Professional Documents
Culture Documents
huts or cabanes; which, as Mons. Bullon te]Js us, is not always the same;
of Language
sa that it would appear they have different opinions of things as well as
we: whereas instinct performs every thing in the san-Ie invariable manner.
I am therefore persuaded, tbat the beaver clid. from experience and
'and Society
observation, the old teachin~ the young, learn the architectme of his dike
and his hut. as we have learned om architecture and other arts.
ames Burnet 3dl'), Another thing absolutely reqUired, as preparatory to the in
vention of a language, is, that men should preViously have formed ideas to
be expressed by ]aJJguage: for it is impossible to conceive a language of
(Lord Monboddo) proper IJames only \vilhout genera] terms. Now, ideas must have been
formed by an animal, such as man, carrying OD any common business,
and operating, not by inst i net. but karning by observation and experi
ence. For such an animal must have an idea of the end for \,:vhich he acts,
and of the means for attaining that encl. For, as I have shown, everv
In the preceding book, we have placed mall in a state of society and of animal that do~s no! act from il~sfinct, like the bee or the spider, must a~t
polit ieal union, can'ying on of common consent, and with joint laoour, with knowledge of the end. Besides, man, in the state in which I have
.~omc work uecessary for defence, or tIl(' support of life. In this situation, dcsel'ibed him', lllust uecessarily have had ideas, !lO'wever imperfect, of
and this only, could language have been invenU'~d. But mOre was necC's trees aml animals, and other ohjects. with which he was conversant: and
sary for the uwention of so difficult all art. And, in the first place, UJC he must. have had more pf:'rfect ideas of the instrwnents of art whieh he
propel' organs of pronunciation were indispensably required. These are IIsed; espf~t:iaU~' if they were of his own inventioJJ.
given t(l some few animals besides man; but I believe tLev are in Done so Lastly, It appears 1'0 Inc to have required an extraordinary degree of
perfect. . sagacity, to invent so artilieial a thing as speech; om do 1 think that there
2d1U, They must have been a very long time in this political state; so is any animal other than man yet discovered, unless pel'haps it be the
long at least as to have improv~d illtO an art the busirHO'SS they WNE' heaver. that has sagacity enough to have inventpel it: for hO\vever easy
carrying On; by whieh I do not rneau to require. that they should have the invention may seem, now that it is discovered. and so commonl>'
been regular artists, knOWing the causes aile! principles of tbeir art. ami practised; yet it was truly far from being obdous, hut. on the contrary,
operating by certain rules which they coold delJlon~tratc,~ from those vprv far removed from common apprehenSion. For. in the fi-rst place,
prinCiples; but my meaning is. tlwt tbey nlLlst have improved their rude ~Iall, as we have Se(')jL does nol naturally form articulate sounds; hut, on
[Jractice at first into a Letter practice h~,' observation and experiellce; and, ~he contrary. it is a great work of art, difficult to he learned even after it is
'n that way, have fixed a certain method oJ c10ing the thing, which, when lllVt.'Hted, hut infinitely more difficult to he inn·nted. 2dly, Suppose this
t is done by degrees, cUld fmm observation and experiellce, ma~' not first diffieulty ~ot over, and articulate sounds invented, it was by no
mproperly be called an art. For, as T have' alJ"E'adv observed, one of the ~ea!ls an obviolls thought. to apply them to the expressiou of ideas, with
?e<1t differences hetwixt i.nstinct and art is. tklt what is clone by instlJlct, \.e ).J;rpater part of which they have 00 connection, at least that is easily
s performed as well at Erst· H~ al last; \-vhereas ,11"t is ne.cessarily formed (ISC~)V~r('d; for though thcre be words expressing certain sounds, whieh
)' gradual improvements. III short, bdore man could have invented a are lIlutations of those sOtwds, it is cel't~lin that bv far thE' greater part of
angllage, he must have been pf:'rhaps for mall: ages in the sawe ~tate tIle ;ords are not natural signs uf ideas. AJ1CI how is· it possible they should?
leavcl' is in, as r have described it above. 'For the heaver. of all the Or what natural connection is there bet\.,ixt the idea of H tree, (3X. gr. the
nimals we know, that ar~-~ 1101', li~e the OW'an Otltan~s,. of f~ur sp~i:~, ear~~, the sun, the mOOD, and a 11\' articulation of sound? Aud indeed the
omes the nearest to us tn sa~a~lty. <1~,d. :-lS T ha.ve ~dle~d: obse~\~ h rna !llg ideas in this wav lIudibie, aplJcars to me to have been full as
great C ! . ' . .
ppears to have some other pnncrplc oJ actIOn oeslde lTlstmd; of \" hIe. a renne-ment of art. as the so-much-boastecl dlscoverv of makmg
SOUn d . 'h ... . . ~
lere is a proof that T )ulve not ll1t'Dtjoncd, arising from the form of their rn J S l)l~l Ie, 1 mcall the IIwc;n11On of alphabetical characters; anfl so
n:~~ the mOre wonderful. that it was invented in a mnch earlier age of
From James Hnntet (Lord ~Ionhodd() J. On the Origin ,mcZ Progrcs9 uf [.an tha~ it n.d. And it must appear stU] more. \'I>'o.nderful when we consider,
1{l.!!(3.,k'u<.:silllile printed by ScolaI' Press Limited, 19m; Er. :WO-:HZ.
Is not the only method of comrnml1cation, ,mel ther·dore not ab~o-
lutel)' ncc;:essary for lh~ purposes of politica1liIe; bUI that there are other brought to I,he ulmost pcrft"Ction about the time of Augustus C~e.sar.1 An
methods, as we have seen, which in great part answer those purpose5, artist of thi!; kind could e."press by sibrns, not only overy sentiment and
and with which. ac<X~rdil1gl)": other animals that live In the politicnl state, passion of the human mind, but ever)' idea. with as great a~racy; nnd as
as wdl as man, r~lllillnrd ~al1sfied. Of these other methods we arc 1I0W to grrol variet)' too, as all)" orator could do by word~i and It IS a I.lottod ,s~ory
speak more partlculllrly: III or.d('r to tr), whelh!'r from these we <:nnnot ~ of RoschlS the player III nome. that he used to conh'nd wtth Cicero,
trace the progress 10 the IIW('lllton of Illuguagc. I which of liwin could c:<prMs the same thln~ be b)- luoks and gesturrs, or
TIle only wa)'s that I can think of b)' which men could communicate Cicero by words, with thc greatest varkt)' and copiollsncss,
togethcr, berore tht· in\'cntion of ,~pc't.'('h, are fout: first, lnartlct,late cri4., There can be no doubt but that. bMore the invcntion of language.
expressive of sentiments nnd passions; 2/IIy, GestllreJ, and the expression this kind of cxpression, as w('11 as the other by inarticulate cries, would be
of the countenance; 3rlly, Imitative Jounds, by which audible things may much used. That savage notion which Diadoms Siculus, In the passage I
be c'(pr<":Ssed; and, lustly, Pailltill/!., by which visible objects may be repre (looted before, calls the Insensll,leJ. conversed in no other way; and th,e
scnte<t. The two first Me common to us with thr brutes; the two last are savages in North America do at this dll)' SUPp~)' the d~~t~ of t~elr
pccul1ur to man; and llllthe four rna)' be said 10 be tliitural signs of what language by a great d!'a! of action and gesticulallon, Bul 11 IS l1npos~lhle
t.ll~)' ('xprC'Ss; for en'o the connection betwixt Inarticulate cries and the to sllppo~e, that this art of speaking to UI(' t'ycs could be brought to such
tlungs, e\prc:ssed b)' llwlll. ~h?ugh it appear to be the most remote, is so perfection among savages as it was by Roscius ~t R~me, or by ~he
est"l~hshccl l1\ natute, that It IS undcrstuod by every animal. without any pantomimes In after times, who danced whole tl~eatncnl PH~Ces. according
pre,"'lOUs compact or agreemcnt. to the expression in ancient langung!'; that IS, represented tbem by
Of those illartk'IJlnt(' crie!; then.' Is a very great variet).: nnd it is gestures and movements perfonned to music, without onc word being
rc~Uy surprising how man}' diffefl'nt passions, such as love. jO)'. anger. uttcrcd,~ Even In Greece, where all the other a~ of plen.sure and enter·
gnd, f('ar. the bmlcs r~prcss by them; and 1 am pcrsuaded the nearer tainment were cultivated. nnd brought to the hIghest de~cc of perfce
thl' e<.'OIIOm), of .an~' of them OOIllt'<i to ours, til(' greater variety will be lion, the art of the pantomime was not carried so fnr as III R~me, For
found ill tht'1r ~e~, Ix'cause they hltw the morc to (''(press by thcm, TIle although thcir players did no doubt,cxpress a grenl d('lll by tlle~r ,action,
Russi<llI llcMle011clnns <;")-. that tl1e~ctl,cat above mentioned, which has particularly in the moVt'lIlcnls of tJ1Clr choruses, and their monodIes, there
so mueh of human uature in it, can low like a cow, growl like a hear, and was no such thing, SO rar 11$ I caD leam. practised amon~ them as dandng
ch~rp like a cricket. whieh last is a song of triumph after he hns van. a whole pll'C(', or evcn acting a single mo~y, without, spea,ki~g; at
qUlshed hh enemyl; and iF thl' beaver liVing in u social state was accu. lenst not in the better days of Greece. For III the later hmes It IS not
ratel~· ob<;l'rvoo, thcre would be round a greal variety of thl! kind of improbable that they may have adopt~ the pantomim,cs or the Ro~ans:
languagt· among thl'lll! \Vhl'n the brutes (Ire t:uTIt'd, and l>C()()me fnmiUnr and Lucian appears to mc to speak of It R.<; an cntertamment alllong the
with us. they accjulrc voices and tOI1.'S that the~' had not bdotl•. Thus Creeks in his time,D
Porphyr) the philosoplwr tells us, that his partridg(' leamed to converse So rar from being brought to this state of perfection among savages
with him In n volet> very diffcrCllt from what sll(' llsed in communication in the first stage or humani')', I am persuaded it would not go the length
with ~lt'r f('lIows 2 ; and some of them, M it is well known. may be taught or servin~ tJ1C purposa of common Intercourse, where thc~e was any
I
to artl('ulllt(" But it Is C'vidcllt. that allthb variet), of crit"s, though it were number of wants to !)(' supplied b)' muh.ml assistance: or if we could
much ~n, ..ter than it rl'<lU) is, would not answer the purposes of human makc so wild a supposition, as that it would be carried to the same
life, wht'n it came to 1)(' enlar~ro and e\t('nded to mall)' dlffcr('nt arts degree of perfection as in the polite age of Augustus. still it is in sundr),
lind occupations. which tht' ~rrowillg wonts of men render Ilec<'SSIll)'. respects far infcrior to thc method or communication b)' speech; for, first,
111(' next kind of (''(pression I lllcntioncc! \ViiS that of looks and it speaks only to the eyes, so that it can be or no use but in the light; and
I?,estllres. which i.<; al!\O \cry stron~, nnd variOlL" ;lmon~ the bmtl'S, and it th('n we cannot collverse in that \\-'B)' at such a distance as b)' words,
is a langl~a~(' which the)' ~rfcetl~ _w('11 unclcrst.ulld. The only Il~e they which alone mak(-'~ it n vcl)' Improper vehi~le of our th?ughts i.n currying
makc of It IS to e'<prc~~ their pa~slons and fet'lm~s; but we know cer. • on an)' business WIthout doors, such as f1shlllg and hunting, which are the
tainly. from the cxallll>!t' or dumb persons among us, that it may be used chief occupations of savnges.
to c'(pr{'~s Id"R.'i; and we Ie-:'Irn rrom hi\to1'Y, that the}' may be c,<prt-ued in n1C Odrd method of communication I mentioned was b)' Im/tutlue
this langlla~e \...;t~ th~' utmost accurac.,)' and prt'Cision. for in Rome there J or mimic sounds. which. 1 ~ol1bt not, was practised l>?,ore the in\'cntion
was an art uf thLS kllld formed. cal!c.'<! the 1Xllllomlme art, which was of ll!ngullgc. as it has been Since; but the expression of It could not KO any
156 Voyagers and Philosophers
fLaws
great length; no farther than to denote sounds, or objects which were
distinguished hy pnrticular sounds, such as beasts and binls of c1iffl'rent
kinds. in Helation
As to thu last method T meutioncd, /JOillting, or (1cliueating an)'
object by draWing the figure of it, it lllay have been used before the to the Nature
inveution of language; but it could go no farther Lban to C'OJlulll.lllicate the
notion of visible objccts; and, besides, it is of slow and difficult practice.
and not at all of so ready usc as language.
of the Climate
Of these four ways of cotlllllunication, it is plain. that only two have
any connection with language. viz. inarticulate cries and imitat ive sounds,
Baron de Montesqulieu
which arC' both modifications of the human voice, as well as language,
and could alone lead the way to the invention of language. And we are
now to inqllire, whethel', fronl one or othcr, or 1>oth of thesc, that inven
tion ealt be traced.
1 Generalldea
Notes
If it be true that the telllper of tlae mimI aud lhC' passions of the heart
1 History of KamsctJatkll, p. 128.
tain parts in dumb show. Those part' were tile monodies, or wnt/ca, as the Lalins call
them. which were ~olil(>quJe;; sJloken in reeitatioo to music. III such part~ (If the pIa;' 2 Of the Difference of Men in different Climates
the actor among the nOlllanS only W'slicubtecl, and exprt'ssed lhe SenSe hy his fIction,
that is, dfH\Ccd, as thev eall~d it. while another sung. or 1'1'01l0\111Ced the words t"
mnsic: so that it was only in the dlwrbirlm or dialogue that the Homan actor u,cd his
Cold alr CO(1strillges the C'xtremil ies of the external fibres of the hoc
\·oice. How thiS strange cuslom of diViding the acting llnd spl'aking, ~Il('h os ne"!?r was this increases thei~" elasticity, and favors the return of tbe hloon from
practised in an)' othl'r nation, su far I as know. ('"me In he introduced a1l10n~ thl' extreme parts tn the 110<11'1. 'It contracts:! those vcry fibres; consequcntJ
nomans, Livy has info1'lllf'd us, !tb. 7. p. 2. increases also tht'ir force. On the COlli rary, warm air relaxes and lellgtl~
r. T h,lVl' oftclJ wondered, that llonlce, in his epistle to Augll.'illlS, wlt~]'(' It the extremes of tlle fibres; of course it dimillishes their Foree and e
flatters lhat prince ~o ml1('b as to eOtl1pare t.hf' nrt, of ROrlw in his time to the ~lrts of
Grecl'e, in lhesp lines, ticity.
Pcopl!' are, t bereforf>, more vigorous in cold dimates. Here
Vellimlls adsllmmunl jor/wllI'; pillginlwI, Iltoue
Psallimus, et luc/omur ,.\chit;i8 clo(:til'S U/lclis action of tbe heart and the reaction of the cxtrcmilics of the fibres
does 1I0t mention thiS pantomime art. which I hdiev(' wa, the only Dllt: jlJ whicb tIl<'
better performl.:d, the tell1peratmE' of the humors is ~reatcr. the hI
Romans of tltose dH)~ ":x~elled th" C,rccks. And this perhaps WllS 011(' of the reasons moves more freely towanls tbe heart, and reciproeall)i the heart has r
whit:h made tlte people of Home so pas,ionatcly fond of it: for as to painting ,md ~)o'\v('r. This supCl'iorit)· of strength must produce various effects:
musi('. mentioned by Homcc, I cannot beheve that there wo.s tbe least elegIt'/! of com Instance, a greatl"r boldlless, that is, more courage; a gre",'1tcr sellS
parison hdwixf tbo~p arts, as prl\ctis.'d in Home. and n.' praclisN] in Cr(·l~l·e. und par superiority, that is. less desire of wvenge; a greater opinion of seell
ticulorly painting: for, so far as [ know. the Homons n{'vcr produced one goO(! pnint""
that is, more frankness, less suspiciol1, policy, and cunning. In short,
nr statnarv. AIl,1 with respect to wrl',tlin.g. ~'" t]le first paloslTtl in [\ome wos, as I re
memhcr, no earlier than ilL(' <1,1\'5 of Augustus Caesar, 1 think- it is hardly pOSSible that must he proc1m;tive of vcr:' different telllprrs. Put a mall iulo n cI
the Homaus should all of a sudden have lwcorne ,uL,h e"1)C~rt wrE'stlers. ,\S therefore be warm place, .md for the rcaSOllS above given he will feel a great {<Jilltl
natters Augustus so much ,It the ':~pense of (ruth, 1 ('an ,Issig" nn reasoll why Iw If lmder this circumstance you propose a bolu enterprise to him, 1 hel
omitted this p:,ntomime art. in which he (night ha'·e truly said thl: Romans I'xcclled
th" Crpeks. e,ccpt that hI' did not ",tN'm it, either as " useful art, which ,t "crtallLl," " Prom Baron de M(')ntC~(jllil'"' '1'11(; Spitit of Ill!! [,1l1l;R, trRns!atc<1 by Th
IS not aInOll!: p';1'5011s who can uuderstand one onutllel' b\' laugll,\ge, or of :tllY nntmal
'\ugl'nl. Heprinted by permission of H:lfru~r Press, Macmilllln Pub1i5hin~ Co ..
g."ace and benul~" And indeed it appl'al's fmOl what LuC'i,1I1 ,,(I,', in his di~lop:ue upon
HH9: pp. 221-2:14.
,1ancini-\' t hat the men of l-tra "Ity 11ml correct tnst<: COmllJln"led this IIlimkal reprcsen
tatit.m, as fit only for the low('r sort of people.
George Gibbs 181
• Instructions
-
for Philology
explained that they refer to the (hess of deer-skin, the hat of basket-work
used by the natives, and of thetr o\vn I)Timihve manufacture.
As the languages of savage uation5, being unwritten and without
fixed standard, are subject to COllstant change, the number of dialects is
eorge Gibbs everywhere considerable. The collector is therefore recommended to
obtain vocahularies in each dialect; and for the greater certai]1ty, to
employ one of those already collected. on the correch"H3ss of which reli
ance can be placed, as the medLum of obtaining otllcr5.
\Vhenever leisnre and opportunity ofTer for the collect ion of larger
Tn vie\v of the importance of a uniform system in collecting words of the vocabuhuies than that here given, it will of course be rlesirable to procurc
various Indian languages of North America, adapted to the use of officers them; as abo information concerning the grarnOlatieal struchlre of tll
of the government, travcllcrs. and others, the follO\ving is recommended language, such as the modes of forming the plurnls in nouns and adjec
as a STA_I\TIM.RD VOCAIHJLARY. It is mainly the Ollt:: pl"eparecl by tIle lat.. tives, their declcmioll. the conjugation of verbs, the character and use of
HOll. Albert Galbtiu, with a few cllitng<'s made by Mr. Hale, the Ethnol prollouns, thc number HJJd employment of adverbs, p!"("'positions, &c.
ogist of the U aited States Exploring E;-;pedition. and is adopted as Iliat rammars and dictionaries, never yet published, werc made of IT\[,IllY of
Upon which neady all the collections hiL11crto made for Ule pLUpOSU of tIle languages of Upper and Lower California and the Me~can Stales by
comparison have lwen based. For thl' pUl"pOSC of ascerlainillg the more the Spanish missionaries, and the Smithsonian Institution has been
obvious relations between the \'Hrious members o.f ('~isting families, this favorerl with the loan of several manuscripts which arc in the course of
number is deemed sufficient. ThC' remote a1Rnilics must be sought- ill a publication. It is desired to procure others, or copies of them, whenever it
wider research, demanding it degree of acquaintance \vith their lan is pOSSible, from all petrI's of both the AnH'rican continents, or of printed
guages beyond the reach of tnlnsjenl. visitors. works on tho same subject. The present form is issued for the use of
TIle languages spoken within the limits of the United States, in travdkrs or merely transient n'siclents amollg tribes where no such
whicli tht' greatest deBciencies exist, me those of the tribes comprised in rcc.:ords are procmable.
LLe States of California and T(:'xas. and tlJC Territories of Utah, Nevada, In making collections, the utmost care is requisite to represent accu
and ~e\V Mexico. and to these attention is particularly directed. It is nol rately the sowlds of unfamiliar languages. particularly those which to us
i.ntenned, bowevf'r, to wnfine [he collection to Ihe languages of the appear uncouLh; amI the inquirer should satisf:' himself. by repetition of
United States. Those of British and Hussian America and of Mexico, the words to other individuals, that he has correctly acquired their
?articularly the wcsfcru coast, fall within the purpose of this circular; and pronundat'ioll. vVhile the assistance of interpreters COllver.sant with the
the alphabet may. in fact, with certain local adaptations, be used in any language is desirable to insme a correct understanding, the words them
region. selves should Le taken clown from the lips of an Indian of the tribe. A
Some of tl1<"' words contai ned ill it will of Course be found in great tlifIC'rence indeed exists amoug Indians in the purity with which
applicable iu particular sections of the country~ as, for example, ic~, they spC'ak their own laugll:lge, chiefs and men of note and women of
salmon, and sturgeon among the soutbern tribes, bu£Ialo among the coast good standing, as a general thing. spf'akiJlg more correctly than comwon
tJ"ihcs of the Pacific, and such shoilid at OIlC~ be omitted. pt:rsons. Crcat pal-icnce is neccssar;' to secure accuracy, as their attention
VVhere several languages ,uc obtained by tIle same person in one soon becomes fatigued bv being kept on the stTctch. \Vhcnever this is
district, the inquirer may substitute for these the names of familial' observed to be the case, it is best to postpone the suhject for a time, i.f
things, taking care that the same arc carried through them all, and that possihle.
they a1'C those of nalivc and 1101' importC'rl objects. SlIch words as coat, 11H~ character of the Indian mind is so E'ssentiaJly different from
hat, etc., are of course useless for purposes of comparison. U1lless it is thaI of the white nIall, they think ilJ so <1ifh~rent a rnCilter, tllat mall}"
precautions are necessary to avoid giving them wrong impressions of our
"Tom George Gihhs. l".~t,.urtl(lll.l for Res('orcll llelative to the Etlm()lugy (i1Id meaning, and of course obtaining incorrect T(:'pJies.
Philology 01 America.• SUlith..;onian .\1 iscd1:J nl '0 u.s Collectiom l(J(J (18fi."!). Reprinted
by pemlission of Smithsonian Instilulion Pres.... : pp. 1:~17.
Indians not only distinguish by di(ferenl names the degmcs and
modifications of relationship. 'such as'tbe dclC'r from the younger brother
180
182 Prolessionalization 01 Anthropology George Gibbs 183
and sister, hut women usc different words from men iu addreSsing their In naming parts of the hody, as \,,'el1 as relationsllip, it will be fonnel
relations; as, for instance, a man emplo:,s one word in saying "my father," a \'ery common practice wit h Indians to prefiX the prououll "my" ('0 each
and a womnn another. Again, different words are, at least in some lan Ollf', as "my head." &e. TIle recurrence of the same syllabic at the begin
guages, used in speaking of ClUe's parents from those used in speakwg to nintrt> of each word will indicate this.
then·l. It is, therefore, necessary eith('r to give eadl form, or to specify by
what sex and in what SeJlse the words axe used. Further to prevent Tenon, uil/age. Cf'ncr:ll1:-' speaking, the same word is given as for house.
this is, in fact, in cousonance with Indian practice, \VarriOl'. Among the tTihes of the Paci.£c coast, where there is no distinc
Their languages are dencient in generic terms, or those representing tive e!ass of wClrriors, this is frecluently rendered "strong man," "quarrel
classes of objects. Thus very few possess words equ iva1ellt to "tree," some," &c:.
"bird," "fish," &c., though names will be found for every particular
Friend i.s a word of veq indefinite meaning. Instead of it, "collsin," or
species, as each kind of oak and pine, of cluck or salmon; and of certain
"one liked:' will often be ~iven.
animals. such as deer, ! here will ue fonnd, besides the specific name,
black or white-tailed deer, as the case may be, separate words signHying Sun and moon, Curionsl), enough. these, among several tribes, bear the
blick, doe, and fawn, as with us. 1t lS, therefore, essent ial in outaining samn name and aTe actually supposcrl to be ttl(' s;.lme. Others use for
such names. to ascertain definitively the ohject intended, and to note this InOOli "nigbt sun."
in the vocabulary. The Seasons. Th(',5e words have been retained, though it is qnestionahle if
11Us tendency to particularize extends to almost every class of they ll<lve a very definite signification with Iudians. The names of particu
objects. In regard to parts of the body, it bas been found that in many lar mOllths, or "moons:' \:vann or cold weather, or the periods in which
languages there is no onc woro for arm or leg, but separate ones for the particnlar occupations are followed probably, in mosl cases. replace
upper ann, rr.nd that below the elbow; for the thigh. and that part below thcm.
the knee. Even of the hands and feet there aJ'e often no names embracing
tLe whole. So, too, the words "leaf," "bark," arc represent'l,d hy cli.stinct River, lake. For t he~)(' simply dle worrl "wall'r" will often he given, as,
names, according to their character, as broad and neecUe-shaped leaves, among tribes of lwtited range, their OWll river or lake is "the water" which
the woody and fibrous barks. Sheath and pocket knives and the various they hest know.
forms of canoes have in like manner each their speci.fic names, Mountain. "Hock" is freguelltly t he translation. Some tribes, agaul, apply
a special name to snow peaks.
In respect to particular "vords, the following points may be noted:
The c070rs. The irlea of color seems to he indistinct, dark blue and dark
Man. This must be carefully distiJlguisbed from the word "person," th green l)avillg, in many languages. t he same name as black, and yellow the
collective of which is "people." i. e., Indians.
Old aUll !JOlmg. Ca.rc should be taken that the worrls for "old man."
"little woman," "little one."
"young mOoll," are not supplied; or, Oll the other hand, "worn 01lt,~ and
[-hl.~'/;alld and wife. Distinct words exist IT] mOst languages for these
"new," as is often the case.
relationships; in olhers, it would seem as if thf'1'(' was only "my man," "m~'
woman."
Alit;e L~ frcquelltly relldered "\lot dead."
Indians, l!eople. Care must he taken that the name of the tril.>e is not Colel, warm. ITere-, again, caution is requisite, as colc! or warm lceather
given unless reall)' so deSignated.
may be given instead.
Head. A vcry common mistake to be guarded agaiJ1st is the substitution
Yesterday aml to-mOrrow. In some languages, ,1 single word is used for
of hair or sculp.
both, the distillCtiOII being made only by the connection.
Face. 11le name for the forebead or e.ve~ is, ill some cases, employed for
NumeraLs'. ~vlany tJ'ibes go no farther itl cOllntillg than ten, mid among
the whole face.
those of California, it is sajd, some have no names for numbers beyond
Neck. TIlroat is apt to be given instead of neck.
five. Others, on the contrary,, have different sets of numerals ' or rather
184 Professionalization of Anthropology
The Origin
their numerals have different terminations, one class being used in ordi
nary counting, the other applying to men, money, &c.
Pronou/ls. The personal pronouns m'e of two classes, one simple or
of the Mound Builders
absolute, the other variousl), called fragmentary and copulative. 111ese
last arc used only in composit ion, as in the form of prefixes and suffixes to
Samuel Haven
the verbs.
Verbs. It is a matter of dispute whether the Indian verb has any true
infinitive mood, as "to go:' "to eat," &c.. and its simplest form appears to
be. in all cases, the third person singnlar present. "he goes," "he eats." It In the preceding pages we have endeavored to select and condense
will be better, thereforE'. to ohtain either this form or that of the first a mass of miscellaneous notes, such materials as would illustm
person, "I go," &c. The last will be found often to he combiued with the viewS entertained at different periods, and by various writers, upa
copulative pronoulJ. jeets relating to the archaeology of the United States.
This has been done lmeIer whatever c.lisadvantages arc ineic
the circumstance of having portions of thE: text printed lJeforc
portions were written. Had opportunity and leisure been a:ffor~
revision of the entire paper, dmnges and additions might ha·...
made that would have been likely to improve the consistency as
the completeness of the narrative.
After a consideration of statements and speculations tll~
failed to present a harmonious result, the milld naturallv craves t~
faction of heiug able to distinguish acknowledged verities frorn d~
are problematical, jf it is ouly for the sake of somc solid hasis on \~
build new theories. or some fixed point from which future invest
may take their departure. The reader will doubtless expect to be
in an effort to separate matters of fact frorn inferences and hypot11
u recapitulation of the principal points that have been with re
certainty established.
. .We shall endeavor. while glancing rapidly along the c~
ll1qU1ry, to ascertain in what direction, and to what extent, the
tolerabl>' clear anc! the path tolerably finn.
The comparative geological antiquity of the tWlJ hemis
a~<:ollllted by some an clem<mt of weight in estjmating the pro~
of ::tn indigenous population on this contwonl. It is <l point. howj
cannot be determined in the prescnt stage of geological ohservl
We admit that portions of the western coni inent exhibit appcaran:
earlier emergence than is known to he indicated elsewhere, it I
he true that the mass of the eastern hcmisphere was sooner d
and sooner preparecl for the habitation of man. Bnt until it is
considerations t,han those oJ immediate utility. T must seek thcm ill the
206
Daniel G, Brinton 209
208 Proiessiona/izatlon 01 Anthropology
But such external information is ouly a small part- of what they are person. I, Latin Ego, in Delaware this 1.> <I single sylt,bIe, a slight nasaL
capable of clisdosiXJg. \Ve CHlJ turn them, like the reflector of a micro
Ni- me premise by informing you that tbis is both a personal and il
{lif, orLet
sl:ope, on the secrcl and JdeklCll m)'stt:ri_es of the aboriginal man, and
cliscovcr his inmost motives, his impulses, his concealed bopes anel fears, possessive pronoun; it means both 1 and mine, It is both singuhlr am1
those that gave rise to his customs and laws, his schemes of social life, his plural, boLL T <\1xl we, rnine und our
snperstitions and his religions, The chang(~s of t.he applic:atiOJ] of this root are made by adding
Personal names, family names, titles; forms of salutat ion, methods snffixes to it, with ni'hilll1Tl. literally, "mine, it is so," or ·'she. it, is truly
a community, and the way in which its members regard one unot}wl'. l1leauillg of this verb in Delaware is more significant of ownership than
They are precisely as correct when applied to the investigation of the this tame expression, 1l is an active. animate verh, and means, "1 beat, or
American race as elsewhere, and tbC'y are the more valuable just there, strike. somehody." To the rude minds of tbe framers of that tongue,
beGaw;t' his deep-seatcd distrllst of the white invaders-for which, let us ownership meant the Ti!!,llt to beat what one owned.
acknowledge, he had abuudant cause-led the Indian to practice COll Vve might hope tllis sense was confilled to the lower animals; but
e
cealment and cqllh'ocatioll on these personal topics. not so. Change tl1l' accent from the first to the second syllahl , ni'fliLlan.
~orne b)~
III 110 other wa:-' can the history of the developme11t of his arts be to nddl'lan, aud vou havp the animate active verb with an intensiv,," fOlce
reached. You are doubtless a\vare that diligent students of the Ary,ul which s;,glliD.es "to beat to death," "to kill person;" and from this.
languages have succeeded in faithfu]]), depicting the <Uts and halJits of another suffix, you have nihil'loweli. lo rnl1[(~er, and nifJi./'IDwet, mnr
that ancient community iu wwcL tbe GODUlIOU aJicestors of Greek aud derer. The bad sense of the root is here pnsbec1lo its uttermost.
Romau, Persian and Dane. Brahmin and Irishman, dwelt togetllt,r as of But the root also rleve\oped in :1 nobler direction, 1\d(l to 'ni'llillan
one hlood and One speech. This has been done by ascertaining what the termiuut!on (.1)8, whieh means a male. aflll you have /1,ih illape, liter
household words are common to all these longl1es, and thc>refore lTIust ally, ''L it is tnH~, a lf1aJl," which, as nIl adjective, means free, indepen
have been in use among the primeval horc1e from which they are all dent. one's own master. "1 ,un nw own 1nan." From this are derived the
descended. 1'1)(' method is conclusive, ;:Iud yields positive results. There is noun, niflillapewif. a hecman: tl~c vel'h nihiDa/Jew in . to be free; and th(~
no reason why il should not he addressed to Anu:'rican languages. and we abstract, niMlIasowagan. freeelom, liberty, independence. These are glori
may be slll"e that it v.:ould be most frujtful. How \'alnahle it would be to OHS words: but 1 can go even farther. From tJlis same theme is derived
take even a few woros, as maize, tobacco. pipe. bow. arrr)w, and the like. the verb ni1ril/ape-u;hen, to set free, to liberate. to redcetu; and from this
each representing a widespread art or cllstom, and b.·ace their derivations the missionaries franlf'd the word nihillape-w}zoalid, the l1edeemcL the
and affinities through the Innguages of the whole continent! 'We may he Savioul'.
sure thal stTiking anclllllexpected results would be obtained, Here L" an unexpected antitlJesis, the' words for a murderer and the
Saviottl' bot11 from onc root! it illustTates how stJ<ingc is the conc.'ltenation
These languages also oiler an entertaining iield to the ps)-chologist.
Ou account of their transp<u-ency. as 1 may ca]] it, the clearness with of human t11oughts.
T]lc;se an' by no means all the derivatives hOLT! the root Jli,~.
\:V1ICrJ reclupIiC~\tl'(l as nene, it has a plural and strengtbened form.
whieh they retain the primilive form.. of their radicals, thf'.)· allow us to
trace oul the growth of words, and thus r<?veal the 0lwratioDs of the
like "our own:-' "Vitb a p<lnloml.ble alld well-nigh universal wea\.."I1ess,
native mind by a series of witnesses whose testimony cannot be ques
which we share with them. the nation wim spoke the language believed
thcmseh'('s thE' first created of mortal~ a TIel the most favored l,y the
tioned. Often curiom associations of ideas rHe Lhus disdosed, vel'Y
instructive to the student of Ulaukind. MaIl\' ilh1.~trations of this could he
Creator, Hence whatever theY designalncl as "ollrs'" was hath older and
given. but I do not wish to assail your ears -oy a host or unknown sounds.
better than others of its ki~)(l. H~nce nerlni c,une to meCln ancient,
so 1 shaH content myself with one, and that taken from the language of
the Lenfipe. ()I' Delaware Indhms. primordial. indi?;enous, and as such it is a frefjllf'nt prefiX in the Delaware
J shall endeavor to trace' out OIl\:' sillgle raelical in that language. and language, Agaill, as the)' considered themselves the first and only trne
show you !low many_ and hm\! strangely di\'(:'rse ideas were huilt up upon men. others lwillg barbarians, euemies- or st-rangl,;rs, Ilel1110 was under
it. stood to be one of us, a rnan like ourselves. of our nation.
In their different dialects the sounds of n. t, and,. were alternated,
The radical Wllich I select is the personal pronoun of the first
Daniel G. Brinton 211
210 Professionalization of Anthropology
lecture, but a v"bo!e course of lectures. Yet perhaps I can say enough now cmployed with one fonn of the pronoun it becomes a noun, if \'litb
to show yOll how much there' is in them \volih stud) iJlg. another pronoun, it hecomes a verb.
Before J turn to this. however, I should like to combat a prejudice We have something of the same kind in English. In the phrase, "1
wl.ticu I fear you ma)' entertain. Jl is that same anclc'nt pr~iudice which love," love is a ve.rb; but in "my love," it is a noun. It i~ noteworthy iliat
led the old Gn'eks to call all those who did not speak their souon)us thiS treatment of words as either nouns or verbs. as we please to employ
idioms l.w.rbarians; for that word IneaJlt nothing more nor less tban them, was carried further by Shakespeart> than by an)' other English
babblers (!3(,A!3t1'AOL), people \vho spoke an unintelligible tongue. \!Iodcrn writer. HC' seemed to divine in such a trait of language vast resources for
civilized nations hold that prC'judice yet. in the sense that ead! i.l1sists that varied and pointed expression. If 1 ma)' vcnture a suggestion as to how it
his own hlllguage is the best olle extant, the highest i.n the sC:(11e, and that oes confer peculiar strength to expressions, it is that it brings into
wherein others differ frOl\) it in structure they arc inferior. especial prominence the idea of Personality; it direct..'> nll subjects of
So unfortunately placed is this prejudice with rd('rcnc(~ to 111)' sub iscolUse hy the notion of an individual. a living, personal unit. This
ject. th..'ll in the very volume issued by our govemment at \Vashington to imparts vividness to narratives, and directness and life to propositions.
encow-age the shld)" of the Indian langllage.,';, thC're is a long essay to Of these pronouns. tbat of I he first person is usually the most devel
pro\'e that English is tIl(> noblest. most perfect language i.n the world, oprd. From it, in maJlY dialects, arC' derived the dl'monstratives and
while ail t]le native hlllgl.lage~ are, ill comparisoll, of a very 10\"11 grade relatives. which in Aryan languages were taken from the third person,
indeedl a This prominence of the Ego, tltis confidellcc: in self, is l\ trait of the race
The eSS<lvist draws hie; arguments chidlv fl"()m the ahsence of illflec as well as of their speech. It forms part of that savage independence of
tions in Engli~h. Yet many olth(;· profounlest Iingnists of this century chnl'actcr which prevented them coaleSCing inlo great nati()Jl~. and kd
have maintained that a f1l1l.\· inflected language. likr the Greek or Latin, is thom to prefer d~ath to servitude'
for that vel")' reason ,lllead of an others. '0/e may suspect that when a Anothcr characteristic. which at one time was supposed to be uni
writer lauds his nativc tongue at the expense of others. he is inl1uenc:ed vcrsal on this contill(·nt. is what Mr. Peter Du Pnncetlu named polysyn
by a prejudic:e in its favor and an ,lbsencc of facility in tIte others. thesis. ITe nwant :lV this a power of running several words into on(:.
Those best acquaiuted with American tongues praise them most dropping parts of them and retaining onl) the significanl syllables. Long
highl)" for fleXibility. accuracy, and rl'SOUl"ces of e},:pression. The~' placC' uescnptivl' names of all ohjects of civil i7.ed life lIew to the I nmnns were
some of tbcrn above a.nv Arrall langllage. But what is this to those who thus coined with the wcatest ease, Some' of the~1' are curious enough. The
do not know them? To him who cannot bend the bow of Ulysses it Pavant IndHlJl:> call n school house hv one word, which means "'a stopping
nallJrall)' seems a llsdess and (1 .."kwarc.\ "veapoll. ' plnce where sorcery is practiced". their notion of hook-Iearnillg being
1 do not ask )'0\1 to aee('pt this opinion either; but 1 do ask that you tltat it he-longs to the IUlcanll)' arts. Tlw Delaware' word for horse means
riel yom mind.. of bias, and that you do not eondeDlll a tongue because it "'llw fonr-footell animal which carries 011 his back."
differs Widely from that which you speak This meUlod of ('oining words IS, however. b~ 110 means universal in
American tongues do, indeed. c1iffer very widel)' from those familiar American languages. H prevails in most of tbos(' in Bril ish America and
to Aryan ears. Not that they art> all alike ill structure. Tbal lVas a hast:· the United States, ill Aztec :l.l1d various South Amprican idioms; hut in
generalization. dating from a time wi 1<.'1 1 they were less known. 'Yet the others. as the dialects found ill Yucatan and Guatemala. and in the Tupi
great majority of I hem have certain characteristics in common, suffieil'n1 of Brazil. the OtDOli of vlexico. and the Klamath of Ihe Pacific coast. it is
to place them in a linguistic class b~' themselves. 1 shall Ilallle and e:>:plain scarcely Ilr not ,It all present.
some of these. A1101 her tnut, however, 'vvhicL was con[ouuded with this !>" Mr. f)u
As of HIe 6.rst i rnpOrl<l lice [ wOllld mention tJ Ie prominence they PoncC'uu, unt really belongs in a diITerent call'~or~ of grammatical sh'uc
assign to pronouns and proulirnil "tl forms. Indred, an eminent Iingllist ure, is tml) distinctiVC' of the language:> of the continent, and 1 am uot
has been $0 irnprE'ssed \Vil'li I his h'atlll"C' that IIC has pl'Oposed to dassif): sure that anyone' of them has been shown to he ",hollv devoid of it. This
them distinclivf'ly as "prollorninal languages." TlJCy have many classes of is what is c~l1ed inrorporatiun. It includes in the "e(fl. or ill the verha1
pronouns. sometimes as 111,1llV as C'ighl<"'cn. which is mOre thall twke as exprnssioll. thl? objt'ct and manner of the action.
l1Iall)' as ,·he Gn.'ek. Th('J'c is' oftC'n ~o dislinction botween a I)oun ,11K] a This is effected b~. making the snbject of tbe verh an inseparahle
verb olher tklll the pronoun wldch governs it. That is, if a word is prefiX, and by illsprting: between it ~Llld the vl:'rh itseU, or sometimes
214 Professionallzalion of Anthropology
Daniel G, Brinton 215
directly in the) lalter, betwccn its syllables, the object dirce:( Or remote
and the partides indicating mode, Tbe time or tense particles, on tIle between e:-;pn;ssiolls, which with us arc cardully separated, and are so in
other halld, wiIJ be placed at one; eud of this compound. cilher as prefixes thought. Tlms, in tbe Tupi of Brazil and elsewhere. tLcre is !Jut oue word
or suffix,es, ihuli placing lhe wlJOle exprcssioll strictly Wit/lill the lirnits of a for the three expreSSions, "his father," "he is a fatber," am1 "he has a
verbal form of speech, father;" in many, the simp/(' form of the verb lTl<ly cOllvey three different
Hoth the above charackristics. I l1Iean Pol.vsynthcsis and Incorpora. ideas, as in Ute, where the \-\lord for "he seizes" means also "the seizer,"
tion, are llllconscious efforts to carry out ,I certain theory of spe('c!t whidJ aUlI as a descriptive nOUll. "a bear." the <1Jdmal which seizes.
klS aptly C'llough bt'(;l1 termed ho{ophmsis, or the putting the whole of a
Tbis bas been charged against these hHiguagcs as a lack of "differ
phrasc into a single word. This is {'he aim of ('ach of them, tllOugh each entiation," Grammatically. this is so; bllt the samE' charge applies with
endcavoTli to accompli.~h it oy difFen:lJt mcans, lJlcorporation confinr's almost equal force to tLe English lauguagl', where thc samc word way
itself exclusively to verbal [orll)~. while pol,vsynthesis embraces hoth belong to all~' of {om, five. cvea six parts of spcech, dependellt entirely on
nouns amI verbs. the connection in which it is used.
Suppose WI:" carry (he analysis fnrthcr. and see if Wl' can ol)taio all As a set-off. the American .languages avoid confusiollS of expression
answer to the qll c-r,",-vVh) did fhi.~ effort at blending fonlls of 5pl~ech which prevail in European tongues.
obtain so widrly? Such all UJCjuiJ} wil! indica.te how I'a(uablc to lingUistic Thus ill nOllC of these latter, when 1 say "the lovl: of God," "I'amoul'
search would provl' the stud.,' of I his group of languages, de Dieu," "amor Dei," can yoU understand what I mean,You (10 not
f thillk t-hen,' is no doubt but Ulaf it points unmistakably' to that vcry know wllCthcr I intend the Jove which we have 01' should have toward
ancic'llt, to that- primordial period of humau utteram;e WIH':1l mC11 had !lot Cod, or Cod's love toward \LS, Yd ill the Mexic,tr\ lallguagc (and mall)'
et learned to connect words info sentellces, when their utmost cHarts at other Americal! tougue's) these two quite oppOSite ideas arc so cle:-trly
articulate speech did riot go beyOlJd single' words. whif'h, nickd hy distinguished that. as Father Carochi warns tbe readers of hi~ Mexican
gestures and sign~, served tli COllVC\' their limiteel intellectual converse, Grmnnwr, to confouDd them would not merd~' be' ,\ grievous solecislI1 in
Such single vocaoles did not uelong to an~' particnlar part of specch speech. bllt a formidable heresy as well.
Then" was no gramfnar to that antiqlle tongue. Its di~collnect('d cxclama Another example. "Vhat call yOIl make Ollt of tllis sentence. whidl is
tiom; mean whol<: sentf'llCP.S in th('mselvrs. strictly correct' 1).\, English gramm:\r: "John (old RObert's son that he mllst
\ larg(' part of the humall racC'. notalll:-'. Lut not exclusively, the help him?" You Ci:iJl mah' nothing ont of it. It may have anyone of six
abl>rigines of this cOlllin('nl. continued th(' tradil iOll of this mock of different meanings, depcnding on the PCTSOliS referred to by t1Jf' pronouns
('\'Prcssion in tlw strucflll'f' of their tongues, long after the ullioll of "he" and ··him." No such larllcntable confusiull could oeCIH in ~lI1Y Ameri
thought and sound in audible speech had been brought to a high degree can tongue known to me, The Chippewa)', for instance. has three
of perfection, pronouns of the third person, which deSignate the IIcar and the I'(~motc
Although T thus rt>gard ()lie of tbe most prominent pecllJj,u·itie.~ of
antecccknts wit h the mOst lucid accuracy.
AmerLc:an languages as il SllJ'vival from nn excecdil1gl~' Jow stage of
There is auother point that I must mcntion in this connection.
human development. it Ly no IO( 'ailS follows that this is an cvic]cl1cf' ()J
becallse I find that it has almost alwal's oeen ov('r!ook('d or misunderstood
their inferiority. h~' erilics of these lang-uages. These' have heen free ill condelllning
~ c the
The Chil~es(:', who made no effort to combine the primitive vocables
L