulder and is reflected
agaínst the free surfaces of the boulder. The col!iding rcflccted shock waves
wíthin thc boulder give risc to tensilc stresses in the boul< 1<Cr whích break it if thc
charge is correctly calculated.
259
Buricd boulders are closc to impossible to b!ast with concussion chargcs, as no
rcf1ection against any free surfaec can occur bceause thc shock wavcs are
transmitted further out into thc ground. For concussion blasting high velocity
cxplosivcs like Emulilc or Dynarncx should be uscd for thc best rcsul!.

12.2 Blasting of ditches.


The blasting of ditches in earth is often rcsortéd to whcn mcchanical cxcavation
is impossiblc or impractical i.e. in swamps and forcsts.
The most uscd method is to make bundlcs of cxplosives with a wcight of
0.2 to 0.3 kg each which are placed in holes with a distance of 0.6 to 0.8 m. Thc
charge is placed slightly below half thc dcsircd depth. Highcr charge weights give
an increascd width of the ditch.
The chargc weight, hole dcrth ;rnd distancc bet wcen the chargcs must be
adjusted to the actual conditions on thc site. A test blasting ovcr a shorter
distancc would givc indícations of thc design of thc blast.
Whcn b!asting ditchcs a water rcsistant cxplosivc should be used.
The firing of thc blast must be instantancous. as no forward movcmcnt of thc
blastcd material is pcrmissiblc. Thc displaccmcnt of thc material should be
sidcways.
Detonating cord is bcsr for thc firing, but of course VA and NONEL dctonators
can be uscd hut with lile samc period numbcr, prcfcrnbly bct\\'CCn No. 1 ami 1O.

VA or NONEL detonator
(same period number)

Detonating cord

, '/ p
·~.
! '!.

6
;;
,·.
,, µ

,.,
;
; _;

tj
;Ll
:~1

"
/

Fig. 12.3 Ditch i>lasting.


12.3 Blasting of stone blocks.
The blasting of stone blocks which are intended to be cut into tí les for !loor and
wa!I covcrings requircs a special and different techníque.
The block must not be damaged and microcracks around the blastholcs should
be of vcry !imited cxtcnt.
Thc síze of thc block is normally l.5x1.5 x2.0 m.
The con tour of the block is dril!ed \vith a spacíng of O. 2 m and the holes charged
with 2 strings of 10 grím Primacord. The sides and the bottom are fired simulta·
neously and the combincd force from thc charges cuts the block loosc from thc
rock, just moving ita fcw centimeters. Normally no stemming is used but water
nrny be used as stemming in the vertical boles which seems to decrcase the
amount of microcracks around the boles.

Fig. 12.4 Blasting of granite blocks for ti/es.

261
12.4 Blasting of pole holes.
B!asting of pole boles is a major conccrn forman y. Thc blast oftcn rcsults in a híg
era ter causing problems whcn thc po!e is to he crcctcd.
Well planned and executed blasting dccrcases thc total work for thc crection of
the pole. No bolting or staying is necessary and the rcfill ís kcpt to a mínimum.
The blasting of polc holcs is similar to tunncl blasting as only one free face is
avai!ab!e. To crea te a second facc. towards which thc blasting is done, some kind
of cut is dri!lcd.
High specific drilling m1d chargc are charactcrístic for this kind of blastings.
The most common cut for polc holcs is thc para lle! holc cut. Thc calculation for
this type of cut is thc sanie as the chargc calculation for tunncling in Chaptcr
7.l.l The cut.
Thc centcr hole which is thc opcning for thc hlast should havc a diamctcr of 110
less than 28 mm.
In small polc holes ( díamctcr around 0.5 m) the bias! consists of the cut hole. thc
lst squarc and thc pcrimctcr boles. The pcrimctcr boles are smooth blastcd.
The blast can be chargcd with 22 rnm Emulitc 150 or Dynamcx cartridgcs.
The firíng is done with millisccond del ay and cithcr V A or NON EL detonators
may be uscd. Due to the high spccific chargc and thc conccntratcd dircction of
thc blast. it must be carcfully covcrcd.
Scc also Chaptcr 12. l O Miní-holc b!asting.

Fig. 12.5 hring pattr:rn .for pole /10/e.


262
12.5 Blasting of stumps.
Of the two methods which are used to blast stumps. the one to place a charge
under thc stump to blow it away completely is the most cornmon, but occasional-
ly smallcr charges are placed in drilled holes in the stump and thicker roots.
Factors to consider when blasting stumps:
* The díameter of the stump
* The age and species of the trec
8
Thc naturc of the underlying ground
* Permitted throw distance
When blastíng a stump by placing an
explosivcs charge underneath it, a
correct quantity of explosives should
be placed in thc right position. lf the
fírst attempt is unsucccssful. no fur-
thcr blast ís possible as usually too
large a cavity is crcatcd under the
stump by the first b!ast.
D
Thc charge should be placed approx.
0.5 m under the centcr of the stump
and consíst of 0.2 to 0.3 kg per deci-
mctcr of the stump diarneter.
This guidc valuc is for soft ground
and frcsh sturnps. Oak ami bccch
sturnps nccd twicc the chargc. In
hardcr carth. half the above rccom-
mendcd chargc is suffícient.
To place thc chargc under thc stump,
a holc is mndc wíth a crowbar. For
biggcr stumps, thc holc might not ac-
comnwdatc ali !he explosivcs needcd
Fig. 12.6 B/asting o[ stwnp with
and a smaller chamber must be
wuferlyíng charge.
crcatcd by blasting l /3 of a carlridgc.

The cxplosives are placed in thc chamber, wcll bunchcd togcthcr and the hole is
sternmed. prefcrably with moist stonefrec earth. If thc blast is unsuccessful, the
remaíning rools are normally laid bare and can be blastcd with 1/3 of a cartridgc.
Onc disadvantagc with thc mcthod is that it crcatcs a Jargc hole whcrc thc stump
has becn. The softcr the ground, the larger the holc.
Anothcr disadvantage is the control of the throw of the stump, which is vírtually
impossiblc to predi et. The method should not be used el ose to installations and
rcsidcntial arcas.

263
A gcntler method is to break thc
stump wíth small charges placed in
drilled holcs in the stump. Thc holcs
are normally drilled from abovc and
chargcd with ! to 2 cartridgcs of
Emulitc !50 or Dynamex M. Thick
roots mav also be drillcd but can be
blastcd off with l to 2 cartridgcs as
surfacc chargcs. 1f the mcthod is uscd
closc to rcsidential arcas, thc bias!
should be covercd an<I the air shock
wavc considered, as the confincmcnt
of the charges is notas good as when
blasting rock.
hg. 12. 7 Blasrí11g o( st11111p wirh
drilled-in charges.

12.6 Blasting of soil frost.


As soí! frost is a material, which varics in cornposition. it is difficult to givc
gcnernlly applícablc recornmcndations with rcgard to suitablc drilling and charg-
íng pattcrns. Onc importan! factor to consider whcn planning blastíng of soil
frost and sclcction of appropriatc blasting method is thc dcpth of the soil frost.
Considcring the dcpth of thc soil frost. blasting rnay be subdividcd into two
rncthods:
'' blasting with thc chargcs placed undcr thc soil frost
' blasting with thc chargcs in thc soil frost
Blastíng wíth t he chargcs placed un-
dcr the soil frost works bcst whcn thc
frnst is of límitcd dcpth. up to l .O m.
By placing thc charges under the soi!
frost the pressurc from thc cxplosivc
will force the soil frost to break up-
wards. As the chargcs are placed in
thc unfrozcn ground. rclalivcly largc
chargcs are necded for which cham-
bcrs havc to be blasted bcforc thc
final charge is introduccd. The charn-
ber may be blastecl wilh l/3 to 1/2 K
f
cartridgc of Emulite 150 or Dynamcx
M, 22 x 200 mm. Thc sizc of the final
chargc is dctcrmincd by the material D0p111 of so1r1rost, 1c .-n

undcr thc soil frost. rcquired frng-


mcntatíon and risk or undcsircd hg. 12.8 C/111rgi11g undcr 1he soi!
throw. fi·osr.
264
Bcfore Jarger arcas are blasted, a test blasting should be executed.
The fol!owing table gives guidc values for charges under the soil frost:

Dcpth of Charge Charge Charge


soil frost dcpth distan ce kg/hole
m m m
0.3 0.5 0.8 O. 15
0.5 0.7 ll 0.25
0.7 0.9 1.5 0.50
1.0 l.4 2.0 1.00

If larger boles are drilled (~51 mm), no chamber blasting is needed, but the
charge depth should be increased to about l .5 times the soil frost dcpth. The
dril!ing pattcrn is square with a spacing of 2 times the soil frost depth. The
initiatíon can be instantaneous, but where risk for damage by ground vibrations
may occur short interval detonators should be used.
Thc breakage of soíl frost by placing
the charges under it becomes difficult
when its dcpth exceeds !.O m. Blast-
ing with the charges placed in thc soil
frost is prefcrable in thís case, espe-
cially if the ground under the soíl l
frost is soft and provides little or no 1
K
resista nce.
Thc drilling and charging pattern
dcpcnds on factors like type of soil
l
frost. pcrmittcd throw. ncarness to
Oepth ot soillrost • 1 O m
buildings with regard to ground vib-
rations. dcsired fragmentation etc. Fig. 12.9 Charging in the soil frost.

As soil frost may be difficult to dril! and good air flushing is needed, it is
advantageous to use hcavy dril! cquipment ( crawlcr drills etc.) with larger holes.
However, the larger holc diameter can not be utilized in cautious blasting of soil
frost when the charge weight and drilling pattern must be limited.
Soil frost is normally a homogcneous material which may cause sizable ground
vibrations. Furthennore, good contact between soil frost and house foundations
may cause damage duc to displacemcnt of thc blasted soi! frost, which must be
consídered when b!asting is performed close to buildings.
The limitations of the charge weights which apply to cautious blasting in rock
must also be considered when blasting soíl frost.

18 265
Recommcnded drilling and charging pattern for cautious blasting of soil frost.
Cbargcs in the soil frost.

Depth of Drilling BunJcn Spacing Chargc


soil frost depth m Jll kg/hole
m rn
·--·-··------~--

0.9 0.7 0.6 0.6 0.15


l. ¡ 0.9 0.8 08 () .3
1.3 l.1 0.9 0.9 0.6
l.5 l.3 l. ! l.i 0.8
----~·---~y·~·-·-·-~·-·-·--··---~--

Rccommended drilling and chargíng pattern for "free" blasting of soil frost.
(No limítations for ground vibrations etc.) Chargcs in the soil frost.

Dcpth of Drílling Burdcn Spacíng Chargc


soíl frost depth 111 rn kg/holc
m m
---~m•-~--··~~---'"'~•·

0.9 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.25


l. l 0.9 O. 9 0.9 0.5
l.3 l.J l. [ l.¡ 0.8
1.5 l.3 l.3 l. 3 1.2
2.0 1.8 1.5 1.5 2.5
•-•n-•n•n-••~~•V<'•'
...... -~·-···~·--~~---·------~·

12.7 Blasting of ice-holes.


The rnost cornrnon and safcst way of blasting ice-boles is to place thc charge
under the ice. Thc charge should be placed 1. 25 m under the ice for the best
rcsult. lf thc water depth is lcss !han 2.50 m. lile chargcs should be placed in half
thc water dcpth.
The fol!owing tables show thc Swcdish National Dcfcnsc Forces· cxpcrícncc of
blasting ícc-holcs:

Thickness Width of the Chargc Spacing


of the ice íce-holc kg m
m 111

Up to 0.4 5 4
Up to 0.4 6 2 :í
Up to 0.4 8 3 8
0.4-0.6 8 4 8
0.6- l .O 8-10 :í 8
266
lf the water depth is less than 2.5 m, the diameter of the ice-hole will be smaller
and thc spacing betwcen the holes rcduced accordingly:

Water depth Spacing at different chargc weights (m)


m
3 kg 4 kg 5 kg
2.0 5 7 8
1. :'i 4 6 8
l.() 4 5 6
0.5 3 4 5

lf thc charges in thc above tables are increased. the ice-hole \vill be cleaner from
ice but not widcr.
Suitable explosives are Emulite 150 and Dynamex M.
To place the charges under thc ice, a hole is made with an ice-pick oran ice-dril!.
The charges are connectcd in bundles and sunk to the in tended leve!. In waters
with currents it might be necessary to use a stone sinker or similar to ensure that
thc chargcs stay at the intended leve!.
The charges should be instantaneously initiated, preferably with a dctonating
cord. To kcep the chargc at the right leve! undcr the ice, the detonating cord
downline is connected to a cross-bar on thc ice. The downlinc is then connected
to a trunkline, to which a dctonator is connected.

Detonator Trunkline
detonating cord Wooden bar
~ ... .. . ¡·'"'"''- ·--·

·-.~ :·:·•·.~.
'--'-1'--T'~-...,...~~~

L,tz
i. .. L Bt
2.5 m

:::::-J t . 1

. ,~l-.<d;;:
Fig. 12.10 Charging for blasling of ice-hole.

267
12.8 Blasting of openings in concrete.
One of thc mqst difficult problcm in
rcnovation work is making opcnings
in concrete. E ven though experimen-
tal rncthoJs using lascrs. micro
wavcs, and higb prcssurc water jcts
have bccn tricd. blastings has sincc
thc late l 960s bccn dcvclopcd into a
tecbniquc with vcry high precision.
Thc blasting is exccutcd with small
chargcs, causes Jittlc damagc and is
well controllcd.
The most common method is to blast
\VÍth drillcd-in chargcs. but for thín-
ncr constructions. shapcd cxplosivc
strips (lincd cavity cffcct) may be
uscd. With drillcd-in chargcs. thc
concrete in thc whole opening can Fig. 12. J J O¡w11i11g in concrete made
cithcr be blastcd into srnall fragmcnts hv hlosting.
or thc opcning can be dividcd into
largcr parts by slot blasting.
In thc contour. thcre is an íncrcasing dcmand for smoothPcs:; and minima!
formation of cracks. To ohtain this dfect. principally two mctlwds are uscd.
smooth blasting and prcsplitting. Thcse tv.·o mcthods are well known and tcstcd.
so a dcsircd contour can be obtainccl.

Drílling.
Thc blasting mcthod for opcnings in concrete can be compared to that of
mini-hole blasting (Chapter l2. IO Mini-hole hlasting).
Whcn drilling thc blastholes. it is convcnicnt to use light pneurnatic drilling
machines \Vith a 22 mm drill stccl.
Elcctric lrnmmcr drilling machines can also be usccJ. but wíth somcwhat smallcr
diamctcrs. lf thc concrete is more !han 150 mm thick thc capaeity of clcctric
drilling machines is considernbly Jowcr than that of pncumatíc oncs.
Both typcs should be cquipped with dust collcctors if rcspirators are not uscd.
Charging.
The most suitablc cxplosivc is Prímex A I 7x 150 mm in plastíc tubcs. Thcsc
tubes may be cut into suitablc lcngths (30 mm= !O g) and be initiatcd with a
detonator or dctonating eorcl.
Tbc eharge should always be placed in the center of thc construction to be
blastcd.
Initiation.
Inítiation is done with mi!lísecond detonators (25 rns dclay) or dctonating cord
(contour hlasting). Suitablc dctonators are clcctric VA-dctonators or NON EL
GT dctonators.
268
Covering.
Covering to prcvcnt throw of concrete is done with small rubber mats (tire mats)
and industrial fclt.
Whcn walls are blastcd, both sides are covcrcd.
lt is often cnough to cover the blast with a ncw type of blasting fclt, "Lotrak
45/45 .. , which is substantially strongcr than industrial felt.
Dust protection.
To minimize the formation of dust during thc blasting, water can be spraycd on
thc blasting sitc or thc room be fi!lcd with a light foam ( 1 liter of water + 8
ccntilitcr of detergen! give 1 cu.m. of foam).
Covering thc opening with plastic bags filled with water or with a small "pool"
madc of woodcn planks anda plastic foil, efficicntly dccrease thc formation of
dust. thc air shock wave and thc throw of concrete.
Ground vibrations.
Thc small quantities of explosives which are used in combínation with milli-
sccond dclay blasting mean that !he ground vibrations fadc vcry fast wíth the
distance. see Fig. 12.12,
Gcncrally. thc adjacent constructíon
is not damagcd by !he vibrations.
() 300
Somctimes installations and equip- .¡) (/)

menl scnsitivc to vibrations (c.g. 'E 250


computcrs) are closc to thc blasting E
i 200
site and thc chargc calculations must ()
thus be adjusted accordingly. 2 150
Howcvcr. thesc problems are well "'~ 100 ¡·
known to those blasting in built-up .2 i
arcas am¡ measures to d cercase the .o ~ 50 ,..
vibrations are well tcsted. (Sce Chap- > o ,_ . '"•·--~ . ~-·-· .. ··· . .-·--·---···
ter 12 Cautious blasting.) o 2 3 4 5
Distance from the edge of !he opening, m

Fig. 12.12 fi.1e vibrations decrease


rapid!y with distance.

Air shock waves.


The air shock waves can. in smaller confined spaces, create problcms, \Vith
crnckcd windows as a consequcnce. Measurcs to dccrease the problems are on
onc hand to decrcasc thc numbcr of holcs to be blastcd each time and on thc
other hand to rcinforcc the windows by taping them.
As mentioncd earlicr both water and light foam are excellcnt mcans of reducing
aír shock wavcs.

269
Crack formation in remaining concrete.
Blastíng produces a ccrtaín crack formation in concrete constructions and a
smaller crushcd zone in thc contour. The cracks are judgcd as bcing of no
ímportance in normal concrete floors and walls. Thc cxtent of the cracks is both
perpendicular and parallcl to the construction planc. Thc formcr type, which is
common for other rcasons, has a crack width of O. J to 0.3 mm and ariscs only
occasionally. Tbc sccond typc, thc parallel cracks, Hrc nearly ahvays in the same
planc as thc rcinforccmcnl and whcrc thcy occur, adhcsion bctwccn iron bars
and concrete is los!. lnvcstigat ions show tila! thc cxtent of thc cracks on average
is lirnited to about 240 mm in the walls and about 390 mm in the floors. lf the
constructíon is heavily utilized. reinforcíng rncasures may be ncccssary.
Nitro Consult AB. a subsidiary of Dyno Industries, Norway. has a vast experí·
cnce of this kind of work and should be contactcd whcn any doubt arises.

12.9 Blasting of concrete.


Blasting of concrete is often carried out in conncction with the demolition of
buíldings but also in the deaning up of a building site whcre foundatíons for
crancs etc. must he taken away. In the latter case ít may be practica! to prepare
the foundation with plastíc tu bes when it is constructcd. They can then be
charged with explosives when ít is time for blastíng.
General drilling and blasting patterns are diffícult to dcsign as such ímportant
parameters as strength, reinforcement and geome!ry of thc objcct should he
known in ordcr to carry out cxact chargc calculations. As an cxamp!c, thin
heavily rcinforccd objects may require spccific charges of 3 to 6 kg/cu.m. wllile
un-rcinforccd objcc!s could be blastcd with 0.3 to 0.7 kg/cu.m.
The following table serves as guidancc for thc blasting of thickcr concrete
objccts.

¡o,;¡;;:;~,, · TSpeo;r;, drn~gc


concrc!c 1 kg/cu. m.
·¡ Sq<>,;;;: >1<illú>g · ·--:¡.;.:¡;;ci~--·
pattcrn cxplosivc
-·~--- ··~~----- --··-m-•• ~·~ · - - - -..
Poor qualíty !7 mm
no reinforcement 0.3 O. 7-0.8 Gurít

l
·------¡--·--~· --1----··-~-
Good quality 17 mm
no reínforccmcní ¡ 0.4-0.:'i 0.(1--0.7 Gurit
------------- ¡ - ----- -- - . - --- - - - - ·-·. -
Reiníorced 22 mm
O 8- l .O 0.5 Ern 150
- · Hcav1~ - -- - ___ .... --·-·-----j---· . --------¡---.. 22 mm ..... · - -

. rcmro.1:::~~---- ...... L~=.2 () --- -·- () 4-'.!_~__,_l__ Em 150


270
Whcn blasting thin concrete objects like floors, walls etc. the drillíng pattern
must be relatively dense. Too widely spaced blastholes can result in an un-
successful blast as only craters will occur around the holes.
Requisite specifíc charge for concrete walls, floors and columns are:
- walls and floors 1.5-3.0 kg/cu.m.
- columns LO- !.5 kg/cu.m.
Thc following table lists the guide values for drilling and charging of thin
concrete objects with no reinforcement:

0~~~;;~]_'_'~,~~-r $,j""::i1ii;~- ~:ge '~~lghtDwlc 1


1

0.20
ruo
o .w
1
j
0.1.+
0.20
ruo
o.2:'í
o ..15
o.so
o.m
o.o.+
0.06-0.1
J
••-•--·-,,---•••-••O "-""""°'-VO . .-o.O••••• , _ , ______ __;__~·--------~~~~~------ --··~--~- .. ._, ____ ,.,

lt can gcncrally be said about blasting concrete that thc explosives should be
distrihutcd in the object in as many boles as possible. It is preferable to use many
small-diameter holes instead of a few larger and man y small charges instead of a
fcw largcr ones.

12.10 Mini-hole blasting.


Mini-holc blasting has becn found to be the most effectivc method for rock
breaking in sensitive cnvíronments.
With ali that blasting entails, the choice of blastholc diameter is onc of the
most important factors for achicvíng a succcsful result, both from economic and
safety points of vicw. Ccrtain typcs of blasting dcmand significan! reductions in
the amount of explosivcs which can be uscd, e .g. duc to the elose proximity of
buildings. low bench hcights. etc.
Rcductíons in the amount of explosive should in turn mean reduced blasthole
diametcrs. Howcvcr, this is not eommon practice toda y, as the majority of
blasters use a rninimum hole diametcrs of 34 mm. The 34 mm blasthole is not
fully utilized when the charge weights are reduced and thercfore the mini-hole
techniquc has been dcveloped with a b\asthole diameter of 22 mm.
Drilling.
By using 22 mm diameter dril! steels, the drilling time is substantially reduccd
(sec table bclow).
Drilling machines:
Atlas Copeo Cobra R.11.65
Drilling depth 0.6 m Drilling depth ll.75 m
Díam. 28 mm - 8 min. 40 scc. Diam. 34 mm - 2 min. 45 sec.
Diam. 22 mm - 3 min. 33 see. Diam. 22 mm - 1 min. 20 sec.
For crgonornic reasons ít is unnecessary to load the drilling machines heavily,
271
which facilitates the hole inclination and also givcs grcatcr flcxibility when
positioning thc blasthole. Othcrwise. thc b!astholes are dri!lcd in thc traditional
manner in accordancc with the indicatcd drilling patterns. 1t is gencrn!ly the case
that the burdens do not cxcced 0.5 m.
Charging.
To facilitatc mini~hole charging, Nitro Nobel has devclopcd a charging unit that
makes it possible to safcly initiate charge quantitics down to 4 grarns.
Charging unit.
A special pipe chargc has been developed with the dimensions J7 x 150 mm anda
wcight of 52 grnms. which can be cut ínto suitablc charge quantities. The pipe
charges contain thc cxplosive PRIMEX, an explosivc with hig!J detonation
vclocity. lfdíffieul!ies are encountercd with direct insertion ofthc detonatorinto
thc rarcd off section. thcn that section can be placed inside a plastic capsule,
whcrcupon the aclaptation of thc detonator can be complcled.
The mini-holc techniquc comr!ernents thc dril! holc with an idcally suitcd charge
diametcr, which makes bettcr use of the explosive cncrgy. Thc quantity of thc
chargc can thcrdorc be rcduccd. usua!ly by halfthc normal amount. resulting in
a rcduced rísk of flyrock ami reduccd ground vibrat ions.
When using thc abovc mentioncd charges (capsule or pipe charges), greatcr
safety is ensurcd beca use thc cxplosivc and detonator are kcpt in an integral state
and cannot come apart during thc clwrging opcration.
Stcmming,
Thc best stcmming material is wcll
packcd dry and rclativcly coarse
sand. Practica! tria!s have shown that
sandplugs function more effcctivcly
in mini-boles. lt is thercforc possiblc
to drí!l sha!low holes, from O. 3 to 0.4
m, if mini-boles are ulilizcd, and thus
mcet the demands of building regula-
tions by not blasting below a theoreti-
cal leve!. The rule that thc burdcn
slrnuld be less than thc ho!e depth. is
as a!ways va!icl.
The advantages of the mini-holc
technique over convcntional tcch-
niques can be summed-up as fol!ows:
- reduced drilling times
- simplified charging proccdure
with safer adaptation of !he dcto-
nator
-· reduction of f!yrock
reduccd ground vibrations duc to
lower quantities of explosives.
272
To summarize, thís mcans bctter
blasting cconomy, increased safcty
mm
for those taking part in the operation
and for thc ímmediatc surroundings.

Arcas of usage.
The miní-hole techniquc can be ad-
vantagcously utilized in the following
lypes of blasting.
1
- natural bouldcrs and secondary ,1

blasting ~
- lcvcling by hlastíng
- cable trcnchcs
.... ele et rícityítclcphondfcncing
polcs with footings in rock
othcr cautious blasting opcra-
tions.

Natural bouldcrs and sccondary


blasting.
Whcn blasting natura! boulders. a 0.02-0.04
•..--~~ kgtcu.m.
spccifíc chargc of 0.02 to 0.04 kg/
cu.m. is rccomrncndcd, dcpcnding
on the bouldcr·s character and the
dcsircd fragmentation. To reduce
onncccssary risks. boulders should
not be blastcd into pieccs smallcr
than nccessary
The spccific chargc for secondary
b!asting can be rcduced to 0.01 to
0.02 kg/cu.m.
Earth-bound bou!dcrs are consider-
ably more difficult to blast than frec-
lying ones. and bccome incrcasingly
so thc dcepcr thcy are buried. l n
built-up arcas. thc blasting of carth-
bound boulders should be avoided,
bccausc it is oftcn diffícult to deter-
mine thc size of the boulder and thus 0.01-0.02 kglcu.m.
also to control the blasting opcration.
In such cases, the best thing is to
excava te partially or fully around the
bouldcr so that thc síze can be ascer-
taincd, and a wcll-poised charge
quantity determined.
273
This will bring abollt a more suc-
ccssful blastíng operatíon, from both
technica! and safcty points of view. lt
is often suffieíent to blast away thc
part of the boulder that appcars
above ground leve!.

Leveling by mini-hole blasting.


When Jeveling by blasting. flyrock
stands out as a ncgative factor. The
rcason for tbis is that thc cxplosivc
lies close to the rock surface with LEVELUNG
only a thin protectivc !ayer of rock to Bolc diamcter 22 mm.
covcr it. In order to prevent íly-rock, Explosivcs Primexút 17 mm

·-
the quantities of explosivcs must be
limited. which in turn rncans smaller
·r;,r~ l
''"'~-

burdens. Levcling thcreíore de- c..o ,....,


mands high specífic drilling. (3.0 to ,... -o e<', e ; fi lCi)
o \~-..; ' \
4.0 dríHed mcters pcr eubic meter). ve ]!) 2 o "2~
ü -

!
~ 73 i--0 !
0 2 r<:
c.
~
:;--:'
1,...
5C"j;...
By using a 22 mm dril! stccl thc drill- i:o ~ ,J.. e ~
~
- (/') \..) c..
ing time can be reduced and grcatcr 1
cost savings madc.
K H B s Ü¡, h.,
m 111 111 rn kg rn
~·-- --- - -~-'-°"

O..) 0.5 0.3 0.5 0.01 0.4


·- _,,"

To avoid upward break-out, the bur- 0.4 0.6 0.4 0.5 º·º~.J0.4.'í J
den must be less than thc holc dcplh.
To obtaín lcss constriction the boles
·~~-

0.5
~~--

0.7
OK~•

0.45 0.6 0.113 10.55 i


should be inclincd towards thc verti- 0.6 0.9 0.5 0.6~i~)·~~ l~ 65 ~
cal plane with an inclination of 3: 1. --~K-~ ---K~KO

It is a known fact that rock moves


more quickly with small burdcns.
thcreforc when blasting multiplc
rows, delay time betwccn thc rows
ought to be limitcd to 25 ms.
Thc table givcs rccommendations
for suitablc holc distanccs and charge
quantities for lcvcling in rock. As can
be scen. the charge quantitics can be
rcduced to half that of convcntional
techniqucs. Thc valucs should be
takcn as guidc valucs. which somc-
timcs rcquirc ad_iustment to suit thc
various rock charactcristics.
Cable trenches.
C)
Cable trenches often have limited ~~ c 0
o.o
....
depths an<l are thercfore idcally suit- ..e w ,.,-, 0 ::.n ~
e_ 0
...
'O \..<
g ,_
cu <e +-'
e<l to the mini-hole blastíng method.
Drilling and charging should be
0
C:: :::C .S
::::l
c:c o ::i c.. "'
carried out in accordance with thc
m m m kg rn

adjoining diagram and table. 0.3 0.5 0.3 (). 06 0.3


0.4 0.6 0.4 0.08 0.4
0.5 0.7 0.4 O.l 0.4
0.6 0.8 0.4 0.12 0.4

7• 9•

El
'~ B
3 S•

iB ... ""i
i'ln 4• 6• 8•
?--'.....:

Pipeline trenches.
a \.

\ ~
~ B !r
2• 3•

3•

-
4•

..
5•

5•

lf the trench depth is to be less than "O


c.. 0
0.8 m. thc mini-hole mcthod can be ()
-
~
e 0
bi;
....
ue -;::; "O
e!)
-ti"' ...
<)
usc<l in accor<lancc with the a<ljoín- ~

~
<) .

ing recommcndations. 0 c.. e -e ~ ~

Thc blastholcs are set out in accord-


'-
¡.... ~ X .<::
::::l
ce e 5 "'e_
ance wíth a conventional pattern. m m rn kg m
The mini-holc techniquc complc- 0.3 0.5 0.3 0.03 0.3
ments the blastholc with an ideally 0.4 0.6 0.4 0.05 0.4
suitcd chargc diameter. whích makes 0.5 0.7 0.4 0.08 0.4
bettcr use of the explosive energy. 0.6 0.8 0.4 O.l 0.4
The quantíty of the charge can thcre-
fore be rcduccd, usual!y by half the ~ ::~::z;::,_,~,. ; ..-
~' , ''~~.., . ,. :.. '*
normal amount. rcsultíng in a re- ,.
duced risk of flyrock and reduced
groun<l vibrations.
Pole/pylon footings.
B!asting footíngs for poles and pylons
in rock is a great problem. The resul-
tant blast often leaves a crater, where
!he objectivc of sccurcly wcdging the
pole still rcmains.
A wel! planncd and executed blasting
rcsults in thc total operational time
for sctting the polc bcing greatly re-
duccd bccause stays and anchors are
275
not rcquircd. Furthermore, only a
minimum of back-fill material is
needed.
Blastíng for polc footings can be
compared with a tunnel blastíng, as
thcre ís only one free facc for displa-
cemcnt. Thís type of blasting opera-
tion has the characteristics of high
spccific drilling ami charging.
The introduction of thc mini-hole
tcchnique has opencd new pcrspec-
tíves for thís typc of blasting opera-
tion. Thc drilling time. as mcntioncd
abo ve is ha!vcd.
When blasting pole footings with a
diamctcr of ~0.6 m. t he para lle! hole
cut is the rnost favorable mcthod.
This is beca use thc cut may be placed
in various positions in ordcr to limit
the numbcr of boles to a mínimum.
To rnaintain good drillíng preci-
sion. a dríll-guíde should. íf possiblc.
be utilized. Another method is to use
a guidc-leg, which is Jet ínto thc first
dríll hole, and subsequcntly uscd for
the remaining holcs.

Charging.
PRIMEX A l7X 150 mm chargcs are
used for charging. lf nccessary, thc
last charge should be cut off to !cave
an uneharged section of approx. 6
cm. A high spccific chargc is impor-
tant with parallcl hole cuts. Stem
wíih sand to preven\ the chargcs from
being blown out of the holc.
Ignition pattern - blasting.
The bcst result ís obtaíncd íf the polc
hole is blasted in onc round with dc-
lay detonators. in accordanc<.: v. 'íth
thc adjoining firing patterns.
ln order for the rnck to achicve thc
desired swclling. a minímum of 50 ms
dclay betwccn thc holcs is necessary.
If the boles are to be blastcd indivi-
dualty, they should be blastcd in the
276
samc ordcr as statcd in the firing patterns.

Other specia!izcd arcas where the miní-hole technique can be used are:
- b!asting concrete
- blasting in furnaces.

12.11 Demolition blasting.


In connection with the clearing of shut down industries and older housing arcas,
blasting has proved to be a very compctitíve demolition method.
The mcthod was introduced in the J960s and man y buildings have bccn blasted
since then, both brick buildings and reínforccd concrete buildings.
The principle of demolition blasting is to blast thc vital supporting framework
in the ground !loor. Thc tare wcight ofthe building will thcn break the res! of thc
framcwork.
In ordcr to minimizc thc number of b!astholes in the cut it is importan! to utilize
all thc openings ( e.g. windows, doors) which are availab!c on the floor where the
cut is placed.
In ordcr to obtain maximum breakage and the desired dircction of felling, the
design of thc firing pattern is of thc utmost importancc.
lt is difficult to givc general advice on how a building should be demolished by
blasting, as expericnce shows that each building requires careful charge calcula-
tion and dcsign of thc firing pattern owing to its construction, design. localion in
rclation to othcr buildings, traffic routes etc.
Nitro Consult AB, a subsidiary of Dyno Industries, has all the necessary com-
peten ce for demolition work.

277
13. DESTRUCTION OF EXPLOSIVES
AND FIRING DEVICES
Frcquently explosives and firing devices havc to be dcstroyecl. Thc rcason may
be deterioration due to poor storage, agc or as is thc case in many countries,
broken package of cxplosives may not be rcturncd to thc slorc. In such cases, the
explosives must be destroyed.
Explosives, detonating cord and blasting agents,
Blasting agents like ANFO are best destroyed by mixing them with water. Water
dcstroys thcm vcry quickly.
Dynamite type cxplosivcs and emulsion and slurry type cxplosivcs shou!d be
dcstroycd by burning. The lattcr two types con ta in a substantial amount of water
ancl are not easily set on firc.
Procedure for destruction:
* Find a stonc free location for the burníng. 'The location should be far tnvay
from inhabited arcas. Sce Graph 10.25 Chaptcr 10.6 Air shock waves.
"' Do not bum more than 5 kg cach time.
When larger amounts of cxplosives are to be dcstroyecL the manufacturer
should be contacted to provide the ncccssary experts for such opcrations.
* Takc the explosivcs out of the box. No confincment.
* Sprcad thc cxplosivcs on a bcd of papcr or wood woo!.
* Pour díesel (fue] oil) or kerosene ovcr the cxplosiv.: and thc bcd ami set fire.
* Go to protcctcd place m1d stay thcrc until al! explosívcs are burnt.
" Check the ashes for fragmcnts of cxplosiws. if cxplosivcs rcmain, repcat thc
procedurc.
SEE THAT THERE ARE NO DETONATORS WlTH THE EXPLOSIVES TO
BE BllRNT,
The destruction of dctonating conl follows thc samc procedure as the dcstruc-
tíon of dynamitcs. Detonatíng cord should not he dcstroycd tngcthcr with
dynamitcs or olhcr cxplosivcs. but scparatc!y.

VA, NONEL and plain detonators.


The destruction of dctonators can in the case of V A and NON EL dctonators he
done by dropping the dctonators into blasthoks aftcr the !egwires or NON EL
tube have bccn cut.
P!ain (safety fusc) detonators havc to be blastcd. The best way is to tape thc
detonators to a stick of dynamite or cmulsion explosívc with a good detonator
and blast thcm away.
VA and NONEL detonators can be destroyed in thc samc way íf no hlastho!e is
availab!c for their dcstruction.
As for the destruction of explosivcs. thc locat ion for the b!ast of dctonators must
be selected in such a way that no damage is causcd to people or property. The
locatíon shoukl be stone-free and well away frorn buildings.
')7Q
Plain dctonators MUST NOT be droppcd into blastholcs as sand or other
ímpuritics may enter into the detonator and cause unintended firing.
Plaín detonators or other detonators MUST NOT be thrown in to water as they
may be found and will after drying have the same dangerous properties as
befo re.

Shotfirer

Fig. !3. l Destruction of exp!osives by burning.

NOTE! lf any local regulation contradicts any of the above, the local regulation
applíes.

279
14. CODE OF GOOD PRACTICE
The Federation of European Manufacturcrs (FEEM), is continuous!y working
to improvc thc safety record re!ated to thc use of cxp!osives and has produced a
"Code of Good Practice", which is a set or recommendations for thc execution of
al! stages of tbc work associated with b!asting.

The standards proposed by FEEM are high and the Codc can thcrefore be used
in its entircty in countrics without established legislation and also as a rcfercnce
document in other countries.

IT MUST, HOWEVER, BE ENPHASIZED THAT NATIONAL AND LOCAL


LEGISLATION MUST ALWA YS TAKE PRECEDENCE OVER THIS CODE
IN CASES WHERE 'HIERE APPEARS TO BE A CONFLICT.

For thc Code to be efl'ective. il is important that the arcas of rcsponsibi!ity of


pcrsonncl engaged in p!anning and carrying out blasting work covcr ali the
recommendations. At sorne operations wíth infrcqucnt hlastings, e .g. a small
quarry. it is likcly that thc person who charges thc blast wil! also plan the dri!ling.
decide 011 thc typc of cxplosivcs etc. lle will he responsihlc for cnsuring that all
thc rccornmcndations are observed. At the other extreme. e.g. a largc open pil
usíng severa! tons of cxplosivcs per day. it is likcly that onc or more profcssional
cngineers will be appointcd. and that thcy will undcrtakc the planning of the
b!ast aml thc sclcction of thc cxplosivcs. while still lcaving thc actual charging to
thc shotfirer. Many variatíons are possiblc withín thc two extremes. and it is
importan! that arcas of responsibility should be dcfincd in al! cases whcrc thc
possibility of confusion cxísts.

Corrcctly u sed, explosives providc a safc and cconllmic too! for man y of the
opcrations csscntia! for the functíoning of a modern comrnunity. lt is FEEM\
hope that this Codc will l1elp to makc thcm cvcn safcr.

Section 1. Qualification and appointment of shotfirers and of assistant


personnel.

1. l. To qualify for arpoíntment as a shotfírcr. a pcrson should


he prcfcrably at lcast 2l years old and be of stab!c tcmperanicnt,
ha ve practica! expcrícncc, working with a shotfirer, amountíng to at
least one ycar or at lcast 50 blasts,
havc attcnded a recognizcd coursc of training covering thc theorctical.
practica] and, whcrc applicable. legal aspects which have general ap-
plication for the use of cxplosíves for all typcs of blasting work,
have attendcd additional courses covcring specializcd rcquiremcnts,
whcrc this is necessary beca use of the naturc of the work being undcr-
takcn. e.g. blastíng in hot masscs. undcrwatcr blasting.

280
l.2. To qualify for appointment as assistant personnel. a person should
be al least 18 years old and be of stable temperament,
have attended a short course dealing with the main hazards in thc
handling and use of explosivcs.

1. 3. Al! appointments of shotfirers and of assistant pcrsonnel should be made in


writing.

l .4. Whcrc thc blasting opcration is so cxtcnsivc that severa] shotfirers are
rcquircd, onc should be nominatcd as having overa!] control. Where neces-
sary, the nominations should covcr different arcas and different times of the
day.

Section 2. Choice of explosives and initiating systems.


2.1. Explosives and initiating systems should be se!ected for their suitability for
thc work. or for diffcrent pnrts of thc work. to be undertaken. The fo!low-
ing factors should always be taken into account, but additionai factors may
have to be takcn into consideration in special circumstanccs;
2. 1. l. ExplosiH's:
naturc of blasting operation and rock typc including holc diameter.
dcpth and presence of cavities,
whether the explosive is to be a bottom or column charge,
prcscnce of water. ínc!uding water pressure and time of exposure,
tcmpcraturcs likcly to be cncountcred in use,
- vcntilation conditions,
storage conditions.
2.1.2. Initiating system:
naturc of blasting operatíon,
rcquiremcnt of initiation powcr for the selectcd explosivc in the condi-
tions of use.
- prescncc of water, including \vatcr pressure and time of exposure,
prcscnce of potential sourccs of premature initiation.
tcmpcratures likely to be cncountcred in use.

Section 3. Site storage.


3.1. Normally. all sitc storage of explosives materials will be govcrned by
national and/or local rcgulations detailing construction, safety, distances
etc. Whcre this is not the case, the construction of thc store should be of firc
rcsístant material and capablc of affording a dcgree of securíty against
illcgal entry.
Rcference should be madc to "Code of Good Practicc - Storagc of
cxplosivcs"' (publícatíon No. 10), published by FEEM.

3.2. Prcmises for storing cxplosives materials should be kept lockcd and should
be uncler the control of the Site Manager.

¡g 281
3.3. Records should be kcpt. dctailing thc quantities of cxplosives materia!s
rcceived and issued.

3.4. Prcmiscs uscd for storing cxplosivcs matcrials should not be used for any
othcr purposc:. Thcy shou!d be maintaincd clcan and dry. and be well
ventílatcd. Whcrc extremes of high or low tempcraturcs may be cncounter-
cd. consídcration should be givcn to the nccd f'or tcmpcraturc control.

3.5. Dctonators should be storcd phy.,ically scparatcly from any cxplosivc. and
in such a way that thcre is no possibility of an accidental initiation of thc
dctonators bcing transmilled to the c:xplosivc.

3.6 All explosives issued from the Magazines for use should be under thc
supcrvision and rcsponsibility of the shotfirer.

Section 4. Site transport of explosives materials in powered vehicles.


4. l. Transpon of cxplosivcs matcriuls and pcrsonnel should be separatc. whcrc
this is pracl icablc.

4.2. Vehicles uscd for trnnsport of cxplosivcs matcrials should be includcd in a


schcmc of planncd maintcnancc. Thc inlcrvals betwccn cxaminations
should be dccided aftcr consideration of the typcs of duty to which thc
vehick. is cxposed.

4.3. Whcrc thc cxplosives transport vchiclc is also uscd for othcr purposc:s. it
should be cmptied. elcancd and checked bcfore Joading of explosivcs
materia.Is is started. and again at cnd of shift to ensurc ali cxp!osives havc
bccn rcmo\'ed.

4.4. Thc vehicle should be rcadily distinguishablc from othcr si te ve hieles. aml
should preferably be fitted with an additional idc:ntification c.g. flashing
light, whcn actually cngaged in explusives transpon.

4.5. V chicles transporting cxplosivc matcrials shou!d not carry any othcr mate-
rials. with thc exception of thc cquipmcnt rcquircd for thc blasting opera-
tion being undcrtaken.

4.6. Transport of explosívc materíals should be undertaken undcr thc super-


vision of the shotfirer who is familiar with thc hazards involvcd, and thc:
actions required in the cvcnt of fire or other abnormal occurrence.

4.7. The load on thc vchicle should be sccurcd to avoid any part bcing dís-
lodgcd. Special care should be taken with thc contents of cases w'hich havc
airead y bcen opencd.
282
4.8. The vchicle should be fitted with at least one firc cxtinguisher.

4.9. Small fires not dircctly in contact with thc load may be tackled with fire
cxtínguishers. In cases whcrc thc fire is in contact with thc load. the vehicle
should be abandoned and thc arca cordoncd off.

4.1 O. When detonators and other explosives materials are transported on thc
same vehicle. provision should be made for the detonators to be kept in a
scparate protcctive container.

Section 5. Planning of blasts and general safety considerations.


5. J. Bcfore a new opcration ínvolving b!asting is started, local authoritíes and
utilities, gas. water, electricity etc., should be consulted to check on the
prcscnce of services which could be damagcd. Thc distances to thc ncarest
structures (houses, offices. factories) must also be takcn in to consideration
when designing blasts so that ground vibration and air ovcrprcssure may be
kcpt withín acceptablc lcvcls. Please rcfcr to "Code of Good Practice -
Ground ami Airborne Vibration from thc use of Explosivcs" (Publication
No. 4) published by FEEM.

5.2. The Blasting Plan once agreed should be adhered to and any changes
reponed and approved.

5.3. Records, including cletails of the drilling pattern and of the explosives
materials uscd ín cach blast, should be kept. Jn critícal situations e.g. in
built-up arcas, consideration should be given to the advisabilíty of kecping
more dctailcd rccords.

5.4. Every effort should be madc to avoid exposing cxplosivc materials to


cxccssivc prcssure, shock, licat, or friction. The fol!O\ving specific rules
shou!d be observed, but should not be taken as limiting thc generality of this
section.
5.4. l. Smoking, and the use of nakcd flarnc, for examplc, clectric are
welding. oxy-acetylcne cutting etc., should not be allowcd within a safe
horizontal distance of at least 10 m from explosives materials, in storcs,
during transport, and at the blast si te. Ali pcrsonnel on the si te, permanent-
ly or temporarily employcd or visitíng, should be informcd of this rule. and
steps taken so that they can easily idcntify the prohibited zone.
5.4.2. Use of explosives should be avoided in arcas exposed to ílammable
gases or dust.

5.5. Only approved non-explosivc blasting accessories (cables, tools. instru-


mcnts etc.) should be used in blasting work. Substituting standard, appar-
cntly similar, accessories may increase thc chance of misfire and/or pre-
mature firing.
283
5.6. When using electric dctonators thc fo!lowing precautíons should be
obscrvcd:
5.6.1. Before clcctric dctonators are removed from the packagíng. the
immcdiatc arca shou!d be examíncd for possible sourccs of cxtrancous
clectricity not takcn into account \vhcn thc choice of dctonator typc was
madc. Any such sourcc should be removed or rcndcrcd harmlcss bcfore
work on thc prcparation of primers is begun.
5.6.2. Chargin¡! with electric detonators should not be startcd íf there are
any indications of clectrícal storms in thc arca. Where part or ali of a blast
has bccn cbargcd when tbc first signs of an clcctric storm appcar, it should
be fired irnmediately if this is possiblc. failing this, the arca shou!d be
evacuated and fenccd off. Spccíal consíderation should be given to ínsta!l-
ing warning systems in arcas spccia!ly prone to c!cctrical storms. for both
surface and underground blastíng opcrnt ions.

Section 6. Preparation of primer.


6.1. (lencral.
6.1. l. Consideration shou!d be given to the handling which !he assernbly
wi!I reccive bdorc and during !he charging opcration. and the mcthod for
sccuring detonator or detonating corcl !o thc explosivc should be such that
thcy can not he come detacllcd.
6.1.2. A mínimum of forcc sllould be u sed in prcparing primcrs. The primer
carlrídge should prcfernbly be prepared by forming a holc with a brass or
woodcn rod to take thc detonator and allow casy inscrlion.
(i.1.1. Whcrc cxplosivc ctrtridgcs are uscd. thc zktonatm shou!d l1L' loc11L'd
ccntra!ly in thc cartridgc and with thc base of' the dctonator in thc exp!osivc.
Whercvcr possiblc. the complete lcngtil of thc dctonator shell should be
insidc the cartrídge.
b.1 ..:1. Whcrc c;1st primcrs are uscd. the complete lcngth or thc dctonat01
shell should he contained in the dctonator rccess.
6. ! ..'i. Whcrc thc systcm of work requírcs thc preparatíon of primer or
charges containing dctonators in advancc of the actual drnrging operation.
spccial rules should be prepared detailing thc precautions to be taken. On
no account should primers be assembled in the magazine.

6.2. Priming with Plaín Dctonators.


6.2. l. Whcrc plain detonators are uscd, they should be asscmbled to the
fuse at a place rcmote from the b!asting sitc.
6.2.2. Bcfore thc primer cartridge ís prepared. the burníng time of thc fusc
should be calculated, and be adcquate to allow the safe firing of thc
chargds.
284
6.3. Priming wíth Dctonatíng Cord.
(d. l. Consideration shou!d be given to the need to protcct thc ends of thc
detonating cord against thc ingress of water. taking into account the expo-
sure times and the water pressures Iikcly to be cncountered.
6.3.2. Wherevcr possíble, the length of detonating cord within the borehole
should be free of joínts. Where it becomes necessary to use two or more
!engths of detonating cord for a downline in a ho!e, the joint shou!d be
protected against mechanical damage and separntion, and the ends protect-
cd against íngress of water.

6.4. Priming wíth othcr systems.


Manufacturcrs· recommcndatíons should be followed.

Section 7. Charging of boreholes.


7. 1. General.
7.1.1. Wherc charging is started before al! the holcs in a blast have been
drilled. it is recom111ended that the mínimum horizontal distances betwcen
the two operations should be:
Holcs less than 5 111 depth .... 2 m at full length of hole.
Ho!cs more than 5 111 depth .... Not lcss than thc length of the borehole at
any point.
7.1.2. Boreholes should be checkcd for freedom from obstructions before
charging is st<\rted, to minirnize the possibility of the canridgcs bccoming
fas! ín the borehole.
7. l .3. Whcre mechanical loading equípment is u sed, it ís importan! that ali
conditions attachcd to its use are observed.
7. l .4. At least onc primer assembly sbould be locatcd at thc bottom of tbc
borchole, or. whcre exceptíons are made, considerntion should be given to
the possibility of having to deal with undetonated explosive remaining in
thc borcholc aftcr firing.
7.1.5. In condítions whcre cut-offs may occur. a top and bottom primer
should be uscd.
7. 1.6. Thc primer cartridge should be loaded so that thc base of the
detonator points towards thc main charge in the borehole.
7. l. 7. Whatevcr ínitiating method is used the detonator lead lines should be
straightened out before charging is started, without putting strain on the
!ead lines, especially where they enter the detonator. In loading vertical
holes. the cartridge or booster containing the dctonator should be lowered
at an evcn ratc to avoíd snatch loading.
7.1.8. Care should be taken to avoid damagíng thc wire and/or initiating
lines by over-vigorous use of the stemming rod.
7. l .9. Where detonators with additional protection (e.g. shorted and/or
285
sealcd ends) are uscd, carc should be taken not to remove this duríng the
charging opcratíon.

7.2. Charging whcrc Plain Dctonators and Fusc are uscd.


7.2. l. Thc choice of direcl or in verse priming, and !he direction in which thc
detonator points, should takc into account thc type of fusc being uscd.
7.2.2. Carc should be taken to avoid damaging the fusc by ovcr-vigorous
use of thc stemrníng rod.

7.3, Charging wherc Dctonating Cord is used.


7.3.l. Carc should be takcn al ali times toavoid sharp bcnds or kinks in thc
cord.
7.3.2. Immcdiately after thc dctonatin¡! cord has rcached thc dcsircd
position, thc cord should be cut from thc rccl. Sufficicnt free lcngth should
be sccured over the hole to allow for any possiblc set tlcmcnt in the holc and
for subscqucnt connccting.

7.4. Charging wllcrc othcr systems are uscd.


7.4.1. Thc manufaeturcrs' rccomrncndations should he followcd at all
times.

Section 8. Preparations for firing.


8.1. General.
8. l .1. Connccting of chargcs should be startcd in gond time to allow the
work to be completed and thc blasl fircd within any time limitatíons cxisting
at thc sitc. Allowancc should he madc for dcaling with uncxrcctcd diffi-
cullics.
8. l .2. Blasts should be kept under thc supcrvision ora shotfircr. Where this
is impracticable. thc blast arca should he clcarly identificd. and when
neccssary fenccd off.

8.2. Whcn using Electric Detonators.


8.2. l. Ali dctonators uscd in a blast should be of thc samc clcctrírnl
scnsitivity and be produecd by thc same manufacturer.
8.2.2. Thc choice of detonator type, shotfíring cable, connccting wire,
connecting systcm (series, scrics/parallel cte.) and fíring de vice (cxrlodcr.
etc) should be made al thc planning stagc of thc blast.
8.2.3. Al! conncctions in thc shotfiring circuí! should be elcan and tíght and
insu!atcd from contact with each othcr and the ground. Thc typc of insula-
tion should be chosen after consíderation of local conditions, i .e. prescnec
286
of \va ter. conducting rock. firing voltage, and checks should be ma<le of
insulation to groun<l where conditions are known to be difficu!t.
8.2.4. Only approved instruments should be used at thc blast site for
checking circuít values.
8.2.5. The resistancc of thc firing circuit should be mcasured and the result
should be consístent with the calculated value in accordance with the
number and typc of detonators. In the case of series!parallel connection,
the resistancc of each circuit should be balanced to the límits appropriate
for thc cxploder and the detonators being uscd.
8.2.6. Thc shotfiring cable should be checked visually for mechanical
damagc before cvery blast. It should also be checked for correct open and
closed círcuit resistance before it is connectecl to the dctonator círcuits.
8. 2. 7. Exptodcrs and testing cquipmcnt should be rcgularly testcd for
correct performance. The intervals betwecn tests should be dccided after
considcration of thc local factors, but the tests shou!d always be carried out
if the exploder and/or testcr cquipmcnt havc been subjcctcd to abnormal
conditions, or following a misfire.
8.2.8. Thc means for controlling thc dischargc of thc clcctrical energy into
thc firíng círcuít should always be undcr thc control of the shotfirer.
8.3. Whcn using Fuse and Plain Detonators.
íU. l. Thc mcthod for lightíng thc fuscs should be dccidcd at the planning
st<1ge, after considcration has bccn given to the number of fuses. the
burning time of the fuscs. and the time rcquircd to come to safety after thc
last fusc has bccn lit.
8.3.2. Wherc fuses are lit in<lividually by thc shotfirer, fusc lighters should
be used. lt is dcsirablc that a second pcrson should control thc time which
has clapscd from the lighting of thc first fusc.
8.3.3. Where ignitcr cord is uscd in conjl!nction with fuse, thc de!ay pattern
should be drawn up so that all thc fuses are burning in thc boles before the
first charge dctonatcs.

8.4. When using Dctonating Cord.


8.4. 1. All conncctions between lincs of detonating cord should be made at
points wherc thc core load is known to be dry. Wherc thc ends havc been,
or rnay be. cxposed to wct conditions, connections should be made at least
50 cm from thc cnds. and the exccss folded over and securcd to thc main
línc.
8.4.2. Thc angle bctwcen branch lines anc! thc part of the main lincs
carrying the íncoming detonation \Vaves should be 90º or more, and the
conncctions shoulcl be made firmly, e.g. by taping or by slip-proof knots.
Care should be taken tbat branch lincs do not loop back and cross over the
main lines bcforc cntering the hole.
8.4.3. Lines of detonating cord should be laid or hung in straight líncs or
287
smooth curves, without exccssivc slack or tension and should be kcpt at
least 20 cm apart. For core loads over l 2.5 g/111. grcatcr scparation may he
required. and the manufacturers· instructions should be followed.
8.4.4. When detonating relays are used to achievc the dcsired dclay pat-
tcrn. thc manufacturcrs· inslructions for thc typc in use should be followcd.
Care should be takcn to cnsure that dctonating rclays are propcrly conncct-
cd to ensurc protcction.
8.4.5. It is important that thc ful! lcnglh of thc detonator is firmly taped to
the linc of detonating cord. with lhc base of thc dctonator poínting in thc
desired direction of detonation in thc cord.
8.4.6. To ensme that the desired delay pattern is achicvcd. it is importan!
that the manufacturers' recommendations on the requircd separation be-
tween detonators and/or dctonating rclays. and adjaccnt lines of cord, are
followed.

8.5. When using other methods.


The manufacturers' instructions should be followed at all timcs. Whcrc any
doubt cxists. advicc should be sought al lhc planning stage.

Section 9. Precautions before and at'ter firing.


9.1. Thc shotfirer should determine thc dangcr arca for the blast bcing fircd,
having rcgard to thc typc of opcralion <tll(I to local conditions, e.g. visibility.
He should be responsible for checking that thc dangcr arca is clear of ali
personncl bcforc going to the place of safety from which thc blast is to he
fircd.

9.2. Sen tries should be posted to guard ali possible en tries to thc dangcr arca.
where it is large and/or not completcly visible from the shotfirer's place or
safcty. Sen tries should carry an unmistakab!c form of idcntification c.g. red
flags, and should prohibit entry in to their sector of thc danger a rea until thc
shotfircr has chccked that it ís clear and has rclievcd him of bis dutv.

9.3. Thc post-firíng examínation of the blast arca sl1ould no1 be undcrtakcn
bcfore suffícient time has clapscd to allow for thc dilution of the shotfiring
fumes to a safc leve!. Thc time requírcd should be dccidcd aftcr considcra-
lion of thc local conditions.

9 .4. The shotfirer's duty should includc an cxamínatíon of thc blasting si te. and
this should be completcd befo re work is rcsumcd. This examination should
includc inspcctions for:
dangcrous rock conditions.
presencc of undetonated cxplosivcs and/or accessorics in thc rock pile.
prcsencc of undctonatcd explosivcs and/or acccssorics in blastholcs.
abnormal appcarancc of thc blast, which c<rnld suggcst that not all thc
blastholes had dctonated corrcctly.
288
9.5. In many typcs of blastíng work, a consíderable accumulation of empty
cases can be built up during thc charging operation. The cases should fírst
be checked for freedom from exp!osivcs malcría], and then dcstroycd by
burning on the surface, preferab!y after the blast has been fircd. The
hurníng opcration should preferably takc place at a desígnated site re-
moved from the charged boreholcs. cxp!osives matería!s, or explosíves
stores. and in accordance with manufacturers' instructions.

Section 10. Dealing with misfires.


10.1. General.
10. l. l. No attcmpt should be made to fire a holc or holcs which have
misfired beforc a vcry careful examination of the conditions has been
rnade. lt is possible that the burden/s on the misfired hole/s will have been
rcduced toan unsafe leve!, and that blasting could result in rock projection
over many times normal distances.
10. 1.2. Ali normal rules detailcd in scction 9 should be observed when
firing misfircd holcs.
10.1.3. Whcn mísfircs occur, actíon should be dívided in to two parts. The
first is dealíng with the imrnedíate situatíon. Thc second is an analysis of
why thc misfirc occurrcd, and what can be done to prevcnt repctition.
Consideration should always be given to seeking qualified professíonal
assistance in tbe second phase, and also in the first phase if thc misfire has
rcsulted in a specia!ly díffícult situation.
l 0.1.4. Whcre the chargc could be damaged by water. or whcrc the hole
cannot safely be fired, the charge should be retrieved. In horizontal boles,
this is most easily done by washing the charge out. In vertical holes, it may
as a !ast rcsort be necessary to fire a successíon of short small diameter
holes or plaster shots to díslodge the rock, and recover the explosives from
the rock. Great care rnust be taken that the boles drilled for this purpose
are anglcd away frorn the charge.

10.2. When using Elcctric Detonators.


Hl.2. l. Where the dctonator leads are accessible, the individual asscmb-
lies should be checked for continuity. If the test gives a positive result, the
hole/s can be fíred. It is advisable to use another, tested, exploder and the
cable should be examined carefully for faults beforc the attcmpt to fire is
made.
l0.2.2. Whcrc the lcads are inacccssible, or where the test for continuity
gives negative results, the hole/s should be reprimed. The stemming
should be washcd out wíth water. and new primers inserted. This rnethod
should be used only if the main charge wi!l not be seriously affected by the
water used to rernove the stemming.
289
HU. Whcn using Plain Dctonators.
J 0.3.1. Whcre thc fuses are acccssib!e. thcy can be trirnmcd and thc holcs
fired.
10.3.2. Whcrc tbc fuscs are inaccessib!c or damagcd. thc principies dc-
taíled in !0.2.2. should be obscrvcd.

Section 11. Environmental factors.


l l. l. General.
1l.1. 1. Thc use of cxplosíves rnay rcsult in onc or more of thc undcsirahlc
sidc cffccts of blasting lcadíng to c11virnnmcntal pressures to havc a
blasting opcrnlion rcstrictcd or stoppcd. Thc cxtcnt of thc problcrn will
vary with the location of the site a11d with thc naturc of thc blasting
operation. but it is incrcasingly true to say that fcw blasting works can be
carried out without sorne ;11tc11tio11 hcing paid to thc qucstion of crn'iron-
mcnt.
11. l .2. Good blasting practícc mus! alwnys be thc main dcfcncc against
complaints about environmcntal factors. and many of thc prcceding scc-
tions in this Codc are aimcd. dircctly or indircctly, at avoiding complaints
by maintaining good standards. Thc remaindcr of this scction deals with
spccific points which do not fit nat urn!ly in to thc earlicr points of thc C:odc.
11.2. Nuisance.
l J .2.1. No onc likcs to ha ve a blastíng opcr<1tion ncar thcir hnusc or thcir
place of work. and this factor in itsclf givcs risc to nuisancc. Expcriencc
has shown clcarly that most people rcact ncgativcly if an operation is
startcd without lhcir knowlcdgc. and also lhat this rcaction will takc thc
form of comp!nints.
Expericncc has also shown that thc complaints wil! takc thc forrn of claírns
about spccific factors. such as vibration, fly rock or air blast. rathcr than
general nuisancc. For this rcason, it ís advisable that evcry effort should
be madc to prc~cmpt nuisancc complaints with good public rclations
BEFORE blasting starts. as it nrny be dífficult. timc-wasting, or cvcn
irnpossiblc to rcsolvc vague complaints at a latcr date.
11.2.2. Suggestcd methods to avoid this type of complaint are:
a/ a publicity campaign bcforc blasting is startcd, cxplaining what is bcing
done and why,
b/ the firing of blasts at pre-arranged times, to reduce thc "startle ., cffect.
el informing pcople individually ofthc blast times whcrc this is practicable
or speci<dly rcquestcd.
l l .3. Fly rock.
F!y rock is potcntially onc of thc most serious hazards or b!asting. and will
inevitable give ríse to complaint. Good blasting practice and unrcmitting
attention to the detailcd daily work during charging is the only protcction
against fly rock.
290
11.4. Vibration.
This subject is given proper and complete covering in "Code of Good
Practicc - Ground and Airbome Vibration from thc use of Explosives"
(Publication No. 4) published by FEEM.

1 ! .4. J. The use of cxplosives ín rock inevitably results in sorne vibration in


the ground, and this is transmítted to houses and buildings where people
!ivc and work. For the blasting engincer, the main problem is that levels
clearly perceptible to humans are not damaging to buildings but it is very
difficult to convince complainants of this fact.

11.4.2. It is clcarly in the intercsts of thc users of exp!osives to reduce the


unwanted effects of vibrations to a mínimum. and there are many tech-
niqucs which can be applied to this end. Sorne of these are easily applicd
without any cost penalty, but others will require aclditional drilling
(e .g. srna!!cr holcs) and/or sophistication ( c.g. sequen ce switch) whích will
inevitably increasc thc cost of the operation. lt is, thercfore. ímportant at
the p!anning stage of the blasting job that thc rclation cost versus com-
plaint leve!. is given careful consideration. lt is also importan! that any
agrecd leve! of vibration will be rcalistic for the life of thc work, and not
j ust thc immediate period.

11.4.3. Good blasting practice is also good defcnsc against high levels of
vibration. Poorly exccutcd drilling patterns can give rise to excessivc
confinement of sorne holes, which will result in higher leve! of vibration
than expected for the weight of explosive detonatcd.

l 1.5. Air blast/Aír Overprcssure.


This subject is givcn proper and complete coverage in "Code of Good
Practice - Ground and Airborne Vibration from the use of Explosives",
(Publicatíon No. 4) published by FEEM.

l 1.5. l. Aír blast and noise can gíve ríse to comp!aints whcn b!asting is
carried out in ornear built-up arcas. Thcse eomplaints may be registered
as vibratíon, as thc air blast may cause the house to react, and therefore
vibrate. lt is important that the true nature of thc eomplaint is identified,
to avoid costly and time-wasting invcstigations.

11.S .2. Complaints resulting from air blast can be rcduced by paying
attention to the following factors:
a/ Avoid. wherever possiblc the firing of explosivcs without confinement.
P!aster shooting is almost certain to cause complaints ovcr a large arca
round the blasting sitc. Thc use of detonating cord should be critically
examined in difficult situations and where there is a problcm wíth noíse
the cord should be adequately covcred with sand if an altcrnative
initiation systcm cannot be used.
291
b/ Use sufficicnt good quality stcmming for thc holc diamctcr in use. In
difficult conclitions. the use of spccially selcctcd material. rather than
dril! fines. should be considen;d.
el Use dela y blasting: 10 reduce thc amount of cxplosivc dctonating at any
time.
d/ Try to fíre blasts at times whcn the ambíent noisc lcvcl is high. so that
any air blast beco mes lcss noticcabk against thc background.
el Be on thc watch for tcmpcrature inversions. which may cause reficc-
tion or cvcn focusing of thc air b!ast.

Section 12. Underground blasting (mining and tunneling).

12. l. General.
12. l. l. In tunncling and shaft sinking work. where man y boles are drilled
in a limited arca. thc possíbility of dril!ing into a sockct containing cxplo-
sivc is greater than in most othcr types of b!astíng. lt is importan! that the
facc is c!oscly inspcctcd heforc dril!ing is started. to check for undctonatcd
chargcs from the prcvious round, and that boles are not startcd in sockcts.
12. l .2. lt wíl! not 11onnally be possib!c to examine thc complete working
facc for undctonated charges ímmcdiately after fíring. This part of the
cxamination can only he carricd out as lo;1ding of !he rock procecds.
l2. l .3. Carcfu! checks should be maintaíned on thc position of thc tunncl
facc in situations whcre thc possibility cxists of a blast from onc worki11g
place breaking through to anothcr.
12.1.4. E!cctric Storms ~ Whcn using c!ectric ínitiation systerns thc dis-
tancc from opc.níngs. !he thick11css of ovcrburden and the covcring of
surfacc vegetation should al! be takcn into considcration.
An adcquatc warning systcrn should be installed where lightning <lischargc
may be conductcd to thc undcrground working through water bcaring
fissures. raí!s. pipes cte.
12. l.5. Thc possibility of encountcring flamrnahlc gas mixtures in the
strata must be considercd whcn choosing cxplosives, dctonators and all
othcr accessories. 1f in doubt. cxpert ad vice should be obtained.

12.2. Fumes.
12.2. l. Spccial consiclcration should always be givcn to thc fume charac-
teristic of any explosivcs in thc expected conditions of use. and advíse
sought from the manufacturers in cases of doubt.
292
!2.2.2. Thc use of cxplosivcs will always give rísc to a certaín amount of
fumes, and it is importan! that these are dílutcd to a safe level beforc work
is rc-started. Thc most importan! factor in ensuring a safe leve! is the
efficicncy of the ventilation system. It í·; not possible to give limits for the
necessary waiting time. as this will vary with the quantity of cxplosive, the
vcntilation and mining systern, the rock type etc. Best rcsults will always
be obtained by a combination of good blasting and good mining practice.
Measurements can be takcn to establísh when safe conditions have been
recstablished.

12.3. Storagc.
12.3. l. Mine and tunnel atmosphcres are frequently humid, and may also
be warm or hot. These conditions represen! poor storage conditions for
cxplosivcs rnatcriak and every effort should be made to adhere to a rigid
systcrn of stock rotatíon and to keep thc case contents in unopencd
original packaging.
12.3.2. Stores should be remote from. or protectcd from. any site where
blasting will take place.

Section 13. Surface bench blasting.


13. l. Drilling pattern.
Beforc drilling is startcd, a careful examination should be madc for arcas
whcrc the designed pattern would rcsult in reduced burdcns, or where thc
material in the burden is wcak, or wherc planes of weakness ex is t. The
drilling pattcrn must take thcsc factors into account, and any abnorma!i-
tics rcported to the person responsible for charging the blast.

!3.2. Charging.
A check should be made before charging is started to ensure that the boles
ha ve bccn drillcd to thc dcsigncd pattern, and that thcrc are no arcas of
wcakncss and/or light burdens. Whcrc these conditions are not fulfílled,
consideration should be given to having thc face survcycd. and special ca re
must be excrciscd in charging thc holcs.
\Vhere rock conditions are such that open fissures and cavcrns rnay be
encountered, bulk cxplosives should be used only in conjunction with a
systcm, e .g. boreholc lincrs, for avoiding excessive concentrations of
cncrgy and thc resultan! possibility of fly rock.

13.3. Precautions beforc an<l after firing.


13.3. l. An agrccd codc of audible or visible signals should be u sed at ali
si tes where surface blasts are fired and, notices detailing the code set up at
a!l acccss points lo such sitcs. lt is importan! that visitors are made awarc
of the codc.
293
l 3.3.2. f t is suggested that the codc of signa!s should contain threc signa!s:
1. A warning signa] before blasting. lt is suggcste<l that a suitable time for
the warning signa! is that sufficient for people to reach a place of safcty
bcforc thc blast is fired.
2. A fíring signa!.
3. An all-clear sígnal.
13 .4. Fumes.
In open pit mining or in deep quarries fumes from b!asting which may be
trappe<l in !ow lying arcas lake consíderably longer to clear than in normal
surface opcrations. Thc re-cntry time should be extended havíng rcgard to
the prevai!ing weather conditions and thcír effect on thc dispersa] of thc
fumes. When in doubt. consideration should also be given to the regular
monítoring and reeording of toxíc fumes. and possible forccd venti!ation.

13.5. Environmcntal factors.


Rcfcrcnce should be madc to thc "Codc of Good Practicc - Ground and
Airbornc Vibration rrom thc use of Explosivcs" (Publication No. 4)
publishcd by FEEM.

Section 14. Blasting in civil cngincering.


This scction includcs such work as trcnching. foundation cxcavations.
roadway cuuings, but cxcludcs tunncling ami bench blasting which are
covercd in Sections 12 and 13 rcspcctivcly.

14. l. Planning.
14. 1. l. As civil cnginccring blast ing oflcn rcquírcs work tn be carricd out
in urban arcas. special attention should be paill to thc location or gas water
mains as well as ovcrhcad and underground powcr !incs and tclcphone
cables. The possihility of radio frcqucncy cnL'rgy from radio transmittcrs
shnuld also be invcstigatcd.
14.1.2. In urban arcas. thcrc may be disruption to road traffic and forc-
thought wi!I be rcquircd in dcaling with mcmbers of thc public and
sccuring thc co-opcration of thc local authoritics and possibly thc poli ce.
Prior noticc of blasting should always be givcn in rcsidcntial arcas.
l4. l .3. In urban arcas hlasts should he planncd so as to inconvenicncc thc
general public <IS littlc as possiblc. and thc use of blast rctaining mats
sl10ulcl be considcrcd whcn thc blast sitc is closc to buildings or plant.
Whcrc blasling mats are rcquircd Lhcse should be suf!'icicntly hcavy or
wcighted to preven\ fly during thc blast. Whcn locating mats. care should
be cxcrciscd so as not to damage lcads of dctonators or othcr initiation
systcm. Particular carc shou!d be ¡rivcn to cnsurc that initíating circuitry is
not advcrscly affectcd.
294
14.1.4. Whcn blasting close to overhead cables. blasting mats and blasting
cables should be securely staked to thc ground to prcvent fly and possible
fouling of thc cables.
14.1.5. Thc choice of initíation systcms should take into account any
possiblc hazards from stray currents etc.
14. J.6. Any blasting plans should recognize arcas of weakness. fissures
etc. and charges adjusted accordingly.

14.2. Chargíng.
14.2. l. Al! blasts should be eharged and fíred within the workíng day so as
to remove thc ncccssity for providíng overnight scntries and guards.
14.2.2. In urban arcas. the ínitiation system should be carefully chosen so
as to reduce the noise ami air b!ast to an abso!ute mínimum.
14.2 ..1. Ali cxplosivcs uscd on the síte should be careful!y accountcd for.
and no explosivcs left on thc síte except undcr the control of thc shotfircr
or othcr cornpctcnt pcrson.

! 4.3. Firing thc blast.


l 4. 3. 1. A codc of signals should be cstablishcd and al! pcrsonncl advíscd as
to thc signals and times of blasttng. Scntrics shou!d be appointed and
madc awarc of thcir dutics.
14.3.2. Aftcr riring thc shot, a post blast cxamination should be madc by
thc shotfircr bcforc workmcn are allowed to rcturn to the site. Any
misfircs rnust be dcalt with immcdiately or the arca fcnced off and suitablc
warning notíccs crcctcd and remedia] action taken latcr.
14.3.3. In pipeline blasting opcrations, where close to active pipclines, agc
ami condítion of the cxisting pipeline should be taken in to considcratíon.
Carc should be taken wilen sheltering behind stackcd pipes since ground
víbrations may upsct the stabílity of such stacks and prcsent danger to
pcrsonnel.

Sectíon 15. Demolition blasting.


J 5.1. Planning.

Planning of the blast may requirc the scrvices of specialists, c.g. structural
engíneers, to advise on the stability of thc building to be dernolishcd and of
ncighboring buildings. lf possible dynamic models should be employed to
simulatc the dcmolition in advance in the case of high risc buildings.

15.2. lnitíation.
Plain dctonators and fuse should not be used in demolition work.
295
15 ..1. Precautíons bcfore and after firing.
15.3.1. An agreed code of audible or visible signals should be uscd at ali
sí tes whcrc dcmolition blasts are fircd nnd noticcs dctailing thc codc set up
at all acccss poi nts to su ch si tes. 1t is important tlwt vi si tors are made awarc
of the codc.
15 .3. 2. lt is suggcstcd that thc codc of signa Is shoukl con ta in thrcc sígnals:
11 A warning signa!. before blasting. lt is suggcsted that a suitablc time for
thc warning signa! is that suffícicnt for pcoplc to rcach a place of safcty
befo re thc blast is fired.
21 A firing signa!.
J/ An all-clcar signa!.
15.J.3. Dctcrmining thc dangcr arcas for dcmolition work can be vcry
difficult cspccialiy \vhere cutting rh<irges me uscd. and ít is important that
ali pcrsonncl havc taken cover when the blast ís fircd. Thc proximity to
propertics and scrvices should be asscsscd togcthcr with the wind dircc-
tion sincc material will be ejectcd. In addilion thc dangcr ;irca can be
limitcd by providing sufficicnt covcr and protcction from projcctcd mate-
ria!. The dcfinition o!' the dangcr arc<i is thc rcspllnsihilit~· of thc cngillL'er
in chargc.
l 5.3.4. It is important that a last minute check is rnadc insidc thc building
to ensure ;i!I pcrsonncl llave bccn <.'vacuatcd.

Section 16. lJnderwater blasting.


l!i. I. Planning and general co11sidcratio11s.
16.1.1. i\dvancc noticc ofintcntion 10 rnrry out hl;1s1ingnpcrntíonsshould
be givcn lll the rdcvant civil and 111ilit,1ry autlwrítics.
16. l .2. In thc initial stagc ofpl<lnning. arc:1s with undcrwatcr pipclincs. or
alluvial scdimenls should he evaluatcd l"or dangcr o! slipp<1gc.
16.1.3. In arc:1s closc to rnilitarv i11st<illatío11s lile planning ni r!ic hl:tslínp.
should be carricd out jointly with thc 1'v1ilit;1ry Authorilies.
16.1.4. Whcre plasicr ehargcs are uscd. grcat can: must he takcn during
placcmcnt to cnsurc that thcy cannot he dislodgcd by currcnt or lides. or
by any other nicchanícal forces. e .g. ho:its \\"llich m:1v h~' prc~ent at the
sitc.
16.1.5. Thc responsiblc shotfircr should continuously check thc ;irca
around the bias! sitc. He should lherdorc not be thc di ver.
16.1.6. Thc dccísion to prc-asscmblc 011 shorc. or 10 prime clrnrgcs in a
boat or in thc water, should be arrivcd al frorn considcrations of mini-
mizing thc overnll risk of thc operation.
16.1.7. All vcssels carrying cxplosivcs must carrv 1hc intcrnationally
acceptcd codc or visual signals.
296
16.2. Charging.
16. 2. J. Explosivcs and dctonators for undcrw<ttcr use should be carefully
chosen to ensurc that thcy havc thc rcquisite degree of water resistancc
and that thcy will reliably detonatc undcr known depths of water.
l 6. 2. 2. Whcrc plaster charges comprisc a numbcr of individual charges
thcsc should be securely bound togcthcr to cnsurc complete simultaneous
dctonation.

16..1. Firing thc blast.


16.3. l. Beforc firing thc blast, thc shotfirer should ensurc that all divers
and swimmcrs havc bccJJ withdrawn from the water.
16.3.2. Bcforc firing. a final cxamination of thc blast arca should be made
bv divcrs paying particular attcntion to thc firing vcsscl itself to cnsurc that
no cxplosivcs havc become dis!odgcd and are fou!ing thc vessel.

!6.4. Shock waves.


l 6.4. 1. Shock is transmitted very efficiently in unclerwatcr blasting. The
asscssmcnt of the dangcr arca must take this in to account to avoid claírns
of damagc and/or injury. including damagc to marine lifc. Plastcr charges
produce the grcatest intcnsity of shock waves comparcd to borchole
chargcs. and consideration should be givcn to the use of air bubble
curtains. but in ali cases. cxpert advicc shou!d be sought at thc planníng
slagc of the opcration.
16.4.2. In unclcrwater blasting thcrc is always the risk of sympathctic
dctonation and cxp!osives should be sc!ccted accordingly.

Section l 7. Blasting in hot materials.


17. 1. General rules whcn blasting hot rock from + 70ºC to + l OOºC and a!l hot
masscs ovcr + !OOºC.
l 7. 1. ! . ! n thc majority of cases wbcre blasting must be carricd out in hot
rnatcrials the systcm uscd will be special!y dcsigncd to suit the !ocal site
rcquiremcnts.
17. l .2. Thc systcrn ch osen should takc in to account the cxpccted tcmpcra-
ture of the materia! at thc time of charging and if thís excecds + 70ºC thc
dctonators and exp!osivcs manufacturers, advicc should be sought if pro-
tcction against hcat is not possible and time exposure cannot be suffi-
cicntly limited.
17. ! .3. Evcry cffort should be madc to reduce the time to the practica!
mínimum from thc start of the operation to thc firing of the blast.
17. l .4. l n arcas with hazards of high stray currents such as stcel furnaccs,
high cnergy e!ectric dctonators, non c!cctric detonators. or transformcr
couplcd should be used.

20
297
l 7. 2. Additíonal rules when blasting hot rnasses o ver + lOOºC.

17 .2. 1. Only pcrsonncl with spccial training or undcr di re et cxpcrt supcr-


vision should be cmployed. Thc cxplosivc clrnrgc should be prepare<.! at a
distancc whcre thcrc will be no ellcct from thc hcat.

J 7 .2.2. Thc charge should be inserted in to a specíal loading tube (for


example. a thíck walled carc.lboard tubc). For case of handling it is advis-
ablc that thc tube should be longer than the borehole Jepth. The chargc
should al so be stemmed within thc tu be.

17.2.3. Precautions should be taken to cnsurc that thc ch~u·gc does not
slide out of thc borchole.
17.2.4. Whcn firing clcctrical!y. bcfore charging is cornmenccd. thc firing
circuit should be laid out and checkcd. including connccting to the explo-
der. Al! detonator leads and firing cables should be so placed that thcy wíll
not suffer any damage from thc hcat.

l7.2.5. Wbcn fii·ing non-electrica!ly similar proccdurcs should be adoptctl


as specificd in 17.2.4. with the purposc of cnsuring that thc firing circuit is
complete bcforc charging is commcnced and that thc lcad lines and
conncctors will not suffer any damagl'. from thc hcat.

l 7. 2.6. Thc sccond warning signa! should be givcn ami the arca cvacuatcd
by ali pcrsonnc! not necded for Joading thc lwlcs bcforc making the final
conncction to the cxploder.

17 .2. 7. The tempcraturc \VÍthin thc borcho!e should be rcduced as mu ch as


possible by using co!d air or water.

17. 2.8. Boreholc lincrs should be employcd wbcn blasting unconsolidatcd


material

17.2.9. Both lined and unlincd borcholcs should be chcckcd beforc load-
ing with a test tubc having at lcast !he samc diametcr as thc loading tube.

17. 2. l O. Whcn loading more !han onc borehole ali charges should be
loaded at thc samc time undcr !he direct supcrvision of thc shotfirer in
charge. A maxirnurn number of six pcrsons is adviscd with each pcrson
having no more than onc charge in cach hand.

17 .2.11. l mrnediately the boles are loadcd thc arca must be cvacuated by a
prcdctcrmincd routc.

l7 .2.12. Thc blast must be fircd without any furt her <lela y.

17.2.13. In thc evcnt of a misfire, the arca should not be approachcd until
thc cxplosivc has dctonate<l through !he effccl of thc heat.
298
Section 18. Blasting with black powder.
18. l. General considerations.
18.1. l. Special attention should be given to ensure that smoking or the use
of naked flame does not occur in the viciníty of the charging operatíon, and
a minimum safe horizontal distance of 50 m is rccommcndcd.

18.2. Charging.
18.2. l. Whcn using black powder prccautions should be taken to prevent
it from cntering into cracks, fissures. voids or other boreho!es which do
not form part of the overa!! blast pattern. This may requirc the use of
anti-static loading hoses, lay flat plastic tubing or pre-formcd channels
which would be capab!e of reaching the deepest parts of thc boreholcs
and/or fissurcs.
18.2.2. If boles are to be "sprung" an interval of at lcast one hour should
be allowed to e!apse between the firing of the charge and the loading of the
next eharge. This is to permit cooling of any hot spots within the sprung
hole. Howevec f!ushing by compressed air may reduce the time. Spring-
ing should not be carried out in the vicinity of any charged boles because of
thc danger of exploding sympathetically.

Section 19. Blasting in ice and snow.


19. 1. Blasting in ice.
19.1.1. General consídcratíons.
19.1. l. I. Thc shotfirer in charge should havc rcceived specia!ized training
in the subject.
19 .1. 1.2. Befo re charging commences rescuc cquipment should be check-
cd and ready to hand. This íncludes boats, !adders. poles, life belts. lifc
vcsts etc.
J9. l. J .3. In the situation where thcre is danger of thc shotfircr falling ínto
the water he should be provided wíth a !ife vest and be attached to a safety
rope.
J 9.1.2. Charging.
!9. l .2. l. Explosives with good water resistance shou!d only be uscd.
!9. ! .2.2. Precautions should be takcn to ensure that thc ice ílow being
blasted togethcr with the explosives <loes not go adríft bcfore the b!ast is
fired.
19.1.2.3. When using plaster charges ensure that they are wcll covered
befo re detonation.
19. 1.2.4. When clearing an ice jam with sheets of ice obtrudíng atan angle
from the water thc explosíve charges should be placed on the undcrside of
thc plates.
299
19.1.2.5. Whcn meta! tubcs are cmp!oyed for thc purpose of placing
chargcs in otberwise inaccessiblc positions the tubes should always be
removed before firing.

19.2. Blastíng in snow for avabnchc control.


19 .2. l. Genera! considerations.
19.2. l. l. The shotfircr in charge slwuld have received specialí7cd training
in the suhjecL
19 .2. 1.2. Thc shotfircr in chargc should havc a thorough knowlcdgc of thc
local terrain.
19.2. l .3. Thc shot firing tcarn should have receivcd training in first aid in
thc cvent of accidcnts.
l 9 .2.1.4. Duc to difficulty of acccss. transport of cxplosivcs by rucksack or
back pack is pcrmittcd providcd cxplosivcs and dctonators are carricd by
scparatc persons.
l 9 .2.1.5. Befo re any chargcs are !aid thc en tire arca !ikely to be affccted by
the cxpccted avalanchc should be evacuated.

Section 20. Agricultura! blasting.


Blasting operations may be rcquired in agriculturc for land c!carancc
including thc rcmoval of trcc stumps. bouldcrs and the reduction of rocky
outcrops. ditching and thc cxcavation of wildlife ponds.

20. l. Planning.
20. l. l. 'free stumrs should be examined to asscss the root systcm and the
general condition of thc wood. Allowancc should be rnade for any obvious
signs of dccay, and cvcry cffort should be made to loca te thc main chargcs
undcr thc hcavicst roots.
20. l .2. Buricd or partially buricd bouldcrs should be surveycd in ordcr to
asscss thcír sizc and chargcs calculated to ensurc thc removal of thc
bouldcr from the ground without exccssivc cjcction.
20.1.3. Whcn brcaking boulders. thc size of thc bouldcr should be asses-
sed befo re thc charge ís calculatcd. Thc mcthod of boulder blasting should
rcflect thc cnvíronmental considerations and plastcr or lay-on charges
only used in remotc areas.
20. l.4. Ditching operations and wildlifc pond formation should rccognizc
thc typc of grnund and only watcrproof cxplosivcs should be uscd in wet or
marshy arcas. Thc proximity to propcrtics and scrvíccs should be asscsscd
togethcr with thc wind dircctíon since material will be e.icctcd.
20.1.5. All pcrsonncl should be withdrawn from the blast arca which
should be extended on thc clown wind sidc of dítchcs or wildlifc pond
blasts.
300
20.2. Charging.
20.2. J. Hoics should be excavated, drilled or punched into the subsoil and
thc diameter should aliow easy loading of the expiosive.
20.2.2. In ditching and wildlifc pond formation blasting. small scale test
blasts may have to be undertaken in order to asscss the typc of ground
conditions and thc final blast based upon the rcsults of thesc test blasts.

301
15. REFERENCES

Abramsson. Eddy Uiga tryck fr{in cxplosioncr


Atlas Copen J\.fanual Fourth Edition
Atlas Copeo Construcción y Mincria Subtérranca
Atlas Powdcr Co Thc Basic Principies of Priming ANFO
Atlas Powdcr Co Explosivcs ;md Rock Blasl ing
lkrgqvist. lngvar Tcdrnical Rcports:
En jümfiirclsc mellan olika mctoder att cnligt
"Rock Blasting'' hcriikna f<irsiittingar vid pall-
spriingning
Bottcn!add11i11gcns ckonomiskt optimala hiijd vid
p;1!lsprü11gning
Nitro Nobel AB. Swcdcn
13riinnfors. Stcn Bcrgspriingn i ngstc knik
Svcnska Bokfórlagct/Bonnicrs
B:'\úth. Jan SPRANGTEKNIK
Daugaard. Thornas Spcciclla sprüngn ingar
Hcrnrnnsson. Michacl Nitro Nobel A 13. Swcden
Norc!l ..bn
Díck. Richard A Explosivcs and Bl<lsting Proccdurcs Manual
F!ctchcr. Larry R Burcau of Mines lnfonnation Circular 1983
D'Andrca. Dcnnis V Unitcd Slatcs Dcpartmcnt of thc Interior
Dobrín. Milton 13 Introduction to Gcophysical Prospccting
DuPo!lt Blastcrs· Handbook
Ensign Bickford Primacord. dctonating C\)rd
(]ustafsson. Runc Bcrgspriingningsb(1kcn
SI'! ( )iitchorg
Harries. G Thc scicncc of blasting an<l its use to minimizc costs
Mcrccr. J.K. Proc. Australian Insl. Min. Metal.
Annual Cinf. 1975
Hcrmansson. Mikacl Fórsiktig Sprüngning
Nitro Nobel AB, Swcdcn
Holmberg. Roger Kast och bullcr vid spriingning
Holmbcrg. Rogcr Flyrock
Swcdish Dctonic Rcscarch Foundation, Swedcn
Holmbcrg. Rogcr et al Vibrations gcncratcd by traffic and building
construction activitics
Swcdish Council for Building Rcscarch. Swedcn
Jonsson. Bert Scismological Prospccting
302
Palm. 1fans Nitro Nobel AB. Swcdcn
Johansson. C.H. Dctonics of High Explosives
l'crsson. P.A. Acadcmic Prcss. London
Langcfors. Ulf Thc Modcrn Techniquc of ROCK BLASTING
Kihlstríim. Bjürn Halsted Prcss
Larsson. Bcrnt Thc role of corrcct interval times in rock blasting
Nitro Nobel AB. Swcdcn
Larsson. Bcrnt Cost savings and improvcd stabílity through
Clark. Dcnnis A optimizcd rock hlasting
VME - Nitro Consult. U.S.A.
Lundhorg. Nils En mctod for ber~ikning av sannolikhctcn fór
stcntrHff pú stora avstúnd fdn sprüngp!atscn
Lundborg. Nils Thc Probability of Flyrock
Lundborg. Nils Núgot om luftstótv<lgor. ljudbangar och buller
Swcdish Dctonic Rcscarch Foundation
lvkycr. Rudolf Explosives
Vcr!ag Chcmic
Nitro Nobel Rock Blasting Tcchniquc
B!asting Tcchniqucs Depl
Parasnís. D.S. Principies of Applied Gcophysics
Pcrsson. A ANFO-cxplosives. initiation. dctonation.
toxic fumes
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fragmentation proccss
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Roscll. Svcn Airborne vibration
Nitro Nobel Nitro Nobel !NFO & NEWS # 8 Scpt 1985
Sjiihi.:rg Conny Cautíous tunncl hlasting
World Construction Junc !975
Sjóbcrg. Conny Ha!tagning i betong och partiell rivning gcnom
fórsiktig spriingning
Husbyggarcn nr 2 mars 1984
Sjiibcrg. Conny Totalrivning av hóga byggnadcr och anclra stürrc
konstruktíoner medelst spriingning
Sjóbcrg. Conny Klenh<llsspriingning tillümpad inom ROT-scktorn
Nitro Consult AB, Swcdcn
S\·iird. Jo han A NFO-spr~ingümncts gcnombrott och fortsatta
utveckling
Nitro Nobel AB. Sweden

303
Appendix 1
CONVERSION TABLE
Conversion factors for units used in this book.

Multiply By To obtain

Atmosphere (atm) 101.3 kilopascal (kPa)


Cubic ccntimeter (e.e.) 6J.02Xl0' cubic inch (in')
Cubic meter (m') 35.32 cubic foot ( ft ')
Cubic meter (rn') 1.308 cubic yard (yd')
Gram (g) 15.43 grain (gr)
Gram (g) 35.27X JO ouncc ( oz)
Gram/cubic centimetcr (g/c.c.) 62.43 pound/cubic foot (lb/ft')
Gram/metcr (g/m) 4.704 grain/foot (gr/ft)
Kilogram (kg) 2.205 pound (lb)
Kilogram/cubic meter (kglrn') 62.43x 10 ' pound/cubic foot (lb/ft')
Kilogram/cubic meter (kg/m ') 1.686 pound/cubic yard (lb/ft')
Kilogram/squarc meter (kgfm') l.422X ]() ' pound/square inch (lb/in·')
Kilogram/sq. ccntimctcr (kg/cm') 14.22 pound/square inch (lb/in')
Kilometer (km) 0.6214 mi le (mi le)
Kilorneter/hour (km/h) 0.6214 milc/hour (mile/h)
Kilopascal (kPa) O. 1450 pound/squarc inch (lbf/in')
Litcr ( 1) 0.0353 cubic foot (f()
Liter (l) 0.220 gallon (gal)
Liter (1) 0.2642 US gallon (US gal)
Meter (m) 3.281 foot (ft)
Meter/second (m/sec) 2.237 rnilcihour (milc/h)
Millimeter (mm) 39.37X 10 ' in ch (in)
Square meter (rn2) 10.76 square foot (lf)
Squarc centimctcr (cm') 0. l55X 10 1 squarc inch (in')

Degress Celsíus, ºC, to degrees Fahrenheit, ºF:


ºF = 915 e ºC + 32 = 1.8 • "C + 32

304
J\lotes

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