Sana͛a University

Faculty Of Engineering
PROGRESS REREPORT Nō 2 Department of Civil Engineering
|
AL-Malyiah Intersection Design January 2009 ñ



ñ 
 

Design of Prestressed Concrete Overpass
FINAL YEAR PROJECT  x
x 

›   P a g e | 


 !"#$%&" #!

The design of AL-Malyiah Intersection Overpass will consider all the loads
that are expected to be applied to the bridge during its service life. Such
loads may vary based on the following

Y Duration (permanent or temporary)

Y Direction (vertical or longitudinal)
Y Deformation(concrete creep, thermal expansion)
Y Effect(shear, bending, torsion)

It has to be emphasized, however, that loads and imposed deformations

are of different nature; the loads may remain constant all the way to
failure whereas the effect of the imposed deformations are likely to
vanish.

The loads for which a structure must be designed will normally be

determined by the owner, probably by reference to an official body in the
form of a code. But Yemen is still new in the field of bridge engineering,
therefore I will use the AASHTO as the main code in the analysis and
design stages.

Detailed below are a brief history of the AASHTO design loads and a
discussion of various loading condition based on the classes listed above.
An overview of the principal design methods used by designers is also
provided.

'&()#%!$!$* "#+

In general, the principal loading constraint which highway bridges are

designed by is truck loading. Given the variety of trucks in use, it was
determined that a standard set of design loading caused by truck traffic
needed to be developed. This need led to the development, by AASHTO,
of standard design trucks to be used by bridge engineers in modeling the
performance and adequacy of their designs. In the early part on the
century, designers utilized a train of trucks as design loading for their
bridges. As the highway trucking industry grew, and along with it truck
loads, many bridges began to evidence overstressing in structural

Dr. Eng. : 
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 Sana͛a University
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PROGRESS REREPORT Nō 2 Department of Civil Engineering
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AL-Malyiah Intersection Design January 2009 ñ



ñ 
 

Design of Prestressed Concrete Overpass
FINAL YEAR PROJECT  x
x 

›   P a g e | ,

components. In 1944, a suite of hypothetical truck classes designated as H

and HS class trucks were developed by AASHTO. These design vehicles
were created with two and three axles, respectively, set at specified
offsets.

The H and HS design trucks still represent the core standard in use today
in the United States and those nations adhering to AASHTO standard (like
Yemen). In 1975, however, the U.S. federal government upgraded the
allowable gross weight for trucks from 73,280 Ib (33,240kg) to 80,000Ib
(36,288kg). This meant that the heaviest design vehicle was now 8000Ib
(3629kg) less than the allowable truck weight (i.e.,80,000 Ib allowable
minus 72,000 Ib design vehicle). Some states responded by upgrading the
standard AASHTO 1944 circa design vehicles from a 72,000 Ib (32,659kg)
weight to a 90,000 Ib (40,824kg) weight.

Y' $)-›#$

.-ñ!-!"›#$

Permanent loads, as the name would imply, are those loads which always
remain and act on a bridge throughout its life. Although the term dead
load is often used synonymously with permanent loads, there are
distinctions which need to be made. For this discussion, permanent loads
are divided into the following categories.

x
  
The dead load on a superstructure is the aggregate weight of all
superstructure elements (i.e., those elements above the bearings). This
would include, but not be limited to the deck, wearing surface, stay-in-
place forms, sidewalks and railing, parapets, primary members, secondary
members, signing and utilities. The abbreviation DL is used to reference
dead load.

x
 x
   

Basically, this load covers the bridge furnishings that include possible
insulation layer, protective layers, roadway surfacing, and sidewalk build
up, railing, barrier, lighting, etc. The weights of these items may be
determined taking into account possible repairs, for example additional

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 Sana͛a University
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AL-Malyiah Intersection Design January 2009 ñ



ñ 
 

Design of Prestressed Concrete Overpass
FINAL YEAR PROJECT  x
x 

›   P a g e | 

roadway topping. The abbreviation SDL is used to reference

superimposed dead load.


x

  
Pressures due to earth are also considered permanent loads. While these
loads primarily affect substructure element, they have the potential of
impacting superstructure elements as well at points where these two
components interface (e.g., at the abutment back wall).

In summary, permanent load must always be considered in the structural analysis.

Some permanent loads are easily estimated, such as components of self-weigh.
Where variability is greater, higher load factors are used for maximum load effects
and lower factors are used for minimum load effects.

"-ñ.#+›#$
Temporary loads are those loads which are placed on a bridge for only a
short period of time. Just as dead loads are the principal permanent
loading condition, live loads represent the major temporary loading
condition. There are, however, several other classes of temporary loads
which I will consider. Discussed below are the major forms of temporary
loading.

x
  
The term live load means a load that moves along the length of a span.
Therefore, a person walking along the bridge can be considered live load.
Obviously, however, a highway bridge has to be designed to withstand
more than pedestrian loading. To give designer the ability to accurately
model the live load on a structure, hypothetical design vehicle based on
truck loading were developed.

Although the automobile (car) is the most common vehicular live load on
most bridges, the truck causes the critical load effects. In a sense, cars are
felt very little by the bridge. More precisely, the load effects of the car
traffic compared to the effect of truck traffic are negligible.

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 Sana͛a University
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PROGRESS REREPORT Nō 2 Department of Civil Engineering
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AL-Malyiah Intersection Design January 2009 ñ



ñ 
 

Design of Prestressed Concrete Overpass
FINAL YEAR PROJECT  x
x 

›   P a g e | /

Therefore, in 1935 the AASHTO design loads, identified as H20-35 and

H15-35, attempt to model the truck traffic that is highly variable, dynamic
and may occur independent of, or in unison with, other truck loads. The
principal load effect is the gravity load of the truck, but other effects are
significant and must be considered. Such effects include impact (dynamic
effects), barking forces, centrifugal force, and the effects of other trucks
simultaneously present. Furthermore, different design limit states may
require slightly different truck load models.

The introduction of five new truck classes was made in 1944. These
classes have the following designations and gross vehicle weights:

Table 2.1 AASHTO Vehicle loading

  
 *  01 /23


H15-44  01 1423
*,   5

H20-44  01 4123
   
6  ,7   HS15-44  0,1 123
*
 HS20-44  0/1 1,23

 *,  1,2

The figure below illustrates the design truck and its associated geometry.
O        . The truck is
then moved along the length of the span to determine the point of
maximum moment. It is important to stress that the H and HS trucks do
not represent an actual truck being used to transport goods and
materials. The load specification in the code must be regarded as an
abstraction; it serves to simulate the realistically occurring live loads as a
suitable upper bound, valid for the structure as a whole as well as for
individual structural parts. In other words, they intend to simplify the
analysis effort in a conservative manner to simulate the greatest stresses
caused by actual trucks.

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AL-Malyiah Intersection Design January 2009 ñ



ñ 
 

Design of Prestressed Concrete Overpass
FINAL YEAR PROJECT  x
x 

›   P a g e | 4

 1!  1,!  1,!

A

 & 6

^Y 100,000 N for Moment
^Y 144,722 N for Shear

UNIFORM LOAD 11.9 KN PER LINEAR METER OF LOAD LANE

HS25 Lane Loading

A

Figure (2.1) loading to be used for the design of AL-Malyiah Intersection Overpass
a.Y HS25 Truck loading
b.Y HS25 Lane loading

For that reason, generally, the load specification should be followed

literally without any reducing or increasing interpretation.

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AL-Malyiah Intersection Design January 2009 ñ



ñ 
 

Design of Prestressed Concrete Overpass
FINAL YEAR PROJECT  x
x 

›   P a g e | 

From the figure we see that the HS truck have a variable spacing between
the two rear axles. This distance between axles, varying from (4.27 to
9.140m), is used to create a live lading situation which will induce
maximum moment in a span. For simply supported bridges, this value will
be the 4.27 m minimum. In continuous spans, however, the distance
between axles is varied to position the axles at adjacent supports in such
a fashion as to create the maximum negative moment.

Replacing the train of trucks in the 1935 circa design code are lane-loading
configurations which approximate a 40.000Ib (18.144kg) truck followed by
a train of 30.000 Ib (13.608kg) trucks. To model this, a uniform distributed
load is used combined with a concentrated force. This force varies for
moment and shear computations as shown in figure 1. Where truck
loading generally governs for short, simple span, lane loading typically
holds for long and continuous span bridge. Like truck loading, the
concentrated load is moved along the span to determine the point of
maximum moment.

For simple span bridge and for determining maximum positive moment in
continuous spans, only one concentrated load is used in conjunction with
the uniform load. To determine maximum negative moment in
continuous spans, however, two concentrated loads are used.

A reduction in the live load intensity is permitted for bridges with three or
more lanes that have maximum stress caused by fully loading each lane. A
90 percent reduction of three lane structure and 75 percent reduction for
bridge with four or more lanes is allowed (AASHTO 3.12). This reduction is
permitted given the rarity of the situation where simultaneously loading
in multiple occurs.

Abnormal vehicle of (1,170,000 N) loading having military tank will be

considered to design of AL-Malyiah Intersection Overpass. A single lane of
carriageway will be loaded with the abnormal vehicle, while the other
lanes shall be loaded with HS25 loading or corresponding lane load with a
concentrated load to produce maximum stresses in the members.

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 Sana͛a University
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AL-Malyiah Intersection Design January 2009 ñ



ñ 
 

Design of Prestressed Concrete Overpass
FINAL YEAR PROJECT  x
x 

›   P a g e | 

Figure (2.2) Abnormal military vehicle loading of 1,170,000 N

Moment due to HS25 and Abnormal Truck of (1170 KN) are to be

compared and the one producing greater moment will be considered.

The abnormal loading shall be increased by Impact factor to encounter for

the Vehicle impact.

It must be emphasized that the live loads given by the AASHTO are valid
up to certain span lengths only, up to 500 ft, where in AL-Malyiah
Intersection Overpass, the span will not exceed 150 ft (45 m) which
emphasizes that AASHTO loads are valid for this project.

The fact is that the loads prescribed by the AASHTO were determined
with span lengths in mind which are current at the time when the codes
were drafted and which since then may have been outdated by
subsequent evolution of the bridge construction techniques.

-
8 
2

Earthquake loading is a product of Ô
 
which are dependent on
the geographic location of the bridge. In general, there are three major
natural forces with which the bridge engineer must be concerned:

ëY Seismic forces

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 Sana͛a University
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AL-Malyiah Intersection Design January 2009 ñ



ñ 
 

Design of Prestressed Concrete Overpass
FINAL YEAR PROJECT  x
x 

›   P a g e | 

ëY Wind forces
ëY Thermal forces

Like the vehicle live loads discussed above, seismic, and wind are
temporary loads on a structure which act for a short duration, while
thermal forces fall in another grouping to be discussed later.
Superstructure elements, though, are affected by seismic forces in many
ways. We can, then, offer the following general overview concerning
earthquake loading.
The seismic analysis of highway bridges has become an involved task over
the years. Beginning with the 1971 San Fernando earthquake and
continuing with more recently, the1989 Loma Prieta earthquake, the
seismic design code has undergone extensive revisions, and expansion.
Because of the complex nature of seismic activity (and the lake of any
concrete methodology) the design provisions ,as set forth in codes like the
AASHTO specifications, are at best, a simplification of the actual physical
effects of an earthquake , and at worst , an approximation of what will
happen . As is the case with vehicular loading, the forces caused by
seismic activity are described as an idealization of those actually exerted.

An earthquake exerts forces on a bridge that are defined as a function of

the following factors:

^Y Dead weight of the structure

^Y Ground motion (acceleration) determined from seismic
contour maps or site specific coefficient
^Y Period of vibration
^Y Type of soil present ( soil profile type, response
characteristic of the structure)

This may lead to one of the following types of analysis to determine the
elastic forces and displacements:

ëY Uniform load method ( i.e. equivalent static method of

analysis, which uses uniform lateral load to
approximate the effect of seismic loads)

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 Sana͛a University
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PROGRESS REREPORT Nō 2 Department of Civil Engineering
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AL-Malyiah Intersection Design January 2009 ñ



ñ 
 

Design of Prestressed Concrete Overpass
FINAL YEAR PROJECT  x
x 

›   P a g e | 

ëY Single mode spectral analysis

ëY Multi-load spectral analysis
ëY Time history analysis

These factors are used to determine the response of the bridge to an

assumed uniform loading on the structure. This response takes the form
of an equivalent static earthquake loading which is applied to the
structure to calculate forces and displacements on bridge on bridge
elements. The AASHTO specifications provide two methodologies for
calculating this loading. The method used is dependent on whether the
bridge is single span or multispan and the geometric characteristics of the
structure. Since single span structures can be considered to be extremely
stiff and their ability to withstand earthquake is deemed adequate,
AASHTO decided to segregate their analysis from bridges with two or
more spans.
The analysis of multispan bridges varies depending on the type of
geometry present and the degree of seismic activity at the bridge site.

The so-called regular bridge is those with consistent and similar

superstructure cross sections and intermediate support structures (piers).
The degree of seismic activity is based on the acceleration coefficient at
the bridge site. The acceleration coefficient is a dimensionless constant
used to describe ground motion. Bridges with an acceleration coefficient
greater than 0.19 are considered to be in an area of high seismic activity.
This coefficient, along with whether the bridge is classified as essential or
not, is used to assign the bridge a seismic performance category (SPC).

Based on the SPC and the number of spans, one of two different analysis
methods is chosen to calculate the loading on the bridge due to
earthquake forces. The two methods of analysis used are:

Y Single-mode spectral analysis

Y Multimode spectral analysis

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 Sana͛a University
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PROGRESS REREPORT Nō 2 Department of Civil Engineering
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AL-Malyiah Intersection Design January 2009 ñ



ñ 
 

Design of Prestressed Concrete Overpass
FINAL YEAR PROJECT  x
x 

›   P a g e | 

In general, regular bridge in areas of low seismic activity utilize the less
involved single-mode analysis method , while irregular bridges in high
seismic risk locations require the multimode spectral analysis approach.
The former can be performed using conventional hand calculation
methods, but the latter demands more rigorous computer-aided
solutions.

x

 

Like earthquake loading, wind loading offers a complicated set of loading
conditions which must be idealized in order to provide a workable design.
Although the problem of modeling of wind forces is a dynamic one, with
winds acting over a given time interval, these forces can be approximated
as a static load being uniformly distributed over the exposed region of a
bridge.

The exposed region of the bridge is taken as the aggregate surface areas
of all elements (both superstructure and substructure) as seen in
elevation (i.e. perpendicular to the longitudinal axis). The loading on a
bridge due to wind forces is specified by AASHTO based on an assumed
wind velocity of 160 kilometer per hour.

For conventional girder/beam type bridges this translates into an intensity

of 2.39 KN/m2 with the minimum total force being 4.38 KN/m.

According to AASHTO 3.15.2.1.3

For the usual girder and slab bridges having maximum span length of 125
ft (38 m), the following wind loading may be used.
Where in our case the span will not exceed 150 ft (45 m), therefore the
following wind loads can be used.

l
  6 

2.395 KN/m2 , Transverse

0.573 KN/m2 , Longitudinal
Both forces shall be applied simultaneously.

l
 
5


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AL-Malyiah Intersection Design January 2009 ñ



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Design of Prestressed Concrete Overpass
FINAL YEAR PROJECT  x
x 

›   P a g e | 

1.457 KN/m , Transverse

0.583 KN/m , Longitudinal.
Both forces shall be applied simultaneously.

› 2 

 6

Longitudinal forces results from vehicles braking or acceleration while on
a bridge. As a truck brakes, for example, the load of the vehicle is
transferred from the truck wheels to the bridge deck. AASHTO specifies
that 5 percent of the appropriate lane load along with the concentrated
force for moment (for all travel lanes going in the same direction).

This force is applied (1.8 m) above the top of deck surface. The effect of
longitudinal forces on the superstructure is inconsequential. Substructure
elements, however, are affected more significantly. In general, the more
stiff or rigid the structure, the more sever the effects of the longitudinal
forces will be‰

,& 2
 6

For structures on horizontal curves, the effect of centrifugal force must be

calculated. Centrifugal force from a vehicle may be introduced as a
horizontal transverse force assumed to exit only in conjunction with live
load. Like longitudinal loading, centrifugal loading simulates a vehicle
travelling along the bridge and in this instance, following a curvilinear
path. The force is applied (1.8 m) above the top of deck surface and is
defined as

C = 1.33 v2/(gr)

C = the centrifugal force in percent of live load truck loading

without impact
V = highway design speed in m/sec
G = gravitational acceleration = 9.81 m/sec2
R = radius of curvature in traffic lanes

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AL-Malyiah Intersection Design January 2009 ñ



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Design of Prestressed Concrete Overpass
FINAL YEAR PROJECT  x
x 

›   P a g e | ,

Rather than actual force, the value C above is percentage, similar to the 5
percent for longitudinal force, which is applied to the live load on the
structure. The percentage, multiplied by the live load, yields the force to
be applied 1.8 m over the deck surface. Unlike longitudinal force, though,
centrifugal forces are computed using truck loading rather than lane
loading. One standard design truck is placed in each design traffic lane
such that maximum stresses in the bridge are generated.

 6

In order to account for the dynamic effects of the sudden loading of a
vehicle onto a structure, an impact factor is used as multiplier for certain
structural elements. For basic dynamics, we know that a load move across
a member introduces larger stresses than one statically placed on it.
While actual modeling of this effect can be complex affair, the impact
factor allows for a conservative idealization of the problem. AASHTO
defines the impact factor as follow (AASHTO 3.8.2).

I = 15.24/(L+38)

I = impact factor, maximum 30% of live load

L= Span length in meters to create maximum stress

/&  6 


It is possible that during the erection of a structure, various members
come under loading conditions which are induced by construction
equipment or other types of loads. In situations where this is foreseen
during the design process, these loads should be taken into account and
the amount of load will depend mainly on the method of construction.

6$- #ñ" #!!$-.#!-›#$

Deformation is those loads induced by internal or external change in

material properties or member geometry. The effects of deformation
such as creep and shrinkage in concrete induces stresses on a member
outside of conventional dead and live loading. Response loads are those

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 Sana͛a University
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AL-Malyiah Intersection Design January 2009 ñ



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Design of Prestressed Concrete Overpass
FINAL YEAR PROJECT  x
x 

›   P a g e | 

loads created by the response of the structure to a given loading

condition. Settlement is an example of response load. The following is a
discussion of some of the principal deformation and response loads found
in bridge construction.

6&

Creep is the deformation of concrete caused by loads sustained over a
period of time. When a concrete member is initially loaded, it undergoes
an instantaneous strain and related deformation. If the load is sustained
over a period of time (as a deck resting on a concrete girder), a creep
strain, roughly 1.5 to 3 times and the magnitude of the instantaneous
strain will be induced.

Another factor which affects creep is the percent of humidity on the day
the concrete was poured, the cross sectional dimensions, the cement
amount, water-cement ratio, cement type, and the aggregate content and
its modulus of elasticity. The less the moisture present, the more the
creep in concrete. Therefore, lower humidity percent value lead to more
excessive creep deformation which is the case in Sana͛a ; humidity values
will be checked from relative authority.

With respect to highway bridges, creep can cause changes in the physical
length of concrete members. This deformation can lead to problems with
bearing alignment and superstructure stability. The ACI Code instructs
designers to make a ͞realistic assessment͟ of the effects of creep. This
assessment is taken into account when computing the ultimate strength
of concrete element.

Concrete will continue to deform over an extended period of time. In

addition to deformation, another adverse effect of sustained load (which
is the case of prestressed concrete) on a concrete element is a reduction
in overall concrete strength. One way of counteracting the effects of
creep is to simply use a higher strength concrete

It is generally preferable to design creep sensitive structures so that, to a

certain degree, they become self adjusting, e.g. by transforming statically
determinate structures into statically indeterminate structures, or by
using prestressing to bring the line of thrust to coincide as closely as

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AL-Malyiah Intersection Design January 2009 ñ



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Design of Prestressed Concrete Overpass
FINAL YEAR PROJECT  x
x 

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possible with the mechanical axis of the element i.e. the line through the
center of gravity.

6
2

Although creep is related to shrinkage, the two types of deformation are
separate phenomena. Shrinkage is the natural which is not related to
loading of a member. When shrinkage takes place, the concrete volume
generally decreases (shrinks). This is usually caused by a moisture loss
while drying. Therefore, like creep, shrinkage is sensitive to the humidity
condition of the air. In general, concrete will shrink or contract when
there is

Y Loss of moisture

Y Hardeneing

Shrinkage will thus be taking place at the same time as the effects of
creep are being to be noticed. Reinforcement is added perpendicular to
the main reinforcement to account for tensile stresses induced by
shrinkage. Another way of limiting the effect of shrinkage is to make sure
that concrete is properly poured. "    
2  9
 2 
 6 2  61  6 6 
     
   : 6;   : 
;  2
. The concrete
should then be kept moist during curing, allowing for a slow cure that will
minimize contraction of the concrete. To be sure, there is no way of
completely eliminate shrinkage, but proper attention will limit its effect.

If not properly controlled, shrinkage can lead to cracking in conventional

concrete elements. In prestressed concrete, shrinkage can even lead to
loss of priestess in a member.

6


The downward movement of a footing, approach pavement, or structure
due to deformation and/or changes in the soil properties is known as
settlement, settlement can be initiated by a number of factors which
include, but are not limited to

Dr. Eng. : 
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 Sana͛a University
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AL-Malyiah Intersection Design January 2009 ñ



ñ 
 

Design of Prestressed Concrete Overpass
FINAL YEAR PROJECT  x
x 

›   P a g e | 4

^Y Overloading the earth at the site

^Y Lowering the water table
^Y Vibration from live loads or seismic loads
^Y Loading embankments
^Y Changes in soil properties

With regard with the latter item above, the shrinkage and swelling of soil
due to seasonal variations in moisture can lead to settlement problems.
Therefore, it is important that footing be located at the depth that is
unaffected by these functions.

Of particular concern to the bridge engineer are differential settlements

where a foundation will move downward in an uneven fashion. Such
settlement can result in cracking of substructure elements and instability
in superstructure joints and support points. In extreme cases of
differential settlement, entire component such as abutment can be titled
over. When settlement occurs in a consistent or uniform fashion the
effects are often less sever.

6"

 6

The effects of thermal forces on a structure are significant and should not
be underestimated. In general, thermal forces are caused by fluctuations
in temperature (i.e. from hot to cold or cold to hot). AASHTO provides
recommended temperature ranges for the design of concrete structures
AASHTO 3.16

"

& 6 6 6  2

  

ñ  -1½C 4.5½C

&
 1.6½C 7.2½C

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 Sana͛a University
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AL-Malyiah Intersection Design January 2009 ñ



ñ 
 

Design of Prestressed Concrete Overpass
FINAL YEAR PROJECT  x
x 

›   P a g e | 

Of course, the change in temperature is greatly dependent on the location

of the bridge site. As a reference point, the estimated temperature at the
time of construction is determined using temperature rise and fall values
which are computed from the extreme hot and cold temperature. Values
of temperature will be determined from the relative authority.

Like the adverse effect which result from uneven settlement, structures
can suffer from uneven temperature distribution. This means that, if one
side of the structure is continuously exposed to the sun while the other
side is shaded, the differential in temperature can cause high thermal
forces. These forces generally have the most impact on bearings and deck
joints.

A change in temperature can also affect concrete in manner similar to

shrinkage. When there is a decrease in temperature compared to the
temperature when the concrete element was poured, a deformation
similar to that found in shrinkage takes place. When concrete contracts,
temperature stresses are introduced into the element.

A related, and more sever, problem for concrete is when there are
repeated sudden changes in temperature. Numerous such cycles cause
the concrete to repeatedly expand and contract, further increasing
temperature stresses.

Temperature stresses are tensile stresses. Since concrete is deficient in

handling tension, theses stresses are likely to cause cracks to form. To
account for this,   6   5  
 6 6

 This reinforcement is laid orthogonally to the main
reinforcement.

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AL-Malyiah Intersection Design January 2009 ñ



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Design of Prestressed Concrete Overpass
FINAL YEAR PROJECT  x
x 

›   P a g e | 



6

ëY AASHTO, (1996) Standard Specification For Highway Bridge Design,
16th edition, AASHTO, Washington, DC.
ëY Demetrios E. Tonias, P.E. 1994 . ͞Design, Rehabilitation, and
Maintenance of Modern Highway Bridge.
ëY Paul E. Mondorf 2006, ͞Concrete Bridges͟.
ëY Richard M. Baker, Jay A. Puckett 2007. ͞ Design of Highway Bridge
an LRFD Approach͟.

Dr. Eng. : 
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