Professional Documents
Culture Documents
FOR
CONSTRUCTION
AND
MINING
by
Stig O Olofsson
All rights rcscrvcd.
This book or nny parl thcrcof must
not he reproduccd in any form without
th1..· writtcn pcrmissio11 of thc ¡mhlishcr.
lllustratíons:
Góran Ek
Gi)sta Lithner
Stig O Olofsson
Photographs:
Rcinho!d Carlsson Sturcbi!d
Erik Svcnsson
Stíg O Olofsson
anda fcw unknown.
CONTENTS
l. FOREWORD
2. !NTRODUCT!ON 2
2.1 Tcrminology 4
4. BLASTINGTHEORY 59
5. BENCH BLASTING 62
5.1 General 62
5.2 Charge calculations 66
5.3 Low bcnches. levcling 90
5.4 Sccondary blastíng 94
5.5 Opcning of the bcnch 95
5.6 Rock fragmentation 96
5.6. J Srnall rock fragrncntation 96
5.6.2 Large sízc fragmcntation 107
5. 7 Swcllíng 109
5.8Throw, flyrock 110
5. 9 Coveríng 114
5.10 Blastingeconomy 118
APPENDIX 1 304
Conversion table 304
1. FOREWORD
The writing of this book was first started during rny stay in Malaysia at the
bcginning of the J 980's and the intentíon was to take away sorne of the mystícism
which surrounds rock blasting and rock blasters ín the world.
I had then been using the Swedish rock blasting technique on three continents,
and found that the theoríes concerning rock blasting that were worked out in
Swedcn in the l94(fs and l950's functioned well also in other environments and
in othcr rocks than thosc I was uscd to. The blasting works I performed con-
firmcd the tbcories.
In blasting technology Swedcn becamc the forcrunner dueto the research of Dr.
Ulf Langefors. His scientific approach to rock blasting transformcd it frorn an
occupation in which personal expcrience, skill and intuition formed the dominat-
ing part to technological scíence. Dr. Langefors' pioneering work opened the
way for controlled blasting operations and bígger rounds could be blasted in a
safcr and more economic way.
lt is no ovcrstatemcnt to say that the works of Dr. Langefors have had the same
significance for the development of the blasting technology as Alfred Nobe!'s
rcsearch for the development of civil hígh explosivcs.
This manual is, from b!asting tcchnology point of view, based on the book "The
Modern Technique of Rock Blasting" which is written jointly by Ulf Langefors
and Bjürn Kihlstrüm. Formulas havc been simplificd or transformed to graphs
for casíer accessibílity to the reader.
The method of calculation and design of blasting operations such as bench
b!asting. tunnel blasting and underwater blastíng has bcen simplified, and the
calculation procedure madc easy to follow step by step.
Most of the problems that rnay occur ín a blasting operation are dealt with and I
belicve that the reader wil! have use for this book for both reference and
guidance.
The first edition of this book \.vas sold out rapídly so a new edition seerns to be of
íntcrest. The content is mainly the same as in the first edition, but misprints have
been corrected and in the chapter about cautious blasting new instrurnents for
rneasurement of ground vibrations, air shock waves and water shock waves are
prescntcd. Thc devclopment in this field has been very progressive the last year.
On reque:;t from man y readers I ha ve added a conversion table wíth conversion
factors from metric to American and English units.
Thc introduction of black powder into thc mining industry was rclatively fast and
by the end of the 17th century most of the European mincrs u sed black powder to
loasen rock. By the turn of the century black powder became widely used in
construction work.
Thc initiation of black powder was hazardous until William Bickford, an Eng-
lishman, patcnted thc "Miners Safety Fusc" in 1831. thus giving thc blasters a
reliable and safe initíating devicc for b!ack powder.
The demand for more powerful tools to break rock engaged many in developing
new explosíves. In 1846. Ascanio Sobrero, an ltalian, discovered nitroglycerin.
but he consi<lered it too unpredictable and hazardous for anyone to manufacture
and use.
Thc ncw invcntion was tricd out in Swcdcn by Alfrcd Nobel and hís brothcrs.
They found it excellcnt for blasting thc hard Swedísh graníte. Subsequently
Alfred Nobel in 1864. formcd bis first explosivcs company. "Nitroglycerin
Aktiebolagct". for thc manufacture of nitroglyccrin.
The main problem with the nitroglycerín was to get it to shoot consistently.
Alfrcd Nobel solved this prohlcm by the invention of the fulminate of mercury
blasting cap in 1867, which whcn used togcthcr \vith safety fuse made an
excellcnt initiating system for nitroglycerin.
Nitroglycerin conque red thc world rapidly and factorics were erected all over the
world. Howcver, disastrous cxplosions in Europe and Ameríca madc peoplc
aware of the risks in the manufacture and use of thc new explosivc and subsc-
quently laws werc passed against its use in many countrícs.
In his efforts to make nitroglycerin safer to handlc. Alfred Nobel in 1866
discovered that Kieselguhr ( a diatomaceous earth) not only absorbed threc
times its own wcíght of nitroglycerin, but also rcndercd it less sensitive to shock.
After kneading and shaping ít into a cartridge, it was wrapped in papcr and the
DYNAMITE was invcnted. lt was an explosive with a brisance ofpowcr twenty
times greater than that of black powder. Thc devclopment of dynamite contin-
ued, and in 1875 Alfred Nobel díssolved nitroccllulose ínto nitroglycerin, thus
introducing blasting gelatinc which is still one ofthe most powcrful explosives for
civil use.
In the 1920's nitroglycol was addcd to dynamitc, thus lowering its freezing point
( + 13ºC) considerably. In 1964. a new manufacturing process of <lynamite was
2
íntroduced in Sweden. where the nitroglycerin was flegrnatized (DNT was
added) makíng it both safer to manufacture and handle the explosive which was
marketed under the trade na me of Dynamex. Dynarnex was classified as a safety
explosive.
Together with the development of dynarnite new methods were searched for to
initiate the explosives. In the beginning of the 20th century the electric initiation
was introduced, and by 1922 the first electric delay detonator (with 1 sec. dela y)
carne in to practica! use. The introduction of the short delay detonator 10-100
milliseconds) in the late 1940's has had the greatest importance in the develop-
rnent of modern blasting techniques.
In the late 1970's wc saw new non-electrical initíating systems like Nonel being
developed.
The development of blasting techniques in the United States and Europe were
more or lcss similar until 1955.
In 1955, Robert W. Akre presented a paper on "Akremite" on the year's Coa!
Show in the U.S.A. Akrernite was a mixture of prilled ammonium nitrate and
black carbon forming a ''do-it-yourself" blasting agent. The mixture had to be
put into polycthylene bags to be kept dry in the blast hole.
The following year, 1956, ANFO (Ammonium Nitrate and Fue! Oíl) was intro-
duced to the U .S. market (89 years after the patent of AN with various sensi-
tizers was given toJohan Norrbin and Johan V. Ohlsson in Sweden). The success
of the ANFO in U.S.A. is indisputable, from a consumption rate of almost nil in
1956, the consumption had increased to over 1,000.000 tons by 1975. The
consumption of dynamites has, during the sarne time, declined from 340,000
tons to 135,000 tons. In Europe the ANFO was not so widely accepted and the
clynamites were prevailing into the 1980's. In 1985 a new, more water resistant
ANFO, Akvanol was presented by Nitro Nobel, which wíll increase the versatili-
ty of this explosive.
In the l 960's, we ha ve seen the development of water gels and slurries and in the
1970's the developrnent of emulsion exp!osives (EMULITE) and the 1980's we
will see new powered ANFO, (EMULAN). In this manual I will emphasíze on
the use of Dynamex, Ernulite, Emulan and ANFO. The latter three are the
explosives which will be used in the future and Dynamex M wíll be on the market
for many years to come.
3
2.1 Tcrminology
Tcrrns uscd in cxplnsivcs and b!asting.
AHlJTMENT. -- Thc point in a tunncl scction whcrc wal! and roof mcct.
ABUTMENT HEIGHT. - Hcight from tunncl floor to abutmcnt.
ACCELERATION. - Unit of ground vibrntíon í g (l g=9.8l m/scc')
ACCESS TUNNEL. - Tunncl from surfacc to undcrgrouml work sitc.
ADIT. - Horizontal cntrancc to mine.
ADV ANCE. - Excavatcd lcngth of tunncl pcr blasting round.
AIRBLAST. - Airbornc shockwave rcsulting from the detonation of cxplosives.
Can be caused by rock rnovement or by rclcasc of cxpanding gas into thc air.
AIR OVERPRESSURE. - Scc airblast.
ALUMINUM. - Metal commonly uscd as fue! or scnsitízing agcnt in explosivcs
and blasting agcnts. Jncreascs the encrgy con ten t.
AMPLITUDE. - See disp!acerncnt.
AMMONIUM NITRATE (AN). - Thc rnost commonly uscd oxidizcr in explo-
sivcs and blasting agents.
ANFO. - Powdcr form cxplosivc consisting of A111111onium Nitrate and Fue! Oíl.
Thc most commonly uscd b!asting agcnt.
ARCH HEIGHT. - Hcíght from abutment to the highcst point of thc tunnel
roo f.
AXIAL PRIMING. - Systcm for priming blastíng agents in which thc corc of
príming material extends through the column of thc blasting agcnt.
BACK BREAK. - Rock brokcn beyond thc !imits of thc last row of l10les.
BASE CHARGE. - Maín cxp!osivc chargc in a dctonator.
BENCH. - Horizontal rock shelf.
BENCH BLASTING. - Blasting of a bcnch with at least two free faces.
BLAST. - Detonation of explosivcs to break rock.
BLAST AREA. - Arca close to a blast, which may be inf!ucnccd by flyrock
ancl/or concussion.
BLASTER. - Qualificd pcrson in chargc of a blast.
HLASTHOLE. - Hole drillcd in rock for the placemcnt of cxplosives.
BLASTING AGENT. - Explosive that mcets prescribcd critcria for inscnsitivity
to initiation.
BLASTING CAP. - Sec dctonator.
BLASTING CIRCUIT. - Electric circuit uscd to firc onc or more clectric
detonators.
BLASTING DI AR Y, - Diary to be kept on work sitc containing all infonnation
about each blast.
BLASTING MACHINE. - Machi ne cxprcssly built for initíating clectricdctona,
tors or othcr typcs of initiators.
BLASTING MAT. - Covering placed overa blast to hold down flyrock. Usually
made of scrap tires, logs, ropcs or wirc cables.
BLASTING PLAN. - Plan indicating planncd drilling. charging. ínitiation and
safety measurcs for blasting opcration.
4
BLOCKHOLE. - Holc drí!lcd in to a bouldcr for thc placcmcnt of a srnall charge
to break thc hou!dcr.
BOOSTER. Charge of high explosive uscd to ímprovc dctonation stability and
to intcnsify the cxplosivc rcaction.
BOREHOLE. - Scc blasthole.
HOTTOM BENCH. - Underground bench b!asted aftcr the excavatíon of the
top hcading.
BOTTOM CHARGE. - Conccntratcd chargc in the hottom part of the blast-
holc.
BOULDER. - Ovcrsízcd blocks from blasting.
BRIDGE WIRE. - Very fine filamcnt wíre embeddcd in the ignition elcment of
an elcctric detonator. Thc hcat from a currcnt passing through the bridge wire
initíates a pymtechnic elcment, which in turn ínítiatcs thc dctonator.
BRISANCE. - Property of an explosive approximately equivalent to the veloci-
ty of dctonation (YOD). An explosíve with hígh VOD has high brisance.
BUBBLE ENERGV. - Energy of expandíng gases oían explosive, as measured
in an undcrwater test.
BlJLK EXPLOSIVE. - Exp!osive material prepared for use without packing.
BULK STRENGTH. - Strcnglh of a given volumc of an explosíve compared
with thc eyuivalent volumc of Blasting Gclatine.
Hl.lLL HOLE. - Large empty centcr hole in a paral!cl hole cut.
BlJRDEN. - Distance from an explosive chargc in a blastholc to the nearest free
or open focc.
BlJRN CUT. - Parallel hole cut with c!oscly spaced boreholes. Onc or severa! of
thc boles are left unchargcd.
BUTT. - Portion of a blastholc that remains rclatively intact after a bias t. A butt
rnay contain cxplosives and ís thus considcrcd hazardous.
CAPPED FUSE. - Safety fuse to which a blasting cap has been attached.
CAP SENSITIVITV. - Sensitivity of an explosivc to initiatíon by a #8 detonator
or fraclion thcrcoL
CARBON MONOXIDE. - Poisonous gas created by the detonation of explo-
sivcs. lnadequate amount of oxygcn in the explosíve causes excessive carbon
monoxide content in the "after thc blast" fumes.
CARTRIDGE. - Container of explosivc. Can be rigid or scmi-rigid.
CAST PRIMER. - High vclocity explosive uscd to initiate b!astíng agents.
CAUTIOUS BLASTING. - Blastíng with rcspect to surrounding arcas, control-
ling flyrock, ground vibrations and air shock waves.
CHAMBERING. - Process of cnlarging the bottom part of the blasthole by
firing small explosíve charges, enabling a larger final charge ín the hole.
CIRCUIT TESTER. -Measuríng instrument used to check that the electric
circuit of an clectric hlasting round ís unbroken. Should not be used for larger
rounds.
COLLAR. - Opcning of a blasthole. The act of collaring thc holc mcans to start
drilling thc ho!e.
COLLAR DISTANCE. - Distance from top of explosive to collar of blasthole.
5
Usually filled with stemming.
COLUMN CHARGE. - Chargc of cxplosivc or blasting agcnt in thc column
section of !he b!astholc, abovc thc bottom chargc.
CONCUSSION CHARGE. - Surfacc chargc uscd to blast bouldcrs.
CONFINED DETONATION VELOCITY. ·- Vclocity of dctonation (VOD) of
an cxp!osivc or blasting agcnt undcr confincmcnt. such as in a hlastholc oran
iron pipe.
CONNECTING \VIRE. - Wirc uscd to conncct thc dctonator circuit with thc
firing cable orto cxtcnd lcg wircs from onc blastholc to anothcr.
CONTOUR HOLES. - Holcs drilled a!ong thc perimetcr of thc cxcavation.
CONTROLLED BLASTING. - Tcchniquc to control ovcrhrcak ami damagc to
rcmaining rock sur fa ce.
COVERING. - Scc blasting ma!.
CRITICAL DIAMETER. - Mínimum diamctcr or :in cxplosivc for propagatiun
of stablc dctonation.
CURRENT LEAKAGE. - Arcing of ignition curren! to carth (water) instcad of
going through thc elcctric b!asting circuit.
1
CURRENT LEAKAGE TESTER. - Instrumcnt to dctect currcnt lcakagc.
i
f:
CUSHION BLASTING. - Tcchniquc to produce compctcnt slopcs in bcnch
blasting.
CUT. - Opcning part of a tunncl blast to providc a free racc for !he rcmaindcr of
!l
1 thc round.
1
CUT EASER HOLES. -· l 11 tunncling. t he hn!cs closcst to thc cut uscd to cn largc
¡;
thc opening formed by the cu!.
!
l CUTOFFS. - Part of a chargcd blastholc whcrc thc cxplosive has failed to
dctonatc. often dueto inf!uencc of dctonation from hlastholcs with lowcr de lay
numbcr.
CUTTINGS. - Dust of rock crcatcd by drilling.
JOINTS. - Planes within thc rock mass which separntc sol id rock masses from
8
each other.
PARALLEL HOLE CUT. - Tunncl cut with ali holcs para lle! and perpendicular
to thc rock facc. Thc unchargcd ho!e (boles) is (;ire) normally largcr than the
blastho!es.
PARTICLE VELOCITY. - Mcasurc of ground vibration. Thc vclocity at which
a particlc of ground vibrates when hit by a scismic wavc.
PLASTER SHOT. - Scc concussion chargc.
PLAIN DETONATOR. - Deton¡¡tor designcd to be fircd by the flash from a
safety fuse, and used only with ;.;afcty fuse.
POWDER FACTOR. ·- Scc spccific charge.
PREMATURE. - Charge dctonating carlicr than intcndcd.
PRESHEARING. - See prcsplitting.
PRESPLITTING. - Blasting of closely spaccd boles a!ong thc peri meter of tlle
excavation. The presplil is fired beforc thc rnain bias!. Onc of the methods for
controllcd blasting.
PRILL. - Small porous sphcrc of ammoníum ni trate uscd for thc manufacture
of ANFO.
PRIMARY EXPLOSIVE. - Explosivc, scnsitive to spark, friction. impact or
flamc, which is used in a detonator to initiatc the explosion.
PRIMER. - Cap-sensitive cartridgc of high cxplosive which is used to ínítiatc
hlasting agcnts.
PRIMER CARTRIDGE. - Cartridgc in which thc detonator is placed.
PROPAGATION. - Detonatíon of cxplosivcs chargcs by impulse from explo-
sivc clrnrgc located ncarby. Scc flash ovcr.
PROPAGATION VELOCITY. - Vclocíty of thc ground shock wave.
PULL. - Sec adva11cc.
RAISE SHAFT. - Tunncl or shaft cxcavatcd from a lowcr to a híghcr leve] with
an inclination of at leas! 45º.
RELIEVERS. - Scc cut enser boles.
ROlJND. - Grnup or set of blastholcs rorming a blasL whcn conncctcd lo cach
otllcr.
V-CUT. - Tunncl cut with the holes in V-layout. Also callcd weclge cut.
VELOCITY OF DETONATION. - VOD, velocity at which the detonation
wavc travels through the explosives column. May be measured confined or
unconfined.
VIBRATION VELOCITY. - Unit of ground vibration in mm/sec.
VOLUME STRENGTH. - See bulk strength.
11
WATERGEL EXPLOSIVE. - Scc slurry.
WATER RESISTANCE. - Ability of an cxplosivc to withstand water cx¡;osurc
without bccorning dctcrioratcd or dcscnsítízcd.
\VEB. - Rock mass bct wecn prcsplitting lwlcs.
WEIGHT STRENGTH. - Strcngth of a givcn wcight oJ' an cxplosívc compared
wílh tllc cquivalcnl wciglit of Blasting Gclatínc.
WINZE. - Scc sink slrnft.
l2
3. BLASTING PRODUCTS
3a. Explosives.
3a. 1 Propcrtics.
Dillcrent working conditions have made it necessary to manufacture explosivcs
with diffcring prnpcrtics appropriatc to the varying purposes for which thcy are
uscd.
In thc ideal conditions of dry blastholcs a simple explosive can be uscd, whilc
undcr wct conditions. more sophisticated products are callcd for.
To be ahle to sclcct thc ideal cxplosivc for cach purpose thc basic propcrties of
thc avai!ablc cxplosives have to be considcrcd.
Thc most important charactcristics of an cxplosívc are:
::~ vclocity of dctonation (VOI))
strcngth
dctonation stability
sensitiveness (propagation ability)
densit v
water resistance
sensitívity
safcty in handling
13
cnvironmcnial propcrtics
rcsista11ce to freczing
oxygcn balance
shclf lile
Thc vclocity of dctonation (VOD) is the spccd ;1( which the dctonatíon travcls
thrnugh thc cxplosivc.
Thc vclocitv of detonation of an cxplosive is highcr wllcn thc cxp!osivc is
confincd than unconfincd.
l\cccnt rcscarch in thc U.S./\. confirms thc nld assumption tlrnt thc dctonation
vc!ocity should be cqua! to thc vclocity of the scismic shock wavc through thc
rock. High vclocity of detonalion would thus he favor;1blc in thc case of hard
rock. Explosivcs likc Dynamcx M and Emulitc are suitahlc for hard rocks likc
granite. gnciss aml basalt whilc ANFO is suitablc for softcr rocks likc limcstonc
and sandstone.
Hígh vclocity of dctonation is of thc grcatcst importancc for houldcr hlasting
with concussion chargcs and urH.krwater blasting with shaped chargcs. The high
vclocitv is nccess:irv to givc the powcrful impact at dctonation which is rcquircd
to rnusc the tensilc slresscs which break tlw rock.
The leud block test is thc oldcst lcsl mctliod and is still uscd. A snrnl! ;1mount of
cxplosivc is dcto11atcd ín a hole in a lend block. By mcasuring the volumc of thc
cavity produccd hv the dcto1wtio11. an indication of thc hlasting clfrct can he
obtaincd.
Thc bal!istic mortar !est. /\ small amou11t (lf cxplosivc is dctonated in a stccl
cylindcr which is fixcd to a pcndulurn, Thc pcndulum wil! s\1·ing away frorn thc
dctonation and thc dcrlcction anglc of' thc swin¡.: indicales the hlasting dfcct.
The huhhle encrgy test was proposcd sorne .ve<trs aµo as a mea ns of comparing thc
J-{
rc!ativc strcngth of dirfcrcnt cxplosivcs. By dctonatíng an arnount of cxplosívc
undcr 1vatcr and mcasuring thc shock encrgy and thc bubble cncrgy the strength
or t he cxplosivc can be calculatcd.
Dctonation stability mcans that thc dctonation gocs through thc cntire explo-
sivcs column.
An cxplosiv¡;·s scnsitivcncss or propagating ability is cxpresscd in thc length of
! he air-gap o ver which a donar cartridge of an cxp!osive wi!I detona te a receptor
car! ridgc undcr unconfincd conditions.
Thc scmitivencss is an importan! propcrty which has to be consídcred in blasting
opcrations. 1f the scnsitivcncss is !ow, there can be interruptions in the detona-
tion if thc col umn of cxplosivc in the charged blastholc is not continuous or some
ohstaclc has come betwecn thc various chargcs. An cxplosive with too high a
scnsilivcncss can cause propagation bctwccn adjaccnt blastholcs if thc holcs are
closcly spaccd. Especially in faulty rock and in undcrwatcr blasting thc risk of
propiigation ktwcen thc blastholcs is great. Thc propagation ability is highcr in
confíncd conditions than in unconfincd oncs.
Thc dcnsity of an cxp!osivc is its specific wcight cxpresscd as kilograms pcr liter
( kgil) or grarns pcr cuhic ccntimctcr (g/c.c.). The dcmity dctcrmi ncs the possihlc
char¡!c conccntration in thc h!asthole. Thc dcnsity of an explosive is one of the
mnst importan! prnpcrtícs to be considcrcd whcn dcsigning blasling operations.
The dril!íng paltcrn will be considcrably more widely spaccd if the high dcnsity
Dvnarncx M is USL'd instcad of thc low dcnsity ANFO.
Thc scnsitiYity of ;1n L'xplosin· is n;prL'SSCd <IS t!ll' minimum CllL'rgy necdcd tn
inítíatc thc cxplosivc.
Civil cxplosivcs are dividcd intn:
cap scnsitivc cxplosivcs
non-cap scnsitivc cxplt>sivcs
Thc cap scnsiti1·c cxplosivcs can be íniti;itcd hy a #6 or #8 blasting cap. Thc
manufaclurer índicales lhc scnsitivity of his product.
Thc non-cap sensitivc cxplosives need to be primed with an amount of" high
cxplosivcs in ordcr to ohuin initiation and st<1ble dctonalion.
Safety in handling is of thc utmost importancc as thc transporlation ami usagc ol"
an cxplosive should lie carried out without any risks for thc pcrsonne! in volved.
Bci'ore :111 explosivc is apprnved by thc :iutlwritics it is suhjcctcd to cxtcnsivc
tests.
1) The drop hamml'rtest dckrmincs thc height from which ;1 wcight must fall on
thc cxplosivc in ordcr to ere.ate a dctonation.
2) Thc friction test, is a test in which friclion undcr incrcased pressurc is applied
to a small amount o! cxplosive. Whcn a rc;iction in thc explosive is obtainclL
thc pressurc is rccordcd .
."l) Thc projcctik im¡iact test determines thc hulkt vclllcity nccdcd to crcatc a
rcaction in thc explosive.
-.\) Thc hcat test determines how much hcat <lll expiosivc can withstand hcf'orc a
reaction starts.
The tests form thc !Jasis for thc authoritics lo classify thc various explosivcs from
thc poínl of vicw or handling allt! tra11sport.
Thc environmcntal prnpcrtics are more ami more takcn into consideration. Thc
aim is to rninimizc thc toxic fumes and such ncgative sidc~cffccts as hcadachcs
and skin irriwtion whcn handling nitrog!yccrin e:-;plosivcs.
Thc gases produced from a dctonation of a ci\ il cxplosivc are principa!ly carbo11
dioxidc. nitrogcn and water \'apor. whieh an; idl 11011-toxic. Various toxic gases
are also produced likc carbon monoxidc. oxides of nitrogcn. and nitrnglyccrin
vapors. Thc fumes' clwractcristics diffcr grcatly betwccn different kinds of
cxplosívcs. No matlér which cxplosive is uscd. somc noxious gases will he
produced ín thc <ktonation.
For .. (1¡JC11-pit" operntions the tm:ic fumes rarcly crcatc any prnhlcm. but for
j()
underground operations, it is esscntial that noxious gases are kcpt toan aecept-
able !cvcl. Increased amounts of fumes can be produccd if explosives wíth
insufficient water resistance are used. Inadequate priming, poor confinement.
use of woodcn spaccrs. and íncomp!clc explosion are othcr causes of an in-
crcascd production of noxious fumes.
lt is importan! that time for sufficienl ventilation is al!owed in underground
operalíons as somc of the toxic gases are odorless. Too early a return to the
blasting silc may be fatal.
Thc hcadachc causcd by nitroglyccrin cxp!osivcs is a sidc cffcct that causes a lot
of inconvcnicncc to many of thosc cxposcd to thc cxplosivc. lt is difficult to
protect oncsclf from nitroglyccrín vapors, which enter the blood system via the
respiratory organs or by dírcct contact with the skin. thus lowering the blood
prcssurc.
The ncw water based explosívcs, like Emulite, have very good fume character-
istics and the advantage of "non-headache" properties.
Resistlmce to f'reezing is importan! in countríes where thc tcmperature faHs
below 0° C. Dynamites and watergels become stiffcr in !ow tcmpcraturcs and
lose thcir good tamping charactcristics whilc cmulsion cxplosivcs retain their
cxcellclll tarnping charactcrístics cven nt the lowest tcmperatures. Modern
explosivcs will not frecze undcr normal cxposure to thc lowcst temperatures
cncountcrcd in normal working conditions. Thc cxplosivcs will thus work in the
coldest wcalhcr. in which ít is possiblc to work, without the hazards of thawíng
thcm bdore use.
The oxygen balance must be considercd in undcrground applicatíons. An excess
of oxygcn in thc cxplosive can form nitrogcn oxides (NO and N02) anda deficit
of oxvgcn will form carbon monoxidc (CO).
Thos~ gases are toxic and cxposure to them may be fatal. In open air blasting
these gases rarcly cause any prob!cm as thc blasting fumes are rapidly dispersed
aftcr l he detona\ ion.
The shelflife of thc explosive is very ímportant as thc explosive frcqucntly has to
be kcpt for a long time in storage, oftcn under unfavorablc condítions.
P!astic nitroglycerin explosivcs undergo a normal aging process during storage.
The air bubb!es in the explosivc disappear partly or wholly. thus decreasing its
scnsitivity to initiation and its propagatíon ability but not its energy content.
Plastíc nitroglycerin cxplosives should not be storcd in high temperatures, as
thcy tcnd to soften and the salts in the cxplosive penetra te the papcr wrapping of
thc cartridges. thus dcforming them. Storagc tempcraturcs around +32º C
shou!d be avoidcd, cspccially if the tempcrature fluctuatcs around that figure.
The ammonium nitrate in thc explosivc undergoes a physical rearrangement
making thc explosivc in thc cartridge swc!I, dcfonning the cartridgc. The blast-
ing effect is not affected. Powdcr typc cxplosives in cartridgcs are sensitive to
moisturc. In a hurnid cnvíronment. the salt in the cxplosivc tend to form deposits
on !he cartridge, thus hardening it.
ANFO is sensitivc to humidity and cakcs easily whcn slored under such
conditions.
17
3a.2 Classification.
Thc cxplosivcs uscd in civil cngineering and mining can nowadays be classificd
;1s:
Hígh cxplosives
Bla~tingagcnts
B!asting agcnts are mixtures consisting of a fue! and oxidizcr systcm, whcrc nonc
of thc ingrcdicnts are classificd asan cxplosivc ami whcn unconfincd cannot be
dctonatcd by mcans or a #',:l. test blasting cap. Blasting agcnts llave to be
initiatcd hv ;1 primer ;\NFO is ;1 t1·picd hlastíng ;igcnt.
Primex.
Primcx charges were dcvelopcd for blasting opcrntions whcre extreme cautíon
was rcquired. Primcx is dcsigncd mainly for miní-hole blasting.
Thc chargcs havc a !cngth of 150 mm anda diameterof l 7 mm. The weight of the
cartrídge ís 52 gr. Thc suitablc length/wcight is obtaincd by cuttíng thc tube. A
spccial shcath may be adapted to thc cut piccc of tubing in ordcr to hold the
dctonator in thc corrcct position.
Thc míni-holc mcthod may with great advantage be used for thc followíng
blastíng tasks:
bouldcr blasting
lcvcling
pipe and cable trcnching
·~ py[on and poic footings
dcmolition blasting
1
~' ,.:\
1"lg. 311 . ./ Co11rnssio11 ch11rg(' M SI M.
!
11
Enmlsion explosin.>s me composcd nf scparatc. vcrv sm;i!I drops or ammonium
nitra!c solution and uthcr oxidizcrs. dc11sl'lv dispcrscd in a conti11uous phasc.
¡¡ which is composcd ora mi;;turc of mineral oíl ~1nd 1vax.
"!! Thc oil/wax mixture. which is thc fucL is i11 this wav givcn a Vt'ry largc contact
¡;
surface to thc oxídizcr_ thc ;immoniu111 nitratc solution. What distinguishcs !he
r cmu!síon explosivcs from othcr liquid and pl<lslic cxplosivcs. is that lhcy can be
madc to detonatc without thc addition of a sensilizcr which in itsclf is an
t
¡'
exp!osivc. To makc the cmulsion initiablc. smal! cavitics are mixcd in. i.c. ín
rorrn of microba!loons 1\ilh a diamctcr or about onc knth of <I mi!lirnctcr. Thcsc
collapsc undcr the inlfoencc or thc initiating shock wavc rrom thc blasting cap.
crc:atínga multitude oflocnl hot spot~nvhcrc thc tcmpcraturc issufficic:ntlv hi¡?.h
lo start a fast cxplosiYc combustion of lile cxplosivc.
Thc densíty of !he cxplosívc and its capacitv of inil iation can he ad justcd wit h t he
amount of microbal!oons in thc cmu!sion.
Thc strength is rcgulalcrJ bv the amounl of thc addílivc fue!. aluminum. th:it is
addcd. Furthermorc. lhcre are co11sidcrahlc possihilitícs to vary thc consistcncy
')j
lo fit diffcrcnt purposcs. This can be dctcrmincd maínly by thc proportion
oil/w:1x. With a high pcrccntage of wax, a margarine-likc consistcncy is obtained.
Wíth more oiL grcasc-likc pumpab!c qua!ities can he obtaincd.
Thc margarinc-!ike typc of emulsion explosívcs is bcst suitcd for cartridgcd
cxplosivcs. The tamping charactcristics are cxcc!lent making it possiblc to uti!íze
the blasthole vo!umc to almos! 100 %.
Beca use of the physical naturc and propcrtics of cmu!sion cxplosivcs, they rctain
thcir consistcncy ovcr a \vide tcmpcraturc range. thc tamping and pumping
diaractcristics are virlua!ly unchangcd from -20º to +35º e
Thc stability of' crnulsions is outstanding, comparcd with othcr civil cxplosivcs.
Thc dctonatíon propcrtics rcmain unchanged ovcr long pcriods of time under
normal storagc conditions.
Thc vclocítv of dctonation is high for cmulsion cxplosivcs but may decreasc
somcwhat if thc diarnctcr is dccrcascd or alurninum is addcd.
Thanks to 1he facl that thc water soluble drops of ammonium ni trate ín the
cmulsion are complctcly surroundcd by an oil/wax film. thc cxplosivc bccomcs
watcr-rcpcllcnl. thus bcing highly water resistan!.
Th~· scnsitivity of'cmulsion cxplosivcs may vary from a high cxplosivc which rnay
he initia\cd by a #8 strcngth dclonator to blasting agcnl products rcquiring a
prim<:r for initíatíon.
From a handling point of vicw, thc cmulsion cxplosivcs are vcry safc anda high
dcgrcc of impact is nccdcd for accidental initiation.
Velocity of detonation
Unconfined in 40 mm
cartridges
o 7 ¡-
~ 6~
is~~ Emulite
E 4, Dynamex
i
3 l VVatergel
i
2L
11
1
o~~~~~~·~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
E mu lite
ANFO
700 ¡----..¡.
600 ,______
200 -----~-
100
Emulitc 100 can also be supplied in plastíc pipes with dimcnsions 20 x500 mm for
prcsplitting and smooth b!asting.
Emulite l50 is similar to Emulitc l 00 but aluminurn is added to in crease the
cncrgy contcnl. lt is manufacturcd in papcr cartridgcs, plastic hoscs and plastic
pipes.
Emulile 200 is a non-cap scnsitivc cmulsion cxplosivc which is intcndcd for
bcnch blasting with mcdiurn and Jargc sízc blastholcs. It is supplied in plastic
hoscs. A cartridge of Emulite l 00 or 150 will serve well as a primer. The Ernulite
200 is nol compatible with dctonating cord.
Enrn!ite 300 is thc con! compatible varicty of non-cap scnsitivc emulsion
cxplosívcs.
All typcs or EMUL!TE are suitablc for undcrwater blasting. EMULITE can be
manufacturcd in a pumpab!c vcrsion upon rcquest.
ANFO.
ANFO is thc mosl widely used civil explosívc in the world. lt is considered a
b!asting agcnt and has to be initiatcd by a primer. ANFO is a mixture of príl!cd
Ammonium Nitratc and Fue! Oíl at a ratio of 94/6.
Thc primer uscd to initiatc thc ANFO should have a diametcr which is close to
the blastholc diarnctcr and a lcngth long cnough to cnsurc stable dctonatíon.
(Sce Chapter 8.2.1 Primíng of ANFO.)
A vclocity of detonation lcss than 2000 miscc. is not consídcrcd stablc. Tests
25
3
VOD
primer length 1 ]
·--~ ¡
madc h1· SVEDEFO show tlwt ;1 Dvnamc.x M primer cartrídgc initiatcs ANFO
dírcc!ly lo íts ful! 1·L'iocity. Thc sarnc l'L'Stlit will lle obtaincd with an Emulite 10()
primer, provided that its díarnctcr is c!osc to thc hlastholc diarnctcr.
Thc vclocity of dctonation changl'S with thc diarnetcr or thc !JlasthlllC and
rcachcs its highcst vclocity of 4-HJO m/scc. in a 2.'íO rnm blastholc. Thc vclocitv or
dc!on a t ion dccTL'ascs wi t h t he diamcll'f of 1he hlnst holc al1ll whcn lhe diametcr is
Jess than 25 mm. thc detonalion wil! not he stahlc. ANFO is mnst suitablc in
middlc and l:irge di;1rnetcr hl;istholcs (75 w 250 mm) under dr:' conditions.
lnitíation of ANFO shou!d not b..: nwdc with dctonating conl in small and
mcdium sizc hlastholcs (25 to 100 mm). Thc dctona\ing conl will initiatc the
ANFO diamctrical!y (a.xi;1I primíng) andas tll<.' ANFO will not rcach a stahlc
vclocity of detonation (2000 to 4400 111/sec. ). thc ehcmical rcaction will he
incomplctc. That t his ís t he case is confirrncd by thc use uf A N FO <md dcto11:1ting
conl for smontllhf;1sting purposcs which h:1s hccn rcportc:d from dilkrl'lll pro-
.iects.
ANFO has poor water rcsistance am! sllould. whcre \Vatcr is prcsent i11 thc
blastholcs. he prokctcd hv plastic hoscs.
Thc appcrancc of orangc-brown fumes upon dctonalion is a sign of water
dcterioration andan indicatitrn that a more water rcsistant product should be
uscd or that thc ANFO shou!d be packed in plastic baps of hcllcr quality.
Whcn thc ANFO is packcd in plastic hoscs. cnnsidcration has to he givcn to thc
dcsign of thc dril!ing pattcrn as thc: cxplosivcs co!umn will havc smallcr diamcter
in hoscs than ifpourcd in to thc blastholc. A narrowcr drilling pattern is nccdcd.
EMULET
ANFO is used in many underground applications. but has becn found to be too
powcrful for the contour. with ovcrbrcak as a rcsult. Sornctimcs it is impractica!
to use spccia! smoothblasting explosives or sma!lcr hole diamcter in the peri-
27
Fig. 311. JO W irh Fnwlet and A N FO, thc dc11sif.1· 1111d hu/k s1re11g1h c1111 he \'t/ried 111
lhl' 11·odsi1c.
rnclcr boles. lt has thcn:!"ore becn a dcmand for an ANFO with reduccd
strenµth. Different rnethods of mixing thc ANFO with incrt material llave becn
tricd. hut today thc most commonly uscd material for reduction is cxpandcd
polystyrcnc sphncs. Duc to thc dilkrcncc in densitv. ANFO 0.S 'f./c.c. ami
polystyrcnc 0.02 gl<:.c .. thc t\\'O componcnts in thc mixture tcntl to sepmalL'
during thc char¡.>:ing opcratinn and the polystyrcne sphercs me blown out ol' thc
blasthnlc.
By addin¡! bulk cmulsion to thc mixture. a hornogcneous blasting agcnt is
ohtainc(L which does not separatc and is char¡!cahlc with pcnumatic ch;irging
machines. its tradenamc is Fmulet.
Four blcnds of EnHdet are presently availablc. Fmulct 20. 30. 40 ;md :'iO. Tlw
figures denole !he bulk s\rength in perce111<1ge of ANFO.
Fmu!et 20 has a hulk slrL'llgth comparable lo tlwt of" C111rit 17 mm in a 3S mm
blasthok and Emu!ct _\()is comparable lo ()uri\ 22 111111ina:'i1 mm hlastholc.
Fnr e fficient charging uf t he rou nd. \\\'O charging conlaincrs shou Id be used, onc
for 1\NFO and lhe othcr for Fmulct. By a control dL'\'icc. the bla~acr can s1.vitch
frnm one container tn thc othn dcpending on which parl of thc round he is
charging. the contour or thc main round. It is also possiblc to mix ANFO and
Emulct in thc same holc. if an cxplosivc with a bulk strength between ANFO
and Emule! is rcquircd. c.g. in the row closcst to thc contour orina tunnel cut.
Sec Fi¡!. :la. 10.
EMULAN.
Emulan is a hybrid product. 1.vhich is a mixture of ANFO and bulk Emulite. 111
thc mixcd product. the air spaccs hetwcen thc prills in the ANFO are filled with
emulsion cxplosive, rcsultíng in a sound increasc in both encrgv and dcnsily.
28
Fig. 3a.1 l ANFO EMULAN
As thc airspaccs betwecn thc ANFO pril!s are fillcd with Emulitc with cxccllent
water rcsistancc propcrtics. blasting agcnts with good to cxcellent water resist-
ancc can be manufaeturcd.
Thc ratio Emulitc/ ANFO may be varicd from 20/80 in dry eonditions to 80/20 in
cxtrcmcly wcl conditions.
Another advantage of filling up the airspaccs bctwccn the ANFO prills is that
dcnsity is íncrcascd with an explosivc material. thus drastically incrcasing the
cnerg~· contcnt.
Duc to thc higher dcnsity and higher energy con ten t. up to 40 % more rock can
be blasted per drillmctcr compared witll ANFO. Thc burdcn ami spaeing can
both be incrcascd by 20 %.
In most cases EMULAN has proved to be an cconomic altcrnativc to ANFO,
espccially ín scvcrc water conditions.
29
Special products.
FRAGl\1EX is a slwpcd
chargc. spccially dcvclopcd
for undcrwalcr and scismíc
opcrations. Usin¡l shapcd
chargcs. underwatcr rock
blasting can be carricd out
wíth bcttc.r tcchnical and
cco11omical rcsulls ;1! bcnch
hcights of less !han l .:'i rn.
Spccial products.
Frag.mcx.
Nobel Prime.
Dynamex AM. Dynamcx M. Gttrit, Primcx. Fragmcx and Nobel Prime are
trademarks of Nitro Nobel AB, Sweden.
Emulite, EMULAN and Emulct are trademarks of Nitro Nobel AB, Swcden
and its licensecs.
31
1)imcnsions. wci¡.d1ts ;1 mi p;1cki11g:
29 x2UO 175 g
40X2()(} .\20 g
Dynamex M 50 X 5SO 1.4 kg Phst ic hoscs
55 X 550 17 kg
65x550 2.4 kg
80x-.lUO 2.7 kg
90x375 3.0 kg
125x:n5 5.4 kg
Dynamcx IV! 25x I l 10 0.74 kg Plast ic pipes
29 X 1110 O.<J8 kg
32x 1110 1.2 kg
39xlll0 !.6 kg
Guril 11X 4()() 50 g Plastíc pipes
17X500 115 g
22x725 3 JO g
Emulitc 150 22 X 200 ')O g Papcr cartridgcs
25x200 11 () g
29 X21JO 150 g
40x20o 280 g
Emulitc 150 25X 1110 () fr.jkg Plastic tuhcs
29xl l llJ 0.86 kg
32xlll0 l .05 kg
3<)x 1110 l. 5.4 kg
Emulitl' 150 -.!3 X 550 0.90 kµ. Plast ic hoscs
50 X 550 1.30 kg
55 X 550 1.50 kg
60 X 550 l.8(J kg
65 X 55() 2.20 kg.
75X550 2. 70 kg.
hagrncx 4 4.2 kg Plastic cover
8 8.2 kg
Nobel rrimc 25 X 150 100 g Pbstic tubc
J2 X 15() 165 g
Primcx l 7x 150 ~
'í?- b() Plastic lubc
Concussion chargc M SIM 0.5 kg Plastic hoscs
3b. Firing devices.
3h. I General.
Bcforc w¡l!iarn Bickford invcntcd thc "Mincrs Safcty Fusc" in 1831, thc initia-
tion of b!asts was a hazardous task. A lot of more or less dangcrous mcthods were
app!icd to initiate black powder. With the invcntion ofthe safcty fuse, the blaster
was givcn thc focilíty to initíate black powdcr wíth reasonable prccision and
rcliability.
Thc incrcased use or nitroglyccrin in the l 850s and of dynamite in the l860s,
madc it ncccssary to supplement the safcty fuse with a detonator, as thc safety
fuse alonc could not ínitíatc the ncw explosives.
Alfrcd Nobel's invention of the fulminatc of mercury blasting cap in 1867 made
thc initiation of ali cxplosivcs safer and more efficíent.
Dctonators in civil use havc all been devcloped from Nobel's basic ideas.
33
Thc introduction of the elcctric rnilli-sccond dctonalor has lk'Cll of utmost
importancc for the dcvc!opmcnt of' ncw blasting tcchniqucs, whcrc tlm1\1'.
fragmcntation and ground \'Íhrations can be controllcd in Jargc blasting rounds,
Elcctric initiation has bccn more widcly acccptcd in Europc than in U .S.A.,
whcre non-elcctric firing mcthods are more commonly used.
Latcly. a ncw 11011-ckctric milli-sccond dctonator. NON EL has come into widc
use. lts inhcrcnt short dela\· charar.:tcristics are thc samc as for its c!cctric
countcrpart. hut thc clcctric haz;mls havc hccn eliminated by rcplacing thc
clectrír.: wircs with a shock tube.
The firing mcthods can be divided into two main groups:
Non-clcctric
Safcty fusc with plain dctonator
Dctonatíng cord
NON EL
Elcctric dctonators
To initiate the cxplosivc. a plain dctonator has to be attached to thc safety fusc.
Duc to varying scnsitivity of diffcrcnt cxplosivcs. detonators of different
strcngt hs are availablc. Thc strcngth of thc deto11ator is exprcssed in numbers, of
which #6 and #8 are prcscntly availablc on the markct. Thc #8 detonator
contains approximatcly 1.0 gram ofhigh cxplosives and the #6 contains approxi-
mately 0.8 gram. As cxplosivcs havc bccomc safcr to handle and thus lcss
scnsitivc to impacL thc #8 dctonator has bccomc more widcly uscd.
Thc p!ain dctonator consists of an aluminum or coppcr cy!indcr which is closed at
onc cnd. A chargc of high cxplosivc, likc hcxytol. tetry! or similar. is placed in
thc base of thc cy!indcr. 011 top of thc base chargc, a primary charge is placed
nonna!ly lcad azídc. Thc prímary chargc is sensilivc to initiation by thc cndspit
of thc sa!'cty fusc and subscquent!y initiatcs !he base charge.
Thc lcngth of thc safcty fw;c should gcncra!ly not fa!! bclow 1.0 m. but for single
shots a lcngth of0.6 m may be allowcd. l-lowcvcr. thc fusc should havc sufficicnt
lcngth to cxcccd thc collar of thc blastholc with at lcast O. 1 rn.
A safcty fusc may be lit by using matchcs or, bcttcr. specia! igniter torches.
Whcn severa! fuscs are lit, a control fusc. thc lcngth of which is 0.6 m shorter
than thc shortcst fusc of thc round, may be lit and carricd around as an extra
safcty mcasure. Whcn thc control fusc has burnt out. the blasting crcw should
cvacuatc thc blasting sitc immcdiatcly.
Whcn a largc amounl of fu ses are to be lit in t he same arca, it may be practica! to
u~c i¡:.nitc-r cord and bcan-holc connectors. Thc bcan·l10lc conncctor. which
35
Lighting end Detonator end
~j
@iiiecqp~~
¡
/
r D l,¡
r"wi ·-)¡~----~~ \,.
ú
1 Vig. 3h.3 /\sse111hlr (~r ¡;loin dc1011111or wul !1 sa/i·tr firsr'.
contains a pyrochemical compound, is crímpcd to thc cnd nf thc safcty fuse and
the ígníter cord is ínserted ínto a slot ín !he bcan-holc conncctor. Whcn the
ignítcr cord ís lit, ít ignitcs tll<.' conncctm. which in turn lights thc s¡¡fcty fusc.
1
! 3b.2.2 Detonating con!.
l
lj Dctonating cord is a vcry common firing dcvicc throughout !he wmld. lt has
l cspccially bccn adoptcd in countrics with dífficu!t clímatíc conditions, with
¡ l"requcnt thundcrstorm;;. whích dís;tl!ows the use of clectric firing systc1m.
¡
·)
.¡ J\part from being uscd in difficult clt:ctríc conditions, it is a!so uscd whcn an
¡ cxnct simultancous detonation of severa! hoks is dcsirecL as in presplittíng.
Detonatíng cord is also used as a supplcmcnt to other l'iring rnethods in blast-
1!
hoks that are ragged and difficul! to clwrgc.
The detonating cord consists of a PETN corc, which is wrapped in covcrings of
textiles, wa!crproofing materials and plastics.
Thc: detonating cord may be init ía!cd 1vith a # () st rength dctona!or and detona tes
along its cntirc lcngth with a vclocity of ahout 7.000 mcters per sccond. lt
initiates most cxplosivcs, but can; must be takcn when detonating cord is used
together wíth ANFO in small and medium size b!astholes, whcrc c:ords 1vith low
corc load tcnd to givc inclomplctc initiation and sometí mes cause dead prcssing
of thc ANFO.
Detonating cord is manufacturcd with core loads ranging from 3 grams per meter
to 80 grams per meter. Thc most widcly uscd cord has acore load of !O grams per
meter (50 grains per foot). Thc powerfu! detonating cords with core loads of 40
and 80 grarns per meter are mainly uscd for seismic prospecting and othcr spccial
purposes .
.16
~1
M ultiple-row blasting can be carríed out with detonatíng cord. where the delays
bctwcen the rows are obtained by means of relay connectors. A wide range of
relays with dc!ay times from 5 ms to 50 ms are availablc from different manu-
facturers.
Connection of detonating cord:
* kcep cach conncction ata right angJc. Plastic connectors are convcni-
ent and rcliable.
the distance bctween parallcl cords should be no less than 0.2 m.
" the distance between rclay connector and parallel corcl should be at
lcast 1.0 m.
" no kinks or loops are pcrmitted in thc round.
the initiating detonator should always be pointcd m thc desired
dircction of the dctonating cord detonation.
3b.2.3 Electric firing.
Thc introduction of electric firing gave a higher degree of safety for the people
involved in blasting operations.
Thc blastcr becamc able to fire thc blast from a protccted arca and could have
thc momcnt of firing complctely under control.
As it became possible to check with instruments that all the detonators were
connectcd. thc risk of mísfires dccreasccl.
37
Thc introduction of shor\ dclay blasting revolutionized thc rock blasting tcch-
nique. making it possiblc to ovcrcornc thc probkms with ¡uound vibrntions and
incrcasc thc sizc of thc rounds.
Elcctric dctonators can be dividcd into tilrcc díffcrcnt classcs duc to thcir
inhercnl liming pnipl'rlics:
instantancous dctonators
' milli-sccond dctonators
' half-sccond dcton;1tors
Tlw i11slan1:1nclH!s tkluiwtor is a dl'\'l'i\lp1nl·111 o!' tlw pl:iin dctoiwtor. whcrL' tlic
safcty fusc has bccn rcphced by clcuric lcgwircs anda fuschcad which liurns ami
ignitcs thc primary chargc whcn thc bridge wirc rcccivcs an clectric currcnt.
lnstantancous dcton;1tors are used for stonc and bouldcr blasting. prcsplitting
etc .. whcre no dclay hctwccn the dillercnt charges is ncedcd nor dcsircd.
Thc millisceond dclay dctonator has a built·in rnillisccond dchy clcmcnt which
dclays thc dctonation a prcdctcrrnincd time. To be considcrcd a 111iliisccond
cicla y dctonatoc thc delay bctwecn cach intcrval ín thc series should not cxcccd
100 ms (O. J scc). Thc Nitro N()bcl millisecond dela y series has 20 intcrvals wílh
25 ms delay bctwccn cach interval.
Thc millisccond series may be prolonged with dccisccond ( 1()[) ms) delays for
tunncling.
Millisecond delay dcton;itors are rnainlv usl'.d f'or bcnch and trcnch blasting.
Thc half-sccond dclay dctonator has a 500 111s (0.5 sec) dclay hctwccn the
intcrvals. lt is intcndcd cxclu~ivcly for tunncl :'lasting whcrc longer dclays are
rcquirccl ro ¡ireparc spacc for tllc movcmcnt of thc b!asted rock masscs.
Thc clcctric dctonators availablc 011 thc 111arkct may roughly be.' dividcd into:
convcntional dctonators
high safcty detonatms
Thc classífication is basccl 011 thc dctonators· inhcrcnt capacity to withstand
cxtrancous elcctric hazards.
A couple of cxamplcs:
High safety dctonalors of VA typc can be uscd undcr a 70 kV powerlinc whilc
thc safcty distancc for a co11vcntio11al dctonator is 200 ni.
,. The MS series of thc VA-systcm is prolongcd wíth 100 ms intcrvals from No. 20
to No. 44 (20_ 24. 28 etc.) and with 150 ms intcrvals from No. 44 to No. 80 (44, 50
etc.)
Thc VA-OD dctonator has a spccially strong plastic covcr on the Jegwírcs. The
ddonator has doublc aluminum capsules for protcctíon in heavy duty applica-
tions. The VA-OD dctonator is dcvclopcd for undcrwater blasting whcrc the
detonators are subjecl to stress from rough handling.
Thc charactcristic of the V A-dctonator is thus íts grcater degrcc of safcty against
unintcntional initiation. The hígh rcsistancc. which is 3.6 ohms irrcspcctive of
the lcgwirc length. makes it ncccssary to use a 30 times highcr firíng impulse than
for conventional dctonators. As the legwires form part of the V A-detonators
safcly propcrtics. they should never be cut. For further safety, the V A-detonator
is supplied with an attached connectíon slecvc whích gives rationa! and safe
connection.
39
3b.2.3a Connccting the dectric round.
Thc clcctric detonators can
be connectcd in series or in
parallcL dcpcnding on thc
amount of dctonators in thc
round and thc c!ectric data
of thc b!asling machinc
availablc.
··..
41
4
Possible errors during measuring:
Rcsistancc too iligh:
Largcr numbcr o!' dctona-
tors !han calculatnl.
Sub-division into series
wrongly carricd out.
Poor contact in sorne con-
ncct itHl or dctnn:itor.
Rcsistancc too hl\\''.
Al! dctonators are not
conncctcd in to thc circuiL
Sub-divísion into series
wrongly carricd out.
Somc par! of the rouncl
110! conncctcd in to thc cir-
cu it.
lnfinitc rcsistancc:
Intcrruption in series
through incomplctc con-
ncction,
hg, 31>,8 Ohm meter GA12.
Fau!ty dctonator (usua!ly
torn off lcgwírc),
RIM l.
Rcsistancc ami !nsulation Meter.
RIM 1 is a combina! ion instrumcnt
for mcasurcmcnt of' rcsistancc a11d
insulation in clcctrically initiatcd
blasting rounds, Thc instrumcnt is
providcd with thrcc tcrmin;il clips for
COll!lCClÍOll of thc objccts lll be lllC<!S-
llíCd,
Thc ccntcr and ldt clips me uscd !or
mcasurerncnt of rcsistancc. Thc ccn-
tcr aml right clips are uscd for insula-
tíon tcsting. The instrument is auto-
starting and auto-rnnging. Al! lhc
operator has to do is to conncct thc
round (or part of thc round) to thc
corrcct tcrrninals and rcad the valuc
at thc digital display.
Thc displaycd valuc is automatica!Jy
roundcd off to thc accuracy nccdcd
for practi;:al bbsting work, Vig, 3h,9 R!M /,
42
Thc instrumrnt is providcd with a built-ín sclf-tcst functíon, which givcs a display
reading of 5.0 to 5.3 whcn the test button is prcssed. Thc test consists of an
ínsulatíon measuremcnt of an interna! resistor.
Thc rcsistance is mcasurcd with a dircct currcnl (DC) of max. 2 mA.
The insulation is tcstcd with alternating curren! (AC) to reduce thc influence
frorn possihle voltaic ce!ls created by the metal in the blasting round wircs and
salt so!ution in the ground. Such voltaic ec!ls can inf!ucncc mcasurerncnt with
dircct current (DC) to such dcgrec that actual earth faults escapes detection.
Thc instrurncnt is powercd with a 9V baltery size 6F22 and indica tes when there
is time to exchangc battcry.
CI 50 (2VA):
This is the smallcst blasting machine
in thc range and it is dcsigncd for the
firing of maxirnum 2 V A-dctonators
or 50 conventional dctonators. It is
chéirgcd by means of an índuction gc-
ncrntor drivcn by a hand crank. Thc
chargc rnrrcnt is 340 V and it takes
about 5 scconds to charge the ma-
chinc. Thc füing curren! is autorna-
!ically rcleascd. which means that
you crank until firing occurs.
43
Cil5VA:
This is a somewhat largcr capacitor
blasting machi ne with an inductor gc-
ncrator drivcn by a lrnnd crank.
!t can be chargcd lo 600 V in aboul
10 scconds. A dial shows whcn thc
blasting rnachinc is fully chargcd.
The chargc curren! is high. thcrdore
lile blasting ma<:hinc is lwo-lwnd
operatcd to avoid clcctrical accidents
and reduce thc risk of accidental fir-
ing.
This hlasting machi ne is dcsigncd for
thc blasting of up to l5 VA-dctona-
tors in onc series with 10 Ohms firing Fíg. 3b.ll C! 15 VA.
cable rcsistance. Thc Jowcst conncc-
tion rcsistancc to thc blasting ma-
chine should he not kss tlwn :\.5
Ohms.
CB 20 VA:
CB 20 VA is a capacitor blasting nrnchinc dcsigncd for thc firing of up to 20 V/\
dctonators connectcd in onc series and with a fíríng cable resistan ce of 5 Ohms.
The blasting machine is battcry powcrcd and of a t\vo-hand opcrntion typc to
minimizc thc risk of accidental firíng. Thc four NíCd-aecumulators powcring thc
machinc are placed in thc handlc. ·rhc accumulators are rccharged by connecting
thc tcrminals of t he h!astíng machi ne to a 12 to 14 V DC powcr sourcc. e .g. thc
cigarcttc lighter sockct of a car.
If nccessary, lhc accumulators may
be rcp!accd hy four alkalinc battcr- t''
ics. ~
The control panel has three signa[
larnps indicating:
1. lf accumulator charge is suffi-
cient.
2. That thc rcsistancc of a ONE SE-
R! ES round is wíthin thc capacity
of the blasting machín e.
3. That the capacitor is clrnrgcd and Fi¡;. 3h.12 CB 20 VA.
rcady for firíng.
44
CI 160 VA:
With !he CI 160 VA it is possiblc to
adjust thc accumulated cncrgy. and
thcrcby the firing pulse. to suit the
round lO be fircd. evcn when the
round contains considcrably less de-
tonators than can be handled by thc
bl;1sti11¡.i: machinc.
Fu!I cncrgy accurnulalion is only
u sed whcn it is actually required. The
voltage is kept as low as possible to
minimíze thc risk of currcnt lcakage.
Thc machine is charged up by an
cfficient hand crankcd gcncrator.
Thc maximum voltagc (1950 V) is
rcachcd in approx. 20 scc. The char-
ge leve] is índicated on a meter which
has four divisions (1- 1V). The rc-
quircd chargc levcls are shown on a
tab!c on thc rnachinc's instruction
platc.
Fii. 3b.13 Cl 160 VA.
Vi\ 1- 10 1 -10
11 11-40 11-40
¡¡¡ 41-70 4 l - 70
2 21-45 42-90
IV 1 71-100 71-100
2 46- 70 92-140
3 31-50 93-150
45
CI 330 VA:
Thc CI 330 VA blasting ma-
chinc is similar to Cl 160 V A
but is dcsigncd for thc hlast-
ing of up to 330 V A dcto11a-
tors in one roun<l. Thc ma-
chine is charged by mea ns of
a hand-cr:rnkcd 12enerator
und is of a two-lwnd opcra-
tion typc to minimizc thc
risk of accidental firing. Thc
CI 330 V A is vcry robust und
fitted with heat ami cold re-
sistan\ capacitors.
;,,,.''
,' •'
·'·-_.· ~
_.,,.:, --:.·:·
Fig. 3h. l 6 V S /, 2 Lighrning .fór<'casling sysl<'m.
48
3b.2.4 NONEL.
With the invcntion of NONEL. blasters wcrc providcd with a long sought
rcplaccmcnt for thc clectric dctonator which possesscs thc advantages of thc
clcctric dclonator but none of its disadvantages.
NONEL is complctcly irnmunc to any clcctric hazard and is thus ideal whcn
clcctríc firing is ncither possiblc nor pcrmitted.
Thc NON EL dctonator functions asan elcctric dela y dctonator. but the legwires
and thc fuschcad havc bccn rcplaced by a plastic tube through which a shock
wa\'C is transrnitted. Thc cndspit of thc shock wavc from the plastíc tu be initiatcs
thc dclay clcmcnt in thc dctonator.
Thc plastic tubc. which has an outcr diamctcr of 3 mm is coatcd on thc inside
with a thin !ayer of reactive material_ which transmits thc shock wavc with a
velocity of approx. 2.000 mctcrs pcr sccond. The plastic is unaffcctcd by the
shock wavc and \VÍ!I conscquently not initiale any explosives column it gocs
through.
Two NON EL systems are available:
NONEL GT
' NONEL UNIDET
49
Fig. 3!>.17
NONEJ,GT!MS NON EL UB O
detonutor
~
1
5 5 5 5 i 5 6
~
Fig. 3h.J9 NONEL GTIMS co1111ectC'd 10 UB O in be11ch blasting.
8 6 4
51
Thc NONEL GT/MS dc(o-
nators may also be conncc-
tcd to dctonating cord if
noise is no problcm. The
NONEL tubcs shou!d be
connected to thc detonating
cord with a MULTICUP as
thc NONEL tuhcs ought to
he perpendicular ln thc
cord. Each l'v1lJLTICUP
can take up to 2 NON EL tu-
bes togcthcr with thc conl.
Fig. 3h.21 MU!_ T!CL!P.
The NONEL GT/T is dcsigncd spccia!ly l"or tunnc! h!asting. Thc ddays are
longer ihan in the NON EL GT/MS system as more time is nccdcd for brcakagc
and movcmcnt of thc rock in thc constrictcd tunncl b!asts.
The delay times bctwccn thc pcriods vary lrom 75 ms to 500 ms and 25 pcriods
are availablc.
The standard tubc kngths are (1.fl ;n1d 7.K rn hui othcr lcngths are availahlc on
special on.lcr.
52
Thc simples! way of connccting NON EL GTrr is by using the NONEL Bunch
Conncctor. which consists of a loop of dctonating cord (E-cord) connccted to a
UB O connector unit.
Connection procedure:
Thc NONEL tubes. which
should be around 2 m longer
than the hole depth. are col-
!cctcd in bunchcs \vith a
maximum of 20 tubes in
cach. Thc bunch is sccurcd
with insulation tape. A
NONEL Bunch Conncctor
1s thoroughly tightened
around thc bunch. Immcdi-
atcly bcforc ev;;cuation of
thc blasting site. thc bunch
conncctors are conncctcd to
a conncctor unit UB ()ora
Startcr aner which thc
round is rc;1dy for hlasting. Fig. 3b.23 Connecrion of lllnne! round 1vith
NONEL !31111ch Co1111ect0rs.
Thc bunchcs may ;liso be ticd up and conncctcd together with 5 gr detonating
cord. As the amount of cord on thc rock surfacc is grcatcr in this case, thcrc is an
incrcascd risk of cut-offs and subscqucnt misfircs.
Thc standard tube lcngths of NON EL GT/MS dctonators are 4.8, 7.8 and 15.0
m. Othcr lcngths can be ordcrcd from 2.4 m and upwards in intcrvals of 0.6 m.
NONEL GT/T is only manufactured in standard lcngths of 6.0 and 7.8 m.
53
Dcscription Dclay (rns) Standnrd tubc lcngtb (m)
Dcnom inations:
Thc basis of thc UNID ET. systcm is thc dctonator with SOO ms dclay which is
known as U 500. Thc standard lcngths of thc tubc are 4.8. 6.0. 7.8 and 15.0 ni.
but other lcngths may be ordcred from 2.4 m and upwards in 0,6 m intcrvals.
For thc conncction of thc round, four díffcrcnt kinds of connccting units are
availablc.
)-f
Three with a built-in dela y of 17 ms. 25 ms and 42 ms respcctively. the fourth is
the connector wíth no dclay which is mentioncd in the NONEL GT systcm.
The standard tubc !engths are 2.4 and 4.8 m but, as in the case of thc detonators.
thcy may be nrnnufactured in any length in 0.6 m interva!s.
--·~~~·~·--~----------
NONEL UNIDET
Dcnomination u 500
Dclay rns 500
Conncctor
Color Yellow Bluc Red Green
Dcnomínatíon UB O UB 17 UB 25 UB 42
Dclay rns () 17 25 42
-~-,-·,__,,,,-~,--,-~
·---~---•:---.....~· ~
!'ll"'"·~--~.Jr.t-~---..~~--~111:--J~~
,tp----"--------~"-----41111:::--.J. .~
'11""'-----~J:r~~~_....~~---..,.,~--J~
55
Fig. 3h.26 Co11necrio11 o( trcnc/i hf11s1i11g ro1111<1 wirh NOi'v'I:L UN!DCT
¡¡
!!
¡;
¡!
li
!i,,
;·
PN 1:
PN 1 is a pncumatically opc-
ratcd blasting machinc dc-
signcd to stand in thc vicinity
of thc round and be remotc-
ly actuatcd by cornprcsscd
air. Thus thc blastcrs safety
is assurcd and saYings are
madc in NONEL startcr
tu bes.
Snap-on air-linc couplings
allow thc machinc to be mo-
ved hctwccn !ocations anda
safcty !ock is providcd to
Fig. 3b.28 PN J.
preven\ prcmaturc firing.
3c. ACCESSORIES,
5
57
Drill hole plugs.
Dril! holc pi ugs prcvent thc
fínished dril! holc from bc-
comíng blockcd by dírL
grave!, dril! cuttings cte.
CíltCl'Íllg at thc coJJ;ir of thc
holc.
Thc plug's vivid red coloring
also serves as an cffcctívc
markcr.
Typc Plug dia. Dril! holc día.
min/max m in/max
mm mm
#1 29-- 50 34-45
#2 39-60 45-57
#3 57-1 !5 M-110
Chargc locks.
Chargc locks prevent the
chargc from hcing blown out
of thc b!ast holc dunng fir-
ing. Two sizes me av:1ilablc:
Typc Blast holc día.
min/max mm
#! 31-43
#2 43-64
Scc Fig. 8. l l.
Tampíng rods.
Plastíc tamping rods are csscntial for a good standard of packing during charging
with papcr cartridgcs.
Standard rangc:
Díamctcr Lcngth
25 mm 3, 5 and 8 m
40 mm 3 and (i m.
Tamping rods may also be made of wood or hamboo. 1t is irnportant that its
diarnetcr is c!ose to thc diamcter of thc blastholc.
58
4. BLASTING THEORY
hg. 4.1 Radial crnck for111111io11. hg. 4.3 Co111prcs.1it·e srrcss w111"cs.
Thc cxplosivcs rcaction in thc blasl holc is vcry fast and thc cffcctivc work or thc
cxplosivc is considcrcd complctcd whcn thc blastholc volumc has cxpandcd to
!O times its original volumc which takcs approx. 5 ms.
Thc fo!lowing grnph shows how thc cxpansion oí !he hlastholc is rclatcd to tí me.
(J[)
V /Vo V cxpandcd blastholc volumc
V., origina! blastholc volume /
I
I
10 /
8 3
6~
4
2
1
1
o 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.5 2 3 5 10 ms
61
5. BENCH BLASTING
5.1 General
Bcnch blasting is !he mosl common kind of blasling work. lt can be dcfincd as
blasting of vertical or closc to vertical blastholcs in onc or severa! rows towards a
free surfacc. Thc blastholcs can havc free brcakage or fixed boltom.
62
Fig. 5.2 Frff hreakage. Fig. 5.3 Fixed botrom.
13 tn;i.'\ e=·~~~-
p·s -
....,...., _ . ,,
.).) e · f · Sí B
whcrc
B,mx = maximum burdcn ( lll)
d ""'diamctcr in thc hottum of thc blastholc (mm)
p "'packing dcgrcc (loading dcnsit:-·) (kg.litcr)
s "'wcight strcngth of thc cxplosÍ\l' (EMUUTE l:'\O~·IJ.9:'\)
65
5.2 Charge calculations. BENCH .. ,,.,.,
,.........sp:i.:::in:g
Bcnch hcight ;:;:2x Bm:ix· .. }.P:::t(1n1.
Calrnlation proccdurc:
Thc maximum burden in thc
bottom of thc blastholc dc-
pcnds on:
wcight strcngth of thc actu-
al cxplosivc (s)
" chargc conccntration (lh) rock
* rock constant (e) /'
constriction of thc blastholc ,';
,/ i
(R1)
// Cons!riction
Chargc conccntration. kg/m, for drill series 11 and 12. Tarnpcd cxplosives.
Blastho!c cliametcr. mm
27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39
Eml50 0.66 0.71 0.76 0.81 0.87 0.92 0.98 1.04 J. 11 1.17 1.24 1.30 1.37
Dx M 0.69 0.74 0.79 0.85 0.91 0.96 l.03 1.09 1.16 1.22 1.29 1.36 1.43
67
hí Chargc co11cc11tr;11 io1i. ]¡,. for cxplosivcs in plastic lwscs at difkrcnt dcgrccs of
com prcssion.
E 0.3
e 5
Cl>
'2::> 0.4
.o
4 0.5
xro
:::;;
3
$ 5,1 64 76 89 102
'
Bu!k Emulíte
(¡ 51 64 76 89 102 i27
'
ANFO
~ 32 40 5,i 64 76 89
Dynamex M. p. 1.25
Fig. 5.4 The i11jl11cnce of c/1111p,e concrn1rilfion 011 11wxi111w11 lwrd('11, 13,,,,,,..
(Íí\
:>. Ctlrrcction of 13,,"" for dif-
krcn! rock constan! c.
!""
¡ e () ..\ OA 0.5
i
O. l)()
L R. 1.15 l.llO
:u 0.3·Bmax
Depth ofthe hole = bcnch hc-
ight + subdrilling + S cm!m of
thc dcpth of the blastholc duc
10 3: 1 inclination.
H = K+U+0.05(K+U)
H = I.05(K+U) (ml
¡/
K
// ~
u
¡:
/J
ji to
s
Practica! hole spacing Sis cal-
culatcd from thc rclation
S = l.25 X B (m)
Spacing is thc distance be-
twccn the adjacent blastholes
in a row.
= 1.25·8
lf thc ratio SiB is changcd //
!,'
72
Thc bottom charge will thcn
be:
(kg)
Stemming.
The unloadcd part of the
blastholc, the stemming, is
normally cqual to thc hmden:
(m)
Thc stemming should consist
of sand or grave! with a parti-
cle size of 4 to 9 mm. Research
has shown that this sizc givcs /'
the bcst confinemcnt of the
ho
1
,¡
¡~
ri! Thc column clrnrge is t hcn
!'.
1 (!<g)
i
74
Thc total charge per hole is
thc bottom chargc plus thc
column chargc.
º'º' = Qh + º" (kg)
Ob +Oc
75
EXAMPLE SHOWING HOW THE CALCULATION FOR BEN CH BLASTING
rsCARRIED OUT:
Conditions:
Bench hcight: K = 15 111
Width of thc round: \V= 26 1ll
Blastholc diamctcr: d = 76 111111
Rock constan!: c =- 0.4
Holc ínclination: 3: l
Explosivc: Emulitc l 50 in 65 mm plastíc hoscs dropt in to
thc holc.
Charging condition: Dry boles
l. Maximum burden.
B""" = l.45\/i;~ Chargc conccntration. !¡,.is found in table la
¡ind is in this case :'i.O kg/m. No corrcction for
holc inclination or rock constan!.
13 111 " = I.45 \/{O= 3.24 m
t
~
2. Suhdrilting.
1 u = 0.3 X 13,mx U = 0.3 X 3.24 = 0.97 111
¡¡!
,, 3. Depth of blaslhole.
,¡~
¡r H -·· I.05(K+U) 1-1 ""' l.lJ5( I:'i.0+0.97) = 16.76 m
¡!
¡¡
4. Error in dril!ing.
I!í d 76
+ 0.03 = 0.58
j F ""~- + 003 X H E = --- X 16.76 111
! 1()()(} !000
5. Practica! burden.
B ·-
B""" - F B = 3.24 - 0.58 = 2.66 111
6. Practica! spacing.
S= 1.25 X B S = 1.25 X 2.66 = 3.32 m
Note tha! thc numbcr of holcs in a row is thc numhcr of spaccs +l.
8. Spccific drilling.
nxH 9xl6.76
b = ··-···---·-- b = 0.145 m/cu.m.
Bx K x w 2.66 X 15.0 X 26.0
Calculation of chargcs.
12. Stcmming.
h.,= B h., = 2.66 m
77
1f thc blast is not limikd to a ccnain arca. thc spccific drilling and spccific chargc
1víll be lowcr.
!n thc abovc examplc. thc spccífic chargc wi!I then be:
45.75
q q ------------·--- = {l.3~ kg/ct1.1n.
BxSxK 2.h6X.\ ..i2X 15.0
Jn quarrying thcrc is no nccd to adj ust t he spacing bctwccn 1he holcs and numbcr
or hnlcs ín aceord:rncc with thc 11·idth of thc cut.
rr-
,
~
034mm
1
/
033mm
!
'
l
032rnrn
/
03lrnm
lkndi hc'i¡:h1 K (m) 2.0 .1.11 .'\.:i 4.0 .\.) :i.O 5.:i
H"k dianwkr d (llllll) 31 31 ~I N N W ~ n
Ilok dq,1h 11 (lll) 2.)0 3.SS 4. iO .l.W 5. lll 5.60 6. l:i
Pr;iclil':il hunkn ll (111) 10 120 .1.'í 1.10 1. 10 1.0:i 1.00 0.95
P1;lrlic;!I s.p:1<.:in~ s (fll) l.'i() .¡5 1 Hl 3.'i l.:ltl 1.25 1.20
Stcmuúng h.. (lll) 10 1.20 l.'í 1.10 1.10 1.05 l.ll(} 0.9.'i
BoHnm <..'lrnr~c:
("1.mci.:111r:ttion l., (kg!m) 0.87 0.87 0.81 O. 76 0.76 0.71 0.71 0.66
lkighl h.. (111) !411 170 1 70 l .li'i 1.6) 1.60 1.60 l.:i:i
\\,.eigh1 o, (kg) 1.211 uo 1.411 1.25 l .2S \.IS l.15 1.110
{'o\umn dwr~~;
(·,)nci..'nlratít'll 1, (lll) 0.-l.l 11.¡.¡ IJ..11 11 ..li\ IUX IUh 0 31> 0.33
l friµh! h. (m) 000 O.l:i 11.70 1 ~:i 1.85 2.·15 3.00 3.65
Wcíghl º· (k.~) 11.1111 O.lo IUO 11.:iO U.711 0.90 1.05 1.20
Tnl:d ch~1r~L'
º···· (kg) 1.20 1.60 1.70 l.7:i 1.95 2.115 2.20 2.20
S¡wcific drilling \l (111.CU 111) 11.8..\2 ll.!178 11710 () 761 11.77(1 (),K'\I) 11.8% 11.980
Spt..».:il11..- ch:1q!t.' q (kµcu m) 11.411 IU6 o.;;.t O..\; o.:n 1i.:;.:; IU5 0.3.1
Thc rcduction of thc diarnctcr of thc blasthole for cach dril! rod used has to be
takcn into account in thc drill and chargc calculations.
Drilling <md ch'tr~Ín~ t<ibk for dril! series 12
Bl:istbolc di<ill1L'lcr 40-29 mm.
Explosíw: Emulilc !SO
Hok inclination· J: 1
lk11ch hc'igh1 K (m) .'\.O :U 4.0 4.5 5.0 :\5 (l.0 6.5
1h>k diamckr ti (mm) )() 15 35 34 :i!> .).) .i2 32.
llok <kp1h ll (ll1) .'.ó5 4.20 4.70 '.i.20 5.70 ú.25 6.7) 7.25
Prac1 ic;il hunkn B (m) 1.40 l. 3'i U:\ 1.30 l.25 120 l.15 1.15
P1 act ical spacin? s (111) 1.75 1.75 1.71) l.60 1.55 uo 1.45 I.40
Stemmin,µ h.. (m) IAO l.:'>5 uo l.25 1.20 l ¡:; 1.15
Bottom charµl':
(\niú.'nlratíon 1,, (kgim) l.17 I.ll l.ll l.04 0.98 0.98 0.92 0.92
lki~bl h,. (m) 2.0ll 2.011 2.00 l .90 1.90 1.90 l.80 1.80
\\·'t.;i,µ.ht o, (kg) :Uo 2.20 2.20 2.Ull 1.90 l. <JO 1.70 l.70
Column chargc:
( 'onccntra1ion 1, (m) 0.59 0.56 0.56 0.52 0.49 0.49 0.46 0.46
lkigh1 h, (m) 0.25 11.S:i 1 35 2.00 2.55 3 1:\ 3.80 4.30
Wcight Ü, (kg) O.IS 0.:\0 0.75 !.OS 1.25 1.55 1.75 2.00
Total chargc o,,., (kg) 2.45 2.70 2.95 3.05 3.!5 3.45 :us }.70
Spccific drilling b (micu.m) 0.497 0.508 O.Sl 1 0Si6 0.589 ll.63! 0.675 (1.700
Spccilic char¡;c q (k~!cu.m) <U3 IU:l íl.33 0.33 IU3 0.35 0.35 0.36
lf cxcavation 1s not carricd out bctwcen t11c rounds. it may be ncccssary to
in crease the specífic chargc.
This can be done eithcr by dcnscr drilling or by incrcasing the conccntration of
thc column chargc.
Norma!ly thc lattcr alternativc will suffícc.
79
For hole inclinations other than 3: 1. thc corree! hurden B ami spacing S are
obtained by multiplying by the appropriatc rcduction fnctor in table 2. pagc 69.
( 'olumn charµ.c:
( ~orH:t:ntrat i(HJ 1, (111) 1.1) l. 1;; l. 1;; 1.1 :i 1.1.1 1 l:'í 1.15 1 l .'i
! lcight h, (m) O.Oll IUO 1.O:' JI>:'> 2 20 2. ill :Uo .1 Sil
\Vc·ip.lil o. 1kg) 11.1111 1}.(i{) 1.20 1 •Jo 2.50 :i 10 >.711 .uo
Tul;1! chargt._· o. . (kg) (), 711 '7..lll 7.<Jll S.hll 'l.2ll 1U:ll lll ·111 11 111
Spceific drillinµ h f11t:\'<1 m) 11.2·!.'i <l.2·1.'i 11 ..'.17 0.~5~ 0.2Sú o.~:':; ll,2)rl o.~.~7
Spi.:rifíe charge q (kp.·rn.111) O.\; O..\.\ O. >3 o.~:~ o.3.1 o__n n.~3 o.Yí
l lok dcpth !I {lll) 1>.lll 7.211 •Ull llUll 11 ..lll 12 ..w 1.' :i11
Pi ;1clical bunk'n B (m) 2.511 2..1:; 2.-lO 2.~ll 2.::.:; 2.30
P1ac1i,·al :-.pai.:ínµ s 1111) .\ 1) '.;,OS .'~ 00 2, 1 J~ 2 I):') 2.90
Stl'JlHHÍilp. li .. (111) .~.su 2x; .~ .. 10 2 .. 111 ~.,;:-:; ~.311
B1.)(tom charµc:
( 'onccnt rat 1011 l.. lkg.m) :;_ 70 .~ 7() .1.7ll .1.70 1.711 .l. /ll \70 .\. 71l
Jkigln h,, (111) :l,illl .\ NI :l.llll .\.W 1.h!l .1.W 3.611
·' (i(I
Weígltt O,. tkµJ ! ~- 30 u_;o ¡_:;,.;o l.Ull IL;ll ¡ >.311 1.1.~n 1.l.311
( ·olunrn t'har~(.':
( 'onccnlr:1tÍ<Hl 1.(lllL· ... l .S:i 1.X5 l .X.'> l .S:i l .S5 J .S5 \,:-;:; l.S:i
l·kiglll h,.(m) · 11.011 1.lll ~ 1 s .1.2~ no 5 .10 i>.45 7 (,{)
\\\'i~ht º· (k¡:) 11.llll 2.1111 -l.1111 !> OIJ S.011 lll.111) 12.00 1~.llll
·1·<:)ta! clnrµc o,,., {kµ) 1.' ..111 15 . .lll 17 ,l{) l'UIJ 2l.3ll 23.30 27.30
Spccíi'ic drílling b (nn·u.m) O. l .'i2 ll. 152 ll. l:i~ ll. Li<i O. l:i9 ll.\()\ ll.1!>2 ll.111'!
Spct:ifit.' char,µe q (kg·cu.m) 11..\3 fl ..~~ O..i2 0.32 0.3:; 0.,13 0.\.1 o.:;.¡
For hole inclinatíons other tban 3: l, the correct burden B and spacing S are
obtained by multíplying by the appropriate reductíon factor in table 2, page 69.
lk11rh lwighl K (m) 6.0 8.0 llUI 12.0 l.J.O l:'>.0 l/i.() 18.0
Hok diamelcr d (mm) 7fl 7(1 711 7(1 76 76 76 76
Hok dqith I! (m) 1.:m 9,4(1 11.)(J l:U11J 15. 70 111.80 17.80 19.90
Prac1lc.il hurden ll(m) 2.9) 2.85 2.80 2.75 2.70 2.h) 2.60 2.55
Pr;tc:tical spacing s {lll) ~.65 }.(11l -~-55 .t.f) :1.35 3 30 3.30 3.20
St(·n1111ing h.. (rn) 2.9) 2.H) 21\0 27) 2.71l 2.h) '.'.60 2.55
Bonom t.:harg.c:
( \mcenlration 1,. (k¡:'m) 5.00 5.011 5.t)[) 5.00 5.00 .5.00 5 ()() 5.00
J·ki¡:ht h,. (111) .j 20 4.20 4.20 :!.20 4.20 4.20 .j20 4.20
Wci¡:IH o. (kg) 21.110 21.00 21.1111 21.00 2 l.00 21.00 21.00 21.00
( ~o!umn chargL~:
(,\)ncentration 1, (m) 2.50 2.511 2 ..'\0 2.;\0 2.50 2.:iO 2.50 2.50
lkighl h, (m) 0.15 2.1-S 4.50 (1.f1'i 8.81l 9 9'i 11.!XJ 13. 15
Wdght O. ¡kg) 0.40 5.911 l l..'\O lh.60 22.1111 24.90 27.50 32 90
Tnt;ll ch:ir;:c º··· (kµ)
21.-lll 26.90 .)2 ..\0 37.W 43.fJO 4'.'i.90 48.50 SJ.90
Specilic drillin)! b {miru.m) 0.113 0.115 O.llil 11.119 0.124 0.128 0.130 o. ns
Sr1.'cifít' ch~1q.!(.' q (kµirn.111) !U3 0 ..13 o.:n 11.:n ll.34 O.:lS O.:lS lU7
Conditions:
Bench hcight: K ~ 18 m
\Vidth of the round: w = 40 ll1
Blas1 hole diarnctcr: d "" !02 111111
Holc indi1wtion: Vertical
Explosive: ANFO. pourcd inlo !he blastho!c
Charging condition: Dry holcs
1. Maximum burden.
B""" = l.J6\,'i1, X R1 Charge concentration. 11,. is found in table 1a
and is in this case 6.5 kg/111. Corrcction for
vertical drilling is found in table 2 and is 0.95.
No concctíon for rock constan!.
B,,.,,,, = 1.36 X \/6.) X 0.95 = 3.29 m
2. Subdri!ling.
u ,.. 0.3 X B,,1."
3. Depth of b!astho!e.
H .. ,~
4. Error in drilling.
d !02
E - + o.m X H r + 0.03 X 19.00 ·oc 0.67 111
¡()()() 1(l()()
5. Practica! burdcn.
B -· B,,,,,., .... F J3 '" 3.29 - lUl7 "" 2.62 rn
6. Practica! spacing.
s= 1.25 X B S = 1.25 X 2.62 = "i.27 m
Width 40
"" .,, .07 ll1
No. of spaccs/row
82
Note that thc numbcr of holes in a row is thc numbcr of spaccs + 1.
8. Spccific drilling.
nxH 14 X 19.00
b =---- b = - -..· - - - - = 0.141 m/cu.m.
BxKxw 2.62 X 18 X 40
Calculation of chargc.
In the case of ANFO thc chargc cannot be dividcd into bottom charge and
column chargc as it consists of only one column of chargc wíth thc samc chargc
conccntration.
9. Stemming.
h .. "" B h.. =2.62m
83
Dril!ing and charging tables for blastholcs chargcd with ANFO.
For holc inclínations othcr than 3: l. the correet holc burdcn B ami spacing S are
ohtaíncd by multiplying by the appropriate reduction factor in table 2. pagc 69.
Dril!inf! ;ind ch~nµing i:tbk fnr hb"tlmk di:llik'kl <>I (j.j min
Fxp!osÍ\'t..': .·\Nl:o
llok índínatíon· .~: 1
-------- ------··-~·-·~ .. --
~ '""' ''"•••v-••-•·-'" --··--·---·------~~·-~---··-
lfok depth H (ll1) 7.111) .~.111) 9.10 lil.10 11 20 12.?ll 13 ..>0 IS.~ll
Practit·.al l)HJ'l..!1.:n Jl (lll) l.</¡) I.90 l .SS 1.80 U\O 1. 7.' 1.70 1.6S
Prac1i<.\1l sp~H.:ing s (1!1) 2 ..10 2 ..~5 ?.30 !.30 ?.J) ?.20 2..?IJ 2. 1il
St1.·mmiog h.. (lll) 1 l)(J l.'111 1 X:' 1 so 1.•~11 1 75 1 70 J .h)
Chargr.:. ,\NFO:
Conccnl r;i 1ion L. ¡kgiln) 2.1111 2.W 2.110 2.úU 2.liO 2 (¡{} 1.<)o 2.W
l h:ight ¡, (1!1) .u,11 ).(){} () 7~ 7.Kll 8.YIJ 9.'}~ 11.111 1.1.25
\Vcí,t:.ht o (hgl 1.: 1111 11 (¡fl !7.<1H ~0 .. )0 2.;.111 2) 90 1S.'!ll .1-1.:'0
Primer: 1:rnulill' 1)O. "º:<))O rnrn l .31l 1..>11 1 3H 1 311 1..>11 1 ~o 1 ,;11 l.:ill
Total ehaq.::c o..., {kg) J.1.)0 1),\!() IS.'!11 21.hll 2.J .. j(l ~7.20 :;11 211 .\:'.~{)
Spccilíc drillínµ \l (m·rn.m) li.2.S(l 0.25h 0.2h7 ll.271 n.2í7 11.2SS 112% IU17
S¡'lL·eific eh<lr!!c q (kg rn.m) tJ .. \ 11 o.~! {) )h ns: 11.flO 11.1,.J !l hi o 7.¡
Thc spccific chargc inncascs with thc hok dcnth as the unchargcd p:1rt of thc
holc (stcrnming) is long compmed !o the bcnch hcight in lowcr bc~nchcs.
Thc use or primer will nor cfkct lile hurdcn or s¡;:1cing unlcss thc primer is of
considerable sízc.
lknch hci"hl K (In) s.o 111.11 l.'..O l·l.11 l:'.11 l!>.ll 1;:.11 c11.11
l ~11h.· dia!!lf..'!t;r d (llllll) 7ú 7ü 7h 7h íú /(, 7h 71l
Jlole dcplh JI (111) 9.20 11 . .ill 1.>.·lll 1s )[J IC,.W 17.nll l '.l. 711 21.;{ll
[>raclical IHrnlcn H (ml 2.20 2.2!1 2. lil 2.11) 2.110 2.0tl l.'111 i .~;)
Practical sp;ici nµ s (111) 2.Sll 2. 711 2J,) 2..S~ 2.)11 2.. t:i 2.10 2.'.'lll
Stcrnmi11~ h.. (111) 2.20 2.2{) 2. 111 2.0.;:; 2.rn1 2 no 1.'.lll i .x;;
Clwr~c·. ANFO·
c·onrt.•i11r;1ti1H1 1,. (kµ..:1111 .1.W
(¡ )1)
·'X.iill
()(} .llill
111.c:11
3.h!l
12.'!)
.1.llll .l hll
1).10
.1.lill }611
19.~)
lkighl h {ll\Í 14 .111 17 ..111
\Vc:ight o (kg) 2.1 -HI .11 011 ,X.'Jll .16.llll :'ill.SO i.1 . .Jll f12JO 711.llll
Piimz.·1: Ernulitc ISO. ()~;..- )50 mm 2 20 2. ?11 2 21! 2.~(l 2.20 2 20 2.20 2.20
Total charg~ o. ., (kg) 2).hO ·u.20 ,¡¡ 111 4X.XO 5tno .)h.Ml llLiO n.211
Spc'cifk drilling b (111.'Cll.lll) 11. IR7 0.1'!11 11.2110 ll.212 11.221 0.22.J () 240 0.25fl
Sp1.Tífir rh:11 µe q (kg.'rn.m) o.~2 {) ·'li 1161 11.1,7 11.71 0.72 º· 7'J 11.X)
H4
Drilling and chargíng tables for blastholcs chargcd with ANFO.
For holc inclinations other than 3: 1. the corrcct bur<len B an<l spacing S are
obtaíncd by multíplying by thc appropriatc re<luction factor in table 2, page 69.
lknch hciµhl K (m) X.ll lll.O 12.ll 14.0 l).ll lil.O 18.0 20.0
1~oh: diamctl'r d (111111) X9 8() t\9 8<) 8 11 89 89 89
H"k dcpth 11 (lll) 940 IUll U.illl 1:do 16.70 17.80 19.90 22.00
l'r;ictical burdcn 13(m) 2. 70 2.60 2.55 2 ;)ll 2.45 2.41) 2.35 2.30
Practica! :...p:Kinµ s (1\l) .> ..'lO .·uo }, l:i }. !O 3.10 }.1111 2.95 2.85
Stcmming h.. (in} 2.70 2.W 2.5.'i 2 :iO 2..i:; 2.40 235 2.}0
Charg,·. ANFO:
('011cc1)tr;1!.itH1 1,. (k¡u·m) 5.0IJ :i.llO 5.IJO :i.llll :i.00 5.00 5.00 5.00
lkight ¡, (rn) 6.20 iUll 10.:i:i 12.70 Ll.75 14.90 17.05 19.20
\Vci~h! ü (k¡.c) ·' 1.110 42.0IJ 52.80 63.SO 68.70 74.50 85.}0 96.00
f>rinit.:r: rmulill' 1511, ú:'ix.~~O mm 2.2(1 1.~ll 2.20 2.20 2.20 2.20 2.20 2.20
Total d1argc O,., (kg) :~.1.20 44.20 5).0() fl:i. 711 70.<Jl) f(l. 70 87.50 98.20
S¡wcific drilling b (1wcu.rn) o. 132 O. 1.\4 0.141 11. 145 0.147 O. 155 ll.159 0.168
Spl'C:if1c chargi.~ q (kg!cu.m) 0.47 O.:í2 0.57 0.(il () 62 0.(>7 0.70 0.75
Bcnch hcight K (m) !ti.O 12.0 ¡.l.I) IS.O H1.0 18.0 20.0 22.0
l lnk di;itllc'll'I' d (mm) 102 lll2 102 102 102 1112 102 102
link l'kp1h ¡¡ (m) 11.()(1 !} 70 1).80 16 xo 17.911 20.00 22. 111 24.20
Pra<:tÍ<.';d hurdcn B(m\ 3.00 2.95 2.90 2.85 2.85 2.75 2.70 2.65
Pr~u.'tic~1l sp;11.·int: s (lll) .u:o 3.70 3.611 3.60 3.55 :i.:SO 3.40 3.30
Stcmrning h,, (111) 3.011 2.95 2. 1JIJ 2.~5 2.85 2.75 2.70 2.65
Cliargc. ANFO:
Conccnl! .:ll ion !,. (kg'm) 6.50 6.50 ti.50 6..'.11 6.50 6.:\0 6.50 6.50
Ht:íght h (m) 8. JO lfl.25 12.40 13.45 14.Yi 16.75 18.90 21.05
Wcigltt () (kg) 53.110 1<7.00 81.0ll 88.00 95.lltl 109.00 123.00 137.00
Prirn.c.~r: Enw!itc 150. 7Sx))Omm 2.70 2.70 2.711 2.70 2.70 2.70 270 2.70
Tot<il rharg_c O,,., (kg) 55.70 (1'!.70 8}.70 90.70 <)'), 71l 111.70 125.70 139.70
Specific drillin~ b (mirn.m) O. 102 O. 104 O. 108 O. 109 0.111 O. l 15 11. 120 O. 126
Specifi(· diarpe q (kµ;cu.mJ 11.49 0.:\3 (J.)7 o 59 0.60 0.64 0.68 0.73
85
Drílling ami charging tables for blastholcs chargcd with ANFO.
For holc inclinations othcr than 3: 1. thc corree! burdcn B and spacing S are
obtaincd by multiplying by thc appropriatc reduction factor in table 2. pagc 69.
Explnsi\·e-: A:-;l'Cl
Hok indinatinw .1:1
----~--···~·~-·-·~·-·-··-~··- ... ~~~~-··-······-~·-·---·~ ..··--··-·~-----·--·~-----
Bcnch h1.~i~ht K lm) 111.11 l:'.O 1.10 l).ll !ll,{I 18.11 211.0 22.11
1-h>k dí:imcli..'r d (llllll) J 27 127 ¡ 27 127 l 27 \O',- 127 127
llok ckpth ¡¡ (m) 11 ')ll 14 1111 lh.lll 17 111 18.20 211:\11 22.~ll 2.uo
Practi<.:<11 hurd1.:n ll In>) .1.X) .\,;-;¡¡ 3 711 .UO 3 h5 }.110 3.'íO 3_.j'í
Pnictít'~d spat:i ng s (11\) .jX() ~. 711 .j h'í 4.110 ~.55 ~.'íO 4 40 4.:r;
St(.·rnrníng h.. {11\) 3_,-..;5 ."U·m 3.70 3. /O ·'·(}) >.hO .1.)0 3_..¡;;;
Charg~. :\NFO:
c·onn:nrr;i11nn 1,. (kµ.m) 111.111 10 IO lll.IO 111.IO I0.10 10.111 lll.10 10.10
lkight h (lll) 7.S) <J.711 11 <)I) 12.'}ll l·l.ll:i 11>.20 18 ..10 20.)5
Wci¡¡l11 () lkµ) ifi.1111 <)"·ºº 1211.1111 1311.1111 1.12.110 1!1-l.Oll 1811.IHI 2118.011
Pri111ct" Fmulik 150. 7~x )50 mm 2.711 2 711 2.70 2.70 2.70 2.711 2.70 2. 711
Tot;d ch;11p_l.' O ... , lkg¡ 7>:. 711 1011.70 !22_70 132. 70 l .J-l. 71J 16(1.70 188.70 2111.70
Spceifi<: drilli11µ h (111/eu.m) 11.llh~ 11.0llS !l.llhi 11.ll(i/ 11.llil<J 11.11711 11.07.1 11.117-l
Spccil !e ch~tr,;!L' q (~µ_;n1_m) 11.1,; 11. 17 11 'i 1 o.s~ 115-l tl.57 11.iil ll,(1.!
Dril\inp. ;1nd ch:1rgíng t:1hk i'or hbs1hoh.' di;1m1..'11..:r t\f 15! IHIH
í=.xph)si,·c: /\NI O
Hok i11din;ili<>1i: 3: l
-~-~--,··~·---,·-~---·--•-AHO•O•~-----
-~-------
Bcncll hci~ht K (111) 12.0 1-l.ll 15.11 111.11 18.11 211.11 22.ll 2-1.ll
I {ok' diamcll.'I d (111111) ¡5~ 15~ ¡ 52 I:'2 l'í2 ~ )2 l:i2 l ~2
1!ole dcpth 11 (111) l.J 20 ll'..111 17 . .J(I llUll 211.'ill 22.hl) 2·Ull 2h.811
Practi<..'al hurdcn 13 (m) ·Uill 4.)5 -l.:iO --1...f) -1.411 .u5 c.Ull .J.20
Practi<.:al :-:paci11g s (lll) .'i.7'i ),('.') ).illl 5.W :i.:ill 5A) 5 1:\ 'í ..ill
Stl'mming 11 .. illl) ·l.fifl .._¡5.:; .¡511 ·J..15 .l,.HJ .u,; .uo ~.20
Charµc. ANFO:
Conccnt1 ation 1,. (kg•111J 1-l.50 1-l.)IJ l-1 50 1~.Sil l.J.511 \.j 50 lcUO 14.511
Jkighl h (111) 9. lll 11.:!5 12 ..lll 1.US 15.úO 17.75 19.'JO 22. 111
Wcight ü lk~) 1.12 011 lii.\.1111 IXll.flll 195 1111 22ú.Oll 2'í7.llll 289.00 .\211.1111
Prírner: 2 X Emulil(.' J ='º· 7.\>:))() ll)ll) 5 411 5 .. lll s.. m 5..JO 5 .111 540 :i..Jll ),.HJ
Total charg.c O,,, (k¡'.l 137..lll 168.-HI lX.'.·lll ?1111.4(1 2.11.-lll 21>2.40 29.JAO :12:1 ..111
Spccific drilli11~ b (111/cu.111) 11.045 0.11.¡5 11.0.Jli 11.11.J(i ll.1147 ll.11.JS 11.11·19 O.ll:il1
Spccific rh:ll !:!\.' q (k~\·u.111) 11 ..1.1 11 . .J7 11,.l<.I 11.:ill O.).) O.:':'. IJ :i8 11(11
8<1
The main problcm when blasting with ANFO is the breakagc in the bottom part
of the blast as thc bottom part of thc blasthole, more oftcn than not eontains
water. 1f thc ANFO is eontained in plastie hoses. thc diamctcr of the explosives
column will be reduccd and thc charge concentratíon will not be big cnough to
break thc constrictcd bottom part. lf thc ANFO is pourcd into thc wct blastholc
it wi!I deteriora te rapid!y and thc cffcct will be thc samc.
A shortencd bottom chargc to re in force the priming of the ANFO has shown to
he effective. The hcight of the rcinforccd priming should be 0.4x13"'ª" giving a
bottom charge which is extended above thc theoretical grade. The reinforced
primer makcs it possible to inerease thc burdcn and spacing with 7 % each. The
savings in eosts of dríllíng and sccondary blasting of thc toe are sufficient to
justífy thc highcr eonsumption of high cxplosives in the blast.
Thc following eharging tables give thc guidc lincs for blastíng with Emulite 150
as reinforccd primer and ANEO as column chargc.
For hole inclínations other than 3: l, thc correct burden B and spaeíng S are
obtaincd by multiplyíng by the appropriatc rcduction factor in table 2, page 69.
llcnch hciµht K (m) 6.ll 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 JI.O 12.0 14.0
f {ole díamc.::t1..'r d (mm) (i.+ M 64 M (,..¡ ()1 (,..\ 64
l lok dcp1h ll (m) 7.10 8. lll 9.20 10.20 IUll !2.30 13.40 !5.50
Pra<.·til.·~11 bunk'n ll{m) 2.10 2.05 2.05 2.00 1.95 l.95 l.90 1.85
Practica] spacing s (lli) 2.h) 2.W 2.55 2.50 2.:'iO 2.40 2.40 2.30
StL'lll!Hl!1f! h., (m) 2. 10 2.ll5 2115 2.00 1.95 1.9) 1.90 1.85
Primer Emulitc !'iO:
(\)l)Cl'lltfillitH\ 1,. (k¡!'nl) .l.70 3.70 J.70 3.70 3.70 3. 71l 3.70 3.70
!kighl h,. (lll) 1.20 l.20 1.20 !.20 1.20 l.20 l.20 I.20
\Vci)'.hl o,. (kg) 4 .-lil 4..10 ,¡,¡o -4.411 4.40 ,l_.lll 4.-W 4.40
Chal1!l'. i\NFO:
Co1H..·entr;1til)!1 1, (k{m) 2.60 2.(i() 2.llO 2.f)O 2.60 2.60 2.60 2.60
lkíg.ht l\ (m) 3.80 4.85 5.95 7.00 8. !5 9.15 10.30 12.45
Weíglll O. {kµ) 9.90 12.60 15.50 18.20 21.20 23.80 26.80 32.40
Tola) rhart~c O,.,, (kg) 1-l . .'\O 17.00 19.90 22.60 25 .60 28.20 ."\1.20 36.80
Specific drillíng b (micu.m) 0.2 l:l 0.217 0.220 0.227 0.232 0.239 0.245 ll.260
Specifíc charge q (kgicu.m) ll.4.l 0.46 0.-48 0.50 0.53 0.55 0.57 0.62
87
For holc inclinations oihcr than :>: 1, thc co1-rcct hurdcn B and spacing S are
obtaincd by multiplying by the appropriatc rcduction factor in table 2, ragc 69.
Bend1 héi¡dll I< (m) X.11 111.(1 I" O 1-1.11 l.'.11 l<i.O IS.O cll.11
f lok dianwtc•r d (llllll) "7h 7h 7h /(1 7() °7{) 7() ((1
H.11e dcpth JI \mJ 9 .111 11 .JIJ 1.1.:'iO l:'i.i1ll lh.i>:'i 1?.70 l'J.SO 21.lJll
Prnctic;ll hurd1..'1J !l (m) 2..t5 2.·lO 2 . .\0 2.2S 2.20 2.~0 2. lO 2.11'
Pr.actical !'-paci11g S (m) .),OS 1 ()) ~.'>O 2.~0 2,7S .2.70 2.ú) 2.)0
Stcmming. h. (lll) ~ .. r:. 2.-10 ].3o 2.~:S 2.211 2.~o 2.111 2.115
l'rimcr bnulitc 1511·
Corn:cn1r:1ti(Hl !,. (kg'm) :'i.1111 S.1111 5.1111 :'illO 5.1!11
lki~.hl h,, lm) l ..\S l .i) 1 y; 1 35 U5
Wei¡:ht (),, ikµ) h.XO h Sil (1 80 1>.Sll i>.Kll
Char!!c. ANFO:
(~onccmra! Í(H) l. lkp·'lll) ,i.r,o ).úll \,()!) ~.(1{) ,).úO :l.i>ll :".60 .1.W
lki!!hl h, (111) ~.~{} 7.t1S '! 85 12 IJll 1.1.111 1-1.15 li>..1.S lK.:iO
\\'cíght º· lkµ) 1'1.811 ~7.50 JS.5tl .L).~0 ~7.20 'il .1111 .'í<J.911 i>l\.llli
To1ai chargc o,., (kµ) 2(\,(\() 3-l..)fl 511.110 :'i-1.011
Spccilic d1i!ling h (lll.:C::U.111) !l.!:\() 11.11>1 11.li>'J 0.177 11.1s.1 11.ISI> 11. l'IS r1.::1-1
Spn·i 1ie cha1 gv q (kg.\:U.lll) 11 .. 1' O,.jX 11.5.' U.57 11.i>ll O.i>I (1 (,¡ o 72
lkncl1 hcighl K (m) S.11 !O.O i .'.11 1-Ul 15.11 lii.!1 lS.11 20.0
llok dianwlcr d (mm) x<J K<J S'! x<.> S'! gq gt) ;\l)
!lok <kpth 11 (111) '1.511 11.W 13.711 !5 . XIJ 11>.KO í 7 '.lll 211.1111 22 .111
Practíc1_1l hurtk'n 13 (m) 2.(){) 2.~5 2_KU 2..75 2.70 2 <iS 2.úO 2.~0
Practica! :-:p~1cing s (lll) .) 7o 3.ho .).:\!! 3, . m :;_y; .1.,;::; 3.20 .~.15
Stcmming h .. (ml ~ 90 ~ 8 ..:; : 0(] 2 7'> 2' 70 2.h) ?,üll 2.)0
Primer f:nrnlílc ISO:
('om:('ntr~i!Ít)n 1,. lkµ'11\) 7.1 ll 7 111 7.111 i.10 7. 111 7 111 " 111 7 111
!fright h,. (m) l.hll 1 iiO l.1>11 l.W 1 (¡(I !(>() l.W 11111
\Vcigh! 0, (k~I 11 .j(I 11 .¡() 11 111 11.·lll 11 .10 !J ... 111 11 ..W 11-lli
C'har~e. ANF( l.
Conccntratl(rn l. (kg.'m) ).Oll 5.1111 5 1111 5.1111 s.1111 :i.1111 ,_l\11 :'i.1111
lk-ighl h, (111) ~ 1111 7.15 \) ..~ll 11.-!S 12.Sll 13,llS l.' KIJ IS.llfl
\VciJ.!ll\ O. (hµI ~s n11 .~5 ~() ·le, ~o :;¡ ,,l!J 62.50 hX ..~tl /</ 1111 "111111
Touil chal'f.L' ü,.., (k~l _)ú,.Hl .¡-; 211 73.90 i'I 711 ~0.~11 1111 ·111
Specific drillin~ h (m.'ct1.111) 011! ll.11.\ 11. 117 () 121 0.12-1 0.121\ 11.i:q 11. !~11
sr~cific d1:irµ1.' q (!.:p.:"cu m) 11.1::: 11.·li> 11-1') 11 .'i? 11.:'i·l 115() 11.ilO 111>-1
88
For holc inclinalions 'lthcr lhan 3: 1, thc corree\ hurdcn B and spacing S are
obtaincd by multiplying bv thc appropriatc reduction factor in table 2, page 69.
))l_'Jl(h hL·i~~iJ! K 111•) 11111 l:?.11 1-111 150 1<>.11 11'.0 :'ll (1 22.ll
J h)k' di:uni._·!Cr d (mm) 111:? 111:? 102 111:' 102 1oc 10:' lll2
link <kplh H 1111) 11 711 l.'.Sll 15 <)11 17 1111 IX.llll 2!l. lll :?:1.20 2-1.::0
Pr;¡1.:lil';li burd<.·n 13 :rn¡ 3 ~o .1.111 .\.11:\ "1111 2.911
Pi artical ,p.1(1 n~~ S (rn) .l.()11 3.90 \~U ,;_70 3.hO
Skmmin~ 11 (mi .\~{) 3. !fl 3 ()) .1.(Jll 2.'!0
Prinl<..'r Ernuli!c L:;ll,
( \1nn.:111r;1tiun l. (i;~ 111) lJ.30 l},1.tl Y. .\11 'UO l),)(J 9 . .>o 9 ..)11 9.30
!kiµl11 h,. lm) l.i'5 1 ~:; l.X5 1.XS l.S:\ 1.S'i 1.8) 1.85
\\\·1¡'.hl o. d,µ1 i7.~ll 17.20 17.~ll 17.20 17.20 17.211 17 .211 17.211
Ch;irrc· ..·\!\H)
(·nnn.'1ltr:{ti,1n 1 ih~ 111) {),)() li ..'11 11.)() 11.:'ll {),.')(} 6,:'.() (L50 (l,::;(l
lkiµh1 11, (lll) h.)~ iUll 10.X) 12 1)1) 13.11:\ 15.211 17.:15 19 ..\5
\\'1..:íphi <). lkpl ~2.hO ~ú.úil /O.W 7S.Oll S'.llO '111 .011 l J.\ illl 126.{}()
Tntai <.:h<tq.:.c o... rk~ 1 7.1.Sll X7.Xll 9:\.211 1112.20 111>.:'fl i,';11.211 l.\~.211
Spccifi<.: drí!linµ ¡, (rn,.cu.inl Cl.OX) 11.llX7 O.OXlJ ll.11'12 O 11'!.1 11.0% 11.1011 11. \05
Spn·i! ic ,.-h~1:-g1..' q {l--p\'\f,lll) (l ¡.¡ ll -17 () i!J !l .::;2 O..\~ O 5f1 O 5tJ 0.62
!knd1 hcighl K !111) 111.11 12.il 1-l 11 l'i.11 16.11 liUI 20.ll 22.11
l lnk· di;rnwlt'! d trnrnl 127 l 27 127 !17 127 i::·.' 127 l 27
J!nk ckplh ll rrn 1 1:1.1111 \.\.Jil lh.211 17 ..;o JX . .111 211..\11 :2.)11
l)ract Í<:;1[ t~i.1rd(. 1 Jl ll (lll) .\.211 .\,l:; .J.111 -l.Ull ).l)O ).~()
Pr:i<-'íic:d -.:p;it:ing s (llll S.?5 'i 211 5.10 ).011 .l,l)ll .J.8() 4. 7)
Stl'!lHnín~ h.. (11'1) 4.20 .1.J) .\.111 .1.00 3.lJ'!' 3.l,Jll .1.XO
P1 rnh:1 1:irnditi.: l 51J·.
( \11)\'<..'n\1 ;1!inn !.. {kµ·m} 14.-10 !-1 ..\() 1.\ ..\0 14.-111 J.l,cj() l.J ..11J 1.\.-HI 1-1..lil
lkiµJ11 11 .. {m) 2.30 ..?.30 2.:m .?.3o 2.>n 2 ..~o 2 ,\{) :Lill
\\\·i~l\I o 1k~!) :n.nn \'UHl :n,(I() >3.oo .\;,on ~).00 .\.1.00
-'·'·ºº
('h;11gc .\NJ'()
( ·onn.·nir:itti:in 1. 1 k~·1111 10.111 lll 10 111 10 1(1. IO 111.10 111.111 lll.111 JO. IU
lkiµh1 h. ( 111) ~ ~(} 7 65 9.~o lll'l'i l?.1111 ¡.¡ I' 111 . .1(1 18.'.ill
\\.'¡.,:t~ht o (kµl )(, 1111 7i.CO 9')011 lll.00 121.00 1-BOO \h)OO 1~7.00
1\ll;d1.:h;11gt.' O, ... ih_~I ~'! 1111 1111011 1.12 (111 l.\-l.!111 1)-11111 !lh.llll l'JX.1111 220.011
Spc..'cifo.: dril!in~ h(m:n1.m) 11.11).j 0.0.'.1 0.11)5 0.0'iil ll.ll'i7 11.oW 11.0110 11.062
Spi.:<.'ÍI 1c rk11 ge lj 0.;í!.'t'lUl\) 0 ..10 0.-12 ll.-1' o..n 1148 O.) 1 0.5.~ 0.55
89
As can be observed in the charge ca!culatio11s, more drilling and cxplosives are
necded in thc case of blasting with ANFO compared with blasting opcrations
with Ernulite 150.
Thc highcr consumption of cxplosives docs not affcct !he ovcrall cconomy of thc
blastíng operntíon. as ANFO is an incxpcnsivc blasting agcnt. but thc increascd
use of acccssorics (cord. dctonators. prímers etc.) has Lo be considered.
Thc drilling cost will also increasc considcrably duc to denscr drilling pattern.
lt is always a good habit to sit down and analyze tllc blasling opcralion bcforc
sclccting lhe cxplosivc. taking into considcration thc following paramcters:
Thc cxplosivc. cost per ton or cu.m. of blasted rock
* Detonators. ..
' Cord. ..
Primers.
Drilling.
* BJasting,
~;· Sccondary hlast lng,
' Mucking.
" Hauling.
~~ (~rush in g,
Bottom chargc:
Conccnlration 1, (kgim) 1.00 1.00 l.00 1.00 l.00 1.00
Hcight h,, (m) 1L05 0.05 0.05 IJ JO 0.20 0.40
Wci¡!.IH ü,. (kg) 0.05 0.05 ().()5 il.10 0.20 0.40
The specifíc drílling and specific charge are calculated in relation to the blasted
arca cxpressed in m/sq.m. and kg/sq.m.
Thc consumption of dctonators and explosives is high in Jow bench blasting. The
cosr of drilling is high duc to thc dosc drilling pattern.
lf thc bottom of thc cut is not restricted to a certain leve!, it is economically
favorable to incrcase the subdrilling and subsequen!ly increase the spacing
bct wccn thc blastholes.
As a conscquencc of the decper drilling, the risk of flyrock will be reduced.
A suitablc dril! depth is 1.6 m which ís the length of the seeond drillrod in the
integral series No. l 1. Thc diameter of the drillbit is 33 mm.
Comparison of consumption of explosives and detonators as well as specific
drilling for a bench height of 0.4 m when drilled conventionally and with
incrcascd subdrilling.
lncreased
Convcntional subdrilling
Bench height 0.4 m 0.4 m
Holc depth 0.6 m l.6m
Practica! burden 0.4 m 0.9 m
Practica! spacing 0.5 m 1.1 m
Chargc of explosives per hole 0.05 kg 0.5 kg
Charge of explosives per sq.m. 0.25 kg 0.5 kg
Nurnber of detonators per sq.m. 5 pes 1 pe
Drilling per sq.m. 3.0 m 1.6 m
91
Thc highcr spccific chargc in the case of incrcascd subdril!ing is wc!I compcnsat-
cd by thc lcsscr co11su111ptio11 of dctonators ;md lhc dccrcascd spccif'ic dril!ing.
ln ccrtain cases largcr blastholc sizcs must be uscd for low bcnchcs duc to
avai]¡¡hility of cquipmcnt ;1nd drillhils.
The following tables are rccommcndations for blasting of lmv bcnchcs with
hlast holc diamctcrs of 'i 1. 64 <ll1d 76 mm.
Bot1(H11 ch:irµe:
( 'onc1...~ntr;llinn !!, ikg:m) 1 '11 'iO l'i!l 1.)0
lkiµh1 h,. (rn) 11.2!1 0.)0 1 (}() 1 .110
Wcight ü, (kg) 11.)tl () 75 1.)0 2.~ll
Bclll<>m ch;ngc:
{ :onccnt r~1! i<l11 !,, (kg-'111) ~.2tl 2.211 2.20 2.211
fkight h,. (m) il. IS ti.Sil 1 '() 2. /()
Wcigln (),, (kg) 11..)() l .Sil 3 ..10 h.00
f'xplosÍ\"CS dimcnsÍon (rnrn) 50 Sil 511 Sil
Colurnn chargc: O, (k¡!) il.lll 11.lll ll.Stl 0.)11
Tot~I chargc ü,., (kg) 11.40 l .'Jll J.80 6 ..'0
Stcrnming h.. (in) 1.10 l.'itl {.(10 2.llll
Spccific clrilling b (rnicu.rn) 1.75 0.65 0.4(1 0.22
Spccific chargc q (kµku.m) 11.SO 0.-1() 0.4() O.JO
92
Drilling and chargíng table for low bcnches.
Blaslhnlc <líarncter 7<1 mm.
93
5.4 Secondary blasting.
Sccondary blasting means thc trcatmcnt of houldcrs that are still considcred big
cnough to cause obstruction in subscqucnt opcrntions likc exeavatíon, transport
and crushing.
Thc handling of bouldcrs is normally very expensivc and the aim in ali b!asting
operations must be to avoid sccondary blasting. Carcful planning ami cxccution
of a blast may dccrcasc the nccd of sccondarv blasting to a minirnum. (Scc
Chapter 5.6 Fragmcntation.)
As it is ímpossible to complctcly avoid bouldcrs in bhisting opcrations, thc
problcrn has to be takcn carc of by blasting.
Thc most widely uscd method of blasting bou!dcrs is by drilling onc or more
blastholes in thcm. Thc blastho!c/s is/are drillcd so that the cxplosivc can be
placed in lhc ccntcr of the mass of thc bouldcr. which rcquires a holc slightly
dccpcr than half thc thickncss of thc bouldcr.
As bouldcrs rcsulting from blasting llave bcen cxposcd to strcsscs during the
blast. thcy con ta in a lot of microscopie cracks, thus rnaking thcm rclativc!y casy
to b!ast compmcd with natural st\\ncs. (Scc Chapter 12. ! Blasting of natural
bouldcrs.)
For blastíng of bouldcrs rcsulting from blasts. a spccific chargc of approx.
0.(16 kg/cu.m. is nccded.
Secondary blasting.
When severa! blastho!cs are uscd in a houldcr, the initiation should be carricd
out \.vith instantancous dctonators or dctonators with the same interval number.
1e 4• 5•
•5 1. 2e 3e 4o
2o 3• 5•
Fíg. 5.8 Bla.1·t wilh good rock ji-t1g111enrurio11, rt'.rnlt o{ h/ast in Fig. 4.1.
The geology of thc rock frcqucntly affects thc fragmcntatíon more than the
explosivc uscd in the blast. Thc propertics that inílucncc the result of the blast
are comprcssíon strcngth. tcnsílc strcngth. dcnsity, propagatíon vclocíty, hard-
ncss and structurc.
Most rocks havc a tensile strength whích is 8 to 10 times lower than the compres-
sion strength. This propcrty is an importan! factor in rock blasting. The rock's
tcnsi!c strength has to be cxceeded. otherwisc thc rock will not break.
Rock with high density is normally harder to blast than a low <lcnsity rock
beca use thc hcavicr rock masscs rcquirc more exp!osivcs for the displaccment of
thc rock.
Thc propagation ve!ocity varíes with diffcrcnt kinds of rock. Field tests have
shown that hard rocks with high propagation vclocity are best fragmentcd by an
cxplosivc witb high vclocity of dctonation (VOD). In conscquence a rock with
low propagation vclocíty may be blastc<l with cxplosivcs with low VOD. EMU-
UTE and DYNAMEX with a VOD of 5000 to 6000 m/scc. are suitabic for
b!asting granitc, marblc and di abase (propagation velocity 4000 to 7000 m/sec.)
whilc ANFO is suitable for limestone, sandstonc cte. with low propagation
vclocítics.
Thc hardness or brittlcncss of the rock can have a great cffcct on the blasting
rcsult. Sof! rock is more "forgiving" than hard rock. lf soft rock is somewhat
97
undcrcharged, it will still be muckable and if it is somewhat ovcrchargcd,
excessivc throw rarely occurs. On the other hancL undercharging of hard rock
frcqucntly results in a tight and blocky muckpilc that is tough to excavatc.
Overcharging of hard rock may cause flyrock and airb!ast. Thc dcsign of blasts in
hard rock requires tighter control than in soft rock.
Granite, gneíss and marb!e represen! the hard rock whílc soft limcstone and
shalc are considcrcd soft.
Thc structure of the rock shou!d be docurncntcd beforc thc b!asting works start.
The direction, severity and spacing bctwccn the joint sets should be mapped out
so that drilling and firing pattcrns can be adjustcd to the prevailíng conditions.
The planning of the drilling with rcspect to thc dircction of thc joints is vcry
importan t.
Fig. 5. 9
Advantages Advantages
Effcctivcly cxploits thc cncrgy in Rcduccd o ver break.
thc explosive. Good displaccmcnt
of the blasted rock giving good Disadvantages
digging conditions. Normally no Bad displaccment with tightcr
stumps in the bottom part. muckpilc. Risk for stumps in thc
(no toe-prnblcm) bottom par\. Ovcrhang may occur
in thc back rmv.
Disadvantages
Back break
When the rock is full of fau!ts aml incompctcnt zoncs. much of thc cxplosivc's
encrgy is lost in thc faults instead of bcing used to break thc rock. Alternatc
zones of compctcnt and incompctcnt rnck normally rcsult in too blocky frag-
mentation. Highcr specific charge wi!l rarcly corree! this problcm; it will only
increase the risk of flyrock. The best way to lcsscn thc problcm is to use smallcr
blastholes with a closer drilling pattcrn in ordcr to obtain bctter distribution of
thc explosives in the rock. The explosivc chargcs should be concentrated in thc
competent rock while the faults and incompctcnt zoncs should be stemmed if
possiblc.
98
Joint
zone
Thc collar part of thc biastholc, which contains the stemming. has an unfavor-
able effect on the rock fragmentation.
As a general rule a collar distance equal to the burden is left uncharged. In tough
rock and rock with horizontal planes, the uncharged part of thc hole will cause
problcms in forrn of an incrcascd amount of bouklers. To improve the blasting
result. thc following steps may be taken:
'' Shorten thc collar distancc. thus charging higher in the blastholc.
Drilling of rclievcrs in the stcmming section of thc blast.
Highcr charges in thc blasthole can only be recommended when a large arca can
be cvacuated and no de!icatc structurcs are in the viciníty of thc blast, dueto thc
incrcascd risk of rlyrock.
Occasionally a small charge in thc sternming section of thc blastbole can ímprove
thc result of thc blast.
Thc drilling of relievers hetwecn the main blastholes helps to break the upper
part of the round.
Thc relievcrs are short holes, normally with smaller diameter than the rnain
blastholcs.
Thc drilling of relievers betwcen the blastholes does not usually makc economic
sensc. More often than not, it is advisable to to!erate a certain amount of
boulders from the b!ast and break them by sccondary blasting or other rnethod.
99
® @ e
e e e
e
• e
$
• e
l!l
e
e
• • e
0
@
$
• • e
111
e
0
• &
@
~ @I
•
fl~¡;. 5. J 1 Rc/in1e1s hNwern 1he 11111í11 hlas!l10/es.
-
U)
O·
o
•
Cost of mucking,
transport and
cruehing
50 mm 250 mm
Fig. 5. 12 Ejfect o[ s11111!1 a11d large díami'ler h/11s1ho!es 011 cosl.
Specifíc drilling.
Thc sizc of thc blastholc is thc f'ii"st considcration of any blast dcsign. Thc
blastholc diamctcr togcthcr with thc cxplosivc uscd will determine bur<lcn.
spacing and holc dcpth.
Practica] holc diamctcrs for bcnch blasting rangc from 30 mm to 400 mm.
Gcnerally the cost of largc diametcr drilling is cheaper per cubic meter rock than
srnall diarncter drilling. Furthermorc. cheapcr blasting agcnts can be uscd in
large diamctcr blastholcs.
l {)()
Thc !argc diamcter blastholc pattcrn givcs a rclativcly low dri!líng and blasting
cost. lfowcver, in geologically difficult situations the blasted material will be
blocky. rcsulting in high mucking, transport and crushing costas well as requir-
ing more sccondary brcakagc.
Thc geological structurc is a major factor in <.kterrníning thc blastholc díameter.
Joints and planes tcnd to isolatc largc blocks of rock in thc burdcn arca. The
largcr the drílling pattcrn. the greater the risk that these are Jcft unbroken.
Highcr spccific dríllíng with smallcr diamcter blastholcs distributcs thc cxplo-
sívcs hcttcr in the rock resulting in belter rock fragmentation.
Lately. button bits ha ve re placed inscrt bits to a grcat extent thanks to their
cxccllent drilling charactcristics and convcnicncc in use (casier sharpcning of the
bit and longer intcrvals bctwecn thc grindings). Addcd to thc abon: advantages
ís a lifc span which ís twícc that of an ínscrt bit.
Beca use of thc construction of thc button bit. thc diameter dccreases wíth wear
and 1.vhen the bit is worn out. thc diameter is up to 15 mm smaller than that of a
ncw bít.
Spccific chargc.
Rock will be broken up more if thc spccific chargc is incrcascd and the drilling
pattcrn maintaincd.
Thc bottom part of thc blast usually has thc optima! spccific charge and the
fragmentation in this part is normally satisfactory.
Thc incrcasc in spccific chargc can on!y be done in thc column and stemming
parts of thc blast. The fragmentation will thcn be better but a greatcr forward
movcmcnt of thc rock has to be expccted as well asan increased rísk of flyrock.
Drilling pattcrn.
The typical drilli ng pattcrn has a spacing/burdcn ratio of 1. 25 (S/B = 1. 25), which
has provcd to give good rock fragmcntation in multiplc row blasting.
101
l n thc 70s. tests wcrc carricd out in Swcdcn with widc-spacc holc blasting with
S!B ratios grcatcr than l .25. Thc rcsu!ts of thc tests showed improvcd frag-
mcntation up to an S/B ratio of 8. Thc mcthod is now common practicc in
Swedish quarrics.
Thc burdcn and spacíng must be normal in thc l'irst row, othcrwisc thc burdcn
will be too small. incrcasing thc risk of flyrock.
S/B = 1.25
®----··----. . ······T.
:B S/B = 5
s * ~
I~I 1
[: El~IT. .!
Fig. 5.15 Wide-space blas1ing.
lll2
Fíring pattern.
Bcnch blasting is normally carried out as short dclay blasting. The firing pattern
has to be dcsigncd so that cach blastholc has free breakagc.
Thc dclay time bctwccn blastholcs and bctwecn rows has to be long enough to
create spacc for thc blasted rock from thc succccding rows.
Bcrnt Larsson of Nitro Nobel has studicd the cffect of thc dela y time on multiple
row blastíngs. He statcs that thc rock must be allowcd to movc 1/3 of the burden
distancc bcforc the ncxt row is allowed to detonatc. Thc dela y time be_twcen the
rows may vary from JO ms/m (hard rock) to 30 ms/m (soft rock) but generally
15 ms/111 of thc burdcn distancc is a good guidc valuc.
This lcngth of dela y gives good fragmentation and controls flyrock. lt also gives
thc burdcn from the previously fírcd holcs cnough time to movc forward to
accommoJatc the brokcn rock from subscqucnt rows.
lf thc dela y bctwccn thc ro\vs is too short. thc rock from the back rows tcnds to
takc an upw<Jrd dircction instead of a horizontal. On the other hanJ_ too long a
dela y may cause f!yrock. airblast and bouldcrs, as the protection from previously
fircd rows disappcars due to too grcat a rock movcmcnt between detonations.
The increase in boulders is due to the fact that the blast in this case may be
compared with a 'ingle row blast.
103
hg. 5. 17 l'erfcct de!m· he111'ee11 m11·s.
'
e/ é - - - ·- - - · - - - - - • - - - - - - · - - - - - ;> - - - - -• - - - - - • " ••
5 / /4 4 4 4 4 4 4', 5
/ ',
/
"'
/
@--- -- -
/,..?
G ------G-----·-.>----- ·$-- ---
'1 2 2 2
-e-----$
2 2'-,
'
•3
// '
<11---- -e--·---e-----o----- e-- - -e-- --o
\ 1 , 1 1 1 1
n
V
Fig. 5. JH Firing ¡wttem, mu/tiple ro11• hlasríng.
Simple firing pattcrn for a latcrally constricted multiplc row round. Ali boles in
thc row havc the sarnc dc!ay except the pcrímetcr holcs, which are dclaycd one
interval m11nbcr to avoid excessive ovcrbrcak outsidc thc límits of ihc cxcava-
tion.
104
•8 ,,
/ / 7 ,,1 ~ ..A>, •s', •O', •, •8
/
/ 4 ' 7 '
/
/
/ ;
'' '' ' '
..
/
' ' ... ' '
/
" ' 'e
/
/ / '
/
'
,•
;
•7
/
/6
fj/
/
/s / 4
/
/ ... ~,, ' 4' s',
'e
6', 7
•'6
/
/
;
/
/(
/
/
/
,'4
./ /
/
/
/
~
3
/
/
;
,,,.~ .........
' '·
'
' •3'
''
'
''
''
''
...4'-,
'
'
'•S'
''
'
''
' 'O
6
./ ./
/
/
/
/ ;
' ''
.
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
;
' '' '' ''
•
/ /
•'
5
e'
4 3 2 •1
'
2
'•
3 •4
'
5
This firing pattcrn gives better fragmcntation. The ratio betwecn true spacing
and true burdcn. S/B, becomes more favorable. (Sec widc-space drilling
pattcrn.)
One disadvantage with the abovc firing pattern is the risk that thc center hole in
thc sccond row of thc blast may detonatc before the dctonators in thc front row
with thc same dclay numbcr, duc to thc scattcr within thc delay intcrval.
The hole will then be quite constricted causing incomplete breakagc which will
form bouldcrs and possiblc butts abovc the theoretical grade.
e
10 •9 /~ /
,$
7 .....
,o,
6 '
o,
7 '...._
......
8 -, •9 •
10
..... /
$ .....
8 •'
7
......
/ 6
..... /
e
..... 5 ,.,.. ...-º-
4 .............
--·-5
. ' 6
-...
'
'19
7
-. 8
. /
'
...._ ...._ ...._
·- ....., -. ......
.....
...... ..... ...... /
' ...._ '
6 5 ..- .... ,,... 4
.....
..... /
,e
3 /
,G,
2 ' 3 ' 4'- 5 '• 6
e ...
4
......
3
/
/
/
'' /
/
' /
Fíg. 5.21
Hole deviation.
Precision in drilling is important for the b!astíng result.
Poor precision in drilling will form boulders duc to irregular burdcns and
spacíngs.
Fig. 5.22
106
Fíg. 5.23
¡-®
1S .. 1.6
..L. -@
i..a. B .. 3.2 m
@
Fig. 5.24
108
5. 7 Swelling.
Whcn the rock is fragmcntcd by a blast, its vol ume increases consíderably, up to
50 Si, this is known as the swclling.
Thc increascJ rock volume nceds more space and if there is not space cnough ín
front of the round, the rock must move upwards.
The samc applics to long blasts where the rock piles up in front of the round as
thc blast procecds row by row.
As mcntíoned in Chaptcr 5.2 Charge calculation. thc specific chargc should be
increascd if thc blastings are carricd out without mucking between thc blasts.
According to Langcfors. in his book Rock blasting. the requisite extra specific
charge to compensa te for the elcvation of the blastcd rock masses is 0.04 x K
(bench height) if thc inclination of the blasthole is 2: 1. If thc holc inclination is
stcepcr, the compensation of the specific charge has to be increascd and is
0.08x K ata holc inclination of 3: l.
Whcn no cxcavation is carricd out bctwecn thc blasts. thc holc inc!ination must
not be !css than 3: I. Furthermorc. the ben ch must not be too high. High ben ches
must havc such a high spccific chargc to compensa te for the swelling that the risk
of flyrock makcs it prohibitivc.
For long blasts, the rule of thumb is that thc clcvation of the swclling has to be
considcrcd whcn the lcngth of the blast exceeds 50 %1 of thc width. Expcrienced
blastcrs usually compensa te for thc swclling by incrcasing thc chargc in thc back
rows.
Fig, 5.25
109
E 100 r-
ai
o
! 1
~ 80 ¡~
..,
(/)
"~ 60 ~
1
o...
.s::;
..... 1
40 ~
1
201 1
oi L _ _ __ _L_ ___ ~--· - - - - - - - ' - · - - · - · - · · - - - . - - : .• _. ____ ... ,,_,,_______ _
A burden of less than 30 times the diameter of the blasthole gives too high a
specific chargc. espccially if the explosive is poured or pumped into the blast-
hole. Thc cxccssíve explosives content in the blastholc may result in rocks
travc!ing long distances.
Too large a burden may cause flyrock jf the explosive cannot break the burden
and thc gases vent through the collar of the hole creating cratcr cffccts.
An ínappropriate firíng pattern may cause the same effect as a too large burden.
The gases from thc blast tend to vent through the collar if the blasthole does not
havc free breakagc.
E 700
¿ 0.75 l<.g/cu.m
.2 600
ü
"'
'(i)
500 0.56
o
.e 400
o,
e:
-- 0.43
"'
_J 300.
200 .
100
o
o 25 50 75 100
Diameter, mm
E 800 '
¿ d • 100 mm
.9
0
<l>
.., 600
o
.e
o,
e
.3 400
/ ---d·25mm
200 ·~
-----
/
/
o ...... .../~-·
o 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
Specific charge, 1<.g/cu.rn.
Too short or too long a de lay lime betwcen thc blastholcs may a!so cause flyrock.
Too short a dclav time crea tesan cffcct shown in fig. 5. l 6. Thc !ravcling distancc
is rclativcly limitcd. A more scríous hazard appcars whcn thc dclay time bc-
tween thc blasthoks is too long. In a corrcctly dcsigncd firíng pattcrn. thc rock is
held togcthcr and thc rock frorn thc front rows acts as a protcction whcn thc
chargcs in thc fo!lowíng rows dctonatc. lf thc dclay bctwccn thc rows or single
blastholes is too long. the protcctívc cffcct is not achícvcd.
Delay times between adjacent blastholes must not exceed 100 ms if the hurden is
less than 2 m.
Whcn largc díarnctcr blastholcs are uscd. longcr dela y bctwccn rows/holcs must
be used duc to thc slug¡.>:ish 1110\'l'rncnt of thc largc rock nwss bctwccn thc
rows/holcs.
Blasting of low bcnchcs. lcvcling. nonnally causes flyrock bccausc of thc fast
movcmcnt of thc rock mass. Thc low bcnchcs ami the short burdcns makc it
nc,~cssmy to use short dela y times hctwccn thc hL1stholcs. l..cvcling hlasts should
always be covcrcd with hca\'y covcr as wcll as light splintcr-rrotcctivc covcring.
Yarious ínvestigations, both in thc U.S.A. and Swedcn indicatc that flyrock is
more frcqucnt whcn the blasthole is top-initiatcd than whcn it is bottom~
initiated. (Sec Fig. S.29.) Dctonating cord with high corc load top-initiates the
explosivc and tcnds to blow part of thc stemming material out or thc holc thus
lowcring thc confíncmcnt of thc cxplosivc.
As mcntioncd in Chaptcr S.2 Chargc calculations. thc stcmming should havc a
particle size of 4 to 9 mm for best confincrncnt. Thc bes! material for stemming is
crushcr run.
l l2
Volds contalnlng
excessl\le chatge Crater effect at the collar
Too short stemmlng
Unsu!lable stemmlng material
Large blasthole d!ameter
Top lnltlatlon
lncompetent rock Too short burden dlstance
Too farge burden dfstance
t--."i~!!ll¡~Too short delay time
' Too long delay time
Weakened zone from Too hlgh speclflc charge
l;Jr1'!vlous blast
' Check that thc right amount of cxplosivcs is usccL Whcn flyrock is a problcm,
do NOT use free flowin!l cxplosivcs unlcss confincd in plastic l10scs and
wcighted.
~ Lcave rock frorn the prcvious blast in front of thc facc. up to 1/3 of the bcnch
height.
* In built-up arcas. covcr thc blast.
5.9 Covering.
To further protect against flyrock, thc blast may be covcred by cnergy-absorbing
coveríngs which are placed on thc top of the blasl. This measurc can be uscd for
smallcr blasts with small diamctcr b!astholcs, lcss than 76 mm.
Blasts with larger c!iameter blastholcs are practically irnpossiblc to covcr
efficicntly. Howcvcr, Jargc diametcr blastholcs are rarcly u sed whcre flyrock is a
problem, i.e. closc to populatcd arcas. Other limiting factors such as ground
vibratíon leve Is and aírblast lcvels will rcstrict thc amount of cxplosivc that may
be dctonated in ca ch blasthole thus makíng largc diarnctcr blastíngs irnpractical.
The general rule for coveríng a blast is that thc covcring material should havc thc
samc wcíght as the blastcd rock. This is valíd for !ow bcnches, lcvcling, whcn
small rock masscs are looscncd and thc distancc from thc chargc to the rock
surface is short.
For normal bench blasting, whcrc thc bcnch height is more than twice thc
maximum burdcn (K~2xB,,,,"). it is hardly possible to use such <1 heavy
covering.
What we havc to strive for in this case is to shortcn the forward movement of thc
rock rnass and to avoíd flyrock.
114
The forward movement may be shortened by well-balanced charging of the blast
and by leaving blasted rock from the prevíous blast in front of the rock face.
The t1yrock can be stopped by placing covering material over the blast and by
Vv'cll-poiscd stemming.
The splíntcr protectivc covcring is intended to prevcnt flyrock from thc surface
scction of the round.
The heavy covering should be placed closest to the rock surface with the lightcr
splínter protective covering on top.
Thc covcríng with heavy mats should start from thc back of thc b!ast and work
forward, each mat ovcrlapping the previous
When the b!ast is fired, the mats ripple and do not follow the blast forward,
which may happen if the blast is covered from the opposite direction, leaving the
back rows without cover.
The covering work with heavy covcring material has to be carried out with a
crane or a retro excavator. For smaller-scale works small rubber mats may be
used. but must be connccted together with hooks to form covering units that are
largc enough.
Thc splinter protective material is then placed on top of the heavy covering,
startíng from the back and working forward.
115
Fig. 5.32 Principie o/ coi·ering.
l !6
FiíJ. 5.34 Blas1ing with heavy covering in Abha, Saudi Arabia.
Note that no rock travels any great distance. Ali rock remains within 5 m of the
blast.
117
5.10 Blasting economy.
Economíc aspccts on blasting operntions.
In order to evaluatc thc cost of the blasting opcration, it is not rational to isolatc
thc drí!ling and blasting operations from thc subscqucnt operations in the work
cyclc.
A!l operations in the work cycle havc to be considcrcd:
* Jrilling
* charging anJ blasting
* boulder blasting
' mucking (cxcavation)
' transport
" crnshing
lf the cost of the drilling and blasting opcration is minimizcd, thcrc is a great risk
of increascd costs in Sllbsequent opcrations, which may givc an íncreased total
cost.
Thc factor that affects most on the operations following thc blasting operation is
that of rock fragmentation, which has to be considered whcn the cost of drilling
and blasting is calculated.
To quantify the rock fragmcntation in relation to thc blasting opcration and the
subsequent opcrations (bouldcr brcakagc, loading. transport and crushing) is
quite a problcm.
Harrics and Merccr havc vísualizcd thc rclationship bctwcen blasting cosL
transport and crushing to rock fragmcntation in thc following way:
...,
(,/} Total cosl
o
o
Mucking, transport
and crushing coa!
Dri!ling and
blasting cost
Fig. 5.35 Relatíons!tip henveen bfasting cosr and subsequent costs to rock frag-
mefl/ation.
l 18
Despite the abovc. we will look in to the cost of the drilling and blasting opera-
tion and ways of lowering the blasting costs.
The drilling and blasting costs may be lowered by using bigger blasthole dia-
mctcrs.
Thc cost pcr volume of thc blasthole decreases with larger diameter blastholes .
The highcr thc bench - thc more dosel y spaccd 1he dri!ling pattern.
The highcr spccific drilling incrcascs thc costs of thc opcration.
If thc drilling pattcrn is not adjustcd for tllc dcvíation in drilling. thc bottom
part of the blast will most ccrtainly 11llt be blastcd to thc intc11dcd leve! (toc-
prob!cm). This will add extra costs lo thc subsequcnt mucking opcration.
as thc !oading cquipmcnt wíll havc a problern loading beca use of stumps. T!lc
sccondary blasting of thc toe adds unncccssarv cost to thc operation.
It is of vital importance to thc economics of thc h!asting opcration that thc right
explosive is uscd on each occasíon. In dry condítions, chcap hlasting agcnts can
be uscd with cxccllcnl rcsults. ANFO has bccomc thc most uscd blasting agcnt in
thc world duc to its avaílability and cconomy. In dry conditíons no cxplosivc
bcats ANFO in overa!! economy including dril!ing. blasting. sccondary blasting,
loading, transpon and crushing.
120
Whcn the blastho!es contain water, ANFO should not be used, at least not in the
bottom part of the holc. ANFO deteriorates fast and should be rcplaced by
Emulitc 150 or Dynamex M which have excellent water resistance properties. If
the bottom part of the hole is charged up over the theoretical grade wíth
Emulite l 50 or Dynamex M instead of ANFO, the risk of stumps in the blast will
be practically eliminated. Furthermore, the rock fragmentation will be improved
becausc of greater effectiveness of the explosive.
Tests carried out by Langefors (The modern technique of Rock Blasting) show
that ít ís possible to increase the burden and spacing with 7 % each íf the bottom
charge of ANFO is rep!aced by a more potent explosive such as Emulite 150 to a
height of 0.4XBmax·
There are overall economic benefits frorn su ch a potent charge in the bottom part
of the blast. The charge should be considered a reinforced primer rather than a
rcduccd bottom chargc. Thc advantages are de ar:
!:: I~cllable initiation of the blasting agent.
Water resistant explosive in the water contaminated bottom part of
thc blast.
Good brcakage in the constricted bottom part of the blast.
Lcss stumps above the in tended grade, simplifying thc loading opera-
tion.
:~ Less drílling.
' Lower consumption of firing devices.
9
121
6. TRENCH BLASTING
6.1 General.
Trench blasting is an important part of today's blastíng activitíes. Pipeline
trenchcs are blastcd across contíncnts for thc dístribution of oil and gas. Furthcr-
more, thc growing citics require incrcascd cxcavatíon of trcnchcs for water
supply, scwcragc, cables etc.
Trench blasting is a forrn of bcnch blasting, but thc bcnch is narrowcr. Nonnally
thc blasting is callcd trcnch blasting if the width of thc ben ch is less t han 4 mctcrs.
The charactcristic featurc of tren ch blasting is that thc width of thc bcnch is small
in comparison to its hcight. Thc rock will be more constricted than in normal
bcnch blasting, thus rcquiring a highcr s¡Kcific chargc and highcr spccific drill-
ing.
The friction against thc sidcs of thc blast is grcat and extra chargc is also nccdcd
to compensate for thc swel!ing.
The holc inclination is of utrnost importancc in trcnch blasting. lt decrcases
122
Fig. 6.2 Fig. 6.3
Expected resu/r of rrench blast with Expected result of trench blast wíth
mediwn sizc blastho/es. (50 to 75 small size blasthofes. (Dril! series 11 ).
mm).
the fixation in the bottom part of the blast and makes the swelling of the blasted
rock easier, especially in deep trenches. The hole inclination should not be less
than 3: l.
Vertical holes must be avoided as they will most probably !cave stumps above
thc theoretical grade.
The hole diameter must be carefully considered in the planning of trench
blasting. Medium size blastholes (50 to 75 mm) increase the ovcrbreak and the
risk of flyrock. Duc to larger charges in thc blastholes ground vibrations will also
increase.
The use of mediurn sizc blastholes is economical!y favorable from a drilling and
blasting point of view, but the cost reduction must be weighed against the
incrcascd cost of such subsequent operations as excavation and transpon of
excessive rock (overbreak) and the increascd rcfi!I with stonefrcc material.
Normally thc choice of thc blasthole diameter is a compromise between high
production and final cost.
As a rule of thumb. the blasthole diametcr should be chosen in relation to the
width of the trcnch:
w
d =- for normal trench blasting (d and w in mm).
60
Two maín trench blasting methods are uscd:
* Traditional trench blasting.
'' Smoothwall trench blasting.
B
l B
rr--~
1
.l l 'f ! ! ;~~,:.
h 0 =0~i4.·B
\
\
\ 1
\ I
/
\ I
\ 1
\ I
\
\ I
\ le 7 0.29 lb
\ 1
I
\
/
\ I
\ I
I
\
1
¡,
'
126
~ 1
·1 1
1
1
1
</'.=J i.s-2.om 1
1
''-l 1
1
1
'
._i_
\' ! 1 \ j l ¡ i' í l ¡1 \
Middlc boles 0 1,,,(kg) 0.6 0.8 l.() 1.3 1.6 1.8 2.0
Pcrimeter boles Ü1,11 (kg) (). :'i ().() 0.8 0.9 l.() 1.2 1.3
Stcmming:
Míddlc holcs h., (rn) 0.8 0.8 0.8 O. 8 0.8 0.7 0.7
Pcrimetcr holcs h,, (m) 0.3 0 ..1 O. 3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3
Spec.charge q (kg/cu.m.) !.O 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8
Brcakagc pattcrns:
4• 6• se
3e so 7•
4• 6• 8•
Advantagcs:
Uniform charging of ali boles.
Lcss ground vibration.
Disadvantagcs:
~· Asymmetrical drilling pattcrn.
:;:
Overbreak is normal and can be considerable.
128
4•
Advantages:
' Symmetrical drilling pattern.
" Reduced overhrcak.
Disadvantages:
' Varying amounts of cxplosives in míddle and perimeter holes.
* Highcr ground vibrations due to higher amount of explosives in the
middle hole/s.
Chargc:
ANFO
Concentrntion 1 (kg/m) 2.6 2.6 2.6 2.6 2.6 2.6 2.6
Hcight h (m) 0.6 l.2 1.7 2.2 2.7 :u 3.8
Wcight Oc (kg) 1.55 3.1 () 4.40 5.70 7.00 8.60 9.90
Total cbargc Üto1 (kg) 2.80 3.35 5.65 6.95 8.25 9.85 1 l .15
In the case of hard cap rock. 22 mm pipccharges may be uscd in thc sternrning
arca to break up the surfacc rock and avoíd "tunneling".
110
7. UNDERGROUND BLASTING
Fig. 7. 1 Tunneling.
7. l Tunneling.
There are two reasons to go undergrouncl and excavate:
~ to use the excavated space, e.g. for storage, transport etc.
~ to use the excavated material, e.g. mining operations.
In both cases tunneling forms an important part of the entire operation. In
underground construction it is necessary to gain access to the construction si te by
131
tunncling, but thc \Unncl can he a purposc in itsclf e .g. road, water, cable tunncls
etc.
In mining opcrations tunncls are uscd as adits to thc mining sitc and for prcpara-
tory work as wcl! as for interna! communícation.
Tunne!s are drívcn mainly in horizontal or c!osc to horizontal dircctions but also
inclined, from vertically upwards to vertically downwards. In the followíng,
tunneling. raise shafts and sink shafts will be dea!t with in dctail whilc storage in
rock cavcrns and miníng \Vill be dcalt with more briefly.
Tunncling is thc most frcqucntly ocurring underground operation which a!so
forms part of the construction of rock clrnmbcrs cte. and is normally an integral
part of mining operations.
The development of tunnel driving techniqucs has becn tremendous during thc
Jast few years. Thc drilling techniques havc dcvelopcd from pncumatie drilling
machines to cleetro-hydraulic drilling jumbos with a vcry high capacity. The
charging of thc blastholes can be carried out quick!y either rnanually with plastic
pipe charges or mechanically with pneumatic charging equipmenL
The dcvclopment of cxplosives has moved in the dircction of safer products with
bctter fumes charactcristics. Modcrn cxplosíves like Emulítc and Dynamcx M
are wc!I oxygcn-balanced wíth a mínimum of noxious fumes.
Initiating systems likc NONEL havc shortcncd the charging time and addcd
further safcty to thc blasting operation dueto thcir insusceptibility to clcctrieal
hazards.
The modern drilling equipmcnt has shortcncd thc drilling time. the NONEL
systcm has madc connecting of thc dctonators safer and faster and Emulite. with
its cxeellcnt fumes charactcristics. has shorte1;ed thc ventilation time.
Ali thc above contributc to a faster work cycle:
drilling
eharging
blasting
ventilation
scaling
groutíng (if nccessary}
loading and trnnsport
setting out for the ncw blast
The shorter work cycle calls for bctter work planning as \vcll as bctter prccision
anJ accuracy in the different opcratinns of thc work cyc!c.
In the following, tbc drilling. charging and blasting operations will be dcalt \Vith.
1t is obvious that it is of thc utmost importanee that the boles should be drilled at
the right locations and with thc right inclination. Thc marking of thc holes on the
rock face as well as collaríng and drilling must he carricd out accurately.
Langefors in "Thc modern techniquc of Rock Blastíng", says about drilling
precision: "Thc scattcring of thc dri!l holcs as a quantitativc factor is often
disregarded. It is included quite indefinitely in the technical margin together with
the rock factor. In discussing blasting as a whole it would be a grcat advantagc if
132
attention could be paid to the drilling precision in calculating the charges and in
constructing the drilling pattern; for the blasting of the cut it is essential."
The main diffcrence betwcen tunnel blasting and bench blasting is that tunnel
b!asting is done towards one free surface while bench blastíng is done towards
two or more free surfaces. The rock is thus more constricted in the case of
tunneling and a sccond free face has to be creatcd towards whích the rock can
break and be thrown away from the surface. This sccond facc is produced by a
cut in thc tunnel facc and can be eithcr a parallcl holc cut. a V-cut. a fan-cut or
other ways of opcning up thc tunncl face.
After thc cut opening is made, the stopíng towards the cut wíll begin. The stoping
can be compared with hench blasting, but ít rcquires a higher specific charge due
to highcr drilling deviation. desire for good fragmentatíon, and absence of hole
inclination. In addition, ovcrcharge of a tunnclblast does not havc the same
disastrous dfect as in an open air blast, where hígh precision in calculation is a
mus t.
Stoping ho!es
Floor holes
In thc case of V-cuts and fan cuts, the cut holes will occupy thc majc)f part of the
width of the tunnel.
Thc contour holes - roof boles, wall boles and floor holes - havc to be angled
out of the contour. "look-out", so the tunnel will retaín its designed arca. The
"look-out" should only be big enough to allow space for the drilling equipment
for the coming round. As a guicle valuc. the "look-out" should not exceed:
1O cm + 3 cm/m holedepth
which kccps the "Jook-out" to around 20 cm.
133
Fig. 7.3 l.ook-0111.
E5
:::i
()
"'01
-".. 4
Q)
...
Ol
a;I
.e
() 3
()
;;::
o
{l)
fjj 2
1
11 4í
:!-~ ~b
1
;; iJ, ·1~
1 "
o 20 40 60 80 100 '
Tunnel area in sq.m. ( •,¡)'">
13
Q)
4
a.
(/)
~
2
1 • d•38mm
---r------------- d • 51 mm
o 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
Tunnel area in sq.m.
Thc consumption of cxplosivcs will be grcatcst in the cut arca of the blast. A 1 X l
marea around thc cmpty hok/s in a parallcl cut wi!l consume approx. 7 kg/cu. m.
and the spccific charge will decrease with the distance from the cut until it
rcachcs a mínimum valuc of about 0.9 kg/cu.m.
Howevcr. the burn cuts gene rally result in less advance than the large hole cuts.
Thc burn cut will thercforc be disrcgarcled and only the Iarge hole cuts will be
dealt with.
Thc cut may be placed at any !ocation on the tunnel face, but the Jocation of the
cut influences the throw, the explosives' consumption and generally the number
of boles in the round.
135
• • •
o o
• o •o •
• • • Pig. 7.6 Bum cut.
. -·-r-1-· -·
1 1
1 '
""--.J
r·--
't..--J
t
i'
Thc numbcr of squarcs in the cut is limited by tbc fact that the burden in the last
·-: -·:
square must not cxcecd the burden of the stopíng boles for a given charge
conccntration in thc holc.
- - - - - - - - - - - - -
1 //
~' ', 1
1 / ' 1
1 //•--.--•', 1
1
: .t
/
/ 1 ¡ 1 '
1 '' 1 \().! 1 / / 1
1 ' 1 \·-J 1 / 1
1 ',•--~--·// 1
1 ' / 1
1 '
' / 1
·-
1
1
- - - - - - - -
'.//
- -
Fig. 7. 9 The complete cut.
- - - -·
1
l
The cut boles occupy an arca of approx. 2 sq.m. (Small tunnel arcas. as a matter
of fact. consist only of cut boles and con tour boles.)
137
10
a
~1.~ ~ --
203
¿1.6 ~
154
~ i .4 ~- Large hole
~ ~ diameter, mm
102
~ 1.~ ~ 76 89
g0.8 ~
o~0.6 't
~0.4¡
5 0.2 ~
o ~¡~----j'--~-+-~-+.~~<--~.-+-~-r-~~,-~~
The requisite chargc concentration for diffcrent C:-C distanccs bctwecn thc
large holc and thc ncarcst blasthnlc/s may be found in graph 7.1a for diffcrcnt
largc holc diamctcrs. Thc normal relation for the distancc is a= 1.5 0. An
incrcase in the C-C distancc bctwccn thc holcs wil! cause subscquent incrcmcnt
of thc chargc conccntration.
Thc cut is oftcn somewhat ovcrcharged to compensa te for error in drilling which
rnay cause too small an angle of breakage. Howevcr. too high a chargc con-
ccntration may cause rccompaction in thc cut.
:;;; 1.4
'1 •' , -.'"'-... .'.''
¡
: 8 •,,¡,.._A~---
,' - - ---- ~
'
!
~
.!: 1.2
e:
Q)
c.;
c:
o
() 0.8
Q)
~0.6
.e:
ü 0.4
0.2
o~~~~--'-~---'--'--~'---~~~~~--"---~--~-----~~-
Fig. 7.13 The required minirnum charge concentration (kglm) and maximwn
hurden (m) for dif(erenr widrhs of the opening.
Thc chargc conccntration obtained in graph 7.12 is that of the column of thc
holc. In ordcr to break the constrictcd bottom part, a bottom charge with twicc
thc charge concentration anda height of l .5x B should be used. The stemming
part of thc hole has a length of 0.5XB.
141
Dcsign of cut.
The following formulac are uscd for thc gcomctric design of thc cut arca:
The cut:
. o.
a
lst square: a= 1.5 0 t' -·~
•
W¡ ""a\/2 'b,, .
"-10.
0mm 76 89 l 02 127 154
------·-·
a mm !10 130 150 190 230
W 1 mm = 150 180 210 270 320
0mm
W2 mm 320
76
w,""
·'
89
380
l.5W 2 v2
102
440
127
560 670
154
•
EB
\.)
'·
'~··
(~ ~>
"
• W4 ·•
The above distanccs apply to 38 mm blastholes. If largcr blastholcs are used
which can accommodate more explosives, the values can be adjusted.
However, an increased amount of explosives in the cut holes may not increasc
the burdcn to any greatcr extent.
142
7.1.2 Stoping.
When the cut holes have been calculated, the rcst of the tunnel round may be
calcu!ated.
Thc round is divíded into:
f!oor holes
* wall holes
* roof holcs
' stopíng holes with breakage upwards and horizonta!ly
" stoping holes with breakage downwards
To ca!culate burdcns (B) and charges for the different parts of thc round the
fo!lowing graph (7. l 4) may be u sed as a basis.
E 1.2~~~~~~~~-.-~~...,-~~,..-~--.~~-.-~~~~~...-.,,,.....,
¿
<!>
1:
::i
a:i 1
o.sl--~-4.~~_¡_~~L._~......L~~..l._~.-.....lL-~-'-~~-'-~--'~~~
Blasthole 30 35 38 41 45 48 51
diameter, mm
Emulite 150 in paper cartridges. Packing degree 1.20 kg/liter
Blasthole 30 35 38 41 45 48 5.1
diameler, mm
Dynamex M in paper cartridges. Packing degree 1.25 kg/!iter
38 41 45 48 51 Blasthole diameter, mm
Fig. 7. 14 The burden B in relatíon to the concentration of the bottom charge for
d({ferent ho!e diameters and different exp!osives.
143
For Emulite 150 in papcr cartridgcs, thc uppcrmost blastholc diarnctcr table is
used as input data.
For Emulite 150 and Dynamex M in plastic pipe cartridges. thc pipe diameter is
used as input data and for ANFO thc Jowest blastholc diamctcr table is used as
input data.
When the burden (13), thc hole dcpth (H) and the concentrntion or thc bottorn
charge (!¡,) are known. thc fnllowing table wi!I givc thc drilling and charging
gcomctry of thc round.
~--··--~--··-··---· -----·-·--Tt~c¡g¡;¡-·- ··-·--
Charge
Part of bottom conccntration
the Burdcn Spacing chargc Bottom Column Stcmming
round: (m) ( lll) (m).·, (kg/m) (kg/m) ( 111)
~----- f------ ------ · - - - - · · - - ---·--M~
Floor lxB l.l xB J/3xH I¡, l.Ux I¡, U.2xB
Wall 0.9xB 1.JxB l/6xH l¡, 0.4Xlb 0.5X13
Roof 0.9XB l.l XB l/6XH ]¡, 0.3Xl¡, 0.5xB
Stopíng:
Upwards JxB l. l xB l/3xH l¡, 0.5XI¡, 0.5xB
Horizontal JxB 1.1 xB l/3XH I¡, 0.5 XI¡, 0.5 X B
Downwards lxB 1.2xB l/3xH lb 0.5Xl1; 0.5XB
Thc design of thc drilling pattern can now be carried out and the cut Jocated in
thc cross section in a suitablc way.
¡
11
'º" o
20 .
20 !
"
IB "
20
s;.. l ./
.. " "20" ;•8~2
20
10
18
1a
0
,,.. '8· '! .6
"
15 "
16
190
•
9
11
¡4
.. 16
o IS•
190
14
"
16. 20 ..
.
JI
..
21 .(/
"
lt is importan! in tunnel b!asting to havc long enough time delay between the
ho!cs. In thc cut arca, the delay bctween thc holcs must be long enough to allow
time for brcakagc and throw ofrock through the narrow empty hole. lt is proved
that the rock movcs with a ve!ocity of 40 to 60 metcrs per second. A cut drilled to
4 m dcpth would thus requirc a delay time of 60 to 100 ms to be clean blasted.
Nonnally dclay times of 75 to 100 ms are used in the cut.
In the first two squares of the cut only one detonator of cach dela y should be
u sed. In the following 2 squares two detonators of each dela y may be u sed. In the
stoping arca, the dela y time must be long enough for the movement of the rock.
Norma!ly the delay time is 100 to 500 milliseconds.
For thc contour boles the scatter in dela y betwcen the boles should be as small as
possible to obtain a good smooth blasting effect. Therefore, the roof should be
blasted with the samc interval number, normally the second highest of the series.
The walls are also blasted with thc s<.ime period numbcr but with onc dclay lower
tban that of the roof.
Detonators for tunneling can be electric or non-electric.
The electric detonators are manufactured as MS (millisecond) and HS (half-
second) delay detonators.
145
Thc non-electric detonators are manufactured as dcci-sccond and half-seeond
delay dctonators.
Rccommended detonators for tunncling:
E!ectric dctonators:
lnterval No. Dclav time
VA/MS i. 25 ms
VA/MS _±_ 100 ms
VA/MS i !75 ms
VA/MS .HL 250 ms
VA/MS JJ__ 325 ms
VA/MS i6_ 400 ms
VA/MS .18- 450 ms
VA/MS _20 500 ms
VA/HS 2 !.O sec
VA/HS 3 l .5 scc
VA/HS 4 2.0 sec
VA/HS 5 2.5 see
VA/HS 6 3.0 scc
VA/HS 7 3.5 scc
VA/HS 8 4.0 sec
VA/HS 9 4.5 scc
VA/HS J () 5.0 scc
VA/HS ll 'í.5 sec
VA/HS 12 6.0 sce
The MS and HS series givc 19 pcriods which is sufficicnt in rnost cases. Thc
V A/MS and V A/HS detonators may be used in the same round, as the electric
characteristics of the V A dctonators are t he samc. índcpcndent of thc dela y
times.
Rccommcndcd lcgwire lengths for a 4 m hole depth are 5.0 and 6.0 m.
Non-clcctric detonators:
lntcrval Dclay time Dclay time
numbers betwccn
íntervals
Nonel GTrr o 25 ms
Nonel GTff 1-12 100--1200 ms 100 ms
Nonel GTrr 14, 16
l8, 20 1400-2000 ms 200 ms
Nonel GTff 25, 30, 35
40, 45, 50
55, 60 2500-6000 ms 500 ms
This tunnel series gives 25 díffcrcnt pcriods and is tilus even more versatílc than
the electric tunnel series.
146
Recommcndcd tube lengths for bunch blasting with Noncl are 6.0 to 7.8 m.
~o .. .
10
. 12
. 40
~
40
•
f..0
.
~s
:1:,
35
"" 40
• 40
...
4
9
2 6
40
35
30
..
<5 •
30
35 .• 40 •8
.. •
0•8•1 B•
.:!> 45 7 3 5
J5
.,30
. o ..
18
o
'°
3<f
<~~
35 ..
'º '" 35
ll 10
)0 20"
D
•1(· lo"
:,1~ 35
35
" '""
35
ei1..:. 149 'ª"
35
50 .~ 5 45 05 45 45 50
~--·-·•·----4-~~~·-~·"9-~-·
ll 11~1~
". .. ..
" ..
l\
.
'º
10
10
..
" l1 e;.
•
., 1•8·~
"3
i
1
.
22
"
.
O,
/,'l 10
~ "
B 9
10
11
. o
2•
!
f"
" H.)
.' "5 " "
10 ""
"
!§
.
12
3
12
j· .
5 )
10
s"
s•
o
"6
10 lO
.,
r 10
ll
.....
112
... .
l1
·-····-~-.o---
'"
8
11
...............
11 11
50
5
"
ll
'"
8
..
10
·l)1
1l
The underllned ligures denote
~-~S delonalors. The reet are
V.-.-HS delonators.
Fig. 7.17 Typical firing pallern for VAIMS ami VA!HS de!onators.
In thc 4th square of the cut, four units of VA/HS interval No. 4 are used. This is
made possible by wide range of scatter (±200 ms) within the interval for HS
detonators.
147
7. LS Cuts with anglcd holes.
The V-cut.
The most common cut with anglcd boles is the V-cut.
--·--·--· -----·--·
o
:1
o o o
o o o o
o o o o
/ /
I /
/ /
' /
I I
I I
//
Thc following graph (7. 19) givcs the hcight ofthc cut (C) and thc burdeos B 1 and
B 2 for the cut.
1
E 1.9
¿ 1 1 1
,g; 17 H eight of the cut C
....
1
ci5 1 5 .1 --· ~
Surden for th~ cut holes 81 ___.,,.,.
1.3
!! 1 l -----~
1.1
0.9
~:1
Surden tor ttie
1 .
~ .. +
--
0.7
...
0.5
o6 0.8 1.0 1.2 '1.4 1.6 t.s 2.0 2.2 2.4 2. 6
Charge concentration, lb, kg/rn
Blasthole 30 3p 38 41 45 48 51
d1ameter, mm r
}
Blasthole 30 35 38 41 45 48 51
diameter, mm !
Dynamex M in paper cartridges. Packing degree 1.25 kg/liter
150
7 .1.6 Example of calculation.
Thc project is a 1,500 m long road
tunncl with a cross scction arca of 88
sq.m.
A blastholc diamctcr of 38 mm is
chosen as thc tunncl con tour is to be
smooth blasted. A largcr blasthole 2.6
diametcr might cause overbrcak
from the stoping part of the round. 12.0
The drilling equipmcnt is an electro
hydraulic jumbo with 4.3 m stecl
lcngth and fccd travel of 3. 9 m.
Thc cxpectcd ad vanee ís over 90 1/r, of
thc blasthole dcpth.
The explosive ís Emulite 150 in 29
and 25 mm cartridges for thc cut,
stoping and !loor. Gurit 17x500 mm
in plastic cartridges is uscd for thc
contour. Noncl GT/T is used for ini-
tiation.
~1~
¡¡1.6
•. _01$ 154
203
/'•·2$
lst square. ·- 4 . Large hole .
'§ 1· diameter, mm
102
~27 1/ .. · /
2nd square. C (1
'o
N • ~
$
.v-::.<.:t,
Thc blasting of the 1st squarc crcated '"
an opcning of0.27X0.27 m. The bur-
den in thc 2nd squarc is cqual to thc ''
width of thc opcning creatcd. 06
13 1 = W 1
B 1 = 0.27 m
e-e= i.sw 1 0ljf;~Oü09~0
e-e"" o.4o m
W2 = i.5W1\/2
w" ~ O.:'ill m
O = lc(H-h,,)
0 = O.S5(3.9-0.15)
Q = 2.0 kg.
Key data for the 2nd square:
B = 0.27 m
W2 = 0.56 m
Q = 2.0 kg
152
3rd squarc.
w ~o e fl'l
Thc opcning has now a width '"•6 o W ~ 0.:1 m
13 2 = 0.56 m
0€
o'
e-e= 1.sw2 o<
e-e= 0.84 m o
e Cl O< C'.'"s Oo! 05 o~ e: ºª 09 'º
W, = l .5W.~ v'2-
W3 = !. l 8 111
O= JJH-h..)
o = 0.90(3.9-0.3)
o "" 3.2 kg
Kcy data for the 3rd squarc:
B = 0.56 m
W3 = 1.18 m
Q = 3.2 kg.
J 1
1
4th squar('. ~
Thc width of thc opcning is now ! . 18 lf) :-(' 2? ;j.;
.J
;((.,
:l(l 41 .:.5
Thc burdcn is choscn from the graph .L.....L
7. 14 to J O rn.
11
153
The charge concentration of thc
bottom chargc is found in t he samc
graph to be l. 35 kg/m.
From the adjoining table tbe chargc
of thc hole can be e<1lculated.
Q., = I.75 kg
.B = 1.0 m
\V 4 = 2.2 m
Q = 3.65 kg.
154
Aftcr thc cut has been designed. the
rest of thc round is calculatcd.
'
1
C-(;l-·
i
:
e¡~: ":-. '' 1 e
j
into account. As mentioned earlicr,
the "!ook-out'' should not exceed l O
cm + 3 cm/m of hole depth. In this
case the '"Jook-out" should be limitcd
to 20 cm.
Thc burden is l .O m according to thc
graph and the spacing is I.lxB.
Duc to "look-out''. the boles above
the íloor holcs are set out 0.8 m abo-
vc thc !loor. Thc spacing is l. l m.
Bottom charge:
]¡, = l .35 kg/m
h¡, = l/3X3.90=J.30 m
Q¡,= J.35xl.3=l.75kg p,~~; <":·~
)i(:;f¡l)!
~):1füi:i\
01,Jcü(;
C<-'nC('n~1,~:,o·'
\!W ih.!~ <l<::1 $p,i.c::1:; C~<<l~qc n ;tlc:>: C:::un1r1 Sk!::tr::~1c
Column charge: r;;.;.i~\(,! 1n~) \'ll; {;n) li\(j i\~) ih(jrnl ím)
r:,);;1
* E 6 1 3 ·H 02 ·3
'. 1 '.
le = lb= l .35 kg/m :6 os, l3
W;il!
lki:)!
G9 ··B
G9 • B
1 '.
1 , ·!3 G
1 6. il
" o'~
o~. '. o.s. B
b0 = 0.2XB=:0.2 m . Sto¡;mq
Urw•.·ur~:; G ll ,,3. I~ I~, o ó·8
he= H·-hh--h 0 =2.4 m !
' ''. a º"
Oc= l.35X2.4=3.25 kg
H;)f:.'OrH<1:
Do-m<<'{a:é~
!
·. f3
B
' p,
1·3 'H
1.·3 ·H
OS·
o:,.:,,'· o$>
5, 8
6
"
'. 1)
Total charge:
o = l .75+3.25=5.0 kg
155
Key data for floor holes:
B = I.0 m
S = I.l m
Q = 5.0 kg.
Boltom ch;trgc:
Ü¡, = 0.1 l kg n: e;,;.: e:J i' O:'.:'; n:•·.
n .. 1: Ci,"! ·,l ;· {) ó·.;íi 1J /\)
•
.•.
cqual to thosc of thc wall boles. Thc
••
.. ••
burdcn is chosen to 0.8 m and the
spacing to 0.6 m. : :
•
Thc chargc conccntrntion is thc samc • " :
as for thc wall boles. • •
Thc .. look-out .. rnust be consídercd
in this case as welL
Key data for the roof holes:
=
B 0.8 m
S = 0.6 m
Q = 0.92 kg.
•· t 100
¡ 1.00
·,
1
1
.......
... . •
...
•
•
• •
~-- ,_·
ll '.B 3. f1 : Ü· :. O2 · B
1,. = 0. 90 kg/m '
G9 · 8
1
B '
~ ·(>. H
º'· o r,. n
h0 = 0.5x B=0.5 m
fl1)i)~ 09 r,
1
1 ': .!) •·5. h o:;':. OS· H
he = H-h¡,-h 0 =2. 1 m **
. s~0r-·~g
Up-,'<<l!~::> B
e
l
' ·ll
·ll 1
¡ 3. >' os.
o:,. l..
1:, o b. ü
{15. s
Ho~:1.;..r,1;,;
, Dow:•>'•<'.l.ld~. 8 ''
1 ,. ll
3 "'
1 3.. l~ ü :- • !~ 0 5·B
Oc = 0.90x2. l"" 19 kg
Total charge:
o= i.75+ l .9=3.65 kg
157
Kc_y data for stoping holes upwards
and horizontal:
B =LO m
S = 1.1 m
Q = 3.65 kg
;::,)~'' ~ !i ; < • !l ' '.~ H
ti\<¡ r ~· :
1G : o,.. "
i"':
o e l\ ,.
U¡r:.-,;r(~~~ :·l3 ·~.:~ ~J·t•
.. ''·
~)
'. 3 · I~ e; ~ H
! !1 ..'(;::::1: i~ '. \ ~3 (;.
,, "
*. ¡;':'.·.;~"'•·~:~:·. ' · I! ~ ~· t'.í : .} · H
" '• •O
S. Stoping downwards.
The dcsign of thc drilling pattern for
stoping downwarcls is similar to stop-
• •• ••• • .
' . .' ..
:
ing in othcr clircctions with thc diffe-
rencc that larger spacing may be per- :. e
• • e
H = l.O m
S = l.2 m
Q = 3.65 kg
SUMMARY
Thc rouncl consists of 127 blastholes wi!h 38 mm diametcr and 1 largc lrnle with
127 mm diamctcr.
The rnund is chargcd as follows:
Part of the No. of Kind of cxplosivc Weight pcr Total
round holcs hole
(kg) (kg)
Cut
lst squarc 4 Emulitc 150, 25 mm 2.0 8.0
2nd square 4 Emulitc 150, 25 mm 2.0 8.0
3rd squarc 4 Ernu!itc 150, 29 mm 3.2 12.8
4th squarc 4 Ernu!ite 150, 29 mm 3.65 14.6
F!oor boles 12 Ernuiite l50, 29 mm 5 .o (Í{). ()
•9 12
4 2 6
•••
O•Q•1
•••
73 5
0
35
4
30
50 •35 et2$
40 .30
55.
60 55 55
,,z_
)/'
'' (
:(1
159
7.2 Shafts.
1n míníng. sh~lfts form a systcm of vcrtícally or inclincd passagcways which are
uscd for transportation of ore. rdíll. pcrsonncL cquíprncnt. aír. clcctricíty.
vcntilation cte.
In undcrground constructiotL shafts are dri\"c!l for thc building of pcnstocks.
cable shafts. vcntilation and clcvator sharts, surge chambcrs cte. In additíon.
shafts are drivcn as "glory boles" for transportation of material which is not
acccssiblc by othcr mcans than vertical or closc to vertical tunncls.
Sharts are cíthcr drivcn dmrnwanls, sink shafts. or upwards. raisc shafts.
¡.)
Shaft sinking with pyramid cuts is similar to tunncl blastíng wíth V-cuts. Thc
drilling is done with a "dril!-ring" which is composed of a circular I-beam to
which thc drilling machines are fixed. The "'dríll-ríng" may be fixecl to the shaft
walls with bolts. Duc to the construction of thc "drill-ring". the cut will be
conical.
Thc cxplosives uscd in shaft sinking must always be water rcsístant. E ven if the
ground is dry. !he flushíng water from thc drilling will always stay in thc
blastholes.
For this rcason explosivcs with cxccl!cnt water rcsistancc properties are prc-
ferrcd. Emulitc 150 and Dynamcx M are casily tampcd to utílizc thc holc volumc
wcll, thus dccreasing the number of boles and thc drilling and charging time.
Thc spccific chargc in shaft sinking is rather high. ranging from 2.0 kg/cu.m. to
4.0 kg/cu.m.
The initiation of the blast rnay be done with elcctric dctonators or non-clectric
detonators. As a sink shaft is a small confincd arca. thunderstorms are a
particular hazard as stray currents tcnd to be transmittcd down thc shafi on pipes
and cables. To avoid problcms with cvacuation of the blasting crcw during a
thunderstorm. NONEL dctonators should be used.
Thc tirnbcrcd shaft mcthod was rcplaced by open shaft methods when the cost of
timber beca me too high. In one of thesc methods a working platform of planks is
laid on tímber which is supported by bolts in the shaft walls. New bolt boles are
drilled in the shaft walls when the rouncl is drilled so the platform can be moved
upwards as thc work proceeds.
Anothcr open shaft mcthod is to use steel tubes instead of timber. The steel
tubcs are bolted to thc shaft walls and the tubes support the platform.
The open shaft methods are rarcly used and when used, only for short mises, up
to 25 m. From a safety point of view none of the open shaft mcthods is to be
recommcnded.
The cross scction is normally 4 sq.m. and thc advancc approx. 2.2 m.
163
The JORA lift method.
Raisc shafting using a lift cagc hanging on a wirc which runs through a largc
dri!lholc has bccn uscd in Swcdcn and othcrcountricssincc thc ¡94o·s. but it was
not un ti! thc 19'.'iO's whcn Bnlillcn A B dt:vdopcd thc .1 ORA 1ift. that tlw mcthod
camc into widcr use.
A !argc holc. di a meter 1 l Oto l '.'iO mm. is dri!lcd from an uppcr leve! in thc ccntcr
of thc in tended shaft. Through thc holc a wirc is sunk dmrn to thc !owcr lcvcl and
a working platform with a lift cagc is fastcncd to it. By a lifting gcar thc platform
is clcvated up to thc shaft racc by
remole control from lhc !ift cagc.
Thc drilling and charging are carrícd
out from thc p!atforrn on thc top of
thc lift cagc and sorne sca!íng can be
done from the cagc with thc protcc-
tion of the p!atform. During thc scal-
ing. drilling and charging opcrations
the platform is fixcd with bolts to llK
l)
shaft wa!!s. Bcforc blasting thc plat-
!
form is lowcred down and placed on a
sledgc. like ve hiele and towcd asid e.
The wire is liftcd up through the !arge
;I
!¡
ho!c before b!asting. Thc largc holc is
li! uscd as cut hole in thc blasting of thc
round. Duc lo thc largc sizc ofthc cut
holc. advanccs of up to 4 m are ob-
taincd. Thc arca is approx. 4 sq.111.
and the maximum hcight is !00 rn. In
this mcthod it is ncccssary to havc
free space abovc the shaft for thc
drilling of the large hole and for thc
placing of the lift i ng gcar.
Fig. 7.26 TheJOR!l !ifl
165
The Alirnak work cyclc:
Drilling: Blasting:
Thc drilling and charging is carricd After drilling and charging thc
out from the raise climber's platform roun<L thc raisc climbcr is drivcn to
under a spccially dcsigned protcctivc thc bottom and undcr thc roof of thc
roof. Both air and water to the drill- drift. During thc blasL thc climber is
ing machines are supplicd through thercforc well protcctcd from falling
tubcs in thc guidc mil scctions. rock.
Ventilation: Scaling:
Aftcr blasting the ralsc is vcntilatcd Scaling of thc roof and walls of thc
and sprayed with water. Thc top of raise is done from undcr the protec-
thc guide rail is protected by a header tive roof which gives the workmcn
plate which also acts as a water diffus- good protcction.
er during the vcntilation phasc.
166
Gencrally largc hole cuts are used and the design of the cut varies with the
di ame ter of the large hole. (See 7. l. l The cut, in Chapter Tunneling.)
The normal hole depth is 2.4
m and the expccted advance
2.1 !O 2.2 m.
The dri!ling is done with rt- - - .,.,
18 20
stopcrs. which are designed '"'-rr ....1
1 1
for raise driving, overhead ~4J.~
drilling and roof bolting or •
14 •
16
drilling machines with ,iack
legs. •
For thc blastholes dril! series
16
•12 10 •
12
16
11 (34 to 32 mm) is used and •4 5•
the large holc diamcter is •2
nonnally 75 mm.
•9 •o o 1• 8•
3
For the stability of thc walls ,.1 • s.
and to avoid overbreak, the
walls of the mise are norrnal-
18 14
ly smoothblasted. The
smooth blasting method is
also used if the shaft is to be
Fig. 7.29 Drilling andfiring pat!emfor4sq.m.
widencd at a later stage in
raise shaft.
ordcr to avoid excessive sca-
ling and to decrease thc risk
of rockfall.
A normal pilot shaft has an arca of 4 sq. m. Norrnally one round is drilled and
blastcd per sbift with an advance of 2.2 m. Working 2 shifts pcr day, tbc advance
should be 4.4 m but taking disturbances in the work cycle into account, tbe long
term advance is approx. 3.5 m/day or 70 to 90 m per month.
Crnter blasting.
The blasting of a long holc drillcd raisc can a!so be carricd out towards thc free
lowcr surfacc of the mise with a crater cut. No largc diamctcr centcr hole is
nccdcd but the blastholcs normally have a !argcr diameter than in the previous
mcthod. The era ter b!asting metbod is uscd only for the cut scction to open a holc
of ap¡mix. 1 sq.m .. thcn normal stoping wil! follow.
Thc era ter cut consists of fivc holes, onc center hole and four cdgc boles. Thc
centcr holc is blastcd first whcreupon thc cdgc holes are blasted onc by one with
diffcrcnt de!ays.
Bcforc charging. the boles are
pluggcd with a piccc ofwood which is
lowcred down from the upper surfacc
on a ropc and securcd to the lower
rock surface. The hole is then filled
with sand to the calculated leve! of
thc cxplosivcs chargc. Thc charge
should havc a diametcr closc to that
of thc hole.
Tbe chargc is then stemmcd with
water. (Any othcr stcmming may
sintcr and block the hole, making
subsequcnt b!asting operations im-
possiblc.)
Thc requisitc chargc wcight and o 3•
1
dcpth of thc charge are calcu!ated
from Livingstonc"s theories as fol-
lows:
~
!f~ ;·H'~.!:· .'t
¡¡j
•:.,h_,,·.
. 1
.
'
: l Ll
'
f
~
H:
1 ·
¡ ¡¡¡
iH
1.' ¡<
Hi
!'
..-.e
~--.;+' ~---''~.
..
Fig. 7.34 Comparison of crntcr rnt and standard fargc holc rnr.
!70
The advantages with crater cut compared to largc holc cut are:
l. Lowcr cost for drilling and explosives as lcss holes are drilled in the cut. The
samc holc díameter is used in ali holcs.
2. Drilling precision is not as essential as for largc hole cuts.
3. Simpler blasting practice with lcss need for well trained personnel.
The disadvantage with the crater cut method is the relatively short rounds that
may be shot cach time.
Fif{. 8.J,
8.1 General.
rrom thc beginning of the cxplosivcs era in thc mining and construction indus-
try, many attcmpts have bccn madc to find mcthods to control ovcrhrcak and
damagc lo thc rcmaining rock.
In tunncling, road and raílroad cuts. it is of the utmost importance that thc
remainíng rock is of high qualíty in ordcr to avoid rnckfalL rockslidcs and
cxcessive maintcnancc work.
Accuratc blasting is nccded especially in thosc tunncls whcrc thc ovcrbrcak has
to be rcplaced with expcnsive concrete.
Numerous blasting tcchniques have been usecl to control ovcrhrcak. Thcy ali
havc onc objectivc in common: To minimizc thc stress and fracturing of the rock
bcyond thc theoretical cxcavation linc by rcduction and bctter distribution of thc
explosivcs chargcs.
174
Thc approach was initially mostly by tria! and error, but lately more sophistícat-
cd and scicntific mcthods havc bcen worked out in both Europc and U .S.A.
lt is often claímcd that good ovcrbrcak control cannot be expected in ali
gcological formations. That is true, but careful!y executcd blasting wi!! mínimizc
the overbrcak evcn in severe geologícal conditions.
The first approach to control overbreak was by Line Drilling, which simply
in volved a single row of uncharged holcs closely spaced along the perimeter of
thc cxcavation, providing a weak plane to which the blast could break. Linc
Drí!ling was modificd over the years, ali or just sorne of the boles were charged
wíth light charges. The spacing between thc boles was thcn modified and was
madc largcr.
Ncw methods likc Cushion B!asting ami Smooth B!asting wcrc crcated and the
perimeter holes wcre blastcd aftcr thc main blast.
Thc idea of cutting thc b!asting area from the remaining rock by forming a
crack along the theoretical cxcavation plane created thc dcvelopmcnt of Pre-
splitting Blasting, where thc perimeter holes are blasted before the rest of the
round.
The above mentíoned mcthods havc applications in both underground and
surfacc blasting work.
Common to ali four methods is that in the chargc calculations, not only the
peri meter boles havc to be considcred, but also the holes closest to the perimeter
lincha ve to be charged in such a way that thcy do not create cracks which reach
beyond tbe pcrimetcr of thc blast.
The mcthods which will be described are:
Line dri!ling
' Cushion blasting
'" Smootb blasting
$ Presplitting
Line drilling and cushion b!asting will be dcscribed bricfly as thc use of these
methods has declined as they are too time~consuming and costly. The develop-
ment of spccia! chargcs for controllcd con tour blasting has turned the b!asters to
smooth blasting and presplitting methods.
Ch;¡rge 50 % of tl1e s
main bl<1sthole
o o
..... 8
'
Thc blastholcs dircctly adjaccnt to thc linc drillholcs are usua!ly more closcly
spaccd than thc holcs in thc rcst of thc round. They are also more lightly
charged. The cornmon practice is to reduce thc burden and spacing by 25 to 50 cyr.,
and to reduce the chargc by approx. 50 %'. Thc charges shou!d be wcll distribut~
cd in thc hole i.e. by using Emulitc ISO or Dynamcx M. 25x200 mm cartridgcs
tapcd to a detonating cord downlinc.
Thc bcst rcsults are obtained in homogcncous rock formations with a mínimum
of joints. planes and dirt scams. In fracturcd rock formations. smooth b!asting
and prcsplitting will give a bct ter rcsult.
Advantagcs:
Applicab!e whcre cvcn light chargcs may cause damagc beyond thc cxcavation
line.
Disadvantages:
Unprcdictable rcsult cxccpt in vcry homogcncous rocks.
High drilling costs duc to closc spacing.
Time consuming duc to thc cxtcnsive drílling.
Thc s!íghtcst dcviation in drilling causes poor rcsult.
3• 4 5
;,,;' ..5 43 2
..5 o
3
•1 •1 •1 .. 3• 5••
1 5
Thc peri meter holcs must be carcfully charged with joined-up charges, which are
lockcd in the hole by stemming. To preven! the sand from running down thc
holc. a paper plug can be placed on top of the last cartridge.
Thc quality of thc rcmaining rock dcpends to a large extcnt on the rclation
bctwecn thc spacíng of thc holes (S) and thc burdcn (B). For a good result, the
ratio S!B should be ~0.8. The burden should be grcatcr than the spacing.
It is in undcrground excavation that smooth blasting has become an undisputed
succcss. The increased demand for stable rock surfaces in underground cham-
bers has resulted in the smooth blasting mcthod being prescribed as the standard
method for controllcd con tour blasting in pcrmancnt underground installations.
Not only is a srnooth surface called for but also less fissurcs in thc rcmaining rock,
dccreasing thc need for subscqucnt reinforcing works.
In underground blasting it is evcn more importan! than in surface blasting to
charge the boles adjacent to thc perimeter holes carefully. Thc holes ín a tunncl
blast are normally more closely spaced than in surfacc blasting and are also more
constrictcd. If the stoping boles in the blast are heavily charged, thc crack
formation from thcsc holcs may extcnd beyond the final contour.
SVEDEFO" has workcd out an empírica] formula to predict the vibration
velocity which can be expected from different linear charge densíties at different
dístanccs.
v "" 700xQ'"/Ru (rnm/scc.)
wherc v = vibration velocíty (mm/scc.)
Q = charge (kg)
R = distance (m)
* Swcdish Dctonic Research Foundation.
179
V mm/s
Small diameter blastholes
3000
2000
3m ...._____,.
R
10001--.......l'l.~~~~~ioc-'~m::-~--="="_:.'--~~~~~~~
700j---j-~;:--~-3""":=-t~.......~1""8¡¡¡;;;;;;::::~~~=====~~
2 3 R, m
Fig. 8. 7 Vibration ve/ocity (v) as a fimcrion of' 1he distance (R! wi1h di(fcrenr
chwge concemrations.
The graph shows that a 45 mm holc fully clrnrged with ANFO, charge conccntra-
tion 1.5 kg/m, forms a crack zone extcnding 1.2 to l .8 ni_ while 17 mrn Gurít
(0.23 kg/m) has a crack cxtrnsion of 0.2 to 0.4 111.
Blasthole diameter 45 mm
, ,,,,..-
/
/
I
! .
I Gurrt 17
' 1.0
Emulite 20
\
Fig_ 8. 9 The holes adjare111 to the peri.111e1er ho/es may cause more damage to the
remai11i11f, rock 1ha11 the perimeter holes.
•
Fig_ 8. JO The adjacenl holes must a/so be carefu!ly blasted.
Wcl!-balanccd chargcs in thc hoks ncxt to the pcrimcter are a must for the best
rcsult.
As mentioncd beforc. smooth blasting is carricd out with special explosives in
closely spaced blastholes. The following table gives the recornmended charge
and dri!ling patterns for different diameters of the perimeter holes.
181
--~-·
Fig. 8. ! 1 The gas press11re locks the plug more úghilv 10 rhr:' 11•tllls of rhe hlastltole.
Thc charges shou!d be conncctcd togcthcr, string chargcd, and thc ho!c pluggcd.
othcrwisc thc chargcs will be suckcd out of thc ho!c by thc cxplosions from thc
previous blnstcd holcs in thc round.
A spccial blastho!e plug has bccn dcvclopcd for this purposc. Thc plug locks thc
charge in the holc cfficiently.
Thc firing of thc peri meter boles should be madc with !he samc pcriod numbcr
for thc best rcsult.
Advantagcs:
Increased spacing reduces drilling cost.
Better result in incompetcnt rock fonnatíons.
No excavation nceded bcforc the smooth blasting is cxccutcd.
Specia! charges givc light and well distributed charging of the peri meter ho!es.
Disadvantages:
No real disadvantages comparcd with prevíous!y prcsentcd contour blasting
methods.
182
8.5 Presplitting. •1
., 1•
1•
Applications: Mostly surface blasting. •! 1•
1'
The idea of presplittíng is to isolate •1 ,.
the blasting arca from the rcmaining •1 1•
rock formation by forrning an artifici-
al crack along the theoretical excava-
•I
•1 • . 1•
1•
.
., "l5 14 13 !Z 13 l4 15
1•
tion plane. •1 • 1•
This is done by drilling a single row •1 1.'.l 12 1l ~o 11 12 13 1•
The thcory of presp!itting is that when shock waves from simultaneously deto-
nating chargcs in adjoining blastholes collidc, tension occurs ín the rock, forming
a crack in the web between the holes. For that reasan it is important that the
charges are detonated simu!taneously oras close to that as possible. For the best
resu!t, detonating con! or instantaneous detonators should be used for initiation.
Jf noise or ground vibrations make it necessary to use other means of initiatíon a
rcduction of the distan ce between the holes is necessary.
./
i
'-·-1
Fig. 8.13 The theory o[ presplitting.
183
Presplitting crea tesan artificial planc a long tbe limits of thc cxcavation against
which the subsequent main blast rnay break, resulting in a smooth wall with little
or no overbreak.
Sorne of thc shock waves from thc subscquent rnain blast are ref!ected against
the prcsplit plan, prcventing thcm from bcing transmittcd in to thc remaining
rock formatíon. This tends to reduce ground vibrations.
Precision in drilling is of thc utmost importan ce for the final resulL even small
deviations may advcrscly cffcct the prcsp!it.
As mentioned before, thc bcst result is obtained by firing the boles simulta-
neously using detonating cord. l f long prcsplit lines are fircd. the lines may be
parted and delayed with relays.
In incompetent rocks the rcsult may be improvcd by drilling guide boles bctwccn
the charged boles to promotc the cut a long thc in tended planc. Unloaded guidc
boles bctween the charged boles give bctter final result in ali rock formatíons.
but are rare!y uscd due to the increased drílling costs.
The presplit holes are normal!y more closcly spaced than they are in smooth
hlasting. Thc holcs are chargcd with light spccia! charges, Gurít, and usual!y
initiated with detonating cord. A dctonating cord downline will also sccure
initiation of the charges, cspccially in incompetcnt rock.
Thc holes should be chargcd up to 3/4 of ihe hole dcpth. In rock with horizontal
planes it may be nccessary to chargc highcr in the holc for bcttcr shcar ofthc rock
in the uppcr part of thc round.
184
e •
• •
• • @
s
8
• • •
• •
•B • r 1 • • •
í1=l •
I • ({;
Js •
• •
•
•
•
e
I
Fig. 8.14 Dri!líng pa11ern Jor presp!iui11g.
Thc holcs should not be stcmmecl. Whcn long lincs are presplit and thc lines are
partcd with dclays it may be ncccssary to preven! thc chargcs frorn bcing blown
or suckcd out of the holcs by using blasthole locks.
Thc distancc from !he presplit planc to the adjaccnt holcs in thc round should be
half thc spacing in thc round. B=S/2.
Examplc:
A 5.000 m long water tunnel is going to be blasted. Its cross section is 55 sq.m.
and thc circumfercnce of the roof and walls is 20 m.
The extra cost for contour blasting is 19 USD/sq.m. and thc cost of concrete is
!30 USD/cu.m. (Prices 1984.)
lf convcntional biasting is applied. without doubt an overbreak of 30 cm more
than if smooth blastíng tcchniques are used must be cxpcctcd. (Scc fig. 8.5. 8.6,
8. 7 and 8.8.)
The ovcrbrcak will requirc rcfíll with concrete, in this case 6 cu.m. extra per
meter of thc tunnel. 5.000 m will thcn rcquírc 30.000 extra cubic mcters of
concrete ata cost of 130 USD/cu.m. Totally 3,900.000 USD.
lf smooth blasting tcchniques bad bcen applicd, thc cost would have becn
20x5.000x 19USD= 1.900.llOO USD.
In this examplc no costs for extra scaling, bolting and shotcrcting during the
opcration have bccn taken ínto account, but may reach substantial sums.
187
9. CHARGING THE BLASTHOLE
Fig. 9. J (:/rnrging.
9.1 General.
Tbc charging mcthods are diffcrcnt ror diffcrcnt blasthole diamctcrs. For that
reason, the blastholes havc bccn classificd according to thc diamctcr as follows:
small sizc <50 mm (2"}
medium size 50-100 rnm (2"-4")
largc size > l 00 mm (4")
Small diamcter blastholcs oftcn havc a limitcd depth. They are mainly uscd in
srnaller bcnch blasting opcrations, trcnch blasting, tunncl blasting and míning.
Thc inclination can rangc from vertically clown to vcrtically up. The boles are
normally chargcd with high explosivcs anda wmping rod is uscd to introduce and
compact thc cxplosivc.
The medium sizcd blastholes are uscd in construction and production blasting.
The inclinatíon is usually vertical or close to vertical downwards (an inclination
of 3: l is recommended and gíves a good breakage). Thc holes are normally
188
primcd with a high cxplosíve and the main charge in the hole may either be a high
explosive ora b!asting agenl. The holes may be charged with a tamping rod (if
thcy are not too deep ). In deep holes, the charges may be compacted with a
loading weight. Liquid or dry free flowing blasting agents may be poured into the
boles.
Large size blastholcs are used in large sGde operations like quarrying and
mining. The inclination is usually vertical and the explosives uscd are normally
blasting agents whích are primed with a high cxplosive. The blastíng agent is
poured or purnped into the blasthole.
Bcforc charging is startcd thc b!asthole should be chccked for obstructíons, hole
depth and watcr/soil content. In shallow boles a tamping rod is suitable, while in
deep boles a weighted measuring tape should be uscd. lf the hole is too deep it
should be fílled up to the íntended leve] with dril! cuttíngs or similar. (Holes
which are too deep in a blast are more constricted and cause more ground
vibration.) Holcs that are too short should be flushcd with comprcssed air to be
clcared for soil. If thcy still are too short thcy should be dcepened by drilling ora
ncw hole drilled. Sorne times too short holes ha ve to be blasted beca use of
equipment shortage or other reasons. In these cases sceondary blasting of the toe
has to be countcd on.
übstructions in sma!l boles may be removed with a tamping rod. In Jarge
downward holes, a heavy weight tied to a rope and dropped rcpeatedly on the
obstruction may clear thc hole. If thc obstruction cannot be cleared with a
tamping rod or a wcight it may be nccessary to redrill thc holc. cithcr in thc
blockcd holc or a ncw holc closc to the obstructed eme.
No new hole shou!d be drilled in the round where there is a risk of drilling into a
charged hlasthole.
Thc blastholes should be clcared from water bcfore the charging of thc holes
hegins. This is important especially when dry blasting agents like ANFO are
used. ANFO detcrioratcs fast when it comes in contact with water. As tbe water
is in thc bottom of the holc, thc most constricted part of the blast has to be
brokcn by a water contaminatcd cxplosive, rcsulting in b~d toe breakage.
Wherc water is present. a water rcsistant explosive should be uscd in the bottom
of the hole and up above the water leve!.
9.2 Priming.
Thc tcrms "primer" and "booster" are often confused. MSHA (The Mine
Safcty and Health Administration of U.S.A.) defines the primer as a unit of
cap-sensitíve explosive used to initiate other explosivcs or blasting agents. A
primer contains a detonator or other initiating device i.e. detonating cord. A
booster is usually cap-sensitive but docs not contain a detonator. A booster is
used to maintain or intensify the explosivc rcaction.
The primer cartrídge should be assembled at the work-site. The transport of
cappcd primers adds further risk to the blasting operation and is against the
189
rcgu!atíons in most countrics.
The primer cartridge must be rnadc of a cap-scnsítivc cxplosivc with high VOD
and hígh detonatíon pressurc.
Exp!osives like Emulitc and Dynarncx havc thc propertics nccdcd to be uscd as
primers.
The detonator may be íntroduccd into soft plastic explosivcs by gcnt!y pushing
thc dctonator into the cxplosivcs cartridgc.
In harder explosivcs. a woodcn stíck should be uscd to makc a ilolc in thc
cartridgc bcforc thc dctonator is introduccd.
Factory madc primers are delivcrcd with cap wclls suitablc for most dctonators.
Thc dctonator should be introduced in to thc primer cartridgc from thc end and
not from the sidc. lntroduction from the sídc may cause misfirc if there is
ínsufficient cxplosi\·e around the end of the detonator.
The primer cartridgc should be placed in the bottom of thc blastho!c wilh the
base of thc detonator facing thc cxplosives column. Bottom primíng gives thc
best confincment at the ínitiation point and makcs sure that no explosive is lcft
undetonated in the bottom of thc hole if it should be blocked during thc charging
operation. The primer cartridge must not he tamped nor droppcd into thc
blastholc.
Whcn príming blasting agcnts. the primer should havc a diametcr which is close
to thc díarneter of thc blastholc.
This is cspccially importan! whcn priming ;\NFO.
Cl
o
>
600 mm
Primer 25x200 mm
;\
, .. "· ~ '
~
mm
O 1000 2000
Fig. 9.3
3000 4000 m/sec
IWect o/ inef{icient primer.
19!
Overdrive iní tiation
of ANFO, 89 mm ho!e
o --,·----¡---·····-;··--·--,~--,-"·--,
1
··-,----~----- .,....·-----
º 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600
Distance from initiation front, mm
g iB
~41~ ~
g3 .J v ~-~--~---------s_te_a_d~y:..-,s~t~at~e~v_o_o~
> ! .. ""ot ANFO. 89 mm hole
D
2
o
o 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600
Distance from initiation front, mm
Fig. 9.5 EfjécI of detonation ¡m:s.rnre 011 initia{ VOD of ANFO.
Cornposítion 13 gives the highest dctonation prcssurc initiating thc ANFO with
thc grcatcst dcgrec of overdrivc. Dynamex M and Emulite also give a good
degrcc of ovcrdrivc, thus initiating the ANFO efficiently.
Primcrs with lcss than 50 kbars detonation prcssure do not initiatc ANFO
cffícic11tly and should not be uscd.
o
2
o~ ·-----------
º 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600
Distance from in itiation front, mm
Fig. 9.6 Effect of primer diameter on initial VOD of ANFO.
193
As rnay be sccn frorn thc graph thc initial vclocity of AN FO is rcduccd whcn thc
diametcr of lhc primer is rcduccd. The drastic rcduction of initial vclocity whcn
25 mm primer cartridgcs are uscd is worth noting.
Atlas Powdcr Company of U.S.A. has cxplained thc cffcct of thc primer dia-
mctcr as follows in thcir brochurc. "The Basic Principies of priming ANFO":
"lnitiation of ANFO is cffccted by transferring the dctonation pressurc from
thc primer 01110 thc surf"acc of the ANFO. In the case of matching diarnctcrs
betwccn the primer ancl ANFO. the pressurc wave is transferred uniformly ovcr
tllc entire surfacc of the ANFO. lf dctonation prcssurc is higb enough. the rcsult
wi!l be efficicnt initiation of the AN FO. pcrhaps with ovcrdrivc. Howcvcr. if thc
primer is small in rclation to the ANFO colunm. thc arca of prcssure transfcr is
grcally reduccd. Conscqucntly. only an equivalen! arca of ANFO (cqual to thc
diamctcr of primer) wi!I rcccive thc prcssurc wavc. For cxample. when !he 75
mm column of ANFO was initiatcd wíth a 25 mm diamelcr primer. the initial
vclocity of thc ANFO will be cqual to a 25 mm diamctcr ANFO colurnn. As thc
dctonation prog:rcsscs throug:h thc eolurnn. it will ¡zradually expand to thc 7'.í mm
diamctcr of AN FO and wi!I then fi-
d
nally achicve steady state velocity.
Thc adverse combination of low de-
tonation prcssure and srnall di ame ter
in a primer has g:ivcn initial \"CJocitics
as !ow as 600 111/sec.
r d
Thc lcngth of thc primer should for
gcomctric reasons. always he cqual
10 or longcr than ils diametcr. Prcfer-
ably al lcast two diamctcrs in lcngth
to assurc that a stablc lfat pressurc
wave is formcd in the primer. ..
Fi¡:;. 9. 7 ne1onario11 \l"(ll"Cfrom (/ dl'lo-
ll!llor.
As for thc ANOL. ali parts in contact with ANFO are madc or stainlcss stccl.
JET-ANOL is manuf:icturcd in sizcs of 100. l'ill. JfHl. 'i'iO ami 7'i0 lilcrs.
Thc charging hose has to be anti-static as thc ANFO is transportcd through thc
hose with high vclocity causing a ccrtain rísk of accumulatíon of static clcctricity.
Because of the risk of statíc elcctricítv. ali J\NFO charging units havc to be
cart hcd during charging opcrations.
ANOL and JET-ANOL are rcgistcred trndcmarks of Nitro Nobel J\B Swcdcn.
199
10. CAUTIOUS BLASTING
10. l General.
Thc dcvc!opmcnt of blasting tcchníqucs has madc it possiblc to carry out
advanccd blasting opcrations closc to and undcr cxisting struclurcs.
l n thc last dccadcs. blasting activitics in popu!atcd arcas havc incrcascd duc to
thc necd for better communications like metros. tunne!s for telcphonc cables as
wcll as tunnels for water supply. scwcragc. clcctric cables cte.
Another arca of cautious blasting is thc cxpansíon of cxisting hydroclectric and
nuclear powcr plants. whcrc it is of thc utmost importancc that powcr produc-
tion is not disturbcd during thc construction pcriod.
200
Thc increascd prices of land in urban areas have also made it feasible to utilize
the ''bclow street levcl" spacc for various purposes such as garages. offices,
bomb sheltcrs etc.
ln ali thcse blasting operations. ground vibrations and to a certaín extent air
shock waves and flyrock constitute a threat to property and life and it is therefore
ncccssary to control thcse hazards to avoid damage.
lt is primarily the ground vibrations which affect neighboring structures but
spccial attention has to be givcn to the possible occurrence of flyrock, whích is
thc main cause of on-sitc fatalíties and damage to cquipmcnt.
''' constríction
characteristic~ of the rock
~ distance from the blastíng sitc
geology of covcríng carth dcposits
By sclccting the right blasting mcthod and corre.et drillíng and firing patterns the
size of the ground vibrations can be controlled.
Rock characteristics
Fig. 10.2
14 201
Ground vibrations nrc a comp!icatcd typc of scismic wavcs and consist of
diffcrenl kinds of wavcs:
* P-wave. Thc P-wavc ís A bbrcviations:
also callcd the prímary or SH = Shcar wavc, horizontal
compressíonal wave. lt is thc SV "" Shcar wavc. vertical
fastest wavc through the R Raylcigh wavc
ground. The particlcs in thc P Comprcssíonal wavc
wavc movc in the samc di-
rection as thc propagation or
thc wavc. !he densíty of thc
material will changc whcn
the wavc rasscs.
* S-wave. The S-wavc is
also callcd thc sccondary
or shear wavc. lt movcs
through thc mc<lium at right
angle to thc wavc propaga-
tion but slower than thc P-
wavc. Thc S-wavc changcs
the shape of the material but
Fig. 10.3 Sr.?ismic 1w1ves.
not thc density.
,,,.-_··
Fine
)() 55 1()() cracks, (1.06
fallíng
pi aster
-----------··..· · · · · - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ·
Noticc-
40 80 150 ablc 0.12
cracking
Scvcre
60 l 15 225 cracking 0.25
204
1n the case of older buildings of poorcr quality. it is customary to decrease the
pcnnissib!e vibration velocity from 70 mm/sec. to 50 mm/sec .. in buildings of
light concrete it should be decrcased to 35 mm/sec. Conversely. there have been
occasions where velocity val u es of more than 100 mm/sec. wcre attained without
darnage to bui!dings. In the case of individual blasting opcratíons. sturdy con-
crete structurcs can stand values cxcccding 150 mm/scc.
lf thc limit valucs in thc table above regarding "no visible cracking" are trans-
ferrcd in to a thrcc-party graph. the curve wi!l look Jike in Fig. 10.5 curve 3.
Howcvcr. in the curve the lirnit val u e for buildings founded on rock has been
reduccd from 70 mm/sec. to 50 mm/scc. Curve 3 can he said to represen! thc
recommcnded límit values for normal residentia! arcas. For frequencies exceed-
ing 40 Hz thc partícle ve!ocity is the criterion for damagc but at lowcr frequencics
thc displaccmcnt rcprcscnts thc critcrion.
Thc dominan! frcquencics for vibrations passing through soft kinds of rock,
moraine. sand, grave!, clay etc. are lower than for example granitc. This is shown
in thc abovc table and curve 3 rcflects this for !ower frequencies where dísplace-
ment is used as the críteríon. Curve 2 in Fig. 10.5 rcpresents valucs at which
buildings rcccivc dircct damagc. (Langcfors and Kihlstrom, l 967.)
lt mus! be pointcd out that curve 3 only indicatcs thc rccomrncndcd limitíng
valuc and cxpert .iudgmcnt is nceded to determine more accurately which upper
lirnit values should be set for structurcs adjacent to blasting opcrations.
Fig. 10.5
205
Critcria for damagc and rccommcndations:
Curve 1: Rccomrnendcd uppcr lirnit f"or !B!'v1 computcrs wíth a duratíon
of vibration lcss than 5 scc.
Curve 2: Dírect damage from vihrations to huildings during blasting.
Curve 3: Rccornmcndcd upper Jimit for blasting.
Curve 4: Vibrations disturbing to human beíngs.
For lhc planning of blasting opcrations whcrc ground vibration prohlems oecur.
it is important to be aware of thc rclationship bctwcen distance. chargc and
ground vibration.
206
Using Langcfors' formula for dctcrmining thc chargc leve! thc vibration velocity
c¡rn be calculatcd:
Q
Chargc lcvcl
R'"'
Fig. 10.6.
lns1antaneous
ct;arge quantity (QJ
Vibration vclocity:
"~~~!!~·~···
\_Q\$~~....c.._.,....
......
.. '
Thc chargc levcls in thc prcvious table corrcspond to thc following vibration
velocitics if thc rock lransmission factor K=400.
Leve! Vibration vclocity
~~-~----~
Q/R'' mm/sec.
0.008 35
0.015 50
0.03 70
0.06 100 (thrcshold valuc grnnitc)
0.12 150
0.25 225
0.50 300
208
Thc rclationship chargc/distancc and vibratíon vclocity can also be cxpressed
graphically:
g1oo":::=J==t3::EI:EttE~"4o'O:±EJEEI::=?O;;;;~
.......=t-1----t--+--+-+-l-H-+1+-._K_· 40Q-_,_'-._,·_;..;_;_w:' - - 70 mm/ sec
+----1-+--+-+-1-+1-+-1---+--+;-t·-·-·t-++++'J----/-''-4-50 m mis e e
O 50 +---+---+--+-+-H-1-+¡·•--+---+;--l·--+-H-++-1---/..1-/---L-/--:.....' 3 ~ m mi sec
1
~----!-+-~-
~ \ 1 !7 / .- '~
~ 1 i ll / i
f5 li ·11
\
11
1 ;
/
1¡ J
,' ·1
1 \ 1
1 !ji
g 10
t==~t:!:t:~:J::±l:t±;t1 :t==~:=E.=/e~:~ ':B,,~:d,~t=:=E=. _=i+:~+-1=3
.... +--~:-.....;'-l--+--+-'--i'-4----:.'-..l.IJ../...:!_;_'/../--"-;4~·--t--+-H
~ s ...___........¡__..,. --+--1-++++-:f----4-:-¡¡-/~·+tn .==i---rh
li_
1
1 : ..-
'
b !>::.." ¡ / L/ _.1 \ ¡ ¡
ll
1
1'·--r-~1H·- ¡
·¡ 1 1
;.
:
·¡
u 1 1 1
1
; ! t l 1 r "!/ ¡1 1 ! 1 ti i ,·
5 10 Q
- ";
rv 50 100 500
r,';
\)'
rv
Distance R, m
Fig. 10.8 Clwrge (Q) as a jimcrion of dislance (R) for di{ferent levels of vibratíon
vdocíry. Rock 1rans111issio11 factor K=400. Ata distan ce of 20 m, the charge must
1101 excer:d 1. 3 kg IO ensure a vibration velocity of !ess tlum 50 mmlsec.
Thc dístance and charge tables which are based on thc dctcnnincd rock trans-
mission factor K should be used with carc close to buildíngs whcrc the foun-
dation is unknown c.g. buildings built partly on rock and partly on soil and
buildíngs founded on wooclcn piles in clay cte. The val u e of the rock transmission
factor K will also change clepending on the characteristics of the ground and the
dístance. Looscr matcrials such as morainc and clay have lower K values than
homogcncous hard rock. The rock transmission factor K is also lower in
weathercd and fissurcd rocks.
The actual valuc of the factor K is best determincd by test blastings at thc actual
sítc. fo!lowcd up by scrupulous vibration mcasurement.
To evaluate the test blasts, the constriction of the blast must be considered e.g. íf
the test hole has free breakage, if ít just cracks thc rock or if it <loes not affect the
209
rock al ali. To cvaluate a test blast corrcctlv. cxpcriencc of test blastings and
knowlcdgc of thc fícld of ground vibrations is nccessary.
Whcn thc rock trnnsrnission factor K is dctcrmincd. thc graph in fig. l 0.8 may be
adjustcd accordingly and !he realistic rclationship bctwccn chargc/dístancc and
vibration vclocity adaptcd to thc local conditions.
o
Q)
e
(\S
.r:.
C,)
C)
e
ctiL..
(!)
o.
o
f
o
()
1
5 10 50 100 500
Distance R, m
Fig. JO. 9 Charge (Q) a.1· 11 júnclion of diswnce ( R) j'or dij/'erent /eve/s of vibration
Fefociry. Rock transmission fác1or K "'' f OO. Ar a di.1·rancc o( 20 m. 1fu: charge 11111s1
1101 exceed 20 kg to e11surc a i·ihra1io11 1·cloci1y o( h'ss rhan 50 111m!scc.
Thc comparison of thc two graphs with rock transmission factors K""400 ami
K= lOO rcspcctivcly shows that thc dampcning cffcct is highcr in thc softcr rock
(K= lOO) and thc vihration vclocity is Jowcr if thc rclatíonship chargc/distancc is
maintaincd.
m/scc
500 JO()() l )()() 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500
~----·-·--------~-----~-~--~-~-~--~
C!ay D
Clay. saturated CJ
Sand. grave]
Sand. saturatcd
e:::••
CJ
Morainc c:=±i•••ll'
Morainc. saturated ••••
Sandstonc. schist
Granitc, gnciss
e , shcar wave
l!lllilllllllll compressíonal wavc
Fig. JO. JO The ¡;ropaga1ion velocily of compressionaf all(f shear waves through
dif{ffc111 soif.1· muí rncks.
Thc propagation vc!ocitics of thc Rayleigh wave dcpend on the frequency and
are lowcr than those of thc shear wavc.
Evcry geological envíronmcnt has íts own ground víbration characteristics which
affcct tbc propagation of thc vibration wave. The ground vibratíon characteris-
tics dcpend on tbc following propcrtics of thc ground:
21 ¡
0>100---....,.._""1"""".,....,."'l"'l"'l""!"'l".~....,..--io.....,....,..,.."l""!'lll'T-__,,_."""""',....,
qS
.c.
--- ---· ----s. o. 2 ot-,c-+-l-+++-H.
·~ v~..,,.__.._.---1- __ ,__
o .v 1 / ·~
O> 10
e
--
i 11
I )
qS 5
L...
·-7/ · --¡1-,--,;.
¡:
C!J
c. >-----------· --···-1---1--+--l-+-H --+-+-1--H·+-----l--- ·-r
o
1
/ . '
ü
o / //
1 J / /
/
/
5 10 50 100 500
Distance R, m
Fig. JO. J J Comparison of qua111i1y-dü1ance re/(l{ionships for speclfled vafues of
vihralion velocí1y in Sweden and U S.A.
In U .S. A. thc highcst pcrmitted vibration vclocíty is 50 mm/scc. and safc scalcd
distanccs havc bccn cstahlishcd for use ín thc fíeld. Thc cquations for blast
designare:
D!\ÍW ~ 50 ft/l!F = S.D. (!)
Dl\ÍW ~ 20 ft!lb'' "'S.D. (2)
whcrc D ís thc dístance in fcct from blasting sitc to structurc in question
W is maximurn chargc weight in pounds pcr delay
S.D. is scalcd distancc
213
." ." ¡~
." ". . . :,,
·~
. ."
t:j
. . ". ."
'º "
. l\)
.
'º
l intcr:i:,d burd<'.'n
1
~
Fig. JO. 12 By changinr, thcfiring partcm. rhc intemu! !mrdr!n mar he 111i11imizcd
rmd tlu: co11.\'lriclio11 fm\'cred.
The first rounds blasted ata work sitc must be considcred as te:;t blastings and thc
vibratíon mcasurements should be used as n guídancc for thc planning of an
optimum blasting opcratio11. Thc rcsults from tlic vibration rncasurcmcnts
should be utilizcd during ali blasting opcrntions to find thc most cconornic
drillíng and firing pattcrn. Howcvcr, a certain rnargin to thc pcnnittcd vibration
velocity should always be maintaincd as thc ground vibrations may incrcasc
sharply if thc blast does not go according to plan. This can be díffícult in cases
when the drilling is far ahcad or thc blasting opcratío11, hut usíng thc rcsult of thc
214
initial risk analysis and a thorough follow-up during the blasting operation, the
dril!ing pattcrn rnay be selected in such a way that severa! charges may be used in
each holc if the vibratíon vclocity values become too high.
Invcstigations show that people in llln1'Sl'l'
general rcact to vibration valucs far 1:iO ·1'· Rcíni'orccd ctmcrc'!e strncturcs
bclow the !imít for darnagc on build- . .. 011 h;mf rnch
1.)0 -;1
ings. lt has also been demonstrated !
i
that blasting opcrations which are ex- 110 .j 1'iorn1al huildin¡!~ nn hanl rock
ecuted in a short time are bctter ac-
1
cepted by people in the arca than -1
opcrations lasting for a long time, 1'
even if thcrc are long gaps between 711 ·'!' t\faxí111un1
\';duc in Swcdcll ft>r
the blasts. ;· huíldí1H!s on hanl rock
¡ "
Thc best way to forestall complaints )O .•. Normal huildii1!!S tlll sort rock
!.
rcpc·;1tcd bl;1~ts
is if those rcsponsible for the blasting
operations give comprchensivc in-
formation to thc people affected.
.)O .j l'c<lpk s1wngl\' dislurhcd
Thcrc are instruments availablc for the mcasuremcnt of vertical and horizontal
cornponents at onc or severa! rncasuríng points. As rcgards blasting i1 is the
magnitudc of thc vertical cornponcnt that is important. Thc instrumcnts may
also be supplcrncntcd with an accclcromctcr to mcasurc thc accclcration.
Ali the instruments dcscríbcd abovc are dcsignecl to stand harsh working aml
anvironmental condítíons. The clcctronic componcnts whích are placed in
hcav;'-duty casíngs are spccia!ly dcsígncd to rcsist extreme lcmpcrnlurc vari-
ations. frnm thc tropícs to thc arctic.
The UVS 120!, UVS 1404 ami UVS 1608 instrumcnts are manufacturcd by Nitro
Consult AB Swcdcn.
5 10 50 100 500
Distance R, m
Thc low frcqucncics occur in soft rocks and whcn hlasting al rclativcly grcat
distan ces.
At the lowcst frcqucncics it may thcorctically be co-opcration bel wccn diffcrcnt
pcriod nurnbcrs.
In the U .S. A .. with its softcr rocks, thc chargcs are supposcd tn co-opcratc if thc
delav bctwccn thcm is shortcr than 9 ms.
Thc following cxamplc shows thc cffcct of thc rcductíon factor in cautious
hlasting:
Condítions:
Rock. granitc
Bcnch blasting
Blastholc cliameter. drill series 11 (34-29 mm)
Bench height 4.0 m
Chargc pcr hok l. 95 kg
- Maxímurn pcnníttcd co-opcrnting ,·lrnrgc 5.0 kg
Orilling pa!tern.
1. The vo!ume of rock which
is blasted by cach hole:
Üpcr
Volume = - - (cu.rn.)
q
oi 100
:X: 70 mrn/sec
2. Whcn the volume is ·· l. SO
mm/se e
can be calculatcd.
Ql
Ol
....
I f..~::¡ ¡ l
t1l /
The surfacc arca cach blast- .e
ü
holc can cover: Ol 10
e
·~
vo!umc ....Ql 5
Arca -····-·-- (sq.rn.)
o.
K o
1
o
o
(K. in thís case is bcnch
hcight) 0.5
o.1..__........_........._..:..;..-1-~'--''-'-"'-'_....~..._..:......:_
1 5 10 50 100 500
Distance R, m
222
3. Practica! drillíng pattern.
When the surface area for o
the blastholc is known thc
practica! burden is:
~
B ""--\
v--us
Practica! spacing:
S = J.25xB (m) K
The practica! spacíng should
be adjusted to the width of
thc ben ch íf necessary.
4. Hole depth
The holc dcpth H may be
J_
cstímatcd from tables in
Chapter 5.2 Charge ealcula-
tions.
5. Specífíc drilling
b =---~ (m/cu.m.)
BxSxK
An estímate should be carried out to see if the specific drilling is acceptable. If
not, the use of dividcd charges in the holes or severa! lower benches should be
consídcrcd.
If thc spccific drilling is acceptable, the calculations continue as follows:
6. Drilling error.
d
E = - - + 0.03K (m)
]()()()
7. Subdrilling
U= 0.3(B+E) (m)
8. !-!ole depth
H=a(K+U) (m)
a = 1. 05 for ínclination 3: 1 B Bmax - E
and 1.0 for vertical boles.
9. Maximum burden
(m)
223
Bottom charge.
10. Charge concentration
Bmax:
111 = ~~ for Dvnamcx M (kg/m)
2 - ~
Bm:tx 1 1. l 5 .
]¡, = - - X - - for Emuhtc 150
2 1.25
11. Height
h¡, = J .3XBmax (m)
12. Weight
Q¡, = !11Xh11 (kg)
Column charge.
= lb·hb
13. Weight
Oc= Üpcr-Qh (kg)
l 4. Stcmming
h0 = B (m)
15. Height
h'" = H-h 0 --h 11 ( m)
ló. Chargc conccniratíon
Oc
!,. =~· (kg/m)
h,.
1,. should be at lcast 40 % of
I¡,. Explosives of suitable di-
mensions should be sc!ected
for the charge.
17. Total chargc weight
224
Calculation example.
Condítions: Blasting to be carried out close to a TV transrnitting station.
Thc permíttcd vibration vclocity is 35 mm/sec. and the distance to the blasting
sitc is 20 m.
Blasthole diameter: Dril! series 11, 34-27 mm in this case 31 mm.
Bench height: 2.5 m
Hole inclination: 3:1
Width of thc round: 12 m
Rock transmission factor K: 400
Explosive: Dynamcx M
Gurit
Specific chargc q: 0.4 kg/cu.m.
Permitted co-operating charge: 0.65 kg
(in accordance with graph Fig. 10.8)
1. Rock volume pcr holc.
Üpor 0.65
Volumc =- - = --- = 1.63 cu.m.
q 0.4
2. Surface arca pcr holc.
Volumc I.63
Arca = = - - = 0.65 sq.m.
K 2.5
Spacing:
S = l.25X0.72=0.90 m
Adjustment of the spacing to the width of the bcnch.
12.0
Number of holc spaces - - = 13.33, that is 14.
0.90
Sed¡ = 12/14 = 0.86 m
Numbcr of boles per row 14+ 1=15.
4. Estimatcd hole depth
From table in Chaptcr 5.2 Chargc calculations
Hcsi = 3.05 m
5. Specífic drilling
3.05
- - - - - - = l. 97 m/cu.m.
BxSxK 0.72 X 0.86X2.5()
Thc specific drilling for drill series 11is0.8 to 1.3 m/cu.m. when the blasthole is
225
fu!ly utilízed. Thc specific drilling is somewhat high in this case. but may be
accepted.
6. Drilling error.
d 31
E = ~- + 0.03K = - - +0.03X2.5=0. I 1 m
l ()()() 1{)()()
7. Subdrillíng
U = 0.3(B+E)"'0.3(0.72+0.11)=0.25 rn
8. Ho!c dcpth
H = a(K+U)::ool.05(2.5+0.25)=2.89 approx. 2.90 m
9. Maximum burdcn
B,""' = B+ E=0.72+0. l 1=0.83 m
Bottom chargc.
!O. Chargc conccntration
Bm:ix~ 0.83 2
l¡, = --·- = - - · = (J.35 kg/m
2 2 -
1 l. Hcíght
hb =1.3Xl3m:1x""l.3x0.83=l.08 approx. 1.10 m
12. Weight
Q 0 = l¡,Xh¡,=0.35X J. l0=().39 kg
The bottorn charge may consist of 4 cartridgcs of Dynamc:x M. 22x 200 mm with
a weight of O.! kg each = 0.4 kg.
The practica! hcight of thc bottom chargc. h¡,. will be 0.8 rn.
Column chargc.
13. Weight
Üc = Üpcr-Qh=0.65-().40=0.25 kg
14. Stemming
h0 = B = 0.72 m
15. Height
he= H-hb-h 0 =2.90-0.80-0.72=L18 m
16. Chargc concentratíon
Oc 0.25
!0 =--=--=0.18 kg/m
h0 1.38 -
The concentration of thc column chargc should be at lcast 40 !;;(, of thc con"
centration of the bottom charge. which is found to be the case.
")")¡'..
The column may be chargcd with 2 canrídges of Gurit 17x500 mm with a
cartridgc wcight of 0.1 !5 kg each. Total weight 0.23 kg.
The total lcngth of the bottom charge, 0.8 m, and the column charge, 1.0 m, will
lea ve a stcmming lcngth of 1. l m whích may cause sorne boulders from the upper
part of thc round.
17. Total chargc
º'º' = Q¡,+Q"=0.41 +0.23=0.64 kg
18. Spccifíc drilling
nxH 15x2.90
b = = 2.01 m/cu.m.
wXBXK 12.0x0.72x2.5
l 9. Spccifíc charge
nxQ, 01 J5x0.64
q - - - - = 0.44 kg/cu.m
wxBxK 12.0x0.72X2.5
•
10 "'8 "'
6 •s •
11 "'
12 •
13
•
14
o
15
"'
7 • 5 •3 •
5 "'
8 •
11 •
12 •
13
o
14
•
4 • 2 •
1
e
2 •
4
o
7 •
10
e
12 •
13
227
10.3.4 Bench blasting with divided charges.
In blasting operations. it is common that the drilling is carricu out wcll ahcad of
the blasting operation, with the result that the dril!ing pattern is fixed and cannot
be changed if it is found that thc rcquisite chargc for the blastho!e is higber than
thc permitted one.
In cases like this, the charge may be divided in to two or more smaller charges in
the hole which are shot wíth diffcrent pcriod numbers. The uppcr charge must
then always be initiatcd with the lowcr period numbcr.
An intennediate sand stemming divides thc chargcs from each othcr to avoid
flash-o ver between the charges. An cxplosive ·s susceptibility to flash-ovcr dc-
pends on parametcrs like agc of tbe cxplosivc. ternperaturc. chargc diameter,
quality and Jength of thc stcmming. The length of !he stemming nccded bctwcen
charges varíes from 0.4 m for dril! series l l (34-26 mm) to 2.0 m for a blasthole
diameter of 150 mm. Too long intcrmediatc stcrnming could rcsult in more
difficult breakagc for the !owcr bottom charge resulting in higher vibration
va!ues. The best stemming material has a particlc sizc of l/10 of thc blasthole
diametcr (for diamctcrs up to 100 mm).
228
6. Practica! drilling pattern.
Practica! burdcn:
B = 13 11 ,,,,,-E (m)
Practica! spacíng:
S = l.25xB (m)
The holc spacing is adjusted
to the width of thc round.
Charging.
Lowcr partía! charge.
7. Weight
01 = Opcr (kg)
8. Height
h1 = l .3XB""" (m)
9. Length of thc intermedi-
ate stcmming, h,. is betwecn
0.4 and 2.0 m dcpcnding on
thc hole diamcter.
Approx. 15 times the charge
di a meter.
Uppcr partial ch:irgc.
1O. Residual chargcable
!ength of blastholc.
h, = H-h 1-h, (m)
Uppcr bottom chargc.
11. Wcight.
Ü¡, 11 "" 0.75XQ¡ (kg)
Lcss bottom charge is re-
q llircd as thc chargc has free
breakage which is not the
case in thc lowcr charge.
12. llcighL
h¡,,, = 1.3 X Bmax (rn)
Uppcr column cbarge.
13. Stemming part.
(m)
The lengtb of thc stcmming
may be adjusted depcnding
on thc charge conccntration
in thc column.
229
14. Height.
hcu = h,-h¡,"-h" (m)
15. Concentration of column
charge.
Üpcr-Obu
lcu :=~~~~- (kg/m)
hrn
Judge if the calculatcd charge conccntration in thc co!umn is sufficicnt in rclation
to the bottom chargc. lt should be at !east 40 % of thc conccntration of thc
bottom charge. If the remaining charge wcight is not large enough to obtain an
acceptable charge conccntration in the column. a third charge mus! be uscd in
the ho!e.
16. Total charge weight -
uppcr partial chargc.
o.,= º""+o,.. (kg)
Check that Ou~Op";.
73"'
3. Hole depth.
H (m) is found in the dríl!ing 1 ~
.2 i
and charging table for trcnch - 1
blasting. Chaptcr 6. ~ i
~ o_s l
4. Specífic charge.
q (kg/cu.rn.) is found in
graph R 1•
5. Practica! burdcn. 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
Depth, m
Ü1ow
B =----- (m)
qx!ixw GRAPH R2
Charging. E 1.0 K • 1.0 m 2.0 3.0 4.0
6. Botrom chargc. e:
Q¡, in accordancc with graph ~ 0.9
...
:::i
R2 ID 0.8
7. Height of bottom chargc
0.7
Q¡,X J(J()()
h¡, ;:::,---- (m)
0.6
8. Height of stemming
0.5
h0 = B (m) Bottom charge, kg
h 0 should be adapted to the o.e o.e 1.0 1.2
burdcn B and thc conccntra- 0.5
tion of thc column chargc.
From a ground vibration 0_6
point of víew ít is favorable
to have short stcrnming 0.7 4 ho!es per row
(highcr column chargc) on
E 0.8
condition that throw can be
e
controlled by covcring thc (1) 0.9
blast and that the requircd
charge conccntration is
" ....
:J
ID 1-0
K • 1.0 m 2.0 3.0 4.0
oblaincd.
232
9. Wcight of colurnn charge
O,= Opcr-Ob (kg)
10. Hcight of column charge
he= H-h¡,-h 0 (m)
11. Conccntration of column
chargc
Oc
le = - - (kg/m)
he
12. Weight of colurnn charge
Üc=lcxhc (kg)
13. Total chargc wcight
º"" = Ü¡,+Üc (kg)
Check 1hat Ü101~Üpcr·
TABLE R,
Recomrncndcd charge conccntration of the column chargc in relation to the
practica! burdcn in trench blasting.
16
233
10.3.8 Trench hlasting with divided chargcs.
The rnethod of using divided charges in trcnch blasting can be uscd when the
hole depth exceeds 2.0 m. This is becausc thc intcrrncdiatc stcmming and thc
normal stcmming occupy a mínimum lcngth of 1.0 rn.
Charging.
Lower bottom chargc.
4. Wcíght.
Ü1>1 = Üpcr (kg)
5. Hcight.
Q¡, 1Xl000
h¡, 1 = - - - - - (m)
cF
6. Height of int..:rmcdi<.itc stcmming.
h, = 0.4 to ! .O m. Thc valuc dcpcnds on thc circumstanccs. c.g. the blastholc
diametcr. Approx. 15 times thc chargc díamctcr.
Uppcr partial chargc.
7. Residual chargcablc hcight of thc blastholc.
h, = H-hh 1-h, (m)
Uppcr bottom chargc.
8. Oniy 60 % of chargc Qh 1 is ncedcd for thc brcakagc of thc uppcr part as thc
holc has free brcakagc. i.e. no constriction.
Üh., = 0.6XQ¡,¡ (kg)
9. Height.
hbu is estímated from the chosen chargc unit.
Upper column cbargc.
10. Charge conccntration.
!"'' from table R 1 (kg/m)
J 1. Stcrnming.
(m)
234
Adjustcd to thc chargc concentration in the column of thc holc.
12. Height.
he"" h,-h¡,,,-h., (m)
l3. Wcight.
(kg)
14. Total charge weight.
Upper partial chargc.
Q., = Ü¡,u+Ücu (kg)
Check that Üu~Üpcr·
10.5 Flyrock.
Cautious blasting does not only mean thc control of ground vibration but also the
control of llyrock.
The control of flyrock and its prevention has been dealt with thoroughly in
Chapter 5.8 Throw. ílyrock.
~··
kilopascal (kPa) are also - :
uscd. ---
Thc decibcl unit is cxprcssed
·¡
/ --
as:
p
1
, n.01
dB = 20 lo!!:--
- Po /
whcre P is thc mcasurcd o .•IJ
140 160 180 100 dB
prcssurc and Po thc rcfcr-
cnce prcssure of0.00002 Pa. Fig. 10.24 Re!ation k Pa!d B.
238
Knowing the charge wcight O (kg) and the dístance R (m) to the charge, the
overpressurc can be calculatcd from thc formula:
0 1r1
P = 700 - - (mbar)
R
Thc rclationship applics to TNT, which means that for civil explosives type
Emulítc l 50 and Dynamcx M thc charge weight should be reduced by 25 % when
uscd in thc formula.
The rclationship applics to unconfincd charges.
Thc unconfined charges
which cause problems in
populatcd arcas are concus-
sion chargcs (mudcapping),
trunklines of detonating
cord. wclding of powcrlincs
with cxplosives. prcsplitting
wi!h unstcmmcd boles etc.
As can be sccn in Fig. !0.25,
a trunklinc consisting of !00
m 1O gr dctonating cord can
cause brokcn windows at a
distancc of up to 100 m.
10!--=-:~,.-.,.,-+-~~,-,+,....,..,,-,;,..,..,---.¡........~-,--,j
P = pressure
5~~c::.;~~.;-1~_.:_.~~- O = chargc
o.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 V = volurne of confincd
Q/V, kg/cu.m. spacc
Fig. 10.26 í;ress11rf as a .f1mclio11 of c/wrgf and vo/ume from a deto11atio11 in a
confined spacc.
241
11. UNDERWATER BLASTING
i 1.1 General.
Underwatcr bl<tsiing includcs rcrnoval of' rock which is fullv or partly covcrcd by
water.
Thc undcrwatcr hlasting opcratío11 rcquírcs grcatcr carc and more thorough
planning than similar opcrations abovc water. Both drilling and chmging be"
come more complicatcd and sorne factors whlch llave to be considcrcd for thc
succcssful underwater blasting operatíon are:
" spccial opcration mcthods and drillin¡! equipment
diffcrcnl charging mcthods
highcr powder factor to displace rock. ovcrburdcn and water
use of cxplosivcs with goocl undcrwatcr propcrtics
use of safe and rcliablc initiation svstcm
kccping vibrations and water shock wavcs undcr control hy using thc
right products and dclay pattcrn.
-
.2
a
Q)
'O
2 .20
~
40
60·
80·
Fii. J / .2 Economic hench heights al1(f warer depths .fór d(IJ(:renr methods.
Whecothe wotern
roe kfill over and
. "'.":~be
the are<1
o d'ep. Jt nmy
bl"sted d~"semed
, economically ach,.a ntaoeous
""dbe ·11 ""d eh0<ge
charge calculations are .
ln Clrnptc1
u "'h the torockfill.
th m . ' 11 .2. 3 Clmge
The dm··1·ng
1
rnlrnl•llons. . ¡;
º" \~!·in
cted "btwe wotecw1 . operntlons
dtlll lng nnd ,;""'' dnlllng
motbod U Y the bottom. "
equipped tb ""'"' . ' " ' " íl"lb1 h ty.
"
extended downis tono rmally ived
p· latform on trae s .four directions or
The
maehme., S W h'1e h can be me
-=\\---:~=
•· \\J\~\ ·.
~.·_: :~· ·_.:,~,,~-;_·,.:"-&~; _:·.~ ·-:.~ ;:~'_·. ;:_-,· .~:, ·:•~~.-· .:~_·' _:·,~:_·.'\,:-·.~ '_.·:'·":_.'\-~),·.:_-~·:'.; "_· :·:.-•~,·:~-_~·. ,:' ~r~xm¡w:;~-~~:~1J?-
..
:
.••.·.·
..... ..-·_._'·_;
...·___
· .. __ .......
:..._>; - . · ;
.. .. .. .. .. •. .. .. ..
-.:í'::·._
.....
'··;_·.··
_-,
.• .. •. ;~?~.!Ü¡~ J~lÍ{*j ..
4 5 6
Fig. JJ.5 Principie of Overburden Drilling.
For rock covered with overburdcn. the specífic charge should be increased by
0.02 kg/cu. m. pcr meter of ovcrburden (KoB),
For the rock scction, thc compensation is 0.03 kg/cu. m. pcr meter of thc ben ch
hcight (KrndJ,
Thc rcquircd specific chargc should than be (for Emulitc 150 or Dynamex AM):
Q;nc1 = l.00+0.01XK"+0.02XKos+0.03XKrock
q,w 1 = l.l0+0.01XK"+0.02XKou+0.03XKrock
Thc real specific churgc will be even higher duc to increased subdrílling.
Whcn the required spccifíc chargc is known. the hole spacing may be calculated
with rcgard to the possible charge concentratíon per meter blasthole. If Emulite
150 or Dynamex AM in papcr cartridges are charged with a pneumatic charger or
bulk Emulite is used, thc chargc concentration ís found in table J ,a Chapter 5.2
Charge calculations.
For largc diamctcr blastholes, where large diameter charges are used, the charge
concentration is given by thc actual unit of chargc. See table 1.b Chapter 5.2
Chargc calculations.
B = s =
~
V~
¡-¡::- (m)
The subdriHing should he at least of the samc magnitude as thc burden, hut no
less than O. 8 m.
U=B (m)
The hole depth is the bench height plus thc subdrilling.
H=K+U (rn)
The unchargcd section of thc hole should he l /3 of thc burden.
h,, = 1/3 X B ( rn)
In deeper water, it is rccommended that the holes are charged el ose to the
blasthole collar to cnsurc disp!accmcnt. lf thc holcs are not charged close to the
rock surfacc, thc top of thc rock is rncrcly liftcd and rclurns unbroken to its
original positíon cluc to the weíght of thc water.
EXAMPLE
Undcrwatcr blasting to be carricd out undcr thc following conditíons:
Blastholc diametcr: !JO mm
Water depth: 12m
Overburden: 2m
Bench height: Sm
Vertical drillíng.
Explosívc: Emulitc 150. 75x550 mm
Initiatíon: V A/OD MS (mil!i-sccond dclay)
Required specifíc charge:
q = l.l0+0.0lx12.0+0.02x2.0+0.03x5.0
q = 1.10+0.12+0.04+0.15= t .41 kg/cu.m.
The charge concentration is:
10 = in accordance with table l .b = 5.3 kg/m.
The charge calculatíons are bascd on thc assumptíon that K ? 2B. (Thc bench
hcíght is grcatcr than twicc thc burden.)
On !owcr bcnchcs it may be feasible to incrcase the subdrillíng and keep the
same hole dcpth and drilling pattern.
11.2.4 Explosivcs.
Explosivcs for underwaler blasting should liave high strcngth, good water rcsist-
ancc and should rctaín theír sensitivity when subjcctcd to hydrostatic prcssurc.
Ernulitc 150 and Dynamex AM mect thcsc rcquírcmcnts cvcn tbough less
sophísticatcd cxplosivcs can be uscd if thc water dcpth docs nol cxcccd 1Ometcrs
and the time of cxposurc to water is short.
Thc explosíve mus! give full detonation evcn whcn it has bccn s!Orcd undcr
water for a long time as it must be takcn in to account thal more often than noL
unprcdictablc circumstanccs in underwatcr blasting, add time to the operation.
Emulitc 150 and Dynarncx /\M are guarnntecd to resíst water for at least onc
week.
Thc cxplosive may be chargecl into the blastholc by means of a pncumatíc
chargcr, whích will rcsult ín a ver y good charge conccntratíon.
Cartridgcs which are charged wi!h !amping rods give a chargc conccntrntion
which is more or less equal to thc chargc conccntrntion of t he cartrídge.
The best chargíng result is obtained by pumping Emulitc exp!osivcs into thc
blastholc. The Emulitc will thcn fill up thc holc complctcly, giving a vcry good
chargc conccntration. In rock formations contaíning fissurcs and voids. pump-
ablc products should not he used beca use of explosivcs mígratinn in to thc voids.
resulting in exccssivc local chargc concentrations.
Thc low blasthole-to-blastholc propagation charactcristics of Emulitc is a great
advantage in undcrwater blasting, whcre propagatíon bctwcen boles must be
avoided from the point of vícw of both fragmcntation and víbration.
250
11.2.5 Initiation.
lt is imperativc that a safe and reliablc initiation system is used in underwater
blasting. Since the blastíng procedure requires míllisecond delay blasting for
proper breakagc and disp!accment, e!cctric or NON EL detonators are preferred
to thc use of dctonating cord.
The connectíon of the round has to be carricd out with the greatest carc, but the
disadvantages of the electric initiation are clirninated. NON EL ís delivered with
thc samc time dclay as V A-OD, 25 ms.
--~---:
Undcrwater blasting with the assístance of divers is usually used for limitcd
operations. ;\s !he vísihility undcr water is mostly ¡JOll!' when drilling operation is
taking plaec. spccial rncasurcs have to be lakcn to hclp thc divcr lo oricnt<itc
himsclfsn he can dril! lile holes in the right place. Í.l'. a grill ol'stcd wlll'rc 1hc
locations of !he boles are marked,
Thc chargc calcu!ations are thc sa1m· as undcr Chaplcr 11.2.3 Charge calcula-
tions,
11.2. 7 Blas!ing with cofü·ussion chargcs.
Thc FRAGMEX-system has hccn dcvclnpcd !or rock blasting wilhoul drillinf!..
Thc systern is particularly adaptcd for undenvater blastíng. but is alsn used in
surface applications i .e. boulder blast ing and seisrnic bias! ings.
Thc tcchnique of using shapcd charges (líned cavity cffect) has previously only
becn used in military applícat ion s. The efl'ect or the shapcd charge is obtaincd by
dirccting thc cnergy of the cxplosívc. Thc bcst effect is sccured if thc charge has
thc shapc of a cone with a ecrtain anglc in thc top. lf the cone is intcrnally
covcrcd with a metal. thc metal wíll be comprcsscd on dctonation creating a
projcctilc of mo!ten metal with a high pcnetration eapability. To givc the
projcctilc time to f'orm before it strikes the rock surl'acc. the charge has to be
placed at a ccrtain distance from thc sur fa ce. This distance (stand-off) is oftcn
built inlo the charges.
252
When shapcd charges are uscd for undcrwatcr blasting. thc "stand-off" must be
kept free from water to obtain thc desired effcct.
V
"). . ·í>
<l {>
<l I>
Thc FRAGMEX chargcs are suitable for bcnch hcights up to 1.5 manda water
dcpth up to l 00 m. Tbc charging pattern with FRAG MEX 8 depcnds on the rock
charncteristics, but sorne guidc values will be givcn:
Hard rocks (granite. basalt, diabasc etc.)
Charging pattcrn: 1.OX1.0 m to 1.5 x l .5 m
Softcr rocks (limestone. conglomera tes etc.)
Charging pattern: 2.0x2.0 m to 2.5x2.5 m
To obtain better knowlcdge of thc blastability of thc rock, test blastíngs are
253
Fig. 1/.13 Chargi11g with FRAGk!EX c1111rgcs.
rccommcndcd. lf thc rock is covcrcd with ovcrburden, this should be removed
bcforc the blastings start.
Caution is rccomrncndcd if thc water dcpth is less than 2.0 m. Throw from thc
material uscd as sinkcrs tcnds to occur. Furthcrmore thc air shock wavc has to be
considercd in buill-up arcas.
Thc dceper the water depth, thc bettcr thc cffect of thc FRAGMEX charges as
the eonfinemcnt becomes bcttcr duc to thc water prcssurc.
The FRAGMEX chargcs mus! be initiatcd instantancously. Conncction of thc
charges with dctonating cord is thc bcst mcans of initiation.
For the blasting of occasional bouldcrs or stumps abovc the stipulatcd grade, a
box (approx. 25 kg) of Dynamcx or Emulitc can be placed on the objcct. Thc
charge must be sccurcly anchored using availab!c material as ballast. Note the
risk of throw from thc ballast in shallow watcrs. If more than onc chargc is
blastcd, thc chargcs should be conncctcd wíth dctonating cord for ínstantancous
dctonation.
The water shock wavc is not such a substantial risk when the rock is drilled and
the explosives are confincd in the rock. The duration of the shock wave is short,
thc peak value is reduced to half in a fraction of a millisecond. This implies that
co-operation between charges wíth different delays docs not occur (as the time
del ay is normally 25 ms). Neither should co-opcration between different charges
within the same delay pcriod occus as thc scatter within each period is ±5 ms.
Thc great difference in peak pressure values between a free charge and one
confincd in rock indicates that drilling and charging must be thc first choice c!ose
to dc!icatc structurcs.
Differcnt mcasurcs havc bcen suggested for reducing thc prcssure of water
shock wavcs. for example an air bubble curtain. The air bubblc curtain is
produced by placing perforated steel pipes on the bottom, through which air is
pumpcd and bubbles up to the surface. When thc water shock wave arrives at the
air bubblc curtaín, part of it is absorbed in the bubbles. These are compressed
during fractions of milliseconds and emit, for sorne fractions of a millisecond to
sorne mil!íseconds, compression waves, with lower peak value, in all directions.
Thc part of the shock wave that passes between the bubbles receives a reduced
peak value anda more rapid fade out than thc original undisturbed one. The aír
bubble curtain reduces the peak pressure of thc shock wave, but <loes not
esscntially affect the impulse of the wave. In practícal terms it can be said that the
air bubblc curtain may be effective in reducing structural stress in compliant
structures, but may not be particularly effectivc in reducing stress in massive
structures.
255
Thc rnost effcctive way of rcducing both thc pressure and thc impulse of thc
water shock wave is to reduce thc chargcs and confine them in the rock. Thc
rcduction of thc chargcs can be done by reducíng thc spacing between thc
blastholes and charging less exp!osivc in cach hule (the specific chargc should not
be altcred).
With a reliab!e short del ay initiation systcm and an cxplosivc with tow propaga-
tion eharacteristics it is possible to kccp both ground vibrations and water shock
waves under control.
The following diagrams show thc safcty distanccs for diffcrcnt mcthods of
undcrwater blastíng.
Distance, m
iOOO
-
Safety dlstance ---
~ ------
100
..-- -
~
....---
\el'> \O
?eº~
1
\0 \t\
_,.s.\e<
-\\\)
~\9...,Q~
-- -- -----
~
\~\ú( ~i Q~ -----
-----
-----
~~
\\\ º"
<1\,,¡Grt.~
-----
10
~
-- -----
- ~
?-\&...
1
1
i iO 100 1000 10000
Charge per round, kg
Fig. JJ. 14 Safr:1y distan ces for c!wrges confined in hlastholes, rora! charge per
ro un d.
256
Distance, m
1000
1
1
-
--
Safety d !stance
¡___--- \O
_..,.
o\>\e \fl
--
"'ª\e\'
('(\~
--
__. ~e ' ee\u\9 -:---
iOO \ur\e& \tiee."'t
\~
.-\0 -ó"'e t&
~
-
l~
\fl\U o~ óQ~ -
10
v-------=::- ~
i -----
-
Absolutely lethal to humans
---~ -~-·
1
1 10 100 1000 10000
Charge per round, kg
Fíg. l J .15 Sa{eiy diswnce for shaped charges in u11derwa1er b/asting.
257
12. SPECIAL FORMS OF BLASTING
12.1 Blasting of natural boulders.
Two methods are used for bouldcr blasting:
* Drillíng and blasting.
''' Concussion charges.
Thc lattcr mcthod has its lirnils for tcchnical and safcty rcasons. Two typcs of
boulders can be distinguishccL natural bouldcrs and bouldcrs originating from
previous blasts. (Sce Chapter 5.4 Secondary blasting.)
The natural bouldcrs requirc more cxplosives as they have not been subject to
strains frorn previous blasts. Furthcrrnore. thc natural boulders are oftcn partly
covercd by earth.
Factors to consider when blasting natural bouldcrs:
* Kind of rock~ sizc nnd shapc.
Dcsircd frngmcntation.
'' Frcc-lying or partly buricd in carth.
Thc avaílabílity of covcring material with rcgard to pcrmittcd travel-
ing distance or flyrock.
When the bouldcr is fully buried in earth the specific charge can be increased to
0.2 kg/cu.m.
Concussion charges.
Concussion chargcs mus! be used only outside built-up arcas. The air shock wave
crcatcd by the concussion shot may cause scverc damage to surround[ng buíld-
ings. See Chaptcr 10.6 Air shock wavcs. Fig. 10.25.
Thc spccífic charge for a boulder fully above ground leve! is 1.0 kg/eu.m. The
concussion shot is placed on thc top of the boulder and stemmed with wet clay or
similar material in abundance. No largcr particles which may form projeetiles
should be íncludcd in the stemmíng.
Whcn !he shot is fired a shock wave gocs through the boulder and is reflected
agaínst the free surfaces of the boulder. The col!iding rcflccted shock waves
wíthin thc boulder give risc to tensilc stresses in the boul< 1<Cr whích break it if thc
charge is correctly calculated.
259
Buricd boulders are closc to impossible to b!ast with concussion chargcs, as no
rcf1ection against any free surfaec can occur bceause thc shock wavcs are
transmitted further out into thc ground. For concussion blasting high velocity
cxplosivcs like Emulilc or Dynarncx should be uscd for thc best rcsul!.
VA or NONEL detonator
(same period number)
Detonating cord
, '/ p
·~.
! '!.
6
;;
,·.
,, µ
,.,
;
; _;
tj
;Ll
:~1
"
/
261
12.4 Blasting of pole holes.
B!asting of pole boles is a major conccrn forman y. Thc blast oftcn rcsults in a híg
era ter causing problems whcn thc po!e is to he crcctcd.
Well planned and executed blasting dccrcases thc total work for thc crection of
the pole. No bolting or staying is necessary and the rcfill ís kcpt to a mínimum.
The blasting of polc holcs is similar to tunncl blasting as only one free face is
avai!ab!e. To crea te a second facc. towards which thc blasting is done, some kind
of cut is dri!lcd.
High specific drilling m1d chargc are charactcrístic for this kind of blastings.
The most common cut for polc holcs is thc para lle! holc cut. Thc calculation for
this type of cut is thc sanie as the chargc calculation for tunncling in Chaptcr
7.l.l The cut.
Thc centcr hole which is thc opcning for thc hlast should havc a diamctcr of 110
less than 28 mm.
In small polc holes ( díamctcr around 0.5 m) the bias! consists of the cut hole. thc
lst squarc and thc pcrimctcr boles. The pcrimctcr boles are smooth blastcd.
The blast can be chargcd with 22 rnm Emulitc 150 or Dynamcx cartridgcs.
The firíng is done with millisccond del ay and cithcr V A or NON EL detonators
may be uscd. Due to the high spccific chargc and thc conccntratcd dircction of
thc blast. it must be carcfully covcrcd.
Scc also Chaptcr 12. l O Miní-holc b!asting.
The cxplosives are placed in thc chamber, wcll bunchcd togcthcr and the hole is
sternmed. prefcrably with moist stonefrec earth. If thc blast is unsuccessful, the
remaíning rools are normally laid bare and can be blastcd with 1/3 of a cartridgc.
Onc disadvantagc with thc mcthod is that it crcatcs a Jargc hole whcrc thc stump
has becn. The softcr the ground, the larger the holc.
Anothcr disadvantage is the control of the throw of the stump, which is vírtually
impossiblc to predi et. The method should not be used el ose to installations and
rcsidcntial arcas.
263
A gcntler method is to break thc
stump wíth small charges placed in
drilled holcs in the stump. Thc holcs
are normally drilled from abovc and
chargcd with ! to 2 cartridgcs of
Emulitc !50 or Dynamex M. Thick
roots mav also be drillcd but can be
blastcd off with l to 2 cartridgcs as
surfacc chargcs. 1f the mcthod is uscd
closc to rcsidential arcas, thc bias!
should be covercd an<I the air shock
wavc considered, as the confincmcnt
of the charges is notas good as when
blasting rock.
hg. 12. 7 Blasrí11g o( st11111p wirh
drilled-in charges.
If larger boles are drilled (~51 mm), no chamber blasting is needed, but the
charge depth should be increased to about l .5 times the soil frost dcpth. The
dril!ing pattcrn is square with a spacing of 2 times the soil frost depth. The
initiatíon can be instantaneous, but where risk for damage by ground vibrations
may occur short interval detonators should be used.
Thc breakage of soíl frost by placing
the charges under it becomes difficult
when its dcpth exceeds !.O m. Blast-
ing with the charges placed in thc soil
frost is prefcrable in thís case, espe-
cially if the ground under the soíl l
frost is soft and provides little or no 1
K
resista nce.
Thc drilling and charging pattern
dcpcnds on factors like type of soil
l
frost. pcrmittcd throw. ncarness to
Oepth ot soillrost • 1 O m
buildings with regard to ground vib-
rations. dcsired fragmentation etc. Fig. 12.9 Charging in the soil frost.
As soil frost may be difficult to dril! and good air flushing is needed, it is
advantageous to use hcavy dril! cquipment ( crawlcr drills etc.) with larger holes.
However, the larger holc diameter can not be utilized in cautious blasting of soil
frost when the charge weight and drilling pattern must be limited.
Soil frost is normally a homogcneous material which may cause sizable ground
vibrations. Furthennore, good contact between soil frost and house foundations
may cause damage duc to displacemcnt of thc blasted soi! frost, which must be
consídered when b!asting is performed close to buildings.
The limitations of the charge weights which apply to cautious blasting in rock
must also be considered when blasting soíl frost.
18 265
Recommcnded drilling and charging pattern for cautious blasting of soil frost.
Cbargcs in the soil frost.
Rccommended drilling and chargíng pattern for "free" blasting of soil frost.
(No limítations for ground vibrations etc.) Chargcs in the soil frost.
Up to 0.4 5 4
Up to 0.4 6 2 :í
Up to 0.4 8 3 8
0.4-0.6 8 4 8
0.6- l .O 8-10 :í 8
266
lf the water depth is less than 2.5 m, the diameter of the ice-hole will be smaller
and thc spacing betwcen the holes rcduced accordingly:
lf thc charges in thc above tables are increased. the ice-hole \vill be cleaner from
ice but not widcr.
Suitable explosives are Emulite 150 and Dynamex M.
To place the charges under thc ice, a hole is made with an ice-pick oran ice-dril!.
The charges are connectcd in bundles and sunk to the in tended leve!. In waters
with currents it might be necessary to use a stone sinker or similar to ensure that
thc chargcs stay at the intended leve!.
The charges should be instantaneously initiated, preferably with a dctonating
cord. To kcep the chargc at the right leve! undcr the ice, the detonating cord
downline is connected to a cross-bar on thc ice. The downlinc is then connected
to a trunkline, to which a dctonator is connected.
Detonator Trunkline
detonating cord Wooden bar
~ ... .. . ¡·'"'"''- ·--·
·-.~ :·:·•·.~.
'--'-1'--T'~-...,...~~~
L,tz
i. .. L Bt
2.5 m
:::::-J t . 1
. ,~l-.<d;;:
Fig. 12.10 Charging for blasling of ice-hole.
267
12.8 Blasting of openings in concrete.
One of thc mqst difficult problcm in
rcnovation work is making opcnings
in concrete. E ven though experimen-
tal rncthoJs using lascrs. micro
wavcs, and higb prcssurc water jcts
have bccn tricd. blastings has sincc
thc late l 960s bccn dcvclopcd into a
tecbniquc with vcry high precision.
Thc blasting is exccutcd with small
chargcs, causes Jittlc damagc and is
well controllcd.
The most common method is to blast
\VÍth drillcd-in chargcs. but for thín-
ncr constructions. shapcd cxplosivc
strips (lincd cavity cffcct) may be
uscd. With drillcd-in chargcs. thc
concrete in thc whole opening can Fig. 12. J J O¡w11i11g in concrete made
cithcr be blastcd into srnall fragmcnts hv hlosting.
or thc opcning can be dividcd into
largcr parts by slot blasting.
In thc contour. thcre is an íncrcasing dcmand for smoothPcs:; and minima!
formation of cracks. To ohtain this dfect. principally two mctlwds are uscd.
smooth blasting and prcsplitting. Thcse tv.·o mcthods are well known and tcstcd.
so a dcsircd contour can be obtainccl.
Drílling.
Thc blasting mcthod for opcnings in concrete can be compared to that of
mini-hole blasting (Chapter l2. IO Mini-hole hlasting).
Whcn drilling thc blastholes. it is convcnicnt to use light pneurnatic drilling
machines \Vith a 22 mm drill stccl.
Elcctric lrnmmcr drilling machines can also be usccJ. but wíth somcwhat smallcr
diamctcrs. lf thc concrete is more !han 150 mm thick thc capaeity of clcctric
drilling machines is considernbly Jowcr than that of pncumatíc oncs.
Both typcs should be cquipped with dust collcctors if rcspirators are not uscd.
Charging.
The most suitablc cxplosivc is Prímex A I 7x 150 mm in plastíc tubcs. Thcsc
tubes may be cut into suitablc lcngths (30 mm= !O g) and be initiatcd with a
detonator or dctonating eorcl.
Tbc eharge should always be placed in the center of thc construction to be
blastcd.
Initiation.
Inítiation is done with mi!lísecond detonators (25 rns dclay) or dctonating cord
(contour hlasting). Suitablc dctonators are clcctric VA-dctonators or NON EL
GT dctonators.
268
Covering.
Covering to prcvcnt throw of concrete is done with small rubber mats (tire mats)
and industrial fclt.
Whcn walls are blastcd, both sides are covcrcd.
lt is often cnough to cover the blast with a ncw type of blasting fclt, "Lotrak
45/45 .. , which is substantially strongcr than industrial felt.
Dust protection.
To minimize the formation of dust during thc blasting, water can be spraycd on
thc blasting sitc or thc room be fi!lcd with a light foam ( 1 liter of water + 8
ccntilitcr of detergen! give 1 cu.m. of foam).
Covering thc opening with plastic bags filled with water or with a small "pool"
madc of woodcn planks anda plastic foil, efficicntly dccrease thc formation of
dust. thc air shock wave and thc throw of concrete.
Ground vibrations.
Thc small quantities of explosives which are used in combínation with milli-
sccond dclay blasting mean that !he ground vibrations fadc vcry fast wíth the
distance. see Fig. 12.12,
Gcncrally. thc adjacent constructíon
is not damagcd by !he vibrations.
() 300
Somctimes installations and equip- .¡) (/)
269
Crack formation in remaining concrete.
Blastíng produces a ccrtaín crack formation in concrete constructions and a
smaller crushcd zone in thc contour. The cracks are judgcd as bcing of no
ímportance in normal concrete floors and walls. Thc cxtent of the cracks is both
perpendicular and parallcl to the construction planc. Thc formcr type, which is
common for other rcasons, has a crack width of O. J to 0.3 mm and ariscs only
occasionally. Tbc sccond typc, thc parallel cracks, Hrc nearly ahvays in the same
planc as thc rcinforccmcnl and whcrc thcy occur, adhcsion bctwccn iron bars
and concrete is los!. lnvcstigat ions show tila! thc cxtent of thc cracks on average
is lirnited to about 240 mm in the walls and about 390 mm in the floors. lf the
constructíon is heavily utilized. reinforcíng rncasures may be ncccssary.
Nitro Consult AB. a subsidiary of Dyno Industries, Norway. has a vast experí·
cnce of this kind of work and should be contactcd whcn any doubt arises.
l
·------¡--·--~· --1----··-~-
Good quality 17 mm
no reínforccmcní ¡ 0.4-0.:'i 0.(1--0.7 Gurit
------------- ¡ - ----- -- - . - --- - - - - ·-·. -
Reiníorced 22 mm
O 8- l .O 0.5 Ern 150
- · Hcav1~ - -- - ___ .... --·-·-----j---· . --------¡---.. 22 mm ..... · - -
0.20
ruo
o .w
1
j
0.1.+
0.20
ruo
o.2:'í
o ..15
o.so
o.m
o.o.+
0.06-0.1
J
••-•--·-,,---•••-••O "-""""°'-VO . .-o.O••••• , _ , ______ __;__~·--------~~~~~------ --··~--~- .. ._, ____ ,.,
lt can gcncrally be said about blasting concrete that thc explosives should be
distrihutcd in the object in as many boles as possible. It is preferable to use many
small-diameter holes instead of a few larger and man y small charges instead of a
fcw largcr ones.
Arcas of usage.
The miní-hole techniquc can be ad-
vantagcously utilized in the following
lypes of blasting.
1
- natural bouldcrs and secondary ,1
blasting ~
- lcvcling by hlastíng
- cable trcnchcs
.... ele et rícityítclcphondfcncing
polcs with footings in rock
othcr cautious blasting opcra-
tions.
·-
the quantities of explosivcs must be
limited. which in turn rncans smaller
·r;,r~ l
''"'~-
To avoid upward break-out, the bur- 0.4 0.6 0.4 0.5 º·º~.J0.4.'í J
den must be less than thc holc dcplh.
To obtaín lcss constriction the boles
·~~-
0.5
~~--
0.7
OK~•
7• 9•
El
'~ B
3 S•
iB ... ""i
i'ln 4• 6• 8•
?--'.....:
Pipeline trenches.
a \.
\ ~
~ B !r
2• 3•
3•
-
4•
..
5•
5•
~
<) .
Charging.
PRIMEX A l7X 150 mm chargcs are
used for charging. lf nccessary, thc
last charge should be cut off to !cave
an uneharged section of approx. 6
cm. A high spccific chargc is impor-
tant with parallcl hole cuts. Stem
wíih sand to preven\ the chargcs from
being blown out of the holc.
Ignition pattern - blasting.
The bcst result ís obtaíncd íf the polc
hole is blasted in onc round with dc-
lay detonators. in accordanc<.: v. 'íth
thc adjoining firing patterns.
ln order for the rnck to achicve thc
desired swclling. a minímum of 50 ms
dclay betwccn thc holcs is necessary.
If the boles are to be blastcd indivi-
dualty, they should be blastcd in the
276
samc ordcr as statcd in the firing patterns.
Other specia!izcd arcas where the miní-hole technique can be used are:
- b!asting concrete
- blasting in furnaces.
277
13. DESTRUCTION OF EXPLOSIVES
AND FIRING DEVICES
Frcquently explosives and firing devices havc to be dcstroyecl. Thc rcason may
be deterioration due to poor storage, agc or as is thc case in many countries,
broken package of cxplosives may not be rcturncd to thc slorc. In such cases, the
explosives must be destroyed.
Explosives, detonating cord and blasting agents,
Blasting agents like ANFO are best destroyed by mixing them with water. Water
dcstroys thcm vcry quickly.
Dynamite type cxplosivcs and emulsion and slurry type cxplosivcs shou!d be
dcstroycd by burning. The lattcr two types con ta in a substantial amount of water
ancl are not easily set on firc.
Procedure for destruction:
* Find a stonc free location for the burníng. 'The location should be far tnvay
from inhabited arcas. Sce Graph 10.25 Chaptcr 10.6 Air shock waves.
"' Do not bum more than 5 kg cach time.
When larger amounts of cxplosives are to be dcstroyecL the manufacturer
should be contacted to provide the ncccssary experts for such opcrations.
* Takc the explosivcs out of the box. No confincment.
* Sprcad thc cxplosivcs on a bcd of papcr or wood woo!.
* Pour díesel (fue] oil) or kerosene ovcr the cxplosiv.: and thc bcd ami set fire.
* Go to protcctcd place m1d stay thcrc until al! explosívcs are burnt.
" Check the ashes for fragmcnts of cxplosiws. if cxplosivcs rcmain, repcat thc
procedurc.
SEE THAT THERE ARE NO DETONATORS WlTH THE EXPLOSIVES TO
BE BllRNT,
The destruction of dctonating conl follows thc samc procedure as the dcstruc-
tíon of dynamitcs. Detonatíng cord should not he dcstroycd tngcthcr with
dynamitcs or olhcr cxplosivcs. but scparatc!y.
Shotfirer
NOTE! lf any local regulation contradicts any of the above, the local regulation
applíes.
279
14. CODE OF GOOD PRACTICE
The Federation of European Manufacturcrs (FEEM), is continuous!y working
to improvc thc safety record re!ated to thc use of cxp!osives and has produced a
"Code of Good Practice", which is a set or recommendations for thc execution of
al! stages of tbc work associated with b!asting.
The standards proposed by FEEM are high and the Codc can thcrefore be used
in its entircty in countrics without established legislation and also as a rcfercnce
document in other countries.
Corrcctly u sed, explosives providc a safc and cconllmic too! for man y of the
opcrations csscntia! for the functíoning of a modern comrnunity. lt is FEEM\
hope that this Codc will l1elp to makc thcm cvcn safcr.
280
l.2. To qualify for appointment as assistant personnel. a person should
be al least 18 years old and be of stable temperament,
have attended a short course dealing with the main hazards in thc
handling and use of explosivcs.
l .4. Whcrc thc blasting opcration is so cxtcnsivc that severa] shotfirers are
rcquircd, onc should be nominatcd as having overa!] control. Where neces-
sary, the nominations should covcr different arcas and different times of the
day.
3.2. Prcmises for storing cxplosives materials should be kept lockcd and should
be uncler the control of the Site Manager.
¡g 281
3.3. Records should be kcpt. dctailing thc quantities of cxplosives materia!s
rcceived and issued.
3.4. Prcmiscs uscd for storing cxplosivcs matcrials should not be used for any
othcr purposc:. Thcy shou!d be maintaincd clcan and dry. and be well
ventílatcd. Whcrc extremes of high or low tempcraturcs may be cncounter-
cd. consídcration should be givcn to the nccd f'or tcmpcraturc control.
3.5. Dctonators should be storcd phy.,ically scparatcly from any cxplosivc. and
in such a way that thcre is no possibility of an accidental initiation of thc
dctonators bcing transmilled to the c:xplosivc.
3.6 All explosives issued from the Magazines for use should be under thc
supcrvision and rcsponsibility of the shotfirer.
4.3. Whcrc thc cxplosives transport vchiclc is also uscd for othcr purposc:s. it
should be cmptied. elcancd and checked bcfore Joading of explosivcs
materia.Is is started. and again at cnd of shift to ensurc ali cxp!osives havc
bccn rcmo\'ed.
4.4. Thc vehicle should be rcadily distinguishablc from othcr si te ve hieles. aml
should preferably be fitted with an additional idc:ntification c.g. flashing
light, whcn actually cngaged in explusives transpon.
4.5. V chicles transporting cxplosivc matcrials shou!d not carry any othcr mate-
rials. with thc exception of thc cquipmcnt rcquircd for thc blasting opera-
tion being undcrtaken.
4.7. The load on thc vchicle should be sccurcd to avoid any part bcing dís-
lodgcd. Special care should be taken with thc contents of cases w'hich havc
airead y bcen opencd.
282
4.8. The vchicle should be fitted with at least one firc cxtinguisher.
4.9. Small fires not dircctly in contact with thc load may be tackled with fire
cxtínguishers. In cases whcrc thc fire is in contact with thc load. the vehicle
should be abandoned and thc arca cordoncd off.
4.1 O. When detonators and other explosives materials are transported on thc
same vehicle. provision should be made for the detonators to be kept in a
scparate protcctive container.
5.2. The Blasting Plan once agreed should be adhered to and any changes
reponed and approved.
5.3. Records, including cletails of the drilling pattern and of the explosives
materials uscd ín cach blast, should be kept. Jn critícal situations e.g. in
built-up arcas, consideration should be given to the advisabilíty of kecping
more dctailcd rccords.
9.2. Sen tries should be posted to guard ali possible en tries to thc dangcr arca.
where it is large and/or not completcly visible from the shotfirer's place or
safcty. Sen tries should carry an unmistakab!c form of idcntification c.g. red
flags, and should prohibit entry in to their sector of thc danger a rea until thc
shotfircr has chccked that it ís clear and has rclievcd him of bis dutv.
9.3. Thc post-firíng examínation of the blast arca sl1ould no1 be undcrtakcn
bcfore suffícient time has clapscd to allow for thc dilution of the shotfiring
fumes to a safc leve!. Thc time requírcd should be dccidcd aftcr considcra-
lion of thc local conditions.
9 .4. The shotfirer's duty should includc an cxamínatíon of thc blasting si te. and
this should be completcd befo re work is rcsumcd. This examination should
includc inspcctions for:
dangcrous rock conditions.
presencc of undetonated cxplosivcs and/or accessorics in thc rock pile.
prcsencc of undctonatcd explosivcs and/or acccssorics in blastholcs.
abnormal appcarancc of thc blast, which c<rnld suggcst that not all thc
blastholes had dctonated corrcctly.
288
9.5. In many typcs of blastíng work, a consíderable accumulation of empty
cases can be built up during thc charging operation. The cases should fírst
be checked for freedom from exp!osivcs malcría], and then dcstroycd by
burning on the surface, preferab!y after the blast has been fircd. The
hurníng opcration should preferably takc place at a desígnated site re-
moved from the charged boreholcs. cxp!osives matería!s, or explosíves
stores. and in accordance with manufacturers' instructions.
11.4.3. Good blasting practice is also good defcnsc against high levels of
vibration. Poorly exccutcd drilling patterns can give rise to excessivc
confinement of sorne holes, which will result in higher leve! of vibration
than expected for the weight of explosive detonatcd.
l 1.5. l. Aír blast and noise can gíve ríse to comp!aints whcn b!asting is
carried out in ornear built-up arcas. Thcse eomplaints may be registered
as vibratíon, as thc air blast may cause the house to react, and therefore
vibrate. lt is important that the true nature of thc eomplaint is identified,
to avoid costly and time-wasting invcstigations.
11.S .2. Complaints resulting from air blast can be rcduced by paying
attention to the following factors:
a/ Avoid. wherever possiblc the firing of explosivcs without confinement.
P!aster shooting is almost certain to cause complaints ovcr a large arca
round the blasting sitc. Thc use of detonating cord should be critically
examined in difficult situations and where there is a problcm wíth noíse
the cord should be adequately covcred with sand if an altcrnative
initiation systcm cannot be used.
291
b/ Use sufficicnt good quality stcmming for thc holc diamctcr in use. In
difficult conclitions. the use of spccially selcctcd material. rather than
dril! fines. should be considen;d.
el Use dela y blasting: 10 reduce thc amount of cxplosivc dctonating at any
time.
d/ Try to fíre blasts at times whcn the ambíent noisc lcvcl is high. so that
any air blast beco mes lcss noticcabk against thc background.
el Be on thc watch for tcmpcrature inversions. which may cause reficc-
tion or cvcn focusing of thc air b!ast.
12. l. General.
12. l. l. In tunncling and shaft sinking work. where man y boles are drilled
in a limited arca. thc possíbility of dril!ing into a sockct containing cxplo-
sivc is greater than in most othcr types of b!astíng. lt is importan! that the
facc is c!oscly inspcctcd heforc dril!ing is started. to check for undctonatcd
chargcs from the prcvious round, and that boles are not startcd in sockcts.
12. l .2. lt wíl! not 11onnally be possib!c to examine thc complete working
facc for undctonated charges ímmcdiately after fíring. This part of the
cxamination can only he carricd out as lo;1ding of !he rock procecds.
l2. l .3. Carcfu! checks should be maintaíned on thc position of thc tunncl
facc in situations whcre thc possibility cxists of a blast from onc worki11g
place breaking through to anothcr.
12.1.4. E!cctric Storms ~ Whcn using c!ectric ínitiation systerns thc dis-
tancc from opc.níngs. !he thick11css of ovcrburden and the covcring of
surfacc vegetation should al! be takcn into considcration.
An adcquatc warning systcrn should be installed where lightning <lischargc
may be conductcd to thc undcrground working through water bcaring
fissures. raí!s. pipes cte.
12. l.5. Thc possibility of encountcring flamrnahlc gas mixtures in the
strata must be considercd whcn choosing cxplosives, dctonators and all
othcr accessories. 1f in doubt. cxpert ad vice should be obtained.
12.2. Fumes.
12.2. l. Spccial consiclcration should always be givcn to thc fume charac-
teristic of any explosivcs in thc expected conditions of use. and advíse
sought from the manufacturers in cases of doubt.
292
!2.2.2. Thc use of cxplosivcs will always give rísc to a certaín amount of
fumes, and it is importan! that these are dílutcd to a safe level beforc work
is rc-started. Thc most importan! factor in ensuring a safe leve! is the
efficicncy of the ventilation system. It í·; not possible to give limits for the
necessary waiting time. as this will vary with the quantity of cxplosive, the
vcntilation and mining systern, the rock type etc. Best rcsults will always
be obtained by a combination of good blasting and good mining practice.
Measurements can be takcn to establísh when safe conditions have been
recstablished.
12.3. Storagc.
12.3. l. Mine and tunnel atmosphcres are frequently humid, and may also
be warm or hot. These conditions represen! poor storage conditions for
cxplosivcs rnatcriak and every effort should be made to adhere to a rigid
systcrn of stock rotatíon and to keep thc case contents in unopencd
original packaging.
12.3.2. Stores should be remote from. or protectcd from. any site where
blasting will take place.
!3.2. Charging.
A check should be made before charging is started to ensure that the boles
ha ve bccn drillcd to thc dcsigncd pattern, and that thcrc are no arcas of
wcakncss and/or light burdens. Whcrc these conditions are not fulfílled,
consideration should be given to having thc face survcycd. and special ca re
must be excrciscd in charging thc holcs.
\Vhere rock conditions are such that open fissures and cavcrns rnay be
encountered, bulk cxplosives should be used only in conjunction with a
systcm, e .g. boreholc lincrs, for avoiding excessive concentrations of
cncrgy and thc resultan! possibility of fly rock.
14. l. Planning.
14. 1. l. As civil cnginccring blast ing oflcn rcquírcs work tn be carricd out
in urban arcas. special attention should be paill to thc location or gas water
mains as well as ovcrhcad and underground powcr !incs and tclcphone
cables. The possihility of radio frcqucncy cnL'rgy from radio transmittcrs
shnuld also be invcstigatcd.
14.1.2. In urban arcas. thcrc may be disruption to road traffic and forc-
thought wi!I be rcquircd in dcaling with mcmbers of thc public and
sccuring thc co-opcration of thc local authoritics and possibly thc poli ce.
Prior noticc of blasting should always be givcn in rcsidcntial arcas.
l4. l .3. In urban arcas hlasts should he planncd so as to inconvenicncc thc
general public <IS littlc as possiblc. and thc use of blast rctaining mats
sl10ulcl be considcrcd whcn thc blast sitc is closc to buildings or plant.
Whcrc blasling mats are rcquircd Lhcse should be suf!'icicntly hcavy or
wcighted to preven\ fly during thc blast. Whcn locating mats. care should
be cxcrciscd so as not to damage lcads of dctonators or othcr initiation
systcm. Particular carc shou!d be ¡rivcn to cnsurc that initíating circuitry is
not advcrscly affectcd.
294
14.1.4. Whcn blasting close to overhead cables. blasting mats and blasting
cables should be securely staked to thc ground to prcvent fly and possible
fouling of thc cables.
14.1.5. Thc choice of initíation systcms should take into account any
possiblc hazards from stray currents etc.
14. J.6. Any blasting plans should recognize arcas of weakness. fissures
etc. and charges adjusted accordingly.
14.2. Chargíng.
14.2. l. Al! blasts should be eharged and fíred within the workíng day so as
to remove thc ncccssity for providíng overnight scntries and guards.
14.2.2. In urban arcas. the ínitiation system should be carefully chosen so
as to reduce the noise ami air b!ast to an abso!ute mínimum.
14.2 ..1. Ali cxplosivcs uscd on the síte should be careful!y accountcd for.
and no explosivcs left on thc síte except undcr the control of thc shotfircr
or othcr cornpctcnt pcrson.
Planning of the blast may requirc the scrvices of specialists, c.g. structural
engíneers, to advise on the stability of thc building to be dernolishcd and of
ncighboring buildings. lf possible dynamic models should be employed to
simulatc the dcmolition in advance in the case of high risc buildings.
15.2. lnitíation.
Plain dctonators and fuse should not be used in demolition work.
295
15 ..1. Precautíons bcfore and after firing.
15.3.1. An agreed code of audible or visible signals should be uscd at ali
sí tes whcrc dcmolition blasts are fircd nnd noticcs dctailing thc codc set up
at all acccss poi nts to su ch si tes. 1t is important tlwt vi si tors are made awarc
of the codc.
15 .3. 2. lt is suggcstcd that thc codc of signa Is shoukl con ta in thrcc sígnals:
11 A warning signa!. before blasting. lt is suggcsted that a suitablc time for
thc warning signa! is that suffícicnt for pcoplc to rcach a place of safcty
befo re thc blast is fired.
21 A firing signa!.
J/ An all-clcar signa!.
15.J.3. Dctcrmining thc dangcr arcas for dcmolition work can be vcry
difficult cspccialiy \vhere cutting rh<irges me uscd. and ít is important that
ali pcrsonncl havc taken cover when the blast ís fircd. Thc proximity to
propertics and scrvices should be asscsscd togcthcr with the wind dircc-
tion sincc material will be ejectcd. In addilion thc dangcr ;irca can be
limitcd by providing sufficicnt covcr and protcction from projcctcd mate-
ria!. The dcfinition o!' the dangcr arc<i is thc rcspllnsihilit~· of thc cngillL'er
in chargc.
l 5.3.4. It is important that a last minute check is rnadc insidc thc building
to ensure ;i!I pcrsonncl llave bccn <.'vacuatcd.
20
297
l 7. 2. Additíonal rules when blasting hot rnasses o ver + lOOºC.
17.2.3. Precautions should be taken to cnsurc that thc ch~u·gc does not
slide out of thc borchole.
17.2.4. Whcn firing clcctrical!y. bcfore charging is cornmenccd. thc firing
circuit should be laid out and checkcd. including connccting to the explo-
der. Al! detonator leads and firing cables should be so placed that thcy wíll
not suffer any damage from thc hcat.
l 7. 2.6. Thc sccond warning signa! should be givcn ami the arca cvacuatcd
by ali pcrsonnc! not necded for Joading thc lwlcs bcforc making the final
conncction to the cxploder.
17.2.9. Both lined and unlincd borcholcs should be chcckcd beforc load-
ing with a test tubc having at lcast !he samc diametcr as thc loading tube.
17. 2. l O. Whcn loading more !han onc borehole ali charges should be
loaded at thc samc time undcr !he direct supcrvision of thc shotfirer in
charge. A maxirnurn number of six pcrsons is adviscd with each pcrson
having no more than onc charge in cach hand.
17 .2.11. l mrnediately the boles are loadcd thc arca must be cvacuated by a
prcdctcrmincd routc.
l7 .2.12. Thc blast must be fircd without any furt her <lela y.
17.2.13. In thc evcnt of a misfire, the arca should not be approachcd until
thc cxplosivc has dctonate<l through !he effccl of thc heat.
298
Section 18. Blasting with black powder.
18. l. General considerations.
18.1. l. Special attention should be given to ensure that smoking or the use
of naked flame does not occur in the viciníty of the charging operatíon, and
a minimum safe horizontal distance of 50 m is rccommcndcd.
18.2. Charging.
18.2. l. Whcn using black powder prccautions should be taken to prevent
it from cntering into cracks, fissures. voids or other boreho!es which do
not form part of the overa!! blast pattern. This may requirc the use of
anti-static loading hoses, lay flat plastic tubing or pre-formcd channels
which would be capab!e of reaching the deepest parts of thc boreholcs
and/or fissurcs.
18.2.2. If boles are to be "sprung" an interval of at lcast one hour should
be allowed to e!apse between the firing of the charge and the loading of the
next eharge. This is to permit cooling of any hot spots within the sprung
hole. Howevec f!ushing by compressed air may reduce the time. Spring-
ing should not be carried out in the vicinity of any charged boles because of
thc danger of exploding sympathetically.
20. l. Planning.
20. l. l. 'free stumrs should be examined to asscss the root systcm and the
general condition of thc wood. Allowancc should be rnade for any obvious
signs of dccay, and cvcry cffort should be made to loca te thc main chargcs
undcr thc hcavicst roots.
20. l .2. Buricd or partially buricd bouldcrs should be surveycd in ordcr to
asscss thcír sizc and chargcs calculated to ensurc thc removal of thc
bouldcr from the ground without exccssivc cjcction.
20.1.3. Whcn brcaking boulders. thc size of thc bouldcr should be asses-
sed befo re thc charge ís calculatcd. Thc mcthod of boulder blasting should
rcflect thc cnvíronmental considerations and plastcr or lay-on charges
only used in remotc areas.
20. l.4. Ditching operations and wildlifc pond formation should rccognizc
thc typc of grnund and only watcrproof cxplosivcs should be uscd in wet or
marshy arcas. Thc proximity to propcrtics and scrvíccs should be asscsscd
togethcr with thc wind dircctíon since material will be e.icctcd.
20.1.5. All pcrsonncl should be withdrawn from the blast arca which
should be extended on thc clown wind sidc of dítchcs or wildlifc pond
blasts.
300
20.2. Charging.
20.2. J. Hoics should be excavated, drilled or punched into the subsoil and
thc diameter should aliow easy loading of the expiosive.
20.2.2. In ditching and wildlifc pond formation blasting. small scale test
blasts may have to be undertaken in order to asscss the typc of ground
conditions and thc final blast based upon the rcsults of thesc test blasts.
301
15. REFERENCES
303
Appendix 1
CONVERSION TABLE
Conversion factors for units used in this book.
Multiply By To obtain
304
J\lotes