THE

POSITION
OF WOMEN
IN ISLAM

Hamdun Dagher

LIGHT OF LIFE. VILLACH. AUSTRIA

 Table of Contents
Introduction 5

1. Women in the Qur'an 7

2. The Status of Women 10

3. Women's Image in Arabic Literature 21

4. Marriage .......•......................•.... 26

5. The Rights a Man Acquires over his Wife 28

6. The Rights a Woman Acquires over her Husband. 36

7. The Importance of Marriage in Islam 38

8. The Importance of Marriage from the Viewpoint

of the Jurists 42

9. Marriage from the Viewpoint of the Sufis 45

10. The Characteristics of an Ideal Wife 50

11. The Marriage Contract in the Islamic Sharia 57

All Rights Reserved 12. Polygamy 62

Order Number: VB 5405 E
13. Marriage of Enjoyment 71
German title: Die Stellung der Frau im Islam
English title: The Position of Women in Islam 14. Divorce 79
Arabic title: r....~1 .) 11)1 .IS:.
1st Gennan edition: 1994; 1st English edition: 1995
15. The Women's Portion of the Inheritance 84
Light of Life. P.O. Box 13.A-9503 VILLACH.AUSTRIA 16. The Legal Testimony of Women 90

17. The Position of Concubines in Islam 95

- 3-
 Table of Contents
18. How a Man Should Discipline his Wife
19. Women in Hell and Paradise .............•.. 109
20. The Veil
21. The Circumcision of Girls
22. Subordination of the Woman to her Husband
in the Religious Rites .......••........... 126
23. The Prophet Muhammad and his Wives
24. Muhammad's Wives in the Order in Which
They Were Married to him
25. Muhammad's Wives in the Books of AI-Sira
26. Muhammad's Further Attempts to Marry
27. The Story of Muhammad's Marriage to
Zainab Bint Jahsh as the Qur)an Expositors
Treat it
28. Muhammad's Marriage with the Mothers
of the Believers in Islamic Polemics
Conclusion
Bibliography
Quiz
99
Introduction
113 Woman's status in Islam is one of the most controversial
and serious issues of our time, not only among Muslim
123 women and those who represent them in the area of
women's rights in the Islamic world, but also among
fundamentalist Muslims. The reader may find himself
confused owing to the large number of books that treat
129 this subject, for the most part, superficially and partially.
Some cover Islam's achievements for the woman,1
133 maintaining that it was Islam that gave the woman her
rights and honour,2 while others blame all the disadvan-
137 tages in the position of Muslim women on Islam. 3
160
Since in this book we mean by Islam what the Qur)an and
Hadith say, we want to treat the woman's position
primarily in these two sources. What rights has Islam
169 given to the woman, and what disadvantages has it
brought her? Some commentaries of consequence will
also be reviewed. We will also cite the opinions of older
183
theologians and jurists (experts on Sharia), and the
195 . comments of the contemporary fundamentalists and their
attitudes toward the western and eastern critics who
198 uphold the issue of women's rights.
206
As will be made clear in the following chapters, it will not
be possible to cite the Qur)anic references when treating
the woman's position in the Sharia (Islamic law). The
Qur)an often remains silent when it comes to certain
topics, even if the topics have to do with the heart of the
- 5-
 Introduction
4
Sharia. There are also matters that the Qur)an touches
upon without describing them in detail. 5
***
1- OaslmAmln, Tahrira/-mapa(Calro, 1928), p.g. Muhammad Rashid Ridha, Nidali
aljlnss/-latif(Cairo, 1932), p.111. Muhammad (All al-Sabuni, Tsfslraysfs!-Qu'rsn
(Beirut, 1981).2:52.53,169-174. Muhammad Husain Halksl, Hayatuu Muham-
med, 171h ed. (Cairo, 1986). p.336. Abbas Mahmud al-Aqqad, a~Mar'a "a~
Qur'an (Beirut, 1985), p.12. Many contamporary writers dapend on superfiaal
comparisons between the legislations the Islamic Shana Instituted and the
position of the woman in the pre-Islamic times, orbetween the Islamic Shana and
the Roman law as a proof that the woman's position In Islam is much better than
under Ihose regimes or laws (Subhl Sal/h, a!-Nuzum aJ./sfamiyys (BeillJ~ 1965),
p.51. SayyidAmir (Ali, TheSpiritofislam{Delhi, n.d.), p.222. Muhammad Husain
Halkal, p.354. (Abdalla Shihata, al-Da(wa sl-islamlyya W8 sUtlsm sl-dini (Cairo,
1978), p.130).
2- Subhl Salih, p.442.
3- The c1esslc axample of the mistakes Ihat rasult from the lack of knowladge of
Islam In this respect Is a book by John Laffin entitled Dagger ofIslam where the
author mentions female circumcision as a command given by the Ouran, yet the
auran does not even suggest that there was male circumcision!
4- Female circumcision as practised In some Islamic counbies Is agood example of
this.
5- A1mostall subjects cited from the Ouran fall In this category. Thus, a Muslim must
check Muhammad's sayings, which have been narrated orally and written down
from Ihe beginning of thelhlrd century AH., to kno'.v what Ihe Quran definitely
meant. "Is worthy of nota Ihat Ihe jurists and Ihe ne,rators of Hadllh have sifted
and modified the Hadith according to circumstances {Ignaz Goldziher,
Vorlesungen Obe, den Islam (Heidelbarg, 1910), p.4Of, 102,240).
- 6-
chapter one
Women in the Qur'an
Woman appears in the Qur)an in three aspects:
Rrst: As a biological and social being. Second: as a
believer. Third: as a character in the biblical salvation
narrative. 1
Apart from the wife of Muhammad's uncle Abu Lahab,
and Zainab, one of Muhammad's wives to whom the
Qur)an alluded, 2 the Virgin Mary is the most important
female character in the Qur)an. The nineteenth sura of
the Qur)an is named after her, the only female name the
Qur)an mentions. The other women whose stories are
narrated in the Qur)an are never mentioned by name,
rather they were called the wives of their respective
husbands. Among them are: Eve,3 the wife of Imran (Sura
AI Imran 3:35), the wife of the governor (Sura Yusuf
12:30), Pharaoh's wife (Sura al-Qasas 28:9), Lot's wife
(Sura al-Tahrim 66:10), Abraham's wife (Sura Hud
11:71), and Noah's wife (Sura al-Tahrim 66:10).
What the Qur)an says about the woman as a biological
social being can be considered objective, not diminishing
any of her rights, though the prevailing theme in this
respect is "Men are the managers of women for that God
has preferred in bounty one of them over another, and for
that they have expended of their property" (Sura al-Nisa)
4:34). The Qur)an pictures Mary's mother as being
disappointed over the fact that she gave birth to a
"female": "Lord, I have given birth to her, a female-
-7-
 Women in the Qur'on
(And God knew very well what she had given birth to; the
male is not as the female)-" (Sura AI Imran 3:36). We
find in such Qur'anic verses Muhammad's attempt to
project the Bedouin concept of the woman onto a biblical
episode. 4
As concems creation, no distinction in rank is found
between man and woman. According to Islam, Adam was
the first man, as the Bible also says, "He has created
the two kinds, male and female" (Sura al-Najm 53:45),
and "0 mankind, We have created you a male and
female, and appointed you races and tribes,.that you may
know one another" (Sura al-Hujurat 49:13). God
addresses His commands, interdictions and statutes to
both sexes. 5
After this brief treatment of the woman as a biological
social being and as a character in the Qur)anic stories,
we would like to study woman as a believer in the Qur)an.
The Qur'anic verses dealing with woman as a believer
constitute the basic element and foundation for her
legislative and social position. As we shall see in the
following chapters, this subject can be grasped by
studying woman's status in comparison with' man's in
marriage, divorce, witnessing, inheritance, veiledness,
and concubinage. Inequality between man and woman, at
the expense of the woman, stands out clearly in these
chapters, in spite ofthe attempts of zealous Muslims and
European orientalists to explain the texts away. These
attempts have often lead to the opposite of what the
Qur)an means and what the ordinary Muslim under-
stands. 6 We will cite, whenever there are grounds, the
- 8-
Women in the Qur'on
opinions of the theologians and jurists who soften the
meaning of both the Qur)an and the Hadith.
Those concerned with the Qur)an and those who read it
know well that the jUdgments mentioned in it concerning
women form a good part of it. As it is known, the fourth
sura is called "Women", and is one of the longer suras.
But before looking into the legislative position of women,
we would like to touch once again on the status of women
in relation to men.
***
1- Johann Christoph SOrgol, Allmtroht und Mi!lchtlgkoft 1m Islam (MOnchon, 1991),
p.286.
2- In Sura al-Masad 111 (which is also called the Sura of Abu Lahab) Abu Lahab
and his wife are cursed. There Is a reference to ZSlnab in Sura ai-Tahrim 66:2.
3- She has been known in literature as "Hawwa" (that is Eve), but the Qur)an calls
her "Adam's wife" (Suras al-Baqara 2:35, al-A(raf 7:19, Ta Ha 20:117).
4· This problem is encountered In the Qur)anlc verses that some orientallsts call
"sections of the history of salvation". Muhammad never intended to let his
companions know about the history of the prophets in an objective way, since he
searched the stories of the prophets looking for himself, his private affairs and
circumstances, and found them (Rudi Paret, Muhammad und der Quran
(Stuttgart, 1985), p.l00).
5- Suras al-Tawba 9:71,72; al-Ahzab 33:35; and al-Buruj 85:10. Since the Qurlan
Imposes devotional commandments on both male and female, some
contemporary scholars claim that Islam put men and women on the same
footing (Mahmud Shaltut, al·lslam 'aqida wa shari(a (Beirut, 1990), p.12).
6- The following verse can be cited as an example: "And those you fear may be
rebellious admonish; banish them to their couches, and [even] beat them" (Sura
al-Nisa l 4:34). Some contemporary scholars allege that the context of the verse
indicates that "beating" is the final means of disciplining and chastising the
rebellious wife (Muhammad Rashid Ridha, al-Manar, 5:63. Mahmud Shaltut, a~
Islam caqida washari(a, p.164).
- 9-

chapter two
The Status of Women
There is no Qur)anic distinction between the Muslim and
the non-Muslim woman in terms of her status as a
biological social being since men are, on principle, in
charge of women, and the male is not like the female
(Sura AI Imran 3:36). One can understand the prevailing
mentality at the time with the aid of the Qur1anic
criticisms of the habits of the Meccan idolaters: "Have
you considered al-Lat and al-Uzza, and Manat the third,
the other? What, have you males, and He females? That
were then an unjust divisionl" (Sura al-Najm 53:19-22).
The Qur1an, which condemns the Arab's live burial of
girls, conveys to us, at the same time, the prevailing
conception of the woman at that time: "And when any of
them is given the good tidings of a girl, his face is
darkened and he chokes inwardly, as he hides him from
the people because of the evil of the good tidings that
have been given unto him, whether he shall preserve it in
humiliation, or trample it into the dust" (Sura al-Nahl
16:48,59).
If we accept what the Qur1an said about the woman in the
pre-Islamic era and what the Muslim historians recorded
(trying their best to prove that Islam improved the position
of the woman and promoted her from the bottom of the
pit to an honourable life), we must admit that Islam was
unable to realise a reformation in this arena, for the
simple reason that the same conceptions of women still
persist in most Islamic countries today. One of the most
-10 -
7Jle Stat"" of Women
important reasons for this phenomenon was the prag-
matic approach that Muhammad followed, which adopted
even the pre-Islamic (Jahill) traditions 1 to uphold his own
cause. His ultimate goal was not to establish a new moral
code, but to achieve a final triumph for the Shahada,
which states, "There is no god but Allah,. and
Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah," and to force
the Bedouins to recognise Allah's sovereignty over all the
gods.
As mentioned above, the most important Qur1anic verse
the jurists cite as proof of the claim that women are
inferior to men is: "Men are the managers of women for
that God has preferred in bounty one of them over
another, and for that they have expended of their
property" (Sura al-Nisa l 4:34). AI-Tabari says, "By this
God (may He be highly praised) means that men are in
charge of their women in chastising and restraining them
regarding their obligations for God and themselves. ,,2 He
makes further comments, which we will cite: "Ibn Abbas
narrated that he said, [Men] are commanders and [the
woman] has to obey him in all that God commands her to
obey him. Obedience to man is being good to his family."
AI-Dhahhak narrated: "Man is in charge of the woman
commanding her to obey God. If she refuses, he has [the
right] to give her a mild beating, and he had the
advantage over her on account of what he provides for
her and what he earns." AI-Suddi said, "They should
restrain and discipline them. ,,3
As to the reason why this verse was given, it is said that a
man struck a woman, and she came to the Prophet
-11-
 7he Status of Women
seeking punishment. The prophet passed his judgment
between them, and this verse was revealed, "And hasten
not with the Qur1an ere its revelation is accomplished
unto you" (Sura Ta Ha 20:114). The verse" Men are the
managers of women" (Sura al-Nisa l 4:34) was also
revealed. 4 Ibn Abbas says in a tradition that by "for that
God has preferred in bounty one of them over another,"
(Sura al-Nisa l 4:34) the Qur1an meant that "God
preferred men to women by the former's [sound] mind,
dividing of the portions in the booty and inheritance. ,,5
Muhammad (Abduh "the Reformer" (1905-1949), who
was known for his hostile attitude toward blind tradition,
has discovered new aspects of man's superiority over
women in this verse: "This superiority is based on two
factors; the one has to do with nature, while the other has
to do with earning. The natural one consists in the fact
that man's disposition is stronger, more accomplished,
complete, and beautiful. Perhaps it strikes you as odd
that man is more beautiful than woman. Beauty has to do
with the completeness and perfection of natural disposi·
tion. As far as his living body, man is nothing more than
an animal, for the physical nature of both is the same. We
see the males of all animals more accomplished and
more beautiful than the females, such as you see in the
rooster and the hen, the ram and the ewe, and the lion
and the lioness. The hair of the beard and the moustache
is of the characteristics of the perfection and beauty of
man's nature, therefore the hairless man is considered
imperfect in nature and wishes he could find a medicine
that would cause his hair to grow, even if he were used to
-12 -
7he Status of Women
shaving his beard. In consequence of this, men are
strong in character [disposition], perfect in nature, sound
in mind, and of sound judgement in the foundation and
end of everything. Doctors and scientists say, 'Sound in
body, sound in mind.' It follows then that men are perfect
in tasks having to do with earning, for they are more
capable of earning a living, inventing, and tackling affairs
of everyday life. For this reason they have been
commanded to stand above women, protect them, and
to carry the onus of general presidency in the milieu of the
domestic life of the family. For it is vital that every society
should have a president to whom people ought to refer in
the standardisation of public welfare.',6
Abbas Mahmud al-Aqqad (1889-1964), one of the most
renowned Arab men of letters in the twentieth century,
sets an enviable record in his attacks on women. He
says, "Woman has been engaged in preparing food since
mankind started cooking in pre-historic times. She has
learned it since childhood in the dwelling-places of the
family or the tribe. She likes food and craves for it. Yet
after she inherited this occupation for thousands of
years, she is still not as good at it as the man who
dedicates a few years to it. She keeps up with him neither
in the high quality of well-known dishes nor in innovating
new varieties of improved ones. She is unable to manage
a kitchen in which several females and males work
together. The same goes for the craft of embroidery and
tailoring, which are among the old-time crafts women
practised at home. Women rely on men to make their
clothing rather than on themselves." Women, as al-
-13 -
 The Status of Women
Aqqad claims, have no part in knowledge or scientific
thinking, even the well-known women in the field of
science could not attain any success but for the support
and guidance of the men, "The name of Madame Curie is
the first name that is mentioned by those who maintain
full equality of the two sexes. Even if it is true that this
lady matches first class male scientists, this will always
remain an undeniably rare exception. The truth about this
specific lady keeps her from being reckoned among the
exceptional cases in scientific researches, since she did
not work apart from her husband and since her work was
neither concerned with invention nor with innovation."?
As to hypocrisy and double-dealing, these are two
inherent characteristics of women: "Female hypocrisy,
which can be attributed to women especially, is due to a
certain weakness in womanhood that she abides by in
every society, and is not imposed on her by manners or
laws. She does not part company with it by choice or by
force- she may even refuse to do so if the choice was
hers... There is a major difference between man and
women in sexual intercourse- in most days of her period
the sexual desire is separated from the reproduction
instinct, whereas the sexual desire for man is never an
amusement.',8
This al-Aqqad who is viewed by many people in the east
and the west as a genius, believes that woman is a
necessary evil, and that she does not possess any talent
or virtue at all. "There are none among the estimable
ethics of women that are more characteristic of and
natural to her femininity than these three qualities:
-14 -
The Status of Women
bashfulness, compassion, and cleanliness. She depends
on these in her nature or in man's nature. This should
have been rather her practice in all the other qualities that
men mastered from old... The inborn compassion is not
fit for evaluating woman's mercy, since it has to do with
what the psychic forces and the power of conscience
enjoin on her. It is the comparison between women's and
man's compassion for the children of others that is fit as
a standard of evaluation. Man could be seen showing
compassion for his step-children as much as he does his
own, treating them equally even if it were out of courtesy
and consideration. Woman, however, behaves differently
in her treatment of her step-children; the children
sometimes do not escape torture, malevolence, deliber-
ate humiliation, and harm.',9 "The primary point of
reference regarding morals with women is sexual
restraint, which is an instinct that the female animals
have in common, and is not a willful act that
distinguishes mankind in particular. There are worlds of
difference between this sort of sexual restraint and the
virtue of bashfulness, which is regarded as a human
moral virtue.',10
Regarding the advantages man has over women, Ahmad
Shalabi says, "He is taller than she, his bones are
bigger, and she weighs less than he does. His muscles
are stronger, his brain is bigger than hers, and likewise
his heart.',11 The sayings of Muhammad concerning
women that could be culled from the Hadith do not speak
in her favour. There are traditions indicating that
Muhammad describes women as though they were
-15 -
 7Jle Status of Women
deficient in intelligence and understanding. Abu Sa(id al-
Jundi narrated: Once the Messenger of God went out to a
prayer place to offer the prayer of Greater Bairam or a
Lesser Bairam. Then he passed by the women and said,
"0 women! Give alms, as I have seen that the majority of
the dwellers of Hell-fire were you [women]." They asked,
"Why is it so, Messenger of God?" He replied, "You
curse frequently and are ungrateful to your husbands. I
have not seen anyone more deficient in intelligence and
religion than you. A cautious sensible man could be led
astray by some of you." The women asked, "What is
deficient in our intelligence and religion, Messenger of
God?" He answered, "Is not the evidence of two women
equal to the witness of one man?" They replied in the
affirmative. He said, "This is the deficiency in your
intelligence. Isn't it true that a woman can neither pray
nor fast during her menses?" The women replied in the
affirmative. "This is the deficiency in you religion," he
said. 12
In Islamic theological sources, it is put forward as an
evidence of the women's deficient intelligence that there
is none among them who was known for being knowl-
edgeable or a genius. "As to the deficiency of
intelligence, it is known that women have rarely minds
as good as men. Perfection and excellence are rarely and
exceptionally found among them. Women of reasoning
and good discretion are very few in number. Men of this
quality, however, are countless."13 The scholastic expert
of fiqh, who showed this magnificent proof of the
deficiency of women's minds, could have found the main
-16 -
7'fIe Status of Women
reason for this in the Hadith of Muhammad: "Do not let
[women] into all of the rooms, and do not teach them how
to write. Teach them to spin and recite Sura al-Nur. ,,14 Or
"Do not let your women live in rooms, do not teach them
how to write, and seek assistance against them.
Constantly tell them 'No', because 'Yes' tempts them
to ask a lot:,15
One who studies the sayings of Muhammad pertaining to
women cannot help but question why women were
created. "One woman, of 99 women, is in heaven, and
the rest of them are in Rre. ,,16 "Rre has been created for
the senseless, the women, except for the one who
obeyed her husband:,17 "Men perish when they obey
women."18 "Men are in a good state as long as they do
not obey women."19
Muhammad gives us another reason why men should fear
and beware of women: "Beware of women; the first
temptation among the Children of Israel was caused by
them;,,2o "I fear no temptation that would befall my
people but for the temptation of women and wine;,,21 and
"But for the woman, man could have entered para-
dise:,22
The woman has no right to behave as though she
possesses any authority or influence over her husband,
for Muhammad "forbade women to talk except by leave
of their husbands.,,23 Also "Women are not allowed to go
out except out of necessity, but for the occasion of the
two feasts: The Greater Bairam and the Lesser Bairam.
They are also not allowed to walk down the roads, but
-17 -
 The Status of Women
keep to the edges of the street."24 "Women are not
allowed to use the middle of the road.,,25 "Women are
not to be greeted nor to greet.' ,26 "A believing woman is
the same among women as a white-footed raven among
the ravens. Rre has been created for the senseless, and
women are the most senseless of all.',27 If the woman
wanted to clear herself of this charge, she had to serve
her husband. 28
In another tradition Muhammad described women as
"unclean" creatures. In a Hadith, Muhammad says,
"Three things corrupt prayer: Women, dogs, and don-
keys.',29 "The Messenger of God said, 'A man's prayer is
interrupted if a donkey, black dogs, and women pass by
him nearby.' 50 I said, What difference is there between
the red one, the yellow one, and the white one?' He said,
'My brother, I asked the Messenger of God just as you
asked me. He said, "The black dog is a devil.'" ,,30 In a
another tradition given by Ibn Abbas, the fire-worshipper,
the Jew, and the pig are listed alongside the woman as
things that corrupt prayer. The prayer of a Muslim is
corrupted if "they pass by him as far as a rock could be
thrown. ,,31
There are several sayings in which Muhammad reduced
women to the level of animals. "Woman is a vile
beast,,,32 and "I think that women were created for
nothing but eVil.',33It seems that the woman as a source
of mischief and evil omen is a rooted concept in
Muhammad's mind. This anti-female concept, which
goes back to the Jewish traditions,34 accompanies us
in all books of Hadith: "Bad omen is in three things:
-18 -
The Status of Women
horses, woman, and the home. ,,35 "'The woman has two
things to cover her: the grave and marriage.' It was asked,
Which of them is better?' He said, 'The grave.' ,,36
After all these traditions and stories, which make up a
small part of the copious Islamic traditions about women,
the words of Mahmud 5haltut seem to be pure mockery.
He says about the status of women in Islam, "It is a
status that the woman had not enjoyed in any divine law,
nor in any society that people set up for themselves.'037
He adds, "Islam has granted women all that is good, and
protected her from all that is evil. The only thing it denied
her was the liberty that false culture [namely, the western
culture] has pushed her into. That liberty causes the
westem woman, whenever she retreats to her human
conscience, to weep tears of blood over her forfeited
respect, misused honour, and lost happiness.',38
1- The religious duty of Pilgnmage with Its rltas, lor example, were pre-Islamic
traditions that Muhammad adopted and molded Into an Islamic loon (Theodor
Noldeke, Geschlchte des Korans (Leipzig, 1909), vol.1.,p.147. "Ka'ba", Shorter
Encyclopaedia 01 Islam (Lelden, 1974), p.192. W.M. Watt, Introduction to the
Qur'an (Edinburgh, 1990), p.1631).
2- Muhammad Ibn Jarir ai- Tabari, Jaml' af.bBY8n can taJwil aJ-Quran, ed. Mahmud
Muhammad Shakir (Cairo, 1968),5:57.
3- Ibid. 5:58.
4- Ibid. Also: "There might be among them someone andowed with (sound) mind
and opinion,justas there might be among Infantsand boys. Yet Itls very unlikely"
(Abu Mansur al-Tha'allbl, 7uhfat a/-wuzara' (Baghdad, 1977), p.93).
5- 'Ala' ai-Din 'Allibn Muhammad al-Khazin, Lubab a~te'wJl fl Ma'sni ~fsir, 2:344.
Abu Jalfar Muhammad Ibn aI-Hasan al-Tusi says that man's superiority [or
charge] over woman Is manifest in his Intelligence, understanding, and his
disciplining her (a~Tibyan, 3:199).
6- A1-Zlnkll, alA'/am (Bairut, 1910),6:252-253.
7· Muhammad RashId Ridha, al-Manar, 5:57. For more arguments, review Rldha's
answer to those who support women's rtghts: Nlda 1/ alilns a~/atlf. p.17-32.
8- Abbas Mahmud al-Aqqad, al-Mar'aflal-Qur'an, p.15,16. Muhammad Kurd 'All
stated similar thoughts before al-Aqqad, "Although the west has given women
-19 -
 The Status of Women
complete freedom in educated circles, there is no accomplished poetess,
eloquent writer, or a clever doctor among them until now" (quoted by (Abet al- chapter three
Wadud Shalabl, sJ-ls/am, p.233 from aJ.Islam wa sl-hadhara al-garblyya, 1:96).
9- Abbas Mahmud al-Aqqad, al-Ma~a flalqu~an, p.24. Women's Image in Arabic Literature
lCl- Ibid. p.38.
11- 'Abd al-Wadud Shalabl, af.lslam, p.42.
12· al-Bukhan, Hsidh 6; Muslim, Iman 132; Abu Oawud, Sunna15; al-T1nnldsl, Iman The conceptions of Muhammad and the experts of
6; Sunan Ibn Maja, Fitsn 19; Ahmad Ibn Hanbal, 2:67.
13- ai-Sharif al-Murladha, Rasa'lI (Beirut, n.d.), 3: 123. Islamic fiqh have influenced Arabic literature and shared
14- 'Ala' a!-Din Muttaqi al-Hindi, Kanz a,'ummal(Haldarabad, 1974),22:10.
15- Ibn Qutslba, 'Uyun a/-akhbar(Ca/ro, 1934-1949),4:78.
in the formation of an "imaginative" picture of woman in
16- Kanza/.Jummal. 22:10. literature. The reader may possibly ask if this topic is
17- ibid. 22:12.
18- ibid. 21:205. necessary. In fact, we are forced to quote what has been
19- Ibid. 21:205. written about women in the writings of the Arab men of
2Cl- Nlhayat a/Jarab (Beirut, n.d.), 2: 198.
21- Kanz al-rummal. letters, because they have not lost any of their popularity,
22-lbld. especially those that have been compiled during the
23- Ibid. 22:7.
24-lbld. Abbasid era and after. There is no escaping the study of
25- ibid. such literature if one wants to present a realistic picture
26-lbld.
27- Ahmad Ibn Hanbal, Musnad(Cairo, n.d.), 4:197,205. Kanza"ummal, 22:11. of women in Islam.
28- Kanz al-rummal, 22:12.
29- Muslim, Salat 265: Abu Oawud, Sa/at 109; al-Tlnnldsl, Salat 136, SaId 16; ai- Attributed to (Ali Ibn Abi Talib is the saying, "Woman is all
Nasa'I, Qlbla7; Ibn Maja,lqama38; Ahmad Ibn Hanbal, 5:139,151,156,158,160,
6: 157,280. It seems that A(isha did not like this saying, and she was persuaded evil; the most evil thing about her is that she is
that this fits the Imaginations of men rather than the way Muhammad used to indispensable.,,1 "As to the counsel of women, it is a
speak. She said, "How wicked of you to make us equal to the donkeys and the
dogs! Iused to sleep in front ofthe MessengerofGod, and my legs were opposite sign of the hour of doom. ,,2 "Woman is not in charge of
his Qibla. And in prostration he pushed my legs and I withdrew them" (Abu anything that goes beyond herself; for woman is a sweet
Oawud, sa/at 109; al-Bukharl, salat99; Muslim, Salat271; Ahmad Ibn Hanbal,
6:44,45,230,266). basil not a governess. She should not promise by her own
3Cl- Abu Oawud, sa/at 109; the Had/ths saying that the black dog Is a devil ara In honour, nor should you provoke her ambition by asking for
Muslim, salat 265; Abu Oawud, sa/at 109: al-Tlrmldsi, sa/at 136, Said 16; ai-
Nasa'l, Qlbla7: Ibn MaJa, Iqama, 38: Ahmad Ibn HanbaI5:149, 151,156,158,160,
the mediation of another [woman]. Never be jealous
6:157,280. where jealousy is not proper. ,,3 AI-Jahiz (d. 868) holds the
31- Abu Oawud, salat 109.
32- Muslim, salat 269. same view as Muhammad regarding the deficiency of
33- Ahmad Ibn Hanbal, 6:86. women's intelligence as he says, "We have seen
34- William E.H. Lecky, History of European Morals (London, 1869), vol.2, p.301.
35- al-Bukharl, Jihad 47, Nlkah 17, Tlbb43; Muslim, Salam 115-120; Abu Oawud, women; they are weaker in mind than men, while children
Tlbb24; al-Tinnldsi, Adab58; ai-Nasal, Khall5; Ibn Maja, Nlkah55; al-Muwatta', are weaker in mind than they are. They are also more
Istl'dsan 22; Ahmad Ibn Hanbal, 8:36,115,126.
36- Kanz al-rumma/, 22:12. stingy than women, and women are the weaker in mind in
37- Mahmud Shaltut, al-lslam (aqida wa Sharlra, p.218.
38- ibid. p.219.
comparison with men. We do not know of anyone who is
more wicked than a child: he is the worst liar, the worst
- 20- - 21-
 Women'.I11KJRe in Arabic Literature
gossip, the most evil of mankind, the least in doing good
and the most cruel of all.,,4 The Ummayad poet al-
Farazdaq compares women to serpents. He says,
They are amiable with their husbands
when they withdraw;
When they go out, they are like snakes. 5
In al-Bayan wa al-tabyin, women are mentioned in the
same section as imbeciles, mentally handicapped, and
children. 6 Ibn (Abd Rabbih quotes the following verses
from (Ubada, considered to be the one who knew the
most about women:
Ask me about women for I am knowledgeable
And a doctor of the maladies that women cause.
If a man's hair grows gray,
or if his money decreases,
He will have no part in their love.
They desire wealth wherever it is found,
And the prime of youth is irresistible for them. 7
Ibn (Abd Rabbih is not satisfied with quoting the poems
and tales of the Arabs, he also quotes from the proverbs
of the prophets: "In the wisdom of David, peace be on
him, it is said, 'I found among men one in a thousand, but
I found none among all women.' ,,8 Yet, despite her
deceit, unfaithfulness, and other reproachful qualities,
women "and especially concubines", are a property that
man cannot do without. In describing the ideal concubine,
Caliph (Abd ai-Malik Ibn Marwan (685-705 A.D.) said, "If
you want one for pleasure, take a Berber woman, for
bearing children take a Persian woman, if you need one
- 22-
Women'.I11KJRe in Arabic Literature
for service take a Christian woman [" rumiwa": also, a
Byzantine woman].9 We know also from the proverbs of
literary writers that woman increases in evil in her old
age, "They said that the end of man's life is better than
its beginning; his patience increases, his resistance [to
temptation] becomes stronger, his flame dies down, and
his trade is made perfect. The end of women's life,
though, is worse than its beginning; her beauty vanishes,
her womb grows barren, and her morals deteriorate.',10
As to her beauty, it is said, "A fair handmaid is coloured
by the colour of the sun; in forenoon she is pale, and in
the evening she is yellow.',l1 "Yet, mere beauty is not
enough; she must also be smiling and patient, proud
among her own folk and humble with her husband, and
fruitful.,,12 "When someone wants to have a strong child,
he should make her angry, and then have sex with her.,,13
So far we have examined the contents of old books that
deal with women. It is natural to assume that Muslim
scholars and writers nowadays hold other standards and
conceptions about the "gentle sex", but the reality is
disappointing. Abbas Mahmud al-Aqqad, who cannot be
relegated to the fundamentalist circles, is considered an
extremist in attacking and despising women. AI~Aqqad
claims that his warped opinions of women are backed up
by modern sciences, and he quotes Christian Ehrenfels'
apology for polygamy: "Polygamy is necessary for the
preservation of the Aryan stoCk.',14 AI-Aqqad's opinion
about women will be quoted in the coming chapter~, but
for now we will give al-Aqqad's "philosophical" analysis
of the phenomenon of immodesty amongst women:
- 23-
 Women'.lmtl1le in Arabic Literature
"This modesty, which is enjoined on woman by morals,
exists in women in proportion to how she feels about her
husband and how he sees her. If women gather together
far away from the eyes of men, they forget about modesty.
Then they care for nothing that they would usually observe
while they are still in the presence of men. The woman
does not cover herself in the [public] bath, unless she
has a defect or for fear that her peers and companions
should compete with her.,,15
Now if we overlook the romances included in classical
Arabic literature in which women appear perfectly equal to
their lovers or husbands, we find that both classical and
modern writers have a very negative picture of women.
This discreditable and troubling issue has been criticised
by the Islamic thinker Jamal ai-Din ai-Afghani (1838-1897
A.D.). The Egyptian writer Qasim Amin, who dedicated the
better part of his life to the struggle against the wrong
done to women, agreed. The issue of women, as Qasim
Amin viewed it, was an issue of civilisation and a social
problem that needed to be solved, otherwise any
progress in the Egyptian society would only be an
unattainable dream. He said, "Women are equal to
men, their miserable conditions are due to the injustice of
men, who never gave them the chance to act in freedom
and in the spirit of responsibility, but rather forced
absolute ignorance upon them by all sorts of means."16
The root of this injustice is the ignorance of Muslim
scholars of the nature of women. "It is so strange that
scholars have outstripped one another in binding and
fettering women through all the inhuman laws and
- 24-
Women'.lmOlle in Arabic Literature
ordinances they could imagine, as though she were a
devil to be locked up. If fact, they were shamefully
ignorant of her circumstances.,,17
1- Nshj sf.bslsghs, with comments by Muhammad 'Abduh (Cairo, n.d.), 3:206.
2- Shams ai-Din a1-Sarakhsl, Mab af.Mabsut(Belrut, 1986),4:192.
3- Ibid. 3:63. This sayln9 is attributed also to Ibn al-Muqaffa' ('Uyuna/-akhbsr, 4:78).
4- Rssa'il aI-Jahlz(Csiro, 1864), 1:198.
5- 'Uyun s/-akhbsr, 4:4.
S. Abu cAmr al-Jahiz, a~Bayan wa a~tabyln, ed. cAbd al-$alam Harun (Cairo, 1989),
2:244.
7- Ibn 'Abd Rabbih, al-'Iqd a1-farid, ed. Muhammad Sa'id al-Azyan (Cairo, n.d.),
8- ibid. 7: 119, In the chapter "The Deceit and Unfaithfulness of Women."
9- Ibid. 7:96.
1<1· ibid. 7: 106, in the chapter 51fat almar'a a/-su' ("Characteristics of an Evil
Woman"l)
11- Ibid. 7:109.
12- Ibid.
13-lbld.7:110.
14- Abbas Muhammad al-Aqqad, al-Mar'a fi af.Qur'an, p.88. The writer does not tell
us when and where that western writer expressed this call to adopt polygamy.
15- Ibid. p.38.
16- Oaslm Amln, al-Mar'a al-jadlds (Cairo, 1987), p.4S. The most Important book
written by Qaslm Amln on the Issue of women was Tahrfr al-mara (The Liberation
o(Women), which was published in 1891 In Cairo.
17- Qasim Amln, aJ.Mar'a aljadida, p.54 ft.
- 25-

chapter four
Marriage
The Qur)an uses two words to designate the marriage
contract: zawaj (meaning marriage) and nikah (meaning
wedlock). The word nikah is the most frequently used one
in the Sharia. It denotes four things in the Qur1an,
according to the experts of Islamic fiqh: marriage, sexual
intercourse, bestowal, and marriageable age. As to the
first meaning, the Qur1an says, "Do not marry idola-
tresses until they believe" (Sura al-Baqara 2:221). The
same meaning is found in Sura al-Nisa l 4:25, where it
says, "So marry them, with their people's leave," and
Sura al-Nisa) 4:3, "Marry such women as seem good to
you ..... Also in Sura al-Nur 24:3, "A fornicator may only
marry a fornicatress."
The second meaning of the word nikah, which is sexual
intercourse, occurs in Sura al-Baqara 2:230, "Until she
marries another husband:' In this verse the actual sexual
intercourse between husband and wife is meant.
The third meaning, marriage of bestowal, is found in Sura
al-Ahzab 33:50, "And any woman believer, if she give
herself to the Prophet, and if the Prophet desire to take
her in marriage, for thee exclusively, apart from the
believers:' This sort of bestowal is lawful only for the
Prophet.
The fourth meaning, marriageable age, is in Sura al-Nisa l
4:6, "Test well the orphans, until they reach they reach
the age of marrying:,1
- 26-
Marriage
Jurists are in unanimous agreement on the fact that nikah
means sexual intercourse and that it is used to denote
the marriage contract as a figure of speech because the
marriage contract is the legal means for having
intercourse. 2 Nikah is permissible only after the marriage
contract, concluded between the bridegroom and the
bride (al-(aqidan), and the bride's guardian in the
presence of at least two witnesses. Nikah has two
elements without which it cannot be fulfilled: the first is
aPijab (response), which is the utterance coming from
the guardian or his substitute, and the second is qubul
(consent), which is the utterance coming from the
husband or his proxy. Then the husband has to pay a
bridal gift and a marriage portion. 3 The consent of the
bride's guardian is essential for making the marriage
contract legal, because "Wedlock cannot be concluded
except through a guardian... 4 The subject of the marriage
contract will be treated in detail later on. Marriage is not a
sacrament in Islam as it is in the Catholic church; rather it
is a solemn agreement or binding compact that should
not be tampered with. The Qur1an says, "You have had
intercourse with each other, and they have made a
solemn agreement with you" (Sura al-Nisa l 4:21).
Wedlock in Islam is based on civil contract, which need
not be recorded in writing. S
1- al-Damighanl, Is/ah al-wujuh wa alnaza'ir" al-Quran, p.46S.
2- al-5arakhsl.4:192.
3- W. Juynboli. Handbuch des Islamischan G..etzes (leipzig, 1910). p.14. 'Ala' al-
Oin Abu Bakr al·Kasanl, Kftob bada'," a!-sana'I'" tartlb a!-shara'I' (Beirut, 1986).
2:229.
4- Abu Dawud, Nikah 26.
5- Wiebke Waller, De' Islam (Stuttgart, 1991), p.102.
- 27-

chapter five
The Rights a Man
Acquires over his Wife
Jurists have dealt with the rights of husbands and wives
over each other and emphasised the rights of the
husband over her wife. Evidence of this fact is the
statement of al-Shafi (i: "Wedlock is a sort of bondage
[slavery]." She is his slave. A wife ought to obey her
husband absolutely in everything he asks of her concern-
ing herself, provided it does not entail disobedience to
God. 1 There are Hadiths supporting this position: "God
does not regard a woman who does not thank her
husband, since she cannot do without him.',2 "It is not
permissible that humans should bow down before
humans. If humans were permitted to bow down before
humans, the wife would have been commanded to bow
down before her husband because of his great right over
her.,,3 (A)isha narrated: "I asked the Prophet, Who
among people has the greatest right over the woman?'
He answered, 'Her husband.' I asked, Who has the
greatest right over the man?' He answered, 'His
mother.' ,,4 In Ihya) (ulum al-din, we read, "There was
once a certain man who set out on a journey after having
covenanted with his wife that she should not come down
from upstairs to downstairs. Her father was downstairs.
When he fell ill, the woman sent for the Messenger of God
asking his permission to go down to see her father. The
Messenger of God said, 'Obey your husband.' The father
died. She tried again to get permission from him to see
- 28-
The Rights of a Man
her father, but he said again, 'Obey your husbar:ld.' Her
father was buried. The Messenger of God sent a message
to her that her father was forgiven on account of her
obedience to her husband. ,,5 In al-Ghazzali's opinion, the
obedience of the wife to her husband is one of the pillars
of faith. "If the woman performs her five [prayers], fasts
her month, keeps her genitalia [remains chaste] and
obeys her husband, she enters the heaven of her Lord."s
AI-Ghazzali attributes this narrative to Muhammad. In
another narrative, (Alisha said, quoting Muhammad, "A
girl asked the Messenger of God, '0 Messenger of God,
what right does a husband have over his wife?' He said,
'If he was covered from the parting [of his hair] to the
bottom of his feet with matter [or pus], and she licked
him, she still has not thanked him enough.' ,,7 Ibn Abbas
narrated, "A woman from Khath(am came to the Prophet
of God, and asked him, saying, 'I am not a virgin, and I
want to be married off. What is the right of the husband
[over the wife]?' He answered, 'The right a husband
acquires over the wife is that she should not keep herself
away from him [even] if they were on the back of a camel
and he desired her and tried to take her. It is his right that
she should not give anything belonging to his house
except by his permission; if she does so [without his
permission], she will be guilty and he will get the reward.
It is his right also that she should not fast voluntarily
except by his permission; and if she fasts and goes
hungry and thirsty, it will not be accepted of her. If she
goes out from his house without his permission, the
angels curse her till she comes back to his house or
repents.' ,,8 In a weak tradition Muhammad is said to
- 29-
 The Rights of a Man
have stated that "the woman is nearest to her Lord's
Face when she is in the innermost part of her home. Her
prayer in the courtyard of her house is better than her
prayer in the mosque, and her prayer in her ho'me is better
than her prayer in the courtyard of her house, and her
prayer in her chamber is even better than her prayer in her
home."g
Perhaps this stress on keeping the woman confined to
her chamber stems from the statement of the Prophet of
Islam: "The woman has ten nakednesses; when she
marries the husband covers one nakedness, and when
she dies the grave covers all ten of them. ,,10
AI-Ghazzali lists the rights a husband acquires over his
wife as follows:
The rights a husband acquires over his wife are
numerous. The most important are two: The first is
protection and covering, and the second one is
desisting from demanding anything that is beyond
the needful, and refraining from what he earns if it
were from an unlawful source. This was the way of
women in the past. When a man would go out of his
home, his wife and daughter would say to him,
"Beware of ill-gotten gain; we can endure hunger and
hardship, but we can by no means endure the Fire." A
man in the past went on a journey. His neighbours
resented his departure, and said to his wife, 'Why do
you consent to his travelling although he left you no
provision?" She replied, "I have known my husband
as an eater, not as a provider, and I have a God that
- 30-
The Rights of a Man
provides for me. The eater will perish and the Provider
will remain." One of the duties of the wife is not to
squander his money but keep it. The Messenger of
God said, "She is not allowed to feed [people] from
[the provision of] his house except by his permission,
barring damp food that is about to rot. If she feeds by
his approval, she receives the same reward as he. If
she feeds without his permission, he receives the
reward and she the guilt." Her parents have the
obligation to teach her good conduct and pleasant
treatment of the husband.
Some of the rights he acquires over her are:
She should keep her husband's honour in his
absence, seek his pleasure in all her affairs, not deal
unfaithfully with him in terms of herself or his money,
and not go outdoors except by his permission. When
she goes out by his permission, she should be
shabbily dressed and should seek secluded areas,
keeping away from the streets and the market-places,
and should be careful not to let a stranger hear her
voice or recognise her. On her errands, she should not
let herself be known to her husband's friends, but
rather conceal her identity from anyone she thinks
knows her or vice versa. Her main concern ought to be
how to mind her affairs and manage her home, eager
to perform her prayer and her fasting. If her husband's
friend happens to ask for permission [to come in]
while her husband is not there, she ought not to
inquire or answer his question out of jealousy over
herself and her husband. She should be content with
- 31-
 The Rights of a Man
the provision God gives her husband, promoting her
husband's rights over her own and her family's rights,
observing cleanliness of her body, ready always to let
him enjoy her whenever he desires, having compas-
sion for her children, being protective over them,
refraining from cursing the children or contradicting
her husband. Muhammad said, "Both I and a woman
with burnt cheeks, such as these, will be in heaven- a
woman who was hated by her husband, locked herself
up, and tended to her daughters until they married [or
died]." He also said, "God has forbidden all mankind
from entering heaven before me, yet I will look to my
right and behold a woman will go ahead of me to the
gate of paradise. Then I will say, Why is this one
going ahead of meT And it will be answered, '0
Muhammad, this is a fair and beautiful woman who
cared for orphans and was patient with them till they
reached their destiny, and God thanked her for this: "
The accepted standard of behaviour from her is that
she should not boast over her husband for her beauty,
or despise him for his ugliness. Then I knew she was
a godly woman who had a husband for whom she
adorned herself.
She should practice good behaviour and keep herself
secluded in her husband's absence, and to return to
playfulness and exhilaration [Which bring pleasure] in
her husband's presence. She is not to hurt her
husband by any means. Mu(ads Ibn Jabal narrates,
"The Messenger of God said, Whenever a woman
hurts her husband, his wife of the wide-eyed houris
- 32-
The Rights of a Man
says, "Do not hurt him. May God fight you [or damn
you]1 With you he is a passer-by, who is about to leave
you to come to us: ,,11
The Hanafite jurist al-Kasani sums up man's rights over
his wife in this statement: "He has the right to look at her
and touch her in her lifetime, because intercourse [which
is established already as his good right] is beyond looking
and touching. And since it [i.e. intercourse] has been
established as lawful, then looking and touching are
established as so after the same manner. It is
disputable, however, whether to take pleasure in her
apart frorn the sexual organs when she has her menstrual
period or in child-birth. Among these rights is "the
possession of pleasure", which means that the husband
has the exclusive right to all of her body for the purpose of
pleasure, or the possession of herself or her soul as a
right for self-gratification, an opinion which is agreed upon
by all our theological leaders, for the purposes of
intercourse cannot be fulfilled without these. 12 Among
these rights is keeping her locked and confined, which
means the right to forbid her from going out in public. This
is based on God's command to "house women" (Sura al-
Talaq 65:6). The command to "house" them actually
forbids a woman from going out and showing herself in
public, because the command to do a certain thing
forbids one from doing its opposite. Were she not
forbidden from going out in public, she would be a
temptation, and parentage of the children would be in
doubt, for this makes a man suspicious and causes him
to deny his parentageP The man has the right to forbid
- 33-
 The RlghttJ ., a Man The RlghttJ ., a Man

his wife and daughters from going out so that there
should be no temptation, and because of the danger of
"the disorder of parentage.,,14
At the end of this chapter I would like to present a list of a
woman's duties to her husband as quoted from a book
recently published in Arabic. These are the things she
should not do:
1. She should avoid standing on the balcony.
2. She should conceal herself while welcoming
men at the door.
3. She should not go out after she has used
perfume.
4. She should wear her dresses long and not
imitate unbelieving women.
5. She should not speak in a loud voice.
6. She should not walk in the middle of the road.
7. She should not mingle with men or shake hands
with them.
The author then lists in brief what she should do in the
following:
1. Speak softly and honourably when you are
walking.
2. Walk by the side of the road, and keep away from
the middle.
3. Beware of standing by the door to welcome
guests.
4. Do not go out of your home frequently for
unnecessary things.
5. Do not lower your vei I outside your house under
any circumstances whatever.
6. When you stand in the balcony, take care what
- 34-
you wear.
7. Beware of shaking hands with strange men.
Don't travel without a guardian relative. These
two actions are abominations and are the pitfalls
of the women of our time.
8. Watch not to waste your time uselessly; so
praise [God] and ask for His pardon frequently in
an inaudible voice.
9. Avoid turning around and always look down.
10. You are weak and in need of your Lord's mercy;
so raise your hands up to Him constantly asking
for His pardon for your guilt, and for health for
your good deeds. 15
***
1- Abu Hamid al-Ghazzali, lhya' cu/um al-dln (cairo, n.d.), 4:746.
2- Abu IAbd al-Rahman aJ-Nasa1i, Ishrat at-niss (Beirut, n.d.), p.131.
3- ibid. p.148.
4- ibid.
5- IhyaJ cu/um al-din, 4:746.
5- ibid.
7- ibid. 4:747.
8- ibid.
9- ibid.
1()" ibid.
11· ibid. 4:748-751
12- "If a man calls his 'Nife to his bed (I.e. to have sexual relations); and she refuses
and causes him to sleep the night In anger, the angels will curse her till morning"
(al·Bukhari, Bad' af.kha/q 7; Abu Oawud, Nlkah 41).
13- al·Kassnl, 2:331.
14- Abu al-Fara] Ibn al-Jawzi, Kltab ahkam a",/sa' (Beirut, 1988), p.72.
15- Magdlal·Sayyld Ibrahim, Bida' wa khurafat a""sa (Cairo, 1992), p.51ff.
- 35-

chapter six
The Rights a Woman
Acquires over her Husband
Muhammad said in his final address, "And now, people,
you acquire certain rights over your wives, and they do
you. The right you acquire over them is that they should
not let someone you hate sleep in your beds, and not to
commit a manifest obscenity [or adultery]. If they do
[commit it], then God has given you permission to leave
them alone in their beds and give them a beating, though
not too hard. If they give over, they get their provision and
clothing with kindness; I command you good-will for your
wives, for they are your captives 1 that do not own anything
of their own. You have taken them by the faithfulness of
. God, and made their sexual organs lawful for you by the
words of God.,,2
(Abdullah Ibn (Amr Ibn al-(As narrated: "The Messenger
of God said to me, '0 (Abdullahl Have I not been informed
that you fast daily during the day and offer prayers every
night throughout the Fast?' (Abdullah replied, 'Yes, 0
Messenger of God!' The Prophet said, 'Don't do that; fast
for few days and then give it up for few days, offer prayers
and also sleep at night, as your body requires, and your
wife has her rights.' ,,3 Hakim Ibn Mu(awlya al-Qushayri,
quoting his father, said, "I said, '0 Messenger of God,
what is the right that the wife of any of us acquires over
him?' He replied, 'To feed and clothe her, if you yourself
have food and clothing. Do not slap her on the face, nor
- 36-
The RltlhtB 0' a Woman
utter obscenities to her, nor desert her except inside the
house.' ,,4
Protection by the husband is one of the rights that the
woman acquires. Muhammad said, "I warn you about the
right of the two weak ones: the orphan and the women."s
Sexual intercourse is another right she has over him,
because it is the duty of the husband as long as he has
no excuse. Malik holds this same opinion. 6 If he travels
for any reason or for any necessity, she must forego this
right no matter how long his journey lasts. But if he has
no substantial excuse, and makes excuses for not having
intercourse several times, then they can be separated [by
lawj.7 If he has a free woman for wife, he has to sleep
with her once every four nights, and if he has four wives,
each of them receive one night every four nights. s He
should treat his wives justly. Muhammad said in the
Hadith, "If a man has two wives, and he shows favour to
one against the other, he will come on the Resurrection
Day with a limp. ,,9
1- Captives: meaning that they are bound to you like slaves.
2- Ibn Hisham, al-Slra afnabawlyya (Cairo, 1963), 4:251.
3- al-Bukhan, Sawm51,54,55, Tahajjud20, Nlkah88, Adab83,88; Musnm, Siyam
182.187; Abu Oawud, Tata_," 27, Sswm56; a~Tlrmldsl, 5awm44, Radha'11,
Tarslr al·Tawba 9:2, Zuhd 84; al-Nasa'l, 5Iyam 76; Ibn Maja, Nikah 3; al-Danml,
Nlkah 3; Ahmad Ibn Hanbal, 6:268.
4- Abu Oawud, Nikah 41.
5- Ibn Maja, Adab 6.
6- Muwaffaq ai-Din Ibn Qudama, al-Mughnl (Belru~ 1984), 8: 143.
7- Ibid. 8: 144.
8- Ibid. 8:136
9- Ibn Maja, Nlkah47, al-Mughnl, 8:149-155. 'Abdullah Ibn Muhammad al-Mauslll.
aUkhbysrff ta'liI almukhtar{CEiro, 1961), 3: 186.
- 37-

chapter seven
The Importance of Marriage in Islam
Marriage, according to the Qur)an, is a desirable thing:
"Marry the spouseless among you, and your slaves and
handmaidens that are righteous" (Sura al-Nur 24:32). It
is the religious tradition (sunna) of the Prophet
Muhammad: "Wedlock [nikah] is my tradition in religion;
whoever does not apply my law has no part with me.
Marry, because I will vie the nations in number by you.
Whoever has the ability to marry, let him marry, and
whoever has not the ability, let him resort to fasting; for
fasting is as good as castration:,l Marriage is also half
of the faith: "When the servant marries, he completes
half of his religion; so let him fear God in the remaining
half:,2 According to the jurists it is an obligation when
one has a strong desire; namely one is guilty if he has a
desire for a certain woman, is financially able to fulfil it (in
marriage), but does not marry. He has committed a
cardinal sin. 3
Muhammad has.prohibited celibacy.4 In Hadith we read:
"There will be none in paradise but have two wives; he
will be able to see their legs even if they are behind
seventy garments:,5 In Musnad of Ahmad Ibn Hanbal, it
says, "Our tradition [sunna] is wedlock. The most evil
among you are those who are celibate, and the vilest
among your dead are those who are celibate:,6
Muhammad once asked a man named (Akaf if he was
married, the man replied, "No, by God:' He asked, "Do
you have a concubine?" The man answered, "No:'
- 38-
The Importance of Marriage in Islam
Muhammad asked, "Are you well off?" He said, "Yes:'
Muhammad said, "You are, then, a brother of the devils.
And if you are a Christian, you are also their brother. 7 But
if you are one of us, our life-style is giving in marriage:,8
Muhammad aroused men's interest in marriage because
women bring blessing and wealth: "Marry women
because they bring possession"g and "Two prostrations
by a married man are better than seventy by someone
who is single:,10
We leam from the stories of tradition that marriage is not
only the law of Muhammad, but the law of all the
prophets, as well. "Whoever embraces my religion, and
the religion of David, Solomon, and Abraham let him
marry so long as he can; otherwise let him fight for the
cause of God. If he is martyred [dies in war], God will wed
him to the wide-eyed houris. The only exception to this is
that if he attends to his parents or if he is under binding
obligation to people:,l1 So the one who does not marry
exposes himself to the curse of God and the angels:
"The curse of God and of angels and of all the people is
upon anyone who lives in celibacy- there is no celibacy
after John, the son of Zachariah:,12
The most important reason for marriage is bearing
children. Jabir narrated, "While we were returning with
the Messenger of God from a certain incursion, 1 started
driving my camel fast, as it was a lazy one. A rider came
behind me... Behold the rider was the Prophet himself.
He said, Why are you in such haste?' 1 replied, 'I am
newly married: He asked, 'Did you marry a virgin or
matron [a previously married woman]?' I answered, 'She
- 39-
 The Importance of Marriage in Islam The Importance of Marriage in Islam

8- Islam denounces celibacy and monasticism because they are a departure from
is a matron.' He said, 'Then, [seek to beget] childrenl the tradition of Muhammad. The Qur)an says: "And monasticism they Inltiated-
Children, 0 Jabir.' .. 13 We did not prescribe It. forthem- only seeking the good pleasure of God" (Sura 81-
Hadld 57:27). The Hadith says: 'When this affair of cUthman Ibn Maz1un, who
showed no Interest in women, was published, the Messenger of God sent for him.
It seems that in oriental societies there is a tradition and He said. ,cUthman, I have not been commanded with monasticism; have you
a part of their history to despise and suspect celibatesl rejected my tradition?' He replied, 'No. MessengerofGod.' Hesaid. 1tismysunna
to pray and sleep, to fast and breakfast, to marry and divorce. 'Nhoever rejects my
Anyone who does not marry exposes himself to all sorts tradition has no part with me' to (al..Qarimi. Nikah 3). Selid al-Khudri narrated theta
of accusations, Ibrahim Ibn Masarra narrated, "Tawus man came [to him} and said, "'nstruct mel" He said. "I had asked the Messenger
said to me, 'Get married or else I will say to you what of God before you, and he said, 'I Instruct you to fear God; this Is the head
[beginning] ofeverything, and you must flght, forthls Is the monasticism of Islam' "
(Umar said to Abu al-Zawa1id: "The only thing that keeps (Ahmad Ibn Hanbal. 3:82,266). "Castration and the building of churches are
you from marrying is impotence or lasciviousness." , .. 14 forbidden in Islam" (Kanz al-(umma/, 21:194).
9- Kanzal-(umma/,21:196.
1ll-lbld.21:197.
11- Ibid. 21:200.
12- Ibid.
13- al-Bukharl. Nikah 121.
14- 'Uyun al-akhbar. 4:18. A single man, as Muhammad thinks, is exposed 10
fornication and immorality, and he cannot be delivered from this destiny except
by fasting, if he were poor, or marriage. The Hadlth says, "The Messenger of
,.,.,. God saw a woman (and was apparently excited) so he had intercourse with
Zainab, his wife, while she was dyeing a rawhide. After he fulfilled his desire, he
went out to his friends and said, 'Woman comes In the shape of a devil and
leaves In the shape of a devil. Any of you who sees a woman, let him have
Intercourse with his wife. This will repel that which Is In his soul" (Muslim, Nikah
10; al-Tlrmidsi, Radha( 9; al~Dariml, Nlkah 31; Ahmad Ibn Hanbal,
3:33,341,348,391).

1- Ibn Maja, Nlkah. Kanz al-(umma/, 21:194.

2- Kanz al-'ummaJ, 21: 193.
3- al-Kasanl, 2:228.
4- al-Bukhari, Nikah 2. In another tradition says, U(Uthman Ibn Maz1un wanted to
castrate himself and be a hermit In the land. The Messenger of God said to him,
'Ooyou not have me as agood example? Ihave Intercourse with women, eatmeat,
fast. and breakfast. Fasting Is the castration ofmynatlon. There Is none among my
nation who castrates or Is castrated himself" (Ibn Sa(d, al-Tabaqat al-kubra,
(BaiNt Dar Sader, n.d.), 3:394).
Ibn Qutayba states, "Tawus narrated that the Messengerof God said, 'There is
no restraint or bridle In Islam, nor Is monasticism, celibacy, or hel1T1ltage'" ('Uyun
a~hbar, 4:18).
5- Muslim, Janna 14; al-Darlml, Raqa'iq 108; Ahmad Ibn Hanbal, 2:230,247,507.
6- Ahmad Ibn Hanbal, 5:183.
7- Ibn 'Abd a~arr, Usd alghaba" ma'rifata>SaIlaba, Egyptian ed. (Tehran, 1989),
4:3. 'Uyun al-akhbar, 4:18.

- 40- - 41-

chapter eight
The Importance of Marriage
from the Viewpoint of the Jurists
The jurists say: "The only worship that has been
instituted since the time of Adam till now, which will
continue in paradise, is wedlock and faith."l Ibn Humam
says about the relationship of wedlock to worship, "It is
the closest thing to worship; so that occupying oneself
with it is better than abandoning it for mere worship.',2
The importance and high position that the jurists place on
wedlock (nikah) lie in its being" A cause for the existence
of Islam and the Muslim." It is, therefore, preferred to
worship and fighting (Jihad). It is the cause of the
existence of the Muslim and Islam, while Jihad only
furthers Islam. 3 In Radd al-muhtar, the author says, "It
has been preferred to Jihad. Both of them are the cause
of the existence of the Muslim and Islam, because the
result of the marriage of one single Muslim is much more
than the result of fighting. In Jihad you only kill and
subdue non-Muslims.',4
Moreover, there are "other interests regarding wedlock,
such as keeping women and oneself from fornication.
Wedlock is the only means of obtaining pleasure.',5 There
are others, as well, who claim that wedlock is a religious
obligation just like fasting, praying, and the other
requirements of faith; so that any who abandon it, being
capable of paying the marriage portion, supporting a wife,
and having intercourse, is considered guilty of sin.
- 42-
The Viewpoint of the Juris'"
Shafi (i, however, thinks it is merely permissible, just like
selling or bargaining. They infer that it is a religious duty
or obligation from the fact that one is enjoined to abstain
from fornication. They say, "Since abstaining from
fornication is a religious imperative, and since this can
only be attained by wedlock, then that which is the only
means to attain to a religious imperative, is also an
imperative."s The jurists, however, think that nikah
cannot possibly mean lust; if it were so, they argue, the
Prophet, who married more than one wife, should have
sufficed himself with one wife. 7 Yet, it seems that there is
no real agreement among the jurists that nikah is a
religious obligation or duty. Those who disagree on the
issue of having to marry as an incumbent religious
obligation quote Sura AI Imran 3:39, "The angels called
him [Zachariah] while he was standing praying at the
shrine: 'God gives news of John, who will confirm word
from God, masterful yet circumspect [hasur, i.e. celibate],
and a prophet [chosen] from among honourable peo-
pie.''' "This Qur)anic statement points out the celibacy
of John as a merit worthy of praise. Hasur means
someone who does not have sexual relations with women
in spite of being able to do so. If nikah was a religious
obligation, then John wouldn't have been praised on the
account of abandoning it; since abandoning an obligation
is worthy of blame rather than praise.',8 AI-Sarakhsi
rejects this view and argues that "nikah is the tradition of
Muhammad, while celibacy was the tradition of John. A
Muslim has to follow the tradition of Muhammad.',9 The
consensus of jurists agree that the increase of the nation
is for the public good, since Muhammad will boast over
- 43-
 The Viewpoint of the Jurists
the rest of the nations on the Day of Resurrection
because of the large number of his nation.,,10
.........
1- Muhammad Amin Ibn Abidin, Radd a!-muht8r(a/a al-Du" af-mukhtar(Cairo, 1272
A.H.), 2:255. For this reason, Mahmud ShalM, the former director of al-Azhar
University says, "As to those who avoid manlage, and make excuses that it Is
b'oublesome, demanding, and limits their teedom, which should be unrest-
rained, they are either ignorant folk, or they Ignore the meaning ofhumanity In the
Image of which they have been created. It Is worthy of the Intelligent people to
block all the roads lor them till they dapart from the environs of man to the
habllations of beasts and wild animals" (Mehmud Shallut a/-ls/am <aqida we
shari'a, p.146).
2- Kamal ai-Din Muhammad Ibn Humam, Sharh Fath a!-qadlr (Coiro. 1315 A.H.).
2:340. Muhammad claims that the Muslim receives a reward from God for his
sexual Intercourse: "You have a reward for your Intercourse with your wife"
(Ahmad Ibn Hanbal, 5:169).
3- Ibn Humam, 5:169.
4- Ibn Abldln, 2:340.
5- aJ.Mabsut; 4: 193.
6· ibid. al-Kassn!, 2:228.
7- al-Kasanl, 2:228; alMabsut; 4: 194; Ibn Abldln, 2:340.
B- aJ.Mabsut; 4:194.
9- Ibid.
10- Ibn Humam, 2:339; Ibn Abldln, 2:342; al-Mauslll, aMkhtiyar, 3:116; Ahmad Ibn
Hanbal, 2: 172. There seems to be auniversal "consensus" among the Oldjurists
on the one side, and the scholars and the progressive and conservative modem
writers who support women's rights on the other side, that the Institution of
marrlage sarves tha conjugal relationship (sexuallnlaroourse) and childbirth (el.
Muhammad Rashid Ridha, Nlda II af.jlns aUst;f, p.16. Tahir ai-Haddad,
Imra'atuna ff at-aharla we af.mujtama', p.27,29-33. Muhammad Sanh (Sldl), a~
Hldad II'm ra'at amaddad(Tunls, 1931), p.105-109. Rudl Paret Zur Frauanfrage
In der ArabiScl>lslamlschen We~ (Stuttgart, 1934), p.146. Mahmud Shaltut, a~
Islam laqida wa shari(a, p.145.
- 44-
chapter nine
Marriage from the Viewpoint of the Sufis
The Sufis have contradictory attitudes toward marriage
which keep us from drawing general conclusions. Yet the
mystical (Sufi) Islam, contrary to the rigid orthodox Islam
with its theoretical content, was able to shape different
and wide-ranging sectors of the Islamic societies with its
own mould. It was able to do so through its diversified
nature that blended with the social background of the
country. It is worth noting, therefore, the positive and the
negative opinions of the Sufis on marriage.
Those who elevate the value of marriage to the level of
absolute dUty base their position on the Hadith and the
evident Qur)anic fact that God never mentioned an
unmarried prophet in His Book. They said, "John married
but did not have sexual relations. He did that to receive
the high status [of a married man] and to carry out the
tradition. It was also said [that he did so] in order to keep
himself from looking [lustfUlly]. As regarding Jesus, he will
get married when he comes back to earth and will have
children.,,1 In a hadith mentioned by Ghazzali,
Muhammad says, "If you receive a man whose religion
and trust you approve of, marry him off. If you do not do
so, a temptation there will be in the land and a great
corruption. ,,2 According to a weak hadith, Muhammad
said, "He who marries for God, and marries someone off
for Him, is worthy of God's patronage. ,,3 In a tradition by
Ibn Abbas, Muhammad says, "The piety of the pious one
shall not be made complete until he marries." AI-Ghazzali
- 45-
 Marricwe from the Vi.~int 01 the Sufi.
comments on it, saying, "Maybe he made a part of piety,
but the more evident explanation is that he meant that
one should not yield one's heart to overwhelming lust
except through marrying. Piety shall not be made
complete except by the emptiness of heart. ,,4 He
ascribes to Ibn Mas'ud the following statement: "If I
had only ten days left of my life, I would like to marry so
that I should not meet God single." Mu (ads Ibn Jabal
narrated that "two wives of his died by the great plague,
and he too was afflicted with it. He said, 'Marry me off; I
hate to meet God single,' ,,5
It was related that a servant [of God] among the ancient
nations excelled his contemporaries in worship. His good
worship was thus described to the prophet of his time:
"What a good man he isl It is only that he leaves out a
part of the tradition," The servant was distressed when
he heard it, and asked the prophet about it. The prophet
said, "It is marriage that you left out," The servant was
distressed again and said, "I do not forbid it, but I am
poor and am dependant on people," He replied, "I will
marry you to my daughter," So the prophet married him
off to his daughter.6 Bishr Ibn ai-Harth said, "Ahmad Ibn
Hanbal has be.en preferred to me for three reasons: He
seeks that which is lawful for himself and for others,
whereas I seek the same for myself only; that is due to
his numerous marriages, and my few marriages. And
because he has been appointed an imam to the pUblic.,,7
It is said that Ahmad married the second day after his
Wife, the mother of his son (Abdullah, died, and said, "I
hate to stay single for one night," Bishr Ibn Yaminiya
- 46-
Marriage from the Viewpoint 01 the Sulis
said, "(Ali was the most devout among the Companions
of the Messenger of God, yet he had four wives and
seventeen concubines. Wedlock is a standing tradition
and one of the qualities of prophets," It has also been
said, "The superiority of the married one to the single
one is the same as that of the one who goes out to war
(Jihad) to him who stays behind."e
It is not surprising, however, to find opinions in the Sufi
literature that are antagonistic to marriage, since with-
drawal and abstinence from the world are of the most
important pillars of the Sufi ethics. It has been pointed
out in the previous chapter how some jurists proved that
wedlock is not an obligatory duty by means of the
Qur)anic verse that speaks of John as being celibate and
one of the "honourable" (Sura AI Imran 3:39), yet those
who support marriage argued that he married but did not
consummate the marriage. As to Christ, there is an
ample number of traditions that speak of his marriage
after his second coming. Such tales and justifications try
to establish marriage as an institution in Islam, on the
one side, and to justify Muhammad's harem, on the other
side. The Qur)an is not sufficient to prove God's aversion
to marriage, and since there is no sound tradition that
suggests that, the ascetic quotes, above all, the weak
tradition that says, "As to the words that were given as
warning against marriage, Muhammad said, 'The best
man after the two hundred is the light, sandal-shod man
who has neither family nor children,' He also said, 'There
will come a time upon people when the perdition of man
will be by the hands of his own wife, parents, and
- 47-
 Marriage (rom the Viewpoint of the Sufis Marriage (rom the Viewpoint of the Sufis
1- al-Ghazzall. Ihya' (ulum skl/n, 4:683.
children; they will taunt him for his poverty and demand of 2- bid. 4:684.
him that which he cannot bear. So he will enter upon 3- Ibid.
4- ibid. 4:685.
things that destroy his religion and make him perish.' " 5- Ibid.
6- ibid. 4:686.
One tradition says, "The lack of children is a cause of 7- ibid.
8- Ibid. 4:686.
abundance, and the abundance of children is a cause of 9- Ibid.
poverty." Abu Sulayman al-Darani was once asked 10- " was a matter of disagreement among the MUslims of the first century A.H.,
whether It was lawful to put the sayings of Muhammad down In wrttlng. The
concerning wedlock, he said, "Enduring without them is Muslims were afraid that the sayings of Muhammad would attain the same level
better than enduring them, and enduring them is better [of sacredness] 8S that of the Curlan. It was the pro-Hadith group that won the
victory In the end, and they accounted for their position through traditions of
than enduring the Rre.',9 He said also, "The one who is Muhammad In which he encouraged his nation to write down what has been
alone enjoys the sweetness of work and the emptiness of narrated about him! Together wrth the recording of Hadlth, we observe the
phenomenon of fabricating (or faking) Hadlth. These fake traditions thai have
heart that the married one cannot enjoy." He said once, crept Into even the most tnJstworthy of books, such as al-Bukhari and Muslim,
"I saw none of our companions who married and are an enonnous challenge to scholars of Sharla.
11- ar-Ghazzali, Ihys' (ulum skl/n, 4:687.
remained in his first status." He said also, "If anyone
seeks these three things, he is relying on this world:
Livelihood, marrying a woman, or the books of
Tradition.',lo AI-Hasan said, "If God wishes good for
one of His servants, He occupies him with neither family
nor possessions." Ibn Abi al-Hawwari said, "A certain
group of people debated concerning this hadith, and they
settled on the supposition that it does not exclude them,
but means that he could have them, provided that they do
not occupy him." This is a reference to the statement of
Abu Sulayman al-Darani: "Whatever family, possessions,
or children that divert you from God, will be inauspicious
for you." All in all, no one has been quoted as forbidding
wedlock (nikah) categorically, except when there is a
condition. As to commending wedlock, it has also been
quoted as being commended under a condition. l l

- 48- - 49-

chapter ten
The Characteristics of an Ideal Wife
Considering the importance of marriage, it was natural for
jurists to describe the favourite characteristics of the wife
carefully, so that the ideal goals of marriage, as they view
them, should be achieved. These desirable characteris-
tics that a wife should possess could be summed up as
follows:
1. The woman should be less in age than the man, so
that she should not age quickly and be unable to
conceive. She should be less in esteem, power, honour,
and money since men are to support women (Sura ai-
Nisa) 4:34) and protect them. We read in narrated
traditions of Muhammad that he said, "A woman is
married for four things, i.e. her wealth, her family status,
her beauty, and her religion. So you should marry the
religious woman [otherwise] you will be a 10ser.,,1 "Do
not marry women off for their comeliness; their comeli-
ness may lead them to perdition. Do not marry them off
for their possessions; their possessions may lead them
to domineer. Marry them for their religion. A black,
believing slave is better than a beautiful free women who
does not believe.',2 The woman should not be tall or
gaunt, short or ugly, or have bad manners. She should not
be old or have a child from a previous marriage. She
should not be a slave if the man can marry a free
woman? AI-Jaziri, however, keeps silent on the issue of
the good characteristics a man should possess in order
for him to be an ideal husband for his wife!
- 50-
The CharacterlstiCII of an Ideal Wlf.
A younger wife is the tradition (sunna) of Muhammad.
"The Messenger of God married me when I was seven
years old" 'Alisha said, (Sulaiman says six), "and
consummated the marriage with me when I was nine
years 0Id.,,4 Muhammad died when she was eighteen
years 01d. 5 Muhammad's marriage with (A)isha has
always been a problem for the jurists, for they do not
unanimously agree on the marriageable age of the girl:
Conceming the issue of consummating the marriage
with [a girl under age], it was said that she should not
be slept with before she attains puberty, but it was
said in al-Bahr al-ra'iq that she can be slept with at
the age of nine. The majority of Imams are of the
opinion that the issue of age plays no role in this
respect, and that the criterion is that the woman
should be physically fit and big enough to accom-
modate men, and consequently there would be no
fear that she would get sick if she is copulated with,
even if she has not reached the age of nine. But if she
is thin or gaunt and cannot bear sex, and is in danger
of getting sick, her husband is not allowed to sleep
with her, even if she is of age- this is the sound
opinion.,,6
In a book entitled al-Furu( we read the following, "The
best state for a woman is between the age of fourteen
and twenty. Her maturity is made perfect at thirty, and she
stops at forty, and declines after that.',7
2. Besides youth, she should preferably be a virgin.
Muhammad said, "Seek virgins; they are sweeter of
- 51-
 TIle Characteristics of an Ideal Wife
mouth, have more productive wombs and can be
contented with the least."s When Jabir told him he
married a matron, he said to him, "Why not a virgin that
you should play with her?,,9 This inequality between the
virgin and the matron also manifests itself through
Muhammad's own treatment of his wives. Anas Ibn
Malik narrated, "If Muhammad marries a virgin he stays
with her seven days. If he marries a matron he stays with
her three days. This is the tradition:,10 Marrying a matron
is permissible if a man is in need of doing so; for example
if he has children who need to be raised up by someone
who is used to raising up children, or if he is old to a
degree that puts a young virgin off and thus intimacy
between them will not endure.11
3. The jurists not only touched upon the qualities an ideal
wife should possess, but went so far as to list the
offensive characteristics and faults she should not have.
Man's defects that forbid or abolish his marriage are
basically these three: madness, castration, and incon-
tinence. Yet woman's defects are enumerated and
accounted for in detail. The main defections of woman
are seven: madness, elephantiasis, leprosy, cornu,
breathing difficulties, and lameness.
Madness is the corruption of mind to the extent that
one's decisions becomes erratic owing to passing
incapacity and not due to fainting bouts, in which one's
decision-making remains the same.
Elephantiasis is the disease that causes stiffening ofthe
organs and rending of the flesh. It is not the same as
- 52-
TIle Characteristics of an Ideal Wife
losing energy, having nodes in the face or roundness of
the eyes. 12
Leprosy is white spots that appear on the surface of the
body due to the domination of phlegm.
Cornu is a bony protrusion in the vagina that prevents
sex. But if it does not prevent sex, marriage may not be
dissolved because there is still a possibility of enjoyment,
but it is also acceptable to dissolve marriage because of
it in keeping with the outward meaning of the tradition.
Lameness is still debatable whether it could be included
among the causes of divorce; but it is certain that it
dissolves marriage in case it makes the woman an
invalid.
According to some, blockage of the vagina is one of the
defects that involve divorce. This may be correct if it
prevents sex to start with, as it deprives [the man] of
enjoyment when it is impossible to remove it, orwhen it is
possible but [the woman] refuses to submit to medica-
tion.
There are no other defects that a woman can have apart
from these seven.13
In another tradition, Muhammad said to Umm Salim as
she was looking at a certain woman, "Smell her
shoulders and take a look at her heels:,14
4. Beauty is a quality that should not be neglected when
looking for a wife. A weak tradition teaches us that
looking at a beautiful woman sharpens and strengthens
- 53-
 n.e CharacterilltiC8 ., an Ideal Wi'.
eyesight.1S As mentioned previously, man marries a
woman for either of three things: for her beauty, her family
status,16 or for her religion. 17
(A)isha narrated, "The MesseOger of God betrothed a
woman from Kalb [tribe]. He sent me to look at her, and
asked me, 'How did you see her?' I said, 'I saw no use in
her.' He replied, 'I saw a mole on her cheek that caused
each of your hairs to stand on end.' I said, 'There is no
secret hidden from you.' ,,18
5. It is also agreeable that her bridal gift should be
appropriate. Muhammad said, "The marriage that has
the greatest blessing is the one that is suitable to provide
for. ,,19
6. Yet being "fertile" is the most important quality a
woman must have. Ma'qil Ibn Yasar narrated, "A man
came to the Prophet and said, 'I fell in love with a woman
of great beauty and family status; but she does not
conceive, shall I marry her?' He replied, 'No.' The man
came to him again, and the Prophet forbade him. He
came to him a third time, so the Prophet said, 'Marry the
amiable, fertile one; for I will vie the nations in number by
you.' ,,20 AI-Jaziri says, "It is better that she [the wife] be
fertile; because a barren one cannot carry out the
function of reproduction which is necessary for human
society.,,21 We conclude this chapter by quoting the first
benefit of marriage that occurs in Ihya) (ulum ai-din:
Children: They are the original purpose of marriage for
which it has been established, and it is for
perpetuating offspring so that the world would not
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The Characteristics of an Ideal Wife
be empty of mankind. Lust, however, was created as
a stimulating motivation, as is the case with male
animals in the production of seed, and the female
ones that make cultivation possible. Thus they are
gently led to produce a brood through copulation. The
same principle is used in scattering grain, which birds
lust after, in order to trap them into the net. The
eternal power [of God] was not incapable of forging
people afresh without cultivation or copulation, but
Wisdom required that effects should be dependant on
causes, though these causes can be done without so
the power [of God] should be manifest, the wonder~ of
His creation should be made complete, and to
accomplish the foreordained purposes of [divine] will.
It is a safeguard from the calamities of lust, in that
none of them wished to meet God unmarried. In the
achievement of offspring, there are four aspects of
closeness: The first is being in agreement with the
love of God by achieving offspring to preserve
mankind. The second is seeking the love of the
Messenger of God by increasing the cause of his
boasting. The third is seeking the blessing of one's
good offspring after one dies. The fourth is seeking
intercession by the death of a young child, in case this
child dies before his father. 22
- 55-
 71le Characterilltica of an Ideal Wife
1- al-Bukhal1, Nikah 15; Abu Dawud, Nikah2; al-Nass'I, Nikah 13; Ibn Maja, Nikah
6; al-Oal1ml, Nikah4; al-MuwaUS', Nikah21; Ahmad Ibn Hanbal, 2:428.
2- Ibn Maja, Nikah 34.
chapter eleven
3- lAbel al-Rahman al-Jazlri, Kitab al-fiqh afa al-madsahlb al-Brba'a(Calro, 1934),4:9.
As to short stature, itis narrated that Muhammad knelt down when hesawa short
The Marriage Contract
man (cUyun al-akhbar, 4:53). Salim narrated that the Messenger of God said,
"Whoever sees someone afflicted [with short stature] and says, 'Praise be to
in the Islamic Sharia
God who freed you from your affliction and placed high above many of His
creation' God will free him from that kInd of affliction whoever he was" (cUyun al-
akhbar, 4:53). It seems that shortness of stature does not do any good in After studying the position of marriage and the character-
Muhammad's opinion since the false Christ is also described as a short man istics of the ideal wife, we would like to quote from the
(Abu Dawud, Ma/ahlm 14).
4- Abu Oawud, N1kah 34. sources of jurisprudence (fiqh) how the marriage contract
&- Ibn MaJa, N/kah 14. is concluded, and the conditions necessary for it,
6- af.Fatawa a/-hindiYa(Bulaq, 1310 AH.), 1:287.
7- Shams ai-Din al-Maqdisi al-Marda'Ni, KitBb al-furur (Cairo, 1967), 5:151. Wedlock under ordinary circumstances is the tradition
8- Ibn MaJa, Nikah 7. of Muhammad, as mentioned previously, which is
9- Ibn Maja, Nikah 7.
10- Abu Oawud, Nikah 34. established by the narrated traditions of Muhammad
11- al-Jazll1, 4:11.
12· Muhammad said, "One should run away from a leperss one runs away from a
and his personal behaviour in this area. The Hanafites
lion" (al-Bukharl, Tibb 19; Ahmad Ibn Hanbal, 2:443). In another tradition hold that wedlock can be a religious obligation, a duty, a
Muhammad said, "Do not fix your gaze upon the lepers" (Ibn MaJa, Tibb 44;
Ahmad Ibn Hanbal, 2:28,233). It has been related that the Ummaiad caliph IAbd tradition, as well as a prohibited and abominable thing,
aI-Malik Ibn Marwanordered aU the lepers he met on his way to Mecca to be Wedlock is a religious obligation for the person who is
bumed. He said, "lfGod wished good for those people, He wouldn't have afflicted
them with such affliction." Qatada narrated that "a leper entered upon (Abdullah
sure to fall into fornication if he does not many, It is a
Ibn al-Harith, who ordered him to go out. He was asked, "Wny?' He replied, 'I duty, as well, when someone is eagerly desirous of it to
leamed that he Is accursed' (cU;1Jn al-Bkhbar, 4:69).
II
the extent that he fears falling into fornication, It is a sure
13- al-Muhaqqlq al-HillI, Sha,.'! aMs/am (al-Najat, 1989), 2:319-320.
14- Ahmad Ibn Hanbal, 3:231; 'Uyun af.Akhbar, 4:9. tradition for those who have the desire and are moderate.
15- KanzaI3umma/, 21:195.
16- Hasab not only means an original or legal lineage, but also wealth and riches (ai-
Yet, wedlock is prohibited if it is sure that illegal gain will
Muwatta I, Jihad 35). Muhammad defined hasab as "wealth, honour, and piety" ensue from it, and it is an abominable thing when the
('Uyun al-akhbar, 4:10).
17- al-Bukharl, Nikah 15; Muslim, al-Radha r93; Abu Dawud, Nlkah2; Ibn Maja, Nlkah person feels so but is not sure of it. 1
13; al-Dal1mi. Nikah 4; Ahmad Ibn Hanbal, 2:428.
18- 'Uyun al-akhbar, 4:19.
Nikah has two elements without which it cannot be
19- Ahmad Ibn Hanbal, 6:82; 'Uyun a"akhbar, 4:73.
20- Abu Oawud, Nikah 4. fuifilled: the first is aPijab (response), which is the
21- al-Jazll1, 4:11.
22- al-Ghazzali, Ihya' (ulum al-din, 4:688. utterance coming from the guardian or his substitute, and
the second is qubuf (consent), which is the utterance
coming from the husband or his proxy.2 As regards the
conditions for wedlock, which are listed by some jurists
among the elements of wedlock, they are usually
- 56- - 57-
 The Marriage Contract
mentioned in minute detail. We will, therefore, list them
briefly.
The first condition pertains to the form. There are certain
terms used to conclude wedlock. Some of them are
spoken, such as "I marry you," "I wed myself to you," or
"I marry you to my daughter." Some are by indirect
declaration of intent (kinaya) , such as "I give myself to
you," or "I make myself a freewill offering to you." The
second condition is called the union of session or
gathering (ittihad af-majlis), which necessitates that the
two parties involved in the marriage contract should be in
one place, since there is no wedlock through recornmen-
dation or in writing. This latter condition can be rendered
invalid in case the contract is concluded on the back of a
moving animal for example, or if the contract is concluded
while the two parties are walking. Then it is not binding by
reason of the changeability of place. If the marriage is
concluded on board a ship, however, while it is sailing,
the contract is valid since a ship is considered a place. 3
Wedlock is valid only in the presence of witnesses. The
least number of witnesses required for wedlock is two
people. One alone will not do: They don't have to be men;
they can be one man and two women. Yet it is not valid by
women only, there must be a man with them. 4
There is a unanimous agreement on prohibiting marriage
with mothers, daughters, sisters, paternal aunts, mater-
nal aunts, and 'lieces. Grandmothers are included with
mothers, and granddaughters, even if they be far related,
are included with daughters. The analogy applies for the
- 58-
The Marriage Contract
maternal and paternal aunts of both parents, the
daughters of nephews and nieces, if they are truly
related. There is a general agreement, as well, on
prohibiting marriage with foster mothers and foster
sisters. Those who follow the literal meaning of the text
(ahf af-zahit') and most of the Kharijites advocate it, but
most of Islam prohibits it, which is the right stance. There
is agreement also on prohibiting mothers-in-law, step-
mothers, daughters-in-law, and step-children. There is an
agreement, likewise, on prohibiting marriage with two
sisters, but disagreement on prohibiting marrying two
sisters who are under the control of one's right hand as a
marriage of enjoyment. There is a disagreement on
prohibiting marriage with a woman and her aunt. All those
who disagree on any point that has been a matter of
controversy among the older generations of the nation in
respect of wedlock- such as prohibiting or permitting a
certain woman, or a certain controversial condition of
wedlock- such as the witnesses, the terminology, and
5
the guardian- do not rank with the unbelievers.
In addition to what has been mentioned previously,
Muhammad prohibited his companions and all the people
from ever marrying his wives after him.6 The Qur)an says,
"It is not for you to hurt God's Messenger, neither to
marry his wives after him, ever; surely that would be, in
God's sight, a monstrous thing" (Sura al-Ahzab 33:53).
All opinions and interpretative judgments regarding
whether the guardian should obtain the permission of
the bride concerning marriage are irreconcilable, and
what they call isti1dsan [asking permission] is in fact a
- 59-
 The Marriage Contract
mere formality since her silence, if she is a virgin, is her
permission. So her crying can be considered as silence,
which is a sign of agreement, since crying indicates
extreme shynessl 7 Nevertheless, if a father marries his
daughter to a suitable husband wedlock is established,
even if the daughter dislikes the man, and regardless of
her age, because a father can marry off his young and
crazy children and virgin daughters without their permis-
a
sion. A guardian, as well, can marry off a virgin or a crazy
girl without her permission. A grandfather can do the
same. The contract is rendered invalid only owing to
impotence and castration. 9 Competence (or compatibil-
ity) is one of the important conditions for marriage.
Competence is defined as equality of the man with the
woman, which has six aspects in the view-point of the
Hanafites: family status, Islam, profession, freedom,
religion, and possessions. 10 Competence has to do with
man, not the woman, since Muhammad married women
of different family status and denominations, yet none of
them were compatible with him. 11 A man who has a free
Muslim father is not the same as a man whose father and
grandfather are free Muslims. Awoman can be divorced if
she marries a man who is not her equal, even if her
guardian receives a bridal gift that indicates his assent. 12
When performing the marriage contract, the bridegroom
must pay a bridal gift or a marriage portion in the
presence of the bride's guardian. It is preferable to fix the
bridal gift (mahr) during the contract, yet this is not a
necessary condition for the validity of the contract. As
soon as the bridal gift is agreed upon, the bridegroom has
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The Marriage Contract
to pay mahr al-mithl, which is a sum of money that suits
the living circumstances and differs according to the
bride's family status and descent. It also differs
according to her mental state, age, and beauty. If the
man wants to dissolve the contract, he has to pay back
half of the bridal gift. 13
***
1- a~khtiyar" ta'fllaf.mukhtar, 3:14ff.; al-Kasanl, 2:228; a~Mabsut, 4:193ff.; Ibn
Abldln. 2:34Off.; a~Mughni, 7:342ff.; al-Jazlri, 4:6-7.
2- al-Jazlri, 4:12.
3- Ibid. 4:15.
4- Ibid. 4:16.
5- IAbd af{JaI1ir ai-Baghdadi, Kitab usul a~/n (Istanbul, 1982). p.l96. a~khilyar,
3:117-125.
6- al-Shan'I, Ahkam a/-Quran (Beiru~ 1967). 1: 167.
7- a~khilyar, 3:127-132; a/-Mughni, 7:387_
8- a/-Mughnl, 7:379-382.
9- a~khilyar, 3:134-135.
Ill- a~khtiyar, 3:140-144; a~Mughni, 7:374-379; al-Jazlri, 4:54-61. Mahmud Shaltut,
aI-Islam (aqlda W8 shari(s, p.135-152.
11- a~/khtiyar, 3:140-141.
12- a~khtiyar, 3:142.
13- a~khtiyar, 3:144-155; a/-Mughni, 7:372,374; al-Jazlri, 4:94-128; W. Juynboll,
p.215-221. Mahmud Shaltut, sUs/am laqida wa shari's, p.153.
- 61-

chapter twelve
Polygamy
The Qur1an says, "If you fear that you will not act justly
towards the orphans, marry such women as seem good to
you, two, three, four [at a time]; but if you fear you will not
be equitable, then [marry] only one or what your right
hands own, so it is likelier you will not be partial" (Sura al-
Nisa l 4:3). Polygamy was a widespread phenomenon in
pre-Islamic times, just as it was with the Semitic peoples
1
of the time. Muhammad restricted the number of wives
to four. The concubines will be treated in a separate
chapter. The old interpreters understood the permission
in this verse as the largest number imaginable in a legal
marriage: "Do not marry off but from one to four, and add
no more. If you are afraid you will not deal fairly, if you
marry more than one, then marry one only or those your
hand controls so that you will not act unjustly. ,,2
Polygamy is one of those Qur1anic judgments that could
not affirm their existence among the Islamic nations, for
most Muslims are married to one wife. It is not only that
economical obstacles hinder men from doing that, but,
we should not forget, it is due to the social problems this
practice creates. Marrying another wife is a disgrace to
the family of the first one. Moreover, moderate Muslims
attempted to interpret this verse in such a way that suited
the requirements of the time. Qasim Amin, for example,
held that a Muslim could infer from Sura al-Nisa l 4:3 that
polygamy is forbidden, since justice to all wives, which
the Qur1an stated as a stipulation for this sanction, is
- 62-
Polygamy
impossible. 3 Yet, a scrupulous Muslim, who feels called
to defend and justify all that was written in his honourable
book, quotes from the "old" and the "new" to prove the
divine wisdom underlying polygamy. AI-Sabuni says,
"Polygamy is an age-old institution, but it was an
unorganised chaos before Islam. It was liable to fancy
and enjoyment, but Islam made it a means of excellent
life. The fact that everybody should know is that polygamy
is one ofthe things that Islam boasts about, since it was
able to solve a difficult problem that is considered one of
the most complicated ones that nations and societies
today suffer from. There is no solution to this problem
except by going back to the judgment of Islam and
adopting its system. ,,4 The reasons and justifications
that Muslim writers give suggest that polygamy has been
enjoined only to honour and favour women. "What shall
we do when the balance is upset and the number of
women becomes many times more than men? Shall we
deprive women of the blessing of marriage and mother-
hood; and thus let her walk the way of whoredom and
vice, as it happened in Europe owing to the increase in
number among women after the last world war? Or shall
we solve this problem by noble ways that preserve the
woman's honour, the family's purity and the wholeness of
society? Which is more honourable and more ethical, that
woman should be bound with a holy bond in which she
joins another woman under the shelter of a man in a
legal, noble manner, or that we let her become a mistress
or a girlfriend of that man, the relationship between them
then being sinful and evil?"s
- 63-
 Polygamy
Sayyid Qutb adds the following in his commentary:
In case the wife is barren and the husband still has
his natural desire, there are only two ways he can go:
1. Either to divorce her in order to replace her with
another one able to meet man's natural desire to
have children.
2. Or to marry another one and still keep his
relationship with the first wife. SOme impertinent
men and women may undiscerningly prefer the first
option. Yet, 99 wives (at least) will heap curses on
that person who advises the husband to do that, and
thus destroy their homes for no apparent reason. One
rarely finds a barren women having any more desire to
remarry, but you find often that the barren wife is more
secure and relaxed with the little children that the
other wife conceives for her husband. They fill the
house with activity and joy for her, no matter how
miserable she is in her own deprivation. 6
When reading this sort of defence of polygamy, which
sounds ridiculous, it isn't easy to think a great scholar
such as Sayyid Qutb did not know about adoption, or did
not ask himself what could be done if the man himself is
impotent! What is the place of the intimate love relation-
ship between husband and wife? Modern scholars and
thinkers do not stop in their defence of polygamy at the
"text" and the "reality" only, but they are keen on
backing up their viewpoint by the European ideas they
hear or read. AI-Sabuni tells us for example: "Christian
Germany, whose religion forbids polygamy, has chosen
- 64-
Polygamy
and she found no better choice than that which Islam had
already chosen. So Germany permitted polygamy so as to
protect the woman from taking prostitution as a profes-
sion; which results in onerous damages, the leading one
of which is the large number of bastards."? It is, of
course, unnecessary to add that the Germans have not
heard of such a decision. Thus, it appears that Islamic
apologists are allowed to circulate lies to further their own
cause.
He also quotes (without giving any reference) what a
"German female university professor" said: "The
solution for the problem of the German woman lies in
permitting polygamy. I prefer to be one among ten wives
of a successful man than to be the only wife of an
insignificant, unsuccessful man. This is not my opinion
alone, but the opinion of all the women of Germany. ,,8
Mr Sabuni claims that the German youth Conference
(held in Munich, Germany in 1948) recommended
polygamy as a solution for the problem of the increase
of women and the lack of men after the Second World
War. 9 Aqqad also, quoting one time from the philoso-
phers, and another from the westem writers known for
their racial tendency, tries to cue the reader in on the
universality of polygamy. He says, "Westmark thinks that
the matter of polygamy has not been resolved yet in the
west as being illegal in all western laws. This issue will be
tackled again and again every time the conditions of
modern society become harder, in terms of family
problems. He wonders in his above-mentioned book,
"Will monogamy be the last and only system of the
- 65-
 Polwamy
future?" He answers himself, saying, "This question has
been answered by different opinions. Spencer thinks that
monogamy is the last marital system, and that every
change in system must lead up to this end. Dr Le Bon
believes that European laws will eventually endorse
polygamy. Professor Ehrenfels, however, goes to the
extreme of saying that polygamy is necessary for the
preservation of the 'Aryan race'. Westmark comments
that polygamy gains the upper hand when matters go the
way they are supposed to take. ,,10 The most important of
these arguments, listed in the writings of Muslim writers
in defence and for the justification of polygamy, can be
summed up in four points:
1. They claim that the number of women in the world
exceeds that of men; it passes the ratio of four to one. 11
Polygamy, then, is the best solution for this predicament.
2. They argue that the period of fertility with man extends
to the age of seventy and beyond. Yet, fertility stops with
women at the age of fifty or so. So polygamy is a must,
since the earth should be populated through reproduction
and diffusion. 12
3. They talk about actual cases of man's desire to satisfy
his natural function (sexual relations) whereas the wife is
averse to it due to age or sickness. Polygamy is the sole
solution to this problem. 13
Other things that should be added to the list of special
cases for which polygamy is allowed are the prolonged
menstrual period of the woman, which prevents the
husband from having sex with her, or the strong desire of
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Polygamy
the adult man for nikah, which cannot be quenched by a
single woman, so that man is left with a need for marrying
more than one wife to relieve his [agonising) soul. 14 Islam
has permitted such men to realise their desire within a
legal frame so that Satan should not lead them astray.15
As to Muhammad Rashid Ridha, he does not list any
special cases, but starts off with an assumption that
man's nature makes it impossible for him to be satisfied
with one woman. 16
4. The problem of barrenness. On reading the books of
modern Muslim scholars and writers who put forward and
explain the problem of barrenness in defence of their
claim that polygamy is an absolute imperative, one
perceives that this is the most powerful argument they
have. One should not be astonished at this, since
children or the assurance of progeny is the reason for
the existence of nikah (Which was originally sexual
intercourse, or, by way of generalisation, marriage). If
we study the biography of MUhammad, we see that the
Muslim is in no need of citing social problems, special
cases, the decisions reached by "the Conference of
Munich", or what a female German professor said to
justify polygamy. MUhammad himself, about whom the
Qur)an says, "you have a good example in God's
messenger" (Sura al·Ahzab 33:21), was the leading
example in proVing that polygamy in Islam is an
established tradition, and not a special revelation. The
Messenger of God said, "Whatever I command, that you
should adopt, and whatever I forbid you, that you should
give over. ,,17 Sunna (or tradition) is of course the second
- 67-

source of the Islamic Sharia, "of which if someone is
ignorant, has no guide in the thick darkness of doubt. ,,18
This "guide" says about himself, "Marry, for the best
person of this [Muslim] nation [i.e., Muhammad] of all
· ,,19
other Muslims, had the largest number 0 f WiveS.
Moderate Muslims, who noticed the faults and imperfec-
tions of the Islamic Sharia, have tried to reform the
religious system and reconcile it with the requirements of
the twentieth century. The first attempt of this kind was
that made by the great reformer and thinker Jamal ai-Din
ai-Afghani (1837-1897). He cautioned not to apply this
verse because it is impossible to "deal fairly" if a man
2o
has more than one wife.
At the turn of the century there arose a discussion among
the liberal circles about polygamy, which still stirs a wave
of anger and indignation. Arab writers, such as the
Egyptian writer Nawal al-Sa'dawi and the Moroccan
professor Fatima Marnisi, treated this subject in their
writings, which were no less severe than the European
social studies in the way they criticise society.
As to the legal position of polygamy in the Islamic world, it
now falls under the punishment of law in Turkey and
Tunis. In Egypt a law was passed in 1979 that added
more restrictions on polygamy in preparation to abolish-
ing it altogether. This law had been suggested by the late
president of Egypt, Anwar al-Sadat. The Islamic funda-
mentalists dubbed it "the law of Jihan al-Sadat". This
law stated that a woman can call for divorce once her
husband marries another in case of her being pregnant,
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Po/ygamy
and that she has the right to keep the house, as well. 21
There are some who think that it is disobedience to God,
however, to interpret the verse of polygamy in modern
terms. 22
1· Polygamy was commonplace at the time of Muhammad (Rudi Paret,
Mohammed unci der Koran, p.157). The Gennan theologian Hans KOng, who
was known forhls lenIent approach toward Islam, admlUed that It Is impossible to
reconcile the aur1anic command to practise polygamywlth the moral conceptions
ofthe Christians ofthat day (Hans KUng and Josefvan Ess. Christentum und Ws/t-
rellglonen (GOtersloh, 1987), p.128). Supporters of women's rtghts In the Arab
wor1d In the 1930's tried to Interpret the phenomenon of polygamy In tenns ofthe
theory of evolution in preparation to abolishing It in the modem age.
NaziraZain al-cAbidin. a Druzefrom Lebanon, wrote: "Man wonthls privilege in the
first Islamic age because itwas nextto Impossible to cancel all the rights that they
had Inherited from their fathers all atonce.ItJs worthyotthe Musllmjuristto banish
this regulatlon (havingto wear aveil) altogether. " The positlon ofTahlr al-Haddad is
sImilar to this opinion (ct. Imra'Btuna ff Bl-shan"Ca wa aJ.mujtsma', p.34).
2- al-Tabsrt, 4:232-233.
3- Qasim Amln, Tahriraf.mar'a. Ahmad Shalsbi, allslam (Cairo. 1961), p.244. The
famous SwedIsh orientallst Tor Andrae wrote "Muslim commentators Invented
the theology of Interpretation that makes the Impossible possible" Mohammed,
se'" Leben und seln Glaube (GOltingen, 1932), p.32.
4- Muhammad (All al-5abuni. TafsJr ayat aJ.Quran, 1:428-429. This is the first
detailed argument Muslims use to account for and justify polygamy. See also
Sayyld Qutb, R zYaI alQlr'an (Beirut, 1967), 2:243; Mahmud Shallu~ aHalom
csqlda wa shari's, p.181ff.
5- a1-Sabunl, 1:427.
6- R zlfal aI-Qur'an, 2:247.
7- al-Sabunl,1:429.
B- Ibid. 1:429-430. (Abd al-Wadud Shalabl. Hiwar sarih baina (Abd al-Maslh wa
'Abdfffah (Jidda, 1993), p.240. Welound no trustworthy source supporting this
claim, but It Is obviously e lie to say that Germany permitted polygamyl Those
who are wont to fabricate lies do not stop in their ridiculous arguments at the
boundary of "the state," but some go beyond that, cialmlng that some heretic
sects such as Monnonlsm and Anabaptism allowed polygamy, as though this
polygamy has become a part of the church doctrine (IAbd al-Wadud Shalabi,
p.2361.
- 69-
 Polwamy

9- Ibid. 1:430.
10- al-Aqqad, aWara ff aI-Quren, p.SS.
chapter thirteen
11- Fi zlial al-Quran, 2:247. .
12- Muhammad Rashid Ridhs, Nida Ii sl;jins sl-latif, p.125ff.
Temporary Marriage of Enjoyment
13- Ibld. )( J.m'JUJAnt"JaHin can
14- (Abet al-Wadud Shalabl, eNs/am, p.225; a quote from I lam a y...........
Rabb aJ.ra/amln, 2:84. Marriage of enjoyment (or pleasure) differs from the
15- IAbd al-Wadud Shalabl, al-lslam, p.225.
16- Muhammad Rashid Ridha, N/da If s1-)lns al-latif, p.125.
conventional marriage in that its aim is not having a
17- Ibn Maja, Muqaddlma1. regular marital life and begetting children, but to enjoy
18- Muhammad Ibn 'Abd a1-'Aziz al-Klluli, Miflah alSunna(Calro, 1961), p.4.
11l- al-Bukhari, Nlkah4.
sexual relations in a "legal" way. The man who practises
20- Mahmud Abu RaWa, Jamal aI-D/n a/Afghani (Cairo, 1961), p.90. such a marriage is often someone who spends a long
21. IAbd al-Wadud Shalabl, p.228. ..
22- IA)isha IAbd al-Rahman, af-QurJan wa a/-tatsir al-hadith (Csu'O, 1970), p.57ff. time abroad for any reason, and thus marries a woman
temporarily. The period of marriage is limited to the time
when the husband leaves the country, and then the
marriage is automatically dissolved.

The traditions relating to marriage of enjoyment indicate

that Muhammad warranted such practice for his friends
especially during the raids (maghazi). Yet, (Umar Ibn al-
Khattab strongly opposed it, as he said, "The Messenger
of God permitted mut(a [marriage of enjoyment] three
times, and after that he forbade it. By God, if I find that
anyone practises mut(a, while being married, I will stone
him with rocks, unless he brings me four witnesses that
the Messenger of God permitted it after he had forbidden
it.":!. A tradition in Bukhari claims that he prohibited it. 2
Still, it is a bone of contention between many jurists. It is
narrated that (Imran said, "We practised the tamattu(
[marriage of enjoyment] in the life-time of the Messenger
of God, and then the Qur)an was revealed 3 [regarding
tamattu(] and somebody said what he wished [regarding
the same] according to his own opinion. ,,4

Regardless of the disputes on the details of muta in the

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- 70-
 Temporary Marriage of Enjoyment
Sunni schools of thought, one can say that it is equal to
fornication, yet the Shiites turned it into some sort of
legal marriage. The Suni jurisprudence, however, allows
mut(a, even if it doesn't call it by name. For example, a
man may agree to marry a woman in addition to his
marriage contract, and bind themselves to divorce as
soon as the term they fixed is finished. 5
Since the Suni schools of thought all agreed that mut(a
was cancelled and prohibited on the basis of traditions
narrated about Muhammad,6 we would like to treat the
subject within the Shiite jurisprudence. According to the
Shiites, the legality of mut(a is established in both the
Qur)an and the Hadith, and in the traditions about their
infallible Imams. Their Qur)anic proof is: "and wedded
women, save what your right hands own. So God
prescribes for you. Lawful for you, beyond all that, is that
you may seek, using your wealth, in wedlock and not in
licence. Such wives as you enjoy thereby, give them their
wages apportionate; it is no fault in you in your agreeing
together, after the due apportionate. God is Ali-knowing,
All-wise. Anyone of you who has not the affluence to be
able to marry believing freewomen in wedlock, let him
take believing handmaids that your right hands own; God
knows very well your faith; the one of you is as the other.
So marry them, with their people's leave, and give them
their wages honourably as women in wedlock, not as in
licence or taking lovers. But when they are in wedlock, if
they commit indecency, they shall be liable to half the
chastisement of freewomen. That provision is for those of
you who fear fornication; yet it is better for you to be
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Temporary Marriage of Enjayment
patient. God is All-forgiving AII-compassionate" (Sura al-
Nisa) 4:24,25).
Abu (Abdullah from Ja(far al-Sadiq (the sixth Imam of
Twelver Shiism) narrated the following about nikah of
enjoyment: "God had made it lawful in His Book, and by
the mouth of His Prophet, so it is lawful till the day of
Resurrection." One day Abu Hanifa said, "0 Abu Ja(far,
such as you say that, even though (Umar prohibited and
forbade it?" He replied, "Even if he did so." He said, "I
adjure you by God not to make lawful that which (Umar
has declared prohibited." He answered, "You follow the
saying of your friend [(Umarl, but I follow the saying of the
Messenger of God. What your friend said is untrue."
Then, (Abdullah Ibn (Umar came forward and said, "Does
it go well with you if your wives, daughters, sisters, and
cousins do this?" But Abu Ja(far avoided him when he
mentioned his wives, daughters, and cousins. 7
(Abdurrahman narrated: I heard Abu Hanifa asking Abu
(Abdullah concerning mut(a, for which he answered,
"Which of the two mut(as are you asking about?" He
replied, "I have already asked you concerning the mut(a
of Pilgrimage, now tell about the mut(a of women in
general; is it legitimate?" He answered, "Praise be God!
Have you not read the Book of God Most High? It says,
'Since you have thereby sought enjoyment with them, give
them their marriage portion as is stipulated.''' Abu
Hanifa said, "By God! It is as though I have never read
this verse before.',8
In a tradition ultimately related by (Ali, Abu Hanifa said to
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 Temporary Marrialle of Enjoyment
Ja'far Ibn al-Nu'man, "0 Abu Ja'far, what do you say
concerning mut(a; is it lawful?" He replied, "Yes." He
asked again, "Then what keeps you from commanding
your women to practise it and earn money for you?" Abu
Ja'far answered, "Not all professions are desirable, even
if they were lawful. Certain folk have certain lots in life
and certain social status. But what do you say, Abu
Hanifa, concerning [new sweet wine]; don't you claim that
it is lawful?" He answered, "Yes." Abu Ja'far asked,
"What keeps you then from letting your women stay at
tavems selling wine and earning money for you?" Abu
Hanifa said, "Tit for tat; and your arrow penetrates even
more." The Abu Ja'far said to him, "The verse in Sura al-
Ma'arij [70] speaks of prohibiting mutes, and the tradition
of the Prophet also cancelled it." Abu Ja'far replied,
"Abu Hanifa, Sura al-Ma 'arij is a Meccan Sura, and the
verse pertaining to mutes is Medinan, and your tradition is
anyway doubtful and bad." Abu Hanifa said to him, "The
verse pertaining to inheritance, as well, speaks of
cancelling mut(s." Abu Ja'far answered, "Wedlock has
been already established without inheritance." Abu
Hanifa asked, "Where do you deduce that from?" Abu
Ja'far answered, "If a Muslim man marries a woman of
the people of the Book, and then dies, what do you say
about her?" He answered, "She does not inherit from
him." He said, "See, wedlock is established without
9
inheritance," and they departed.
The Suni schools of thought consider murs as abolished
on the grounds of Sura al-Mu)minun 23:5, which says,
"Believers will succeed! ...who guard their private parts
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Temporary Marriage 0' Enfoyment
except with their spouses and whomever their right hands
may control, since then they are free from blame."
Nevertheless, the Shiites claim that this verse is Meccan
and that it has been revealed before mutes was
aliowed. 10 It seems that the Shiite interpretation is more
in harmony with historical reality, since in many credible
traditions (that the Sunnis hold as genuine) we have
indication of the fact that Muhammad not only allowed
marriage of enjoyment, but commanded his friends to
practise, as well. l l Jabir Ibn 'Abdillah narrated that
"mut(s will remain forever.',12 Ahmad Ibn Hanbal said in
Musnad, "God has given permission for the practice of
mutls, and the Messenger of God made it a law.',13 It is
evident from the stories related about Muhammad's
friends that they had a hard time trying to understand this
permission and adapt it to the morals prevailing at that
time. Such a fact is vouched for by the above-mentioned
statement of 'Umar.
We gather from the Shiite traditions that those who seek
the "enjoyment of women" are bound by no numerical
limitation. Abu 'Ubaid narrated that: He mentioned for
him the mutes [and asked] whether it was one ofthe four
[women]. He answered, "Marry a thousand of them; they
are hired. ,,14 The justification that the Shiites give for the
marriage of enjoyment is strange. They say that it was
warranted for the single man so that he could keep
himself restrained (chaste). Abu al-Fath Ibn Yazid
narrated: I once asked Abu ai-Hasan concerning mutes,
and he answered, "It is lawfully and absolutely warranted
for those who are married, as to those who are not, they
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 TemPOrary Marriage of Er,joyment
should keep themselves restrained by muta, but if the
latter do get married, they are not in need of it, yet it is
still warranted for them .If they are away [from home. ] ,,15
The reference here is made to the phrase " keep
themselves restrained" occurring in Sura al-Nisa) 4:6,
which is utterly irrelevant to the issue of mut(a even
according to the best known and oldest Shiite interpreta-
tions. 1S It is strange also to know that not all women are
fit for mut(al There are conditions and a description that
women have to meet in order to be suitable. The first of
these conditions is that the woman has to be a chaste
believer. Abu Ja(far was once asked conceming mut(a,
and he answered, "mut(atoday is not the same as it was
before; they were believers then, but today they are not,
so ask them.',17 Abu Sara narrated: I asked Abu (Abdillah
about it [meaning mut(aj, and he said to me, "It is lawful;
so only marry a chaste woman, for God Most High said,
'...who guard their private parts' (Sura al-Mulminun
23:5). So do not place your private part where you do
not trust your dirhaml 18 Whoever wants to marry a woman
according to the marriage of enjoyment has to molest her.
If she responds with wantonness, then she is not
chaste.,,1S Muhammad Ibn Abi al-Fudhail narrated: "I
asked Abu ai-Hasan concerning the wanton beautiful
woman; whether it is permissible for a man to enjoy her
for a day or more." He said, "If she was known as a
. d . d ,,20
prostitute, then she should not be enJoye or marne .
As regards the stipulations for mut(a marriage, they are
summed up as follows: Fixed time and fixed hire. Aban
Ibn Taghlib narrated: I said to Abu (Abdillah, "What
·76 -
Temporary Marriage of Enjoyment
should I say to the woman when I am left alone with her?"
He replied, "You should say, 'I marry you for enjoyment
according to the Book of God and the tradition of his
Prophet, knowing that you inherit nothing and no one
inherits from you, for such and such days. And if you like,
for such and such years, for such and such dirhams.' You
should fix the price that you agree upon, whether little or
much. If she says yes, then she accepts; she is your
woman and you are worthy of her." I said, "I am
ashamed to mention the condition pertaining to the
days." He replied, "It is more damaging for you [if you
don't do so]." I asked, "How is that?" He answered,
"Unless you stipulate [the days], your marriage would be
binding, and you will have to pay her alimony during the
days of (idda [40 days after divorce], and she would
inherit from you, and you would not be able to divorce her
except according to the divorce of the Sunna [or
traditionj.' ,21
The jurists say that it is unlawful to enjoy a Jewish or a
Christian woman. AI-Hasan al-Taflis said, "I asked al-
Ridha, 'Can a Jewish or a Christian woman be married for
enjoyment?' He answered, 'Enjoying a free believing
woman is more favourable to me, and she is more
irreproachable than they are.' ,,22
***
·77·
 Temporary Marri<J.lle of Enjoyment

1- Ibn MIlia. Nikah 44. "Th P hat of chapter fourteen

2- W Juynboll, p.228; al-Bukharl, Nlkah 32; Ibn MaJa, Nlkah 44. . a" rop
~d forbade mutts and domestic asses In the year of Kh81bar. Muslims
conquered the valley ofKhaibarln 628 A.D., and there Is 8 tradition thstsays that
Divorce
Muhammad commanded his frtends In the yearofconquerlng Mecca,I.e. 630. to
anjoy woman (Muslim, Nlkah 24).
3~ Sura al-Baqara 2:196.
Divorce, in the terminology of the jurists, is "the abolition
4- al-Bukharl, HEJiJ 35. of the bond of marriage. ,,1 Only the man is entitled to
5- W Juynboll p.228; al-Mabsul, 4:202.
6- al:Hldaya (Cairo, n.d.), 1:195: "Malik Ibn Anas na/Tated: Tha anjoymanl of initiate divorce. Divorce was known in the Arab Peninsula
women remains lawful. but we say that It has been aboOshed by the consensus before the lifetime of Muhammad, and it meant a final
[Uma'] of tha Companions of Muhammad." .
7- Abu Ja'far Muhammad a'Kulinl. a!-Furur mIn af.Kafl(Tahran, 1378), 5.449. and immediate dissolution of the marriage contract. The
8- Ibid. 4:449-450. Qur)an, however, introduced new regulations that were
9- Ibid. 4:450.
10- Ibid. not known to its contemporaries. 2
11- Muslim, Nikah 44.
12- Abu Dawud, Manasik23. The judgments regarding divorce occurring in the sources
13- Ahmad Ibn Hanbal, 2:95.
14- al-Kullnl, 5:452. of fiqh can be summarised as follows: Only the man has
15- ibid. 5;452-453. • I H ba i the right to divorce, and he does not have to give any
16- Abu Ja'far al-Tusl. a~Tlbyan (al-NaJaf. 1975). 3:118. Abu All al-Fad a a rs.
Majma' aI-bayan(Tahran, 1382), 3:9. reasons. 3 Yet it is regarded as abominable, even
17- al-Kulinl, 5:453. forbidden by the Hanafites. The Qur)anic basis for divorce
18- Ibid.
19- Ibid. 5:454. comes in the two verses: "Divorce is [pronounced] twice;
20- Ibid. then honourable retention or setting free kindly" (Sura ai-
21- Ibid. 5;455.
22- Musnadal-lmam al-Rldha (Tehran, 1392),3:273. Baqara 2:229), and "0 Prophet, whenever you [and other
Muslims] divorce women, divorce them when they have
reached their period" (Sura al-Talaq 65:1). As to the
Hadith, we find evidence for the permissibility of divorce
in what (Abdullah Ibn (Umar narrated: that he had
divorced his wife while she was menstruating during the
lifetime of God's Messenger. (Umar Ibn al-Khattab asked
God's Messenger about that. The Messenger of God
said, "Order him [your son] to take her back and keep her
till she is clean and then to wait till she gets her next
period and becomes clean again. Then if he wishes to
keep her, he can do so; but if he wishes to divorce her he
must do so before haVing sexual intercourse with her.
- 79-
- 78-
 DilJOrce
This is the prescribed period [number of days] which God
has fixed for the women meant to be divorced. ,,4
Hanifite jurists hold that divorce can be one of the
following three: excellent, good, or hateful (the one
effected at once). The excellent one is when a man
pronounces his wife divorced one time while she is clean,
having abstained from having intercourse with her since
her previous menstruation, with the intention of remarry-
ing her. The good divorce is when a man pronounces his
wife divorced three times; on the first, the second, and
the third menstruation respectively, while she is clean,
having not had intercourse with her. As to the hateful, or
atypical divorce, it is to divorce one's wife twice or three
times during her menstruation all at once. 5 A free woman
should be pronounced divorced three times, and a
bondwoman twice. Hateful divorce is also permissible. 6
In order for divorce to be effective, no goodwill or proper
prayer are required. It is effected by the man's saying,
"You are divorced," or "I have divorced you," If a man
says, "You are divorced from here till Syria," it is one
revocable pronouncement of divorce. If he says, "You will
be divorced in Mecca [or at Mecca]," her being divorced
will be in effect in all other countries. And if he says,
"You are divorced before I marry you," it will be no
divorce at all. However, if he says, "You are divorced if I
do not divorce you," or "until I divorce you," or "when I
have not divorced you" and she keeps silent, then
divorce is in effect. But if he says, "You are divorced
unless I do not divorce you," or "if I have not divorced
you," she will not be divorced till her death. 7
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DilJOrce
The jurists are in agreement that divorce can be effected
not only through explicit pronouncement, but by implica-
tion or in writing as well. 8 Accordingly, a man can say,
"Start on your legal period," "Cleanse your womb," or
"You are one [time]I" Jurisprudents have gone into detail
in regard to this point. 9 If a man pronounces his wife
divorced one time, he has the right to have her back
during her legal period without her permission. It is
enough for him to say, "I have returned to you," or "I
retain you,',10 It seems that man's right to have his wife
back had been misused during the lifetime of
Muhammad: a man would divorce his wife and "return"
to her before her legal period was over in order to divorce
her afresh, thus forcing her to pay him back the bridal gift
he had given her. This compelled MUhammad to correct
this situation, so that we now read in the Qur)an: "When
you divorce women, and they have reached their term,
then retain them honourably or set them free honourably;
do not retain them by force, to transgress; whoever does
has wronged himself. Take not God's signs in mockeryl
... Fear God, and know that God has knowledge of
everything" (Sura al-Baqara 2:231-232), and "If he
divorces her finally, she shall not be lawful to him after,
until she marries another husband" (Sura al-Baqara
2:230). In confirmation ofthis judgment, the Hadith has it
that: "Rifacah's wife said to the Messenger of God,
"Rifacah divorced me finally, and cAbd ai-Rahman
married me after him. But what he has [namely his
penis] is as [limp as] the border of the garment [this
means he was impotent]." The Messenger of God asked,
'Do you perhaps want to return to Rifa(ah?, She said yes.
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 Dioorce Divorce

But he said, 'No, not until you enjoy intercourse with Often Muslim writers boast about the Islamic law
['Abd ai-Rahman], and he with you.' .. 11 permitting divorce and the jUdgments of divorce. They
claim that Christianity, and its man-made laws that
The Dutch orientalist Juynboll states that Muhammad prohibit divorce except on the basis of adultery, place
meant to provide a settlement for women through the conditions on it that rendered it next to impossible, which
Qur)anic statement "until she marries some husband contradicts human nature.15
other than him [in between]...12
We conclude this chapter with the assertion of al-Aqqad:
"The law of the holy Qur)an includes both the divine and
Jurisprudents of all schools of thought believe that a man the secular aspects of life. All the religious sanctity it
is not obliged to state any reason if he divorces his includes falls under the fact that marriage was supposed
wife. 13 Yet some modern writers and scholars claim the to be stripped of its social and sexual benefit, so that
contrary. AI-Sabuni says, "If all means of reconciliation worship of God should prevail against the wills of the
between the spouses fail, then divorce is inevitable. One spouses.',16
of the necessities that make divorce permissible is
suspicion on the part of the husband of his wife's
behaviour. For example, if he knows that she cheated him
[by committing adultery], will he let her spoil his offspring
and ruin his life, or will he divorce her? There are other
reasons such as impotence or any other sickness that 1- Ibn Abidln 2:415; a/-Mughni, 8:234.
2- "Talaq". Shorter Encyaiopaadia ofisiam (Laldan: E.J. Brill, 1974).
renders it impossible to have an intercourse, any 3- a~khtlyar. 3: 182.
contagious disease that can be transmitted to the other 4- al-Bukhari, raiaq 1-9, Ahkam 13; Muslim, raiaq 44, Radha' 67-70,73; Abu
Dawud, Nikah4, ralaq 1-5; Ibn Maja, ralaq2; al-Dariml, Wudhu'93, raiaq 1; al-
partner, or any of these various similar reasons. God, Muwatla'. ralaq 53; Ahmad Ibn Hanbal, 2:62,63,81: 3:82,62,87.
5- a~khtiyar, 3:162-175.
high to be praised, made it imperative in His law that 6- Ibid. 3: 178.
divorce should be effected over two separate times in 7- Ibid. 3:182-183.
8- Ibid. 3:189; al-Jazlri, 4:321; a/-Mughnl, 8:272.
between two periods of cleansing [from the menstrua- 9- Cf. al-Jaziri, 4:322-332.
tionl, as the holy Tradition indicates. If the husband 10- a~khtlyar, 3:190-191.
11- al-Bukhari, Talaq 3,7,37; Abu Dawud, Talaq 49; al-Nasa'i. Talaq 9; Ibn Maja,
desires to retain her, he can, and if he still wishes to ralaq 32; al-Muwatla', Nikah 17-18; Ahmad Ibn Hanbal, 1:214, 2:25,85,
divorce, he then can effect the divorce finally. Only a 6:42,96,193.
12- W. Juynboll, p.229.
couple that should not remain wedded, for the good of the 13- al-Jazlri, 4:280.
family and their own good, will be divorced after all this 14- al-8aOOnl, 1:344, also Mahmud Shaltu~ a~slam 'aqida we shari'a, p.172.
15- al-Aqqad, a,Mar'a " af.Qur'an, p.l03ff.
consideration and long-suffering...14 16- ibid. p.l05.
- 82- - 83-

chapter fifteen
The Women's Portion 0/ the Inheritance
Inheritance has a close relationship with family law in that
it transfers a dead person's "legacy" to his next of kin.
Determining which one is entitled to inherit (namely the
heirs) depends largely on the family system. According to
pre-Islamic Arabs, men only had the right to inherit. This
had its basis in the patriarchal system, which remains a
feature of the Islamic Sharia. 1
The Qur1anic basis for regulating the laws of the Sharia in
regard to inheritance is found in Sura al-Nisa) 4:11: "God
charges you, concerning your children: to the male the
like of the portion of two females, and if they be women
above two, then for them two-thirds of what he leaves, but
if she be one then to her a half; and to his parents to each
one of the two the sixth of what he leaves, if he has
children; but if he has no children, and his heirs are his
parents, a third to his mother, or, if he has brothers, to
his mother a sixth, after any bequest he may bequeath, or
any debt. Your fathers and your sons- you know not which
out of them is nearer in profit to you. So God apportions;
surely God is All-knowing, AII-wise."
In regard to widows: "And for you a half of what your
wives leave, if they have no children; but if they have
children, then for you of what they leave a fourth, after any
bequest they may bequeath, or any debt. And for them a
fourth of what you leave, if you have no children; but if you
have children, then for them of what you leave an eighth,
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The Women'. Portion of the Inheritance
after any bequest you may bequeath, or any debt" (Sura
al-Nisa I 4:12).
The same rule applies to witnessing; for women appear in
the scale of obligations as "half human", in that they
receive half of what a man does. Yet old commentators,
and some modern Muslim writers as well, claim that this
position is an improvement in the status of women, as
they possessed no inheritance in the pre-Islamic society
until the following was revealed: AI-Suddi narrated, "'God
instructs you concerning your children: a son should have
a share equivalent to that of two daughters'- The people
before Islam used to give neither females nor young boys
any inheritance. A man could not make his son his heir
unless the latter went to war. (Abd ai-Rahman, the brother
of Hassan the poet, died and left behind a woman named
Umm Kuhha, together with five sisters. The heirs came to
take his possessions, so that Umm Kuhha complained to
the Prophet. Thereupon God, may he be blessed and
uplifted, revealed this verse: 'If the women [left behind]
are more than two, then two-thirds of whatever he leaves
belongs to them; yet if there is only one, then she has
half.' Then he said conceming Umm Kuhha: 'while they
[your widows] will have a fourth of anything you leave
provided you have left no child. Should you have a child,
then they will have an eighth.' ,,2
Ibn Abbas narrated: "Both possessions and will
belonged to the parents and the next of kin. God
abrogated of this what He wished, and gave the male a
double portion of the female.',3
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 The Women'. Portion of the Inheritance
The Qur)an seems to have attempted to correct the
position of women in regards to inheritance, but it did not
succeed. We cannot actually expect it to enforce a
complete equality between man and women. Ibn Jarir al-
Tabari, whose commentary ought to be considered the
oldest one to reach us without distortion,is content to
recount the traditions of the revelation of the verse
without commenting on them. But a person who lived in
the same era as al-Tabari found the virtues of man in the
implications of this verse and the things that make him
superior to women. This person is the philosopher and
commentator Fakhr ai-Din al-Razi. He says:
No doubt that the woman is less able than man for
several reasons: Firstly, she is unable to go out and
be seen, since her husband and relative forbid her to
do this. Secondly, she is weaker in mind and gUllible.
Thirdly, whenever she mixes with men, she comes
under accusation. So if her inability is proven to be
more [than man's inability], she should have a bigger
portion of inheritance, but if she is not less able, then
nothing but equality [should do her justice]. What is
the moral in making her portion half the portion of
man?4
AI-Razi answers his question, saying: The answer to this
includes several points: Firstly, women go out less
because man provides for her, and man goes out more
because he is the provider for his wife. Naturally, the one
who goes out more is in greater need of money. Secondly,
man is more complete than women in terms of physical
nature, intelligence and religious position; such as
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The Women'. Portion of the Inheritance
competence for jUdgment and leadership. Also the
testimony of a woman is half the testimony of a man.
Under such circumstances, men should be favoured with
a bit more. Thirdly, woman is deficient in intelligence and
given to much lust, thus if she is given a lot of money, her
corruption will be great. The poet said: "Emptiness,
youth and newness are all a great corruption to a
person." God said, "Man [that is mankind] waxes
insolent, for he thinks himself self-sufficient, ,,5 yet the
condition of man is otherwise. Fourth, owing to the
perfection of his intelligence, man expends money on
commendable things in this life, and [things worthy of] a
generous reward in the afterlife; such as assisting
relations, aiding the needy, and supporting orphans and
widows. Man is able to do all this because he mixes with
people a lot, whereas the woman does not necessarily do
so, and hence her inability.6
Finally, al-Razi, who is known for his intellectual
interpretation of the Qur'an, brings up a tradition proving
that the Qur'anic rule for the inheritance of women is
somehow an eternal one: It was narrated that Ja(far al-
Sadiq, the sixth Imam of the Shiites, was asked regarding
this issue. He answered, "Eve took a handful of wheat
and ate it. She took another handful and hid it, and
another one she gave to Adam. When she made her
portion two times the portion of man, God turned the
matter against her, and thence the portion of woman has
become half the portion of man.,,7 AI-Nasafi says, "The
verse, 'God instructs you concerning your children: a son
should have share equivalent to that of two daughters,'
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 The Women'. Portion of the Inheritance
refers to when there are a son and two daughters in the
family; then [the son) gets two shares, and the daughters
each get a share. Yet when there is only a son or two
daughters, the son gets all the money and the two
daughters get two-thirds. ,,8
The Qur)an itself, however, is in desperate need of reform
in this regard owing to the great progress humanity has
made inequality between the sexes. This is the problem
of the Muslim jurist or thinker today. As a Muslim he
thinks that his holy Book was brought down (unzila) from
Heaven and is authored by Allah. Therefore he cannot
afford to admit any fault or failure in it; he is rather
obliged to defend it against what people call "the insult
to woman". So he claims that what people call an insult
to woman, is in fact an honour to her. "There are still
some people today who consider the humanity of woman
to be less than the humanity of man, and that because of
this her portion in inheritance and testimony are half that
of the man's. They say that this is the judgment that the
ancestors passed, borne out by the Qur)an: "To the male'
the like of the portion of two females" (Sura al-Nisa)
4:11), and "If the two be not men, then one man and
two women" (Sura al-Baqara 2:282).9 The truth is that
woman's share of inheritance is not based on the
supposition that her humanity is less than that of the
man, but is based on woman's nature and public Iife. 10
The weak point of Shaltut, and of the rest of modern
scholars and jurists interested in justifying verses of the
Qur)an that cannot be reconciled with the modern age, is
that they assume circumstances that can only exist under
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The Women'. Portion of the Inheritance
the Islamic Sharia. So when Shaltut speaks of the
woman's role in public life, he means that she is not
capable of providing for her family and, thus, increases
the burden placed on her husband. Finally, Shaltut
considers that "on this basis, a woman is more fortunate
than man in the Islamic point of view" because she is
able to keep her entire share of an inheritance for herself,
while a man must use his share to support hi.s family.ll
***
1- W. Juynboll, p.237.
2- al-Tabari, 4:275; Fakhr ai-Din al-Razi, 9:203; Ibn Kathir, 1:467.
3- al-Tabarl,4:276.
4· ai-RIm, 9:207.
5- Sura al-IAlaq 96:6.
6- ai-RIm, 9:207.
7- ai-RIm, 9:207.
8- Madarik al-tanzil, on the margin of Majma( aJ.Tafasir{lstanbul, n.d.), 2:19.
9- al-Tabarl, 4:27; al-Razi, 9:203.
10- Mahmud Shaltut, al-lslam laqida wa shari(a, p.237-238.
11- ibid. p.238. One can find similar excuses in the new writings. Muhammad Rashid
Ridha daims, for example that, "The moral in making the portion of the woman
half the portion of the man is that the Islamic law requires man to support the
woman; thus the woman's portion is equal to that of the man at times, and more
than it at others, depending on the si1uation" (Nida Ii al-jins al-Iatif, p.11. Salih, al-
Hidad /Pm ""at a>Haddad.)
- 89-

chapter sixteen
The Legal Testimony of Women
In Islam, a woman's testimony is worth half the testimony
of a man's, as both the Qur)an and the Hadith state. The
Qur)an says, " .. ,if the two be not men, then one man and
two women, such witnesses as you approve of, that if one
ofthe two women errs the other will remind her.. ." (Sura
al-Baqara 2:282). Muhammad accounted for this rule by
the deficiency of woman's intelligence: Once the
Messenger of God went out to a prayer place to offer
the prayer of Greater Bairam or Lesser Bairam, He
passed by the women and said, "0 womenl Give alms,
as I have seen that the majority of the dwellers of Hell- fire
were you [women]." They asked, "Why is it so,
Messenger of God?" He replied, "You curse frequently
and are ungrateful to your husbands. I have not seen
anyone more deficient in intelligence and religion than
you. A cautious sensible man could be led astray by some
of you." The women asked, "What is deficient in our
intelligence and religion, Messenger of God?'" He
answered, "Is not the evidence of two women equal to
the witness of one man?" They replied in the affirmative,
He said, "This is the deficiency in your intelligence, Isn't
it true that a woman can neither pray nor fast during her
menses?" The women replied in the affirmative. "This is
the deficiency in her religion," he said: 1
Commentators quote this hadith to support the fact that
the woman's testimony, in Islam, is worth half of man's
testimony. 2 The commentator Fakhr al-Razi speaks of the
- 90-
The Legal Te.tlmony 0' Women
"forgetfulness of woman" referring to her being "damp
and cold in essence".3
Ibn Qayyim al-Jawzi justifies the import of Sura al-Baqara
2:282 by saying:
Our leading scholar Ibn Taymiyya, may God show
mercy upon him, said, "The divine instruction, 'If
there are not two men [available], then one man and
two women [may serve] as witnesses from anyone you
may approve of, so that if either of them should slip
up, then one woman may remind the other,' indicates
that the testimony of two women in the place of one
man is for the purpose of reminding one another in
case one of them slips up. In fact, people usually slip
up in such matters. The Prophet referred to this when
he said, 'As to the deficiency of their intelligence, the
witness of two women are equal to the witness of one
man.' Thus he made it clear that dividing their
testimony after such a manner is due to the deficiency
of their intelligence, not of their religion, Thus it is
known that 'The righteousness of women is the same
as that of men, nevertheless, their intelligence is less
than theirs.' So in such matters as bearing witness,
slipping up is not to be feared usually. Women's
testimony is treated in this respect as having half the
value of men's; their testimony is accepted sepa-
rately. It depends on things they see, touch, or hear
with no need for much intelligence. Conception, the
beginning of the month, giving birth, menstruation, or
defects under a dress, these are not easily forgotten
and it does 'lot need a perfect mind to recognise
- 91-
 'The Legal Te8timony of Women
them, like the meanings of the sayings that they listen
to [for instance, the confession of faith, etc...] which
have sensible meanings and have long been used in
general."4
One of the issues subject to heated debate is when
should the testimony of a woman be valid. There are
traditions affirming that (Umar Ibn al-Khattab and (Ali Ibn
Abi Talib said that a woman's testimony in matters like
divorce, marriage and hudud (punishments set by the
Qur)an, such as cutting off a thief's hand) has no
consideration whatsoever. 5 As to the deficiency of
intelligence referred to in the Hadith, it is not meant (as
the expositor of al-Bukhari claims) as a reproach to them,
as it is inborn, but the emphasis on the point serves as a
waming against being allured by them. 6
The old expositors observed (in the texts treating the
testimony of the woman in Qur)an and Hadith) the
deficiency of woman's intelligence, and argued in many
ways that this is true. They said that it is due to the
abundance of humidity in her disposition or the origin of
her creation. Modern Muslims, however, try to interpret
and justify the texts .. scientifically". It seems that
Muhammad (Abduh and his disciple Muhammad Rashid
Ridha are of the few who refer the Qur)an's demand for
two women in place of one man to the fact that woman
was not specialised in a specific field of practical life,
rather than deficiency of her intelligence. The issue is her
weak memory when it comes to things that are not a part
of her field of specialisation, such as financial transac-
tions and commerce?
- 92-
'The Legal Testimony of Women
Some trying to escape the accusation of being primitive
or woman-haters emphasise that women are under the
influence of emotions, unlike men, which God kindly took
into consideration. Take, for instance, what al-Aqqad
said:
The crux of the problem oftestimony is justice and the
protection of rights and interests, which has condi-
tions based upon principles and the insurance of
precaution on a proper basis. The principle that
concems us here is the prevention of interference of
emotions, when the emotions dictate in cases of love,
hate, and the relationship between relatives and
strangers. It is not a just judge who, when faced with
this principle, equates the two sexes in terms of their
response to the senses. The principle a just judge
should observe here, out of concern for people's
rights, is to know that women cannot control their
emotions as men do, and that he should stand for
protecting the truth and stopping injustice. He is not
allowed to make this a cause for gaining a greeting or
a compliment from some clubs. In the past, people
used to indulge themselves in these kinds of
greetings and compliments in a certain sector of
society, while all the other sectors were permeated
with all sorts of grotesque injustice to powerless men
and women. s
The belief that woman is controlled by emotions, which is
supposed to make her less fair and objective, has
become the favourite argument given by Muslim jurists
and writers at the present time. 9 Shaltut, for example,
- 93-
 The Legal 78atimon)' o( Women
speaks of cases when only the testimony of men is
supposed to be accepted. These are the cases that
arouse a woman's uncontrollable emotions. Yet, they are
of the opinion that a woman's testimony can be accepted
in cases concerned with [the shedding of] blood, if this is
the only way that guarantees the truth and if the judge
trusts her. There are some, however, who accept her
testimony in both cases.:!.O Sayyid Qutb refers the
"slipping up" of woman (Sura al-Baqara 2:282) to many
causes:
This may have arisen from inexperience in the sUbject
of contract, which may cause her not to comprehend
all its details, to the extent that the matter won't be
as clear in her mind. It may arise from the impulsive
nature of the woman, because the biological function
of motherhood is certainly apt to put a psychological
demand on the woman, while bearing witness to a
contract in [such] transactions requires a great
amount of freedom from impulse.:L:L
1- al-Bukharl, Haidh 6; Muslim, /man 132; Abu Oawud, Sums 15; al-Tlnnidsl, Iman
6; Ibn Maja, Alan 19; Ahmad Ibn Hanbal. 2:67.
2- al·Razi. 7:113; Ibn Kathlr, 1:335.
3- al-Razi, 7:113.
4- Ibn Qayylm al-Jawziyya, a~Turuq aIIlukmlwa (Cairo, 1961), p.175,
5- ibid. p.179.
6- al.Qastalanf, Jrshad af...sarl Ii sham Sah/h aJ.Bukharl(Bulaq, 1305 AH.), 1:340.
7- a/-Manar, 2nd ad. (Beirut. n.d,), 3:124; Mahmud Shallut, a/-lslam 'aqlda wa
shsrita, p.340.
6- al-Aqqad, al-Mar'a .a/-lslam, p.77.
9- Ibid. Mahmud Shallut, a/-lslam 'aqlda ws shari'a, p.241. Sayyld Qutb, A zlla/a~
Qur'sn 8th ed., (Bell1J~ 1979), 1:334. 'All Shalaq, a~TBtawwura~ts'rikhlll-8wdha'
al-marJa aJJarabiyya (an article by the author included In al-MarJa wa dawruha fi
harskBt a/-wshdat sI-'arsblyys.) (Bail1J~ 1996), p.22.
10- Shaltut, Mahmud, sUs/am laqldawashan1a, p.241.
11· A zlial sI-Qur'an, 1:336.
- 94-
chapter seventeen
The Position of Concubines in Islam
Islam admits that man has the right to possess
concubines along with his wife, or wives, to fulfil his
sexual needs. Islam presents a number of women that a
Muslim man cannot marry, but .it excludes "the ones
under the control of one's right hand" from this list:
"Forbidden to you [in marriage] are your mothers and
[own] daughters, your sisters, your aunts paternal and
maternal, your brother's daughters, your sister's ... and
[already] wedded women, save what your right hands
own. So God prescribes for you. Lawful for you, beyond all
that, is that you may seek, using your wealth, in wedlock
and not in licence. Such wives as you enjoy thereby, give
them their wages apportionate; it is no fault in you in your
agreeing together, after the due apportionate. God is All-
knowing, AII·wise" (Sura al·Nisa) 4:23,24).
We read in the commentary of al-Tabari that "the ones
under your [right hand's] control" refer to the women
captives that have been separated from their husbands
through their captivity, thus becoming lawful for anyone
under the control of whose right hand she may fall without
any divorce from her first husband.:!. Abu Qulaba narrated,
regarding the verse "Nor [should you marry] any [already]
married women, except the ones under your [right hand's]
control. Every married woman is unlawful for you except
any concubine you possessed while she was already
married to a husband on the battlefield; she is lawful for
you as long as you give her time to be cleansed.',2 He
- 95-
 The Position of Concubines in Islam
also said, when asked about the meaning of the verse
that allows a man to have intercourse with a woman
captive even though she is married,3 that this interpreta-
tion is based, no doubt, on the traditions of Muhammad
regarding captive women. Abu Sa(id al-Khudri narrated:
"On the day of Hunain, the Messenger of God sent a
detachment to Awtas. They arrayed for the battle, fought
them, conquered them and took some women captives
from them. Yet, some of the friends of the Messenger of
God were hesitant [to have sex with them) on account of
their unbelieving husbands. Then God revealed: 'Nor
[should you marry) any [already] married women.' ,,4
Some other commentators interpret "except the ones
under your [right hand's) control" as being the women of
the people of the Book. 5 Al-Tabari comments on the
verse: "This should include all the married women,
whether their marriage is considered according to us as
valid or not, in which case if we marry them we will be
committing fornication; except those whom we buy and
keep under the control of our right hands as the Book of
God permits, or those whom we are allowed to marry
according to the same. The women that God permitted us
to marry are all free women except those who are
forbidden us owing to close family relation or relationship
by marriage. Of the concubines, all those we capture from
the enemy [are permitted us], except the ones who fall
under the category of those who are illegal for us to marry
and the married women of the people of the Book.
Capturing these women makes them lawful for the
captors after they have been purified and after having
brought the truth of God out.',6
- 96-
The Position of Concubines in Islam
Since the relationship between a man and concubines
has nothing to do with the issue of marriage, and they
theoretically don't have the rights and competence that
free women enjoy, we don't find a separate chapter on
them in the sources of jurisprudence. This can be
explained by the fact that they aren't regarded as
persons, but as possessions belonging to their owner,
as was the case in the Old Testament. 7 Therefore, they
cannot marry their owners legally. Yet, a slave-owner has
the right to marry his female slave off without her
permission- he then acts as her owner, not her guardian.
As for the children of that slave, they are slaves like their
mother, whether their father is a freeman or a slave, since
they belong to their mother's owner. It is true that the
Sharia allows a Muslim to enjoy [sexual relations with] all
his slave women, provided that they be Muslims [or of the
people of the Book) and unmarried, yet it emphasises the
great difference between this kind of marriage and regular
legal marriage. As long as the man remains the owner of
the slave woman, they argue, this same right of owner-
ship prevents him from marrying her. If he wants to marry
her, he has to pay her a marriage dowry (sadaq). As to
children of the slave from her owner, they are as free as
the other children of the man in all respects. s A man has
the right to marry someone else's slave, if she is a
believer, as long as her owner approves of it. The Sharia,
however, places additional conditions on this sort of
marriage, since the children coming from this marriage
have no freedom. 9
- 97-
 The Position of Concubines in Islam

1-
2-
al-Tabarl,5:1.
Ibid. 5:2.
chapter eighteen
3- Ibid.
4- al-Bukharl, Nikah 12,24,60, Maghazi38; al-Tinnldsi, Mab22; Abu Oawud, Mob How a Man Should Discipline his Wife
124; Muslim, Radha' 33; Abu Oawud, Nikah 44.
5- al-labari,5:6.
6- Ibid. 5:7-8. T I The permission to beat a woman in the case of
7- Encyclopaedia of Islam (EI) (Lelden, 1934), vol.1, p.17ff. The Old eslamen
says about slaves: "Your male and female slaves are to come from the nations
rebelliousness is based on the Qur1an and the Hadith.
around you; from them you may buy slaves. You may al~ buy some of the "Admonish those women whose rebelliousness you fear,
temporary residents living among you and members of theIr clans born In your
counby and they will become your property. You can will them to your children and leave them alone in their beds, and [even] beat them
as inherited property and can make them slaves for life, but you must not rule [if necessary]. If they obey you, do not seek any way [to
over your fellow Israelites ruthlessly" (Leviticus 25:44-46 In the NIV).
8- EI, vol.1, p.18. This, at least, should be considered a g~at impro.vement on the proceed] against them" (Sura al-Nisa l 4:32). Modern
position of male and female slaves. In comparison With their situation before jurists and writers have done their best to weaken this
Islam, since at that time the children of the slave woman from a free fatherwould
follow the state of their mother and remain slaves. verse by interpreting "rebelliousness" as disobedience
9- W. Juynboll, p.234ff. and adultery, where beating would be the last means a
man can resort to in order to keep the woman from
committing that heinous deed. 1 The old jurists and
commentators, however, were more realistic and frank.
Al-Shafi(i, for example, holds that a man has the right to
beat his wife, but abstaining from it (namely from beating)
is better. 2 The other verse that is used to prove the
permissibility of beating is Sura Sad 38:44, "'Take in thy
hand a bundle of rushes, and strike [your wife] therewith,
and do not fail in thy oath.' We found him a steadfast
man. How excellent a servant he wast He was a
penitent." The person spoken of here is the prophet Job.
Qatada narrated: "Job's wife disobeyed him. So the
prophet of God (Job) swore that he would give her a
hundred lashes if God healed him. ,,3 AI-Jassas says,
"There is an indication in this verse that a man can beat
his wife for the sake of discipline, otherwise Job wouldn't
have sworn to beat ~er, and God wouldn't have
commanded him to do so after he had sworn. In addition
- 98- - 99-
 How a Man Should Discipline hi. Wlf.
to mentioning and permitting beating women in the
Qur)an on the grounds of rebelliousness (in the verse that
says, "Admonish those women whose rebelliousness
you fear... beat them"), the story of Job indicates that
she could be beaten for a reason other than rebellious-
ness. The verse that says, "Men are the managers ofthe
affairs of women," (Sura al-Nisa l 4:34) means the same
as the story of Job. This is because it was narrated that a
man beat his wife during the lifetime of Muhammad, and
her family wanted a requittal. So God revealed, "Men are
the ones that should be in charge of women because
some have been favoured more than others. ,,4 The judge
Ibn al-IArabi says, "The command to beat here is a
permissive one." He also refers to the aversion it
involves: Muhammad said, "I hate that a man beats
his female slave when in anger, and perhaps has
intercourse with heron the same day. ,,5
Beating should not be intense (mubarrih), as the jurists
proved from the hadith pertaining to the permissibility of
beating women. Sulayman Ibn IAmr Ibn al-IAhwas
narrated: "Ubai told me that he witnessed the address
of departure of the prophet. He thanked God and praised
him, and started preaching, saying, "I command you
good-will for your wives, for they are captives to you that
do not own anything, unless they commit a manifest
obscenity [or adultery]. If they do [commit itj, then God
has given you permission to leave them alone in their
beds and give them a bearable beating. ,,6 A1-Sabuni says
that this saying of Muhammad indicates that it is
permitted to beat a woman for reasons of chastity (or
-100 -
How a Man Should Discipline hle Wife
decency). 7 As to the point that beating should not be
intense or painful, it means "that you should not break
her bones or leave a bruise. ,,8 In spite of the fact that
there are many hadiths that relate how hateful it is to beat
women,9 it seems that the jurists and the expositors in all
ages (even in our days) chose the traditions that permit
and prefer disciplinary punishment of women; such as "A
man should not be asked why he beats his wife",10 which
is now quoted frequently by the majority.
There is still a difference of opinion, however, among
scholars about the definition of "rebelliousness," which
gives a man the right to resort to beating as a last means.
"Most jurists define legal rebelliousness [nushuz], which
allows a man to beat his wife in order to remove that
rebelliousness, in certain ways, such as disobeying a
man in bed, and going out of the house without his
permission. Some consider a woman's abstaining from
ornaments, provided that the man wants it, as rebellious-
ness. They say, 'He may also beat her for neglecting her
religious duties; such as ablution, praying.. .' It appears
that rebelliousness is a general thing that includes all
sorts of disobedience caused by recalcitrance and
disdain.',l1 It is strange that jurists consider beating
women as a legal means of forcing them to have
intercourse. It is stranger still that Muslim writers in the
twentieth century try to justify this weird apology by the
alleged discoveries of psychology in Europe. Antagonism
to women and blind bigotry caused one of them (Who
claimed to be quoting a European scholar) to assert that
"woman takes pleasure in being controlled by the man
-101-
 How a Man Slwuld mscipline hi8 Wife
due to her instinctive obedience to him. The more he
beats her, the more she admires him! Nothing saddens a
woman more than having a husband who is always kind
and loving.,,12 Muhammad Zaki (Abd al-Qadir says that
"women like difficult men, who can break their [the
women's] will by their own will. Even though they
scream... in their heart of hearts they feel the pleasure
of their weakness against the strength of their men.,,13 A
few years ago, a progressive professor wrote that
"beating should be [used] when a woman indulges in
rebelliousness, spreading misery in her home, to her
children and relatives, and to her husband. No one should
think that beating has a brutal aspect, as there are
women who beat their husbands, and others do not allow
their husbands to approach them [physically] except after
they have given them a thrashing, to cause them to bleed.
This has been pointed out by psychological studies on
perversion.,,14
Imam Muhammad (Abduh attacks the so-called
"imitators of the west who disdain the legality of beating
women but do not feel the same way about the woman
who snubs her husband and treats him haughtily, putting
him under her thumb, even though he is the head of the
house." He asks, "What corruption is it that will spread
on earth when a righteous man is permitted to reduce the
arrogance of a certain woman and bring her down from
her conceited rebelliousness by beating her hand with a
stick or slapping her on the face? If this is too much for
their ethics, then their ethics have become refined to the
point of nonexistence. In fact, many of their western
-102 -
How a Man Should Discipline hi, Wife
leaders beat their cultured, educated wives, whether
dressed or naked. This has been practised by their wise
men, scholars, kings, and princes, since it is a necessity
that the majority of people cannot do without in honouring
these educated women. How then could a necessity in a
general religion, which suits both rural and urban
societies and all sorts of people, be condemned?,,15
The great reformer Muhammad (Abduh adds: "The
legality of beating women is not reprehensible, as far
as reason and instinctive nature are concerned, so that it
would need explanation. This is a needful procedure when
the environment and morals are corrupt. It is permitted
when the woman's return from her rebelliousness
depends on it. But if the environment is good and women
are receptive to advice and responsive to admonition, or
give up [their evil ways] when deserted, then beating
should be done away with. Each case has a judgment that
suits it in the [Islamic] legislation, and, at any rate, we are
instructed to be lenient and fair with women, and to retain
them with decency or send them away with decency. The
hadiths that speak of the instructions dealing with women
are numerous,',16
Scholars are painstaking in emphasising that not all
women should be beaten. There are women (the majority)
who do not need to be disciplined by beating. Yet, some
say there is a divine wisdom in beating women, otherwise
the Qur)an wouldn't have given it as a solution to family
problems. This last point makes it impossible for a
Muslim to reject beating utterly, so the Muslim is at a
loss, not knowing how to defend or justify it. He may
-103 -
 How a Man Should Dl8clpllne hi. Wlf.
justify it by the usage of beating as disciplinary punish-
ment in the military and in schools, or compare beating
with wars that keep order in the world!
There are others, still, who try to break with marital
rights and try to lift themselves above the head of the
house and reject the dictates of their own nature.
These lay marital life open to deterioration and decay;
therefore the Qur)an laid out for such women two
familiar ways of correction and discipline to curb them
and bring them back to their natural position. Civilised
Muslims have misunderstood this sort of remedy and
described it as a dry desert-like remedy that doesn't
suit civilisation, which demands that honour and
respect be paid to the wife.
Islam was not intended for a certain generation,
region, or environment. It is a guidance and a
legislation to all generations, regions, and environ-
ments. In fact, physical punishment for deviates and
perverts, who do not learn by exhortation or abandon-
ment, is required by natural instinct and is determined
by the social system.
Nature has handed this [practice) down from father to
son, as it has handed it down among the nations to
the rulers. But for it,· no family or nation would live
right. Physical wars, which are based on weapons of
iron and fire between civilised nations at the present
time, are only an example of this disciplinary punish-
ment that awaits aggressors. The divine laws perceive
the phenomenon of war and fighting as follows: 'If one
-104 -
How a Man Should Discipline hi. Wife
of them should oppress the other, then fight the one
who acts oppressively until they comply with God's
commandment,' and 'If God did not defend [lit. push)
some men by means of others, the earth would be
ruined; but God possesses bounty [for everybody in]
the universe:
Again, the truth is that those who are reluctant about
the legislation of the Qur)an in this respect only flatter
the emotions of a specific environment of women that
we and everybody know. Such people pretend in their
presence that they are keen on protecting women's
honour and dignity, and on putting her on a level that
displays her in an extraordinary way.17
The writer and philosopher Abbas Mahmud al-Aqqad does
not lag behind the great reformer Imam Muhammad
(Abduh in his arguments; he is even more forthright and
gives more illustrations. He thinks it is right for a man to
beat his wife when he is angry, to correct whatever
mistake she makes. "Beating is not always a positive
thing [to do] in every case and with every woman. Yet,
beating is permitted since some women accept discipline
only through it. The objections to beating made on the
part of modern-day pedantics should be treated as a
skirmish in political manoeuvers, not as a real discussion
of the affairs of life and morals. There is only one
consideration that validates the objection to beating as a
punishment. Since God did not create women to be
disciplined by beating, when nothing else seems to work.
Anyone holding this view is oblivious to the fact that
beating is approved as a disciplinary measure in the army
-105 -
 How a Man Should Discipline hi. Wife
and at school. So [this action is taken against] soldiers
and pupils, whom we honour and respect, assuming the
objection hinges on honour and respect. The superiors of
these [soldiers and pupils] have more means of physical
and moral punishment, deprivation and reward, that
husbands do not have in the limited domain of the
home.,,18
AI-Aqqad's thoughts concerning beating women can be
summarised by this statement: TherE~ are some women
among them that cannot be disciplined except by beating;
and there are even some neurotics who crave beating just
as some patients crave some sorts of torture. The
following is a quotation from the same author:
Women themselves may make fun of these babblers
[he means women's rights activists] who are only at
home at parties and in nightclubs. Women know for
sure that beating a disobedient and rebellious wife is
not as appalling as it is claimed to be in the
nightclubs and parties. There might be some elegant
ladies who frequent those places of amusement who
know more about this than the '1adies' men" with
their false "courtesy". They know, as others also do,
that those women do not hate it [beating] or think it
evil. 19
Mr Ahmad Shalabi has the same difficulty in under-
standing the oppol'ents of beating women "especially
since beating is flpplied as a means of correction and
disciplinary punishment o!lly when it will bring about good
results. It is ridiculous to imagine that there is no member
-106 -
How a Man Should Di8cipline hi. Wife
of mankind who is not capable of being corrected by
being beaten. Or why don't those people object to the
punishment of beating in the armyT 20 We don't know
what they might say if they knew that the punishment of
beating has now been cancelled from the army and from
schools in some countries, and that modern psychology
has proved that beating does not rehabilitate the
mentality of a person, but ruins it, whether the victim is
a child or a woman!
......
1- al-Manar, 5:71ff. Mahmud Shaltut. aUs/am (aqida wa shari(a, p.166. Fi zilal al-
Qur'an, 2:654ff. al-Sabunl, 2:433ff.
2- al-ShaS'I. Kftab aWmm (Bulaq, 1322),5:100,101. Fakh' al·Rali, 10:9.
3- al-labaM,23:169.
4- Abu BakI Ibn '/>Ji al-Jassas. Ahkam 81-Qur'an (Cairo, 1347), 3:471ff. al-Sabuni,
2:433.
s.. al-Jassas 1:240. The hadith occurs also In al-Bukharl, Tafslr al-Shams 91:1;
Muslim. )anna49; al-Tlnnldsl, Tafsir al-Shams 91; Ibn Mala, N/kah 51: al~Darlmi,
Nlkah 34; Ahmad Ibn Hanbal, 4:17.
6· Muslim, Hajj 137; al-llnn/dsl, Radha' 11, 7atsir ai-Tawba 9:2; Abu Dawud,
Manasik 56; Ibn Mala, N/kah 3, Manasik 84; al-Darimi, Manasik 34; Ahmad Ibn
Hanbal. 5:73.
7- al-Sabunl.5:73.
8- al-labaM,5:68-69.
9- For example: Until when will you beat your women as though you are beating
II
slaves? Perhaps you have intercourse with them at the end of the day" (see also
footnote number 5). It is also narrated that Muhammad said, "Do not beat the
slava. of God" (Ibn Mojo, Nikah 51).
-107 -
 How a Man Should Dl8c1p/lne hi. Wife
10- Abu D8W\ld, Nikah42; Ibn Maja, Nlkah51.
11- a~ar, 5:76.
12- Shalabl, p.235, a quotation from ef.Mar'a naJ./slam, by Kamal Ahmad 'Awn.
chapter nineteen
13- Shalabl, p.236.
14- 'All Shalaq. aJ.7atawwur aJ.ta'rlkhlll-awdha' aJ.rna~a aJ.'arab1»'B. (In al-Ma,'a W8
Women in Hell and Paradise
daWllJha n ha"'kat aJ.wahdat aJ.'arablyya., Balrut 1966), p.23.
15- a!-Manar, 5:75.
16- ibid. Muslims often repeat the Hadith that says: "Paradise is
17- Shaltut, Mahmud, a/-ls/am 'aqlda W8 Shart's, p.162-165.
111· al-Aqqad, a!-Fa/safa aJ.Qu~aniwa, p.75. under the feet of mothers," in order to prove the high
19- ibid. 76.
20- Shalabi, p.236. position women enjoy in Islam. It is very hard to tell
whether this tradition is true or not (it has not been found
in trustworthy writings). Yet, we have a number of Hadiths
that occurred in the major acceptable books of Hadith (al-
_-;o==~"';: __- --
Sihah) indicating that women are the smallest minority in
paradise. 'Aran Ibn Husain narrated that the prophet
said, "I looked about in paradise and found that the poor
constitute most of its dwellers, and I looked about in hell
and saw that women constitute most of its dweliers.":I.
Abu Huraira narrated: "We were at his place
[Muhammad's] and the people either boasted or re-
minded one another. He said, 'Men in paradise are more
than in hell.' .. 2 A weak hadith tells us: "Out of 99
women, one is in paradise and the rest are in hell.',3
Muhammad explains why by saying: "I have seen you
being the majority in hell because you curse frequently
and are ungrateful to your husbands... 4 (Abdullah Ibn
(Amr narrated: "0 womenl Give alms and ask pardon
[from God] frequently, as I have seen that the majority of
the dwellers of hell were you." One of them asked, Why,
Messenger of God, are we t,t-Je majority of the dwellers of
hell?' He replied, 'You curs~ frequently and are ungrateful
to your husbands. I have r.ot seen anyone more deficient
in intelligence and re'igio:1 than yoU.' .. 5 Imara Ibn
Huzaima narrated: "While we were with (Amr Ibn al-(As
-108 - -109 -
 Women In Hell and Paradl..
on a pilgrimage or an (Umra, he said, "While we were
with the Messenger of God in this mountain path, he
said, 'LookI Do you see anything?' We answered, We
see ravens; one is white-footed with red legs and peak.'
The Messenger of God said, 'No woman will enter
paradise unless she is like this raven in comparison to
the rest of the ravens.' ,,6 A rare hadith has it that
Muhammad said, "A believing woman is the same
among women as a white-footed raven among the ravens.
Rre has been created for the senseless, and women are
the most senseless of all.',7 AI-Imam al-Qurtubi is said to
give the following to explain the allegation that women are
a minority among the dwellers of paradise: "Women are
the least [in number] among the dwellers of paradise due
to their inclination to passion, the passing enjoyments of
life, and indifference to the afterlife; which is all caused
by the deficiency of their intelligence and gullibility,"S
If we take into consideration the hadiths concerning the
dwellers of paradise the proportion of men to women will
change drastically since they state that the dwellers of
paradise will inherit their wives and concubinesl Abu
Umama narrated: "The Messenger of God said,
'Everyone that God admits into paradise will be married
to 72 wives; two of them are houris9 and seventy of his
inheritance of the [female] dwellers of hell. All of them will
have libidinous sex organs and he will have an ever-erect
penis.' ,,10
The sayings of Muhammad make it clear that the believer
will be given special sexual power in paradise. Anas
narrated: In paradise the believer will be given the power
-110 -
Women in Hell and Paradise
of such and such for intercourse. The Messenger of God
was asked, "Will he be able to bear that?" He answered,
"He will be given the power of a hundred [men), ,,11 In
Muhammad's imagination, the believer will not only be
favoured with wives and concubines, but also "if he
desires children they will be conceived for him, born, and
grow teeth in one hour as he desires.',12 This point,
however, is debatable. Some scholars hold that there will
be intercourse in paradise but there will be no giving birth
to children. Ishaq Ibn Ibrahim narrates: "If a believer
desires a child in paradise, he will have it at once, but he
won't desire so." Some attribute to Muhammad that he
said, "The dwellers of paradise will have children
there,,,13
Another hadith says" men will enter into paradise after a
short conversation with God. They will go to their dwelling-
places where their wives will welcome them, Their wives
will ask them about the secret of their glamorous beauty
which they did not possess before they left their dwelling-
places. They will answer them, saying that they have sat
down with their Lord, and therefore they have the right to
it. ,,14 There are many other hadiths emphasising the
continuity of marital life in paradise, or the enjoyment of
the [male] believers with the male and female slaves. So
if Muhammad claims, in spite of the stories he related
concerning the large number of wives and concubines in
paradise, that women are the least among the dwellers of
paradise, the reason would be that their men perished in
hell because they were enticed by them [the women].
Muhammad said, "But for the woman, man would have
-111-
 Women in Hell and Paradlse
entered paradise,,,iS and also, "Obeying them is [the
cause of] their destruction. "i6
1- al-Bukhari, Bad cal-khalq8. Kusuf 9, Riqaq 15,16; Muslim, Kusuf 17, Dsikr 94;
ai-Tirmldsl, Jahannam 11; al-Nasall, Kusuf17; Muwatla), Kusuf12. Scholars are
in disagreement about the time and the way Muhammad looked about in
paradise and hell. AI-Hafiz claimed that this happened dUring the ascension of
the prophet Into heaven: "He saw that on the night of Isra) fnightjoumeyl, orwhen
lI1e sun eclipsed" (Tuhfat sl-A!Jwadsl. 7:1969; el-oestelenl, 1:329).
2- Ahmed Ibn Hanbal, 2:507.
3- Kanz al.cummal, 22:10.
4- Alvnad Ibn Hanbal, 2:67.
5- al-Bukhan, Hsldh6, Zskat44; Muslim, Iman 132, 'i)<tsln4,19; Ibn Maje, Rtsn 19;
al-Oanml, Wudhu' 104, Salst 224; Ahmad Ibn Hanbal, 1:307,423425436
3:318. ' , , veil is obligatory. The more common verse is: "And say to
6- Ahmad Ibn Hanbal, 4:197,20S.
7- Kanzal-'ummal, 22:11,
6- Tuhfat Sl-A!Jwsdsl, 7:329.
9- "Woman are ref......d to by the attribute "biack-eyad" (hur s~'Iyn) so as to
oompare them to the antelopes and row. Kara' saId, 'h8warmeans that the white
of the eyes surrounds the pupil oompletely, which is found in antelopes and
cows, and Is used as a figure of speech with humans. He is ahwar, and shels
hawra, and the plural is hut (from Usan al-(Arab, 4:28). They are the wives ofthe
believers in paradise. as the Cur)an bears out (Sura al-Nlsa) 4:218). Abu Huralra
narrated: "The first band entering paradise will be IIkethe fuJI moon, and the ones
thatwill follow them will be Ilkethe beststarin the heavens. Each man will have two
wives of the wide-eyed houris; the marrow of their bones can be seen through the
flesh and the bones" (al-Bukhari, BacI' al-khaJq 8; ai-Tirmldsl, Janna 5).
1ll- It is ironic that this hadith occurs In ZUhd("Book of Abstinence") 39 of Sunan Ibn
Maja.
11- al-Tirmidsl, Janna 6, "Such and such refers to the number of women. The
number of copulations was said to be twenty, thirty, or forty times" (Tuhfat al-
Ahwsdsl, 7:241).
12- al-Tlrmldsl, Janna21; Ibn Maja, Zuhd39.
13- Tuhfst sl-A!Jwsdsi, 7:285-286.
14- al-Suyuti, Fath al-kabirfl dsamm al-ziyada Us al-Jami' al-saghir(Galro. n.d.), 3:255.
15- Kanzal-rumma', 21:204.
16- ibid. 21:205.
-112 -
chapter twenty
The Veil
Even though the veil has become one of the problems of
the hour in the Islamic world and Europe, historically it
cannot be considered an obligation that the Qur)an or
Muhammad imposed on women. i It is certain, however,
that the veil was used at first as a sign to distinguish the
free woman so that none should molest her thinking her
to be a slave. 2 In the Arabic language, it means "a
covering, or anything that separates between two things
or keeps something from something else.,,3
Muslims cite two verses from the Qur)an to prove that the
the believing women, that they cast down their eyes and
guard their private parts, and reveal not their adornment
save such as is outward; and let them cast their veils over
their bosoms, and not reveal their adornment save to
their husbands, or their fathers, or their husbands'
fathers, or their sons, or their husbands' sons, or their
brothers, or their brothers' sons, or their sisters' sons, or
their women, or What their right hands own, or such men
as attend them, not having sexual desire, or children who
have not yet attained knowledge of women's private
parts; nor let them stamp their feet, so that their hidden
ornament may be known. And turn all together to God, 0
you believers; haply so you will prosper" (Sura al-Nur
24:31). The reason this verse was revealed is said to be
that Asma), the daughter of Murshid, was at a certain
place in Banu Haritha, and the women kept coming into
-113 -
 The Veil
the place where she was without any covering, so that the
bangles round their legs showed, likewise their bosoms
and hair locks. Asma' said, "How ugly this isl" Then God
revealed: "Tell believing women ... ,,4 It is said also that
the reason for revealing this verse was the following story
that (Ali Ibn Abi Talib related: "A man passed one day
during the lifetime of the Messenger of God through the
streets of Medina. He looked at a certain woman and she
at him. Then the devil whispered to both of them that they
looked at each other only because they liked one another.
The man kept walking alongside a wall, looking at her,
and behold another wall hit him and his nose was split.
He said, 'By God, I shall not wash the blood till I come to
the Messenger of God and tell him what happened to
mel' He went to him and told him his story. The prophet
said, 'This was the punishment for your gUilt.' Then God
revealed, 'Tell believers to avert their glances.. .' ,,5
One of the important terms in this verse is "nakedness",
which is the genitalia. The word comes originally from (ar
meaning shame, since it is shameful or disgraceful to
show these private parts. Therefore, women in general
are called "nakedness". Arabic also has the word (awra' ,
which means "a rude or vulgar word".6 Muhammad said,
"A woman should not look at the nakedness of [another)
woman, and the man should not look at the nakedness of
[another] man." (A'isha said, "I have never looked at or
seen the private parts of the Messenger of God at all." 7
Scholars classify the nakedness of both sexes in four
categories:
1- The nakedness of a man with another man.
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The Veil
2- The nakedness of a woman with another woman.
3- The nakedness of a man with a woman.
4- The nakedness of a woman with a man. s
The nakedness of a man with another man is between the
navel and the knees. A man is not allowed to look at the
nakedness of another man between the navel and the
knees, but he is allowed to look at anything else.
Muhammad said, "No man should look at the nakedness
of another, and no woman should look at the nakedness
of another. ,,9 The majority of jurists are in agreement that
the area between the navel and the knees is the
nakedness of man, as is evidenced by many hadiths.
Malik said, "The thigh is not a nakedness." The opinion
of the majority is backed up by the tradition of Jurhud al-
Aslami. He said, "The Messenger of God sat at our place
and my thigh was bare. He said, 'Do you not know that
the thigh is a nakedness?' ,,10 Another tradition says,
"Do not expose your thigh and look not at the thigh of
anyone, whether alive or dead.',ll
The nakedness of a woman with another woman is the
same as the nakedness of a man with a man, namely
from the navel to the knees, and it is permissible to look
at anything else. This excludes the dsimmi and unbeliev-
ing woman who are treated in a different section later on.
The nakedness of a man with a woman needs a more
detailed explanation. If the man is closely related to the
woman (maharim), such as the father, the brother, the
maternal and the paternal uncles, then his nakedness
would be anything between the navel and the knee. And if
-115 -
 The Veil
he were a "stranger", his nakedness would also be the
same as before. Yet another opinion says that all the
body of man is nakedness, and that the woman ought not
to look at it. Inasmuch as he is not allowed to look at her,
she is not allowed to look at him. The first opinion,
however, is more favoured as the correct one. But if the
man is her husband, then there is no nakedness at all on
the grounds of His saying: "Save from their wives and
what their right hands own, then being not blame-
worthy.,,12
As to the nakedness of a woman in relation to a man, all
her body is considered a nakedness according to the
most creditable opinions, which are the opinions of the
Hanbalites and the Shafi lites. Ahmad Ibn Hanbal has
already stated this when he said, "Every part of the
woman is a nakedness, even her fingemail. ,,13
Malik and Abu Hanifa both hold that a woman's body is a
nakedness, but for the face and the palms of the hands.
Each opinion has its own proofs which will be briefly listed
later in the chapter.
While the Hanafites and the Malikites maintain that the
face and the palms are not nakedness,14 the Hanbalites
and the Shafilites refer to the Qur)an, the Sunna, and the
daily practice as their points of reference. 15 The
disagreement is now about the zina (ornament, or charm)
which each madshab (school of thought) interprets in a
different way.
Zina is divided into two sorts: natural and acquired. 16 The
face is part ofthe natural zina (here it would be translated
-116 -
The Veil
charm); it is the origin of beauty and the source of
temptation and seduction. As to the acquired zina
(ornament), it is the clothes, the beautifications, and
the dyes that the woman puts on herself to improve her
appearance. The advocates of this view back up what
they say from the Qur)an and the Hadith. In this they hold
that it is not permissible to look at the face of a woman
for fear of temptation, since temptation caused by the
face is greater than that caused by the feet, the hair, or
the legs. Therefore, if all agree that it is forbidden to look
at the hair, legs, and feet, then it is more appropriate not
to look at the face, as it is the origin of beauty, the source
of temptation and the place where danger hides. 17
Let us now see how the scholars and jurists think the
"veil" should be. AI-Tabari narrates a story in his
commentary on the authority of Ibn Sirin: "I asked
<Ubaida al-Salmani about the verse 'to draw their cloaks
close around themselves.' He took up a mantle he used
to cover himself, and veiled himself with it covering his
whole head till it reached the eyebrows, and covered his
whole face with it and stuck out his left eye from the left
side of his face." Ibn Abbas narrated a similar story.1S
The conditions that make a veil legal are listed by al-
Sabuni in nine articles:
1) The veil should cover the whole body on account of the
divine injunction "to draw their cloaks close around
themselves." A cloak is a long and loose-fitting garment
that covers the whole body.
2) The veil should be thick, not thin, since the purpose of
-117 -
 The Veil
the veil is to cover. If it does not cover, then it cannot be
called a veil, as it does not block the vision and does not
hinder looking. (A)isha narrated, "Asma), the daughter of
Abu Bakr entered upon the Messenger of God wearing a
thin garment, and the Messenger of God turned away
from her.,,19
3) The veil itself should not be an ornament or flamboyant
with attractive colours that catch the attention. As the
verse says, "and not to display their charms except what
[normally] appears of them." The meaning of "what
[normally] appears of them" is that which appears
unintentionally. So if this is ornament in itself, it should
not be worn, and it is then not called a "veil" because a
veil should keep the ornament from being seen by
strangers.
4) The veil should be loose, not tightly fitting, and should
not reveal the body, or emphasize the nakedness, or
manifest the parts of seduction or temptation of the body.
The Messenger of God says, "Two sorts of dwellers of
hell I have not seen: A folk that had whips like the tails of
cows with which they beat the people, and women that
are dressed yet naked, tempting and twisting, their heads
are like the tilting heads of camels. These will not enter
paradise and will not find its wind, for its wind is to be
found at such and such distance." Another tradition says,
" ... its wind is to be found at the distance offive hundred
years. ,,20
The meaning of "dressed yet naked" is that they are
dressed on the outside but naked in reality, because they
-118 -
The Veil
wear clothes that do not cover the body, or conceal
nakedness. Since the purpose of clothing is to cover the
body, if the clothing does not cover the body, the one
wearing it is considered naked. As to "tempting and
twisting" it meant those who tempt the hearts of men by
twisting their bodies with seductive walking and swagger-
ing. The meaning of "heads of camels" is that they comb
their hair on top of their heads so that it would be like the
heads of camels. This expression was one of the
prophet's miracles.
5) Clothing should not be scented in such a way that it
would arouse men, for the prophet said, "Every eye that
looked has committed adultery, and if a woman perfumed
herself and passed by a seated group of men, she is such
and such [namely a prostitutej.,,21 Another tradition says,
"If a woman perfumed herself and passed by a group of
people intending to let them smell her perfume, she is [to
be considered] a prostitute."
Musa Ibn Yasar narrated: A woman passed by Abu
Huraira and her perfume wafted strongly. He asked her,
"Where are you going?" She answered, "To the
mosque." He said, "And you have put on perfume?"
She said "Yes." He said, "Go back and wash, for I have
heard the Messenger of God saying, 'God does not
accept the prayer of a woman who went out to the
mosque with her perfume wafting strongly, until she goes
home and washes herself.' ,,22
6) The clothing should not have any similarity to men's
clothing, or anything men would wear. Abu Huraira
-119 -
 The Veil
narrated: "The Prophet, cursed the man who wears
woman's clothing, and the woman who wears men's
clothing." The Hadith says, "The prophet cursed those
men who are in the similitude [assume the manners) of
women and those women who are in the similitude
[assume the manners) of men." This refers to women
23
who imitate men in their clothing and appearance.
The awesome legal facade that has been bestowed upon
the veil has not lost any of its prestige in our day. On the
contrary, contemporary jurists and writers are now more
skilful and tactful in inventing excuses defending the veil.
Any Islamic thinker is convinced that the veil is inevitable
if one wants to establish and maintain a clean society,24
as the veil keeps man from falling into temptation. 25 This
logic is based on the conception of women as the source
of temptation and evil, while the "poor" man plays the
role of the victim. Then, this evil, that arises as soon as a
man meets a woman, has to be repelled. Mustafa al-
Ghalayani, a hater of women, sees in "this age that
increased only in evil and corruption" a proof that
confirms his call for the Islamic veil. He claims that
"the veil is indispensable, because you won't find twenty
people among a hundred, to whom you can talk as human
beings.,,26 The veil has been imposed on woman in order
to prevent temptation, and to preserve society, as she is
responsible for the crises that befall families. AI-Sabuni
says, "No intelligent person would doubt that the
immorality and immodesty of women cause the scx:alled
'marriage crisis', since a lot of young men avoid marrying
because they find it easy to gratify their desires. They do
-120 -
The Veil
not find themselves in need of marriage, which leads to
the destruction of the country and portends its disastrous
ruin. Extramarital sex and the breakup of houses is
nothing but an outcome of such a despicable display of
women's charms.',27
Here and now, we have the right to ask the Muslim who
accepts these statements of al-Sabuni: Is it at all
reasonable to accuse woman of being the source of
temptation and of being responsible for family crises,
while claiming at the same time that Islam requires
woman to wear the veil only to protect her chastity, virtue,
honour, and to preserve her noble character from those
who have weak hearts and sick consciences, who lie in
wait for her to do her harm?
1· Rudi Paret. Zur Frauenfrsge, p.37f. Snouck Hurgronje. Bijdragen tot de Taal- en
Volkenku_ van Nederlandsch-fOOle (Bonn-Leipzig, 1923), 1:305-7.
2- Sura el-Ahzab 33:59 relelS to this: "0 Prophet. sey to thy wives and daughtelS
and the believing women, that they drawtheir veUs close to them; so ftis likelier
they will be known, and not hurt. God Is Ail-forgiving, A1-compassionate." Ct., for
the reason for the revelation of this verse, Ibn al-Qayylm al..Jawzl, zad lJI.mssir,
6:422; al-Sabuni 2:377. The other verses that are cited to prove that the veil1s an
obligatory reqUirement are Sura al·Ahzab 33:32,53. The Dutch oMenlalist
Snouck Hurgronje stated that using these two verses to prove the legaflty of
wearing the vellis an impossibility, as the two verses, Sura al-Ahzab 33:32 and
53, have to do with Muhammad's wives only and are not binding on the other
women at all. In addition, Sura al·Ahzab 33:53 is very vague and does nottell us
whether the face and the hands should be veiled or not Even though the answer
is no, the use of the veil has spread and rooted Itself In Jslamlc society and
acquired a religious charader In the works of the jurists and expositors. Yet, this
phenomenon has its own reasons (Mansour Fahmi. La Condition de /s Femme
dans Ie 7radftlon et rEvofution de I'Islemlsme (Paris, 1913), p.49-81. Rudl Pareto
Zur Frauenfrage, p.37f.} A1·Aqqad thinks also that the above-mentioned verses
have to do with the wives ofthe prophet only, and that the veil Islam requires does
not mean exduding woman from public life. Nevertheless, al·Aqqad does not
explain what he means precisely by "veil", but Is indignant because the veil Is
referred to as though it Is a purely Islamic phenomenon, even though it was
common among the Romans and was mentioned In the Old and New
Testaments (Abbes Mahmud al-Aqqad, al-Mer'a" el-lslem, p.67,72).
-121-
 The Veil
3- Usan aI-'Anib(Balrul, 1955), 1:29Gff.
4- Ibn Kathir, 3:293-294. chapter twenty one
5- al-SuyuU, al-Du" al-manthur, 5:40; al-Sabunl, 2:148.
6- al-Raghib al-Isfahanl, Mu~am mufradst alfaz al-Quran, ad. Nadlm al-Mar<ashli The Circumcision of Girls
(BalnJl, n,d.), p.365.
7- Muslim, Haldh 7; al-Tirmldsi, Adab, 38; Ibn Maja, nha", 137; Ahmad Ibn Hanbal,
3:63. Even though circumcision has no Qur)anic basis, it has
8- al-Sabunl, 2:154.
9- See footnote 7 for sources. become an important obligation among Muslims. Yet, it
10- Abu Oawud, Hamam 1; Ahmad Ibn Hanbal, 3:478. does not have the same importance that is given to other
11- Abu Dawud, Jana'/z 7; Ahmad Ibn Hanbal, 1:146. There are other traditions
Indicating that the thigh Is a nakedness: al-Tinnidsl. Adab40; al-Oarimi, Isti'dsan rituals and traditions. According to the majority of
22.
12- Sura al-Mu1minun 23:6.
Muslims, circumcision is the introduction into Islam and
13- A1-Sabunl quotes the same (2:153) from Ibn al-Jawzj, Zad al-ma'ad, 6:31. the sign of belonging to it,1 Jurisprudents claim that
14- al-Sabuni, 2:154.
15- ibid. 2:155. circumcision has a great benefit that outweighs the pain
18- Ibid. 2:155. resulting from it. The reason underlying circumcision is to
17- ibid. 2:158.
18- al-Taban, 22:46. remove the foreskin since it collects a lot of excrements
19- Abu Dawud, Llbas31; al-Tinnidsl, Fitan47. underneath it that can lead to fatal diseases, such as
20- Muslim, Llbas 125, Janna 52; Ahmad Ibn Hanbal, 2:223,356.
21- Abu Dawud. Tarajjul7; al-Thmidsl, Adab 35; ai-Nasa Ii. Zina 35; al-Darimi, cancer. Thus circumcision is a preventive procedure. 2
Isd'dsan 18; Ahmad Ibn Hanbal, 4:400,414,418.
22- Ibn Majs, Fltan 19.
23- al-Sabuni, 2:35711. All this applies to men. But what is the reason underlying
24- Fi zlial 81-Quran, 8:92. the circumcision of girls, which is applied in some Islamic
25- Ibid. 6:93.
28- Mustafa Ghalayanl, Nazarat ff kitab al-sufur we a"'ijab (Beirut, 1928). p.68ft. countries? The first reason is the statement of
27- al-Sabun!, 2:388. Muhammad: "Circumcision is a law for men and a
preservation of honour for women. ,,3 The second reason
lies in the supposition that circumcision makes a woman
more enjoyable, provided that it is practised moderately.
Umm 'Atiyya the Ansarite narrated that a woman used to
circumcise in Medina, and the Prophet said to her, "Do
not overdo it, because this makes woman more favour-
able and it is more agreeable for the husband.',4 As to
the third reason why a female should be circumcised, it is
to "diminish her lust", and to "tone down the sexual
desire of the woman. ,,5

AI-Mawardi tells us how female circumcision is per-

-122 - -123 -
 The Circumcision of Gir'"
formed: "It is performed by cutting a piece of flesh over
the vulva topping the entrance of the penis [that is the
vagina]. It is homologous to akemel or the crest of a
rooster. One should cut the upper part of it, and not
completely remove it. ,,6 AI-Shafi (i and most of his
followers hold that circumcision is obligatory, as well as
(Ata), one of the old scholars. Ahmad and some of the
Malikites hold that it is obligatory, while Abu Hanifa says
that it is obligatory, yet it is not a ritual obligation. One
Hadith says that it is sin to discard it. The Shaft)ites say
that it is improper [to do such a thing] to women, Most
scholars and some Shaft lites hold that it is not
obligatory,7 Jurisprudents say that the circumcision of
men, namely removing the foreskin, is a prophylactic
procedure that keeps the body healthy. Female circumci-
sion, they say, is otherwise, since removing the clitoris
helps only to reduce the libido of the woman but does not
do away with it, which is for the common good of society,
and for her own good as well.s It can also preserve the
woman's dignity and honour. 9
As we mentioned previously, the main reason for the
circumcision of girls, according to the jurists, is to
restrain lust or the sex drive, For the girl nowadays is
exposed to all kinds of temptations, they argue, which
lead to depravity and corruption in society,10 Lastly, we
learn from Shaltut that women accept circumcision
willingly to honour their husbands, as they also hate to
look at that part of the flesh that would increase the
enjoyment of man when removed. 11
-124 -
The Circumcision of Gir'"
1- EI, vo1.2, p.l028. Tllmann Nagar, Der Qur'an, Elnfiihrung.rexfl>Erlilulerufll/en
(MOnchan, 1983), p.12. It Is said about Muhammad that he considered
circumcision a part of the Instinct (fitra). It seems, however, that the narrators
suspectthatAllsha said, "The MessengerofGod said, 'Ten things are partofthe
Instinct: shaving the moustache, growing the beard, cleaning the teeth with
slwak, washing with water, dipping the f1ngemalls, washing the knuckles, pUlling
the annplt hair, shaving the pubIc hair, and wiping oneselfwith water.'" Zakariya
narrated that Sa1b said, "The tenth can only be gargling" (another tradition has It
that "gargling and cleaning the nose by sniffing water are a part of the Instinct").
Zakarlya mentioned the same as we said before, but for growing the beard, and
added circumcision (al-Bukhari, Ubas 63,64, IstJ'dsan 51; Muslim, rahars 49;
Abu Oawud, rahara29, ral1!//ul 16; al-Tlrmldsi,Ad8b 14; al-Na..'r', rahara9:10,
Zlna1,55; Ibn Maja, rahars8; Ahmad Ibn Hanbal, 2;229,239,283,389,410). Ona
can easily conclude that cIrcumcision was a common practice In the Arablan
Peninsula. Even though there Is no mention of It in the Qur)an, both Hadlth and
old poelly reler to this fad (EI, vo1.2, p.l028).
2- Shaltu~ Khltsn al<Jntha, In Uwa' aHslam, 1951, p.55.
3- Ahmad Ibn Hanbal, 5:75; Abu Oawud, Mob 167.
4- Abu Oawud, Adob 167.
5· Afifl Muhammad ar-Sadlq, Fi flqh al""ar'a a/-musllma (Barrut, 1986), p.17.
6- 'Awn al-Ma'bud, Sham SunenAbI Dawud(Calro, 1989), 13:185.
7· Ibid.
8- Muhammad Ibrahim Salim, FBtwa fi khltan al-untha, In Uwa' a/ Islam, p.330.
9- ShalM Khltsn al-untha, In Uwa' aHslam.
10- Fatwa fla.Khltan, In LIwa' aHslam.
11- Uwa' aHslam, p.59.
-125 -

chapter twenty two
Subordination of the Woman
.to her Husband in the Religious Rites
In this present age, which has witnessed the most violent
conflicts concerning the issue of women in the Islamic
world and the equality of the sexes as far as the religious
commandments are concerned, Muslim writers empha-
sise that "giving the commandments to both man and
woman, and equalising them in terms of promises and
threats, the Qur)an has admitted the humanity of woman
and has given her a responsibility.,,1 Equalising the faith
of women to that of men proves this fact, since a woman
has the right to command what is proper and prevent
dishonour. 2 Islam has not only determined her compe-
tence to faith and worship, but also her entrance
paradise, if she does good, and her punishment, if she
does evil- in this case being completely equal to man. 3
The participation of woman with man in faith and worship
has become one of the favourite and common arguments
in this century.
Islam has introduced a kind of equality in this field, to say
the least, but what they call one time "equality" and
another time "religious responsibility" includes some
things that cause many doubts as to the validity of these
claims. Regardless of the Friday prayer, which is required
only of the men, and the invalidity of women's fasting and
prayer, which Muhammad considered as part of the
deficiency of their religion,4 woman still needs the
permission of her husband to perform certain rites. This
-126 -
Subordination of the Woman
is very common since she exists basically to please him
and pay him his due. Muhammad said, "I swear by the
One who holds Muhammad's soul in His hands! A woman
does not pay God His dues until she has paid the dues of
her husband. ,,5 Muhammad is reported to have allowed
women to go to the mosque at night: "Allow women to go
to the mosque at night. ,,6 Another hadith says that they
are allowed to attend the Friday Prayer at the mosques as
long as their presence does not cause any temptation. 7
But a woman should ask her husband's permission
before she goes out of the house, all the while knowing
that he is not supposed to refuse her permission: "If the
wife of anyone of you ask permission to go to the
mosque, he should not forbid her. ,,8 So then, the woman
is supposed to perform her prayers at home. This has
become general tradition in the Islamic world so that one
may think that mosques are for men only, even if there is
no clear text to this effect. As to fasting, which is one of
the five pillars of Islam, the woman needs the permission
of her husband in order to practise it: "Abu Huraira
narrated that the Messenger of God said, 'No woman can
fast a day of Ramadan, while her husband is there,
without his prior permission.' ,,9 The Muslim scholars
believe that it is "hateful" for a woman to fast of her own
accord without the permission of her husband, and that
she sins if she fasts without his permission. AI-Nabawi, in
his exegesis on Muslim, said that the reason for this
prohibition is that the man has the right to enjoy the
woman sexually at all times, and that she should obey
him at once. She should not abandon him by volunteering
to fast or for any other religious obligation. 1o A saying
-127 -
 Subordination o( the Woman
attributed to the Prophet says: "Any woman who fasts
without the permission of her husband, and he desired
her for a certain thing but she refused, God will record
three major sins against her. ,,11
This may help us understand the attitude that prevailed in
the Middle Ages, and still continues today in some circles
about woman and her duties. Muhammad allowed women
and female slaves to slaughter animals for ritual
purposes: "a woman slaughtered a sheep with a stone,
and when the Prophet was asked about it, he said, 'Eat
it.' ,,12
1- Shaltu~ Mahmud. o~lslam 'aqido wo shari's, p.223ff.
2- Muhammad Rashid Ridho, Nidali olj/ns of.lstif, p.5ff.
3- 'Abd a~Wadud Shalabl, Hlwar sorih bsina 'Abdillah W8 'Abdllmasih, p.218
4- aJ-Bukharl, Holdh 6; aJ-Darlmi, Wudhu' 104. Tho samo is lbund In Iho hadith Ihat
says: "The defidency ofyour religion Is your menstruation" (al-T1nnldsi, lman 6;
al-Bukharl, Zsk0l6; Muslim, Iman 132; Abu Dawud, 5uoo015; Ibn Mojo, Rtsn
19.)
5- Ibn Mojo, Nlkoh 4.
6- al-Bukhari, )umura 11.
Vot Muslim has boon reportod to have hatod lbr womon to porfonn Iho night
prayer. Abu Hakim narrated: "I have heard that the Messenger of God heard a
woman praying atnight, and asked, "Who is she?" Hewasanswered, "This is at-
Hawla Bint Tuwait; she does not sloop at night:· Tho Mossangor of God hated
that so much that one could see It on his face" (al-Muwatt&), salat aJ.lBy/4).
7- Muslim, Solat
8- al-Bukharl, Nlkah 116.
9- al-T1nnidsl, 5"","65.
1Cl- al-Qastalanl, 8:91.
11- Kanz a/Jummal, 22:2.
12- al-Bukharl, Dsobs'ih 19; Ibn Mojo, DsoW/h8.
-128 -
chapter twenty-three
The Prophet Muhammad and his Wives
We understand from early hadiths that Muhammad had a
special inclination to women. For example, he said, "Two
things of this world I cherish: women and perfume, prayer
being the comfort of my eye."l AI-Hasan al-Basri
narrated: The Messenger of God said, "The only two
things I cherish of the life of this world are women and
perfume. ,,2 The same thing has been narrated by (A)isha
in different versions: "The Prophet of God liked three
things of this world: Perfume, women, and food; he had
the [first] two, but missed food.,,3 We may understand
the following hadith better in the light of these stories:
Many men reached perfection [in character] but none
among the women reached perfection except Mary, the
daughter of Imran, and Asia, Pharaoh's wife. And the
superiority of (Alisha to other women is like the super-
iority of tarid [a meal of bread and meat] to other kinds of
food. 4 Another tradition says, "There was nothing liked
by the Messenger of God like horses."s There was
nothing cherished by the Messenger of God like horses. 6
This explains Why there will be horses in heaven. 7
"These four are of the traditions of the Messengers [of
God]: Shyness, wearing perfume, brushing the teeth with
siwak, and wedlock. ,,8 A woman is the best object of
enjoyment of this world: "Life is an object of enjoyment,
and there is nothing better in the pleasures of the world
than a good women.,,9 The conditions [or descriptions] of
a good wife, however, are: She should bring delight to her
-129 -
 The Prophet Muhammad and hi. Wives
husband whenever he looks at her, and obey him
10
whenever he commands her to do something.
Scholars accounted for Muhammad's many wives and
his inclination to women by saying that he had a superior
sexuality, as the Prophet himself stated: "I was the least
man in sexuality till God brought down on me the kafit. ,,11
"Whenever I seek it I find it.,,12 Another tradition says:
"The Messenger of God said, 'Gabriel met me with a pot,
of which I ate, and I was given the kafit [sexual ability] of
forty men.' ,,is. Salma narrated: "In one night, the
Prophet had intercourse with his nine wives (who were
to out-live him). When he would come out each time he
would say, 'Pour water for me.' He would wash before
having sex with the following one. I asked him '0,
Messenger of God, isn't one time of washing enough for
you?' The Prophet replied, 'This is purer and better.' ..14
We would now like to stUdy Muhammad's wives and the
major incidents that happened in the house of the
Prophet, depending on the sources recognised by the
majority of Muslims. In spite of the fact that the sources
provide us with contradictory information about the
number of Muhammad's wives,15 we can still say that
they were thirteen women, plus Maria the Copt.
Muhammad married these women and lived with them
for a certain period of time. Apart from these, there were
twelve or thirteen women that Muhammad married, but
16
with whom he did not spend a long period of time.
There are still other women that he married, but with
whom he never consummated his marriage, plus the one
who bestowed herself upon himP
-130 -
The Prophet Muhammad and hie Wi"".
1- Ahmad Ibn Hanbal, 3:128,199,285; al-Nasa'i', Kitab 'Ishrat al<>lsa', p.16;
TabaqatlbnSa'd.l:398.
Tabaqat Ibn Sa'd, 1:398. Perfume has played that Impol1ant role due to the
2·
predomInant beUef that perfume arouses the sexual desire, as Is made dear in
the following story: "IA1isha narrated. 1 scented the Messenger of God. and he
had sex wiU1 his wives' (al-Bukhan, Ghus/14). It Is natural then that perfume Is
prohibited for women when they reave their homes: "Abu Muss narrated that the
Prophet said, 'If a women scents herself and passes by people wanting them to
smell her perfume, she is such and such [he emphasised his word]" (Abu
Dawud, Tar'lijul7).
3- Tabaqat Ibn Sa'd, 1:398. "The Jews said, when they sawthe Messenger of God
manying women, 'Look at this man who neverhas enough offood and cares for
nothing else as he does for women.' They envied him for his wives and found
fault with him because ofthat and said, 'Ifhe were a prophet, he would not desire
women'" (Tabaqat Ibn Sa(d, 8:202). Ibn SacdexplalnedwhyMuhammad married
several women by stating that this was the tradition (sunna) of the prophets since
Solomon, the son of David, married a thousand women, seven hundred of them
received dowry and three hundred were concubines. David had a hundred
wives; Uriah the mother (sic] of Solomon was one of them, whom he married
after the temptation. This is more than Muhammad had (Ibid.). Moreover, one
should understand the many number ofwives Muhammad had as a bounty and
grace of God: "Ordothey envy people because of what God has given them out
of His bounty? We already gave Abraham's family the Book and wisdom, and
We gave them splendid control" (Sura al-.Nisa'4:54).
4- al-Bukhari, At'lma25,30, Fadha'lIa.sahaba30, Anblya32,46; Muslim, Fadha'ila.
SBhaba 7,89; al-Tlnnidsl, At'/ma 31, Fadha'1I62; al-Nasa'I', Nlsa' 3; Ibn Maja,
Arima 14; al-Dariml, At(ima 29; Ahmad Ibn Hanbal, 3:156,264. Muhammad's
most favourite dish was tarld (al-Darlmi, Artlma 22), and Muslim says that the
Messanger of God died before he had enough of larid (Muslim, Zuhd 29).
5- The narrator, however, corrects this mistake: "0 God, forgive mel I mean
'women'" (Tabaqar Ibn $a(d, 8:398).
e.. al-Nasa'l, Khail2; Ahmad Ibn Hanbal, 5:28.
7- al-Tinnidsi, Janna 1; Ahmad Ibn Hanbal, 5:352.
8- al-Tlrmidsi, Nikah 1; Ahmad Ibn Hanbal, 5:421. Woman's prayer, however, Is not
acceptable if she is perfumed (Abu Dawud, Taf~iju/ 7).
9- Muslim, Radha' 59; Ibn Meja, Nlkah5; al·Nasa~'. Nlkah 15; Ahmad Ibn Hanbal,
2:168. Muhammad has frequently referred to woman 8S an object of enjoyment
(mata<, i.e. a piece of luggage) (al-Bukhari, Jihad 72; Abu Dawud, Buyu' 74,
Adhiya22). The Qur'an says the same In Sura Yusuf 12:17,65,79.
10- Ahmad Ibn Hanbal, 2:252,432,438.
11- Kaflt the ability to have sexual intercourse and to many (Llsan a/-(Arab, 2:71).
12- Tabaqatlbn Sa(d, 8:192; al-Tirmidsl, Tafslral-Mujad/la, 58:1; Ahmad Ibn Hanbal,
6:37.
13- Tabaqat Ibn SB'd, 8: 192. Another tradition has It that Muhammad was given the
strength ofthirty men, as ai-Tabaranl mentioned (aMnwaral-muhammadlyya mIn
a/-mawahib aHadunniJ;ya (Beirut, 1892), p.261) and al-Bukhari: "The Prophet
-131-
 The Prophet Muhammad and his WiPeB
used to visit all his wives in a round. during the day and night and ther were
eleven in number. I asked Anas. 'Had the Prophet the strength for It? An~~
replied. 'We used to say that the Prophet was given the strength of thirty men
(Ghusl12).
14. Tabaqat Ibn Sard, 8:193, al-Qadi <Iyad said that the MessengerofGod was given
enough strength to have intercourse with all his wives (al-Sh/fa fI sifst al-Mustafa
(Beirut 1980) 1:195.
1S. Scholars are not in agreement about the number of Muhammad's wives. Some
say they were twelve (Tabaqat Ibn Sard, 8:52-139), while el-Teban seya they
were fifteen (ai-Tabar!, 3:18011.). Mana, the Copt, Is either nsted under "tha
slaves ofthe Messengerof God" or not listed at all. as well as Rayhana who was
taken captive during the destruction of Banu aurayza. who was "the Prophet's
favourite" (al-Tabari, 3:129: Usd af.gllaba, 5:480).
16- TabaqatfbnSard, 8:141.
17· bid. 8:150.
-132 -
chapter twenty four
Muhammad's Wives in the Order
in Which they were Married to him
1. Khadlja Blnt Khuwallld: Muhammad's first wife. He
married her in 595 A.D, (25 years before the Migration);l
she died three years before the Migration 2 and ten years
after he claimed prophethood,3
2. Sawda Blnt Zam(a: Muhammad married her in the
month of Ramadan ten years after he claimed prophet-
hood, after the death of Khadija and before he married
Wisha,4 or some months before the Migration,S depend-
ing on the sources. Opinions agree that she was
Muhammad's second wife,6 Yet the question is whether
he slept with <A'isha first or Sawda. Some believe that he
married (A)ist:a first, but had intercourse with Sawda first,
as (Alisha was too young. 7
3. (A)lsha Blnt Abu Bakr: Muhammad married her in the
month of Shawwal, three years before the Migration, ten
years after he claimed prophethood, according to the
tradition of (A)isha herself. s He had Intercourse with her
in the month of Shawwal, eight months after the
Migration. 9 She was the only virgin among
Muhammad's wives,10
4. Hafsa Blnt (Umar: The Messenger of God married her
in the month of Sha(ban, 31 months after the
Migration,l1 or in the third year after the Migration, or
one month12 or two 13 before Uhud.
-133 -
 Muhammad'. Wives
5. Zalnab Blnt Khuzalma: Her husband died in the battle
of Uhud, so Muhammad married her. 14 This was 31
months after the Migration. 15
6. Ummu Salama: One tradition says that Muhammad
married her three years before the Khandaq raid, in the
sixth year after the Migration16 and the wedding was
performed in Shawwal four years after the Migration,17 or
three years after Badr. 18
7. Zalnab Blnt Jahsh: It is not possible to determine
when Muhammad married her. It was either in Dsu al-
Qa(da or Sha(ban in year 5 or 3 A.H. 19 We will study the
marriage of Muhammad and Zainab Bint Jahsh in a
separate chapter.
8. Juwalrlyya Blnt al-Harlth: She was taken captive
during the raid of Banu al-Mustaliq and was part of the
spoils. No one knows when this battle took place exactly.
So the dates given for her marriage to Muhammad are the
fifth or the sixth year after the Migration. 2o Ibn Hisham
claims that Muhammad bought her from Thabit Ibn Qais,
set her free, and later married her. 21
9. Saflyya Blnt Huyay: She was among the spoils of
Khaibar (one of the famous Jewish tribes), which was
conquered in the sixth year A.H., and was chosen for
Muhammad. 22
10. Ummu Hablba: Stories say that the Negus of Ethiopia
gave her to Muhammad as a wife. 23
11. Marla, the Copt: al-Muqawqas, king of Egypt, sent
four female slaves to Muhammad and Maria was one of
-134 -
Muhammad'. Wives
24
them. She reached Medina in the seventh year after the
Migration,25 Only Khadija and Maria gave birth to male
children among all of Muhammad's wives.
12. Malmuna Blnt al·Harlth: Muhammad married her in
the seventh year after the Umra of al-Qadha,26 She was
the last one the Messenger of God married. 27
13. Rayhana: She was not of the "mothers of the
believers," in spite of her respectable position in the
house of MUhammad. 28 When the Prophet attacked Banu
Qurayza, he took her captive since it was necessary for
him to have a selection of each spoil. 29 Muhammad
offered her Islam but she refused. Yet it is said that she
espoused Islam later. 3o
1- Usd af.ghaba, 5:434.
2· Annals ofal-Tabarl, 3:173.
3- Ansab al-ashraf, 1:405.
4- Tabaqat Ibn Sa'd, 8:53.
5- Ansab a/-ashraf, 1:407.
6- Usd alghaba, 5:584.
7- Annalsofa~Tabarl,3:161.
6- Tabaqat Ibn Sa'd. 8:58; Ansab a~shraf, 1:410.
9- Tabaqar Ibn Sa(d, 8:58; Ansab al-ashraf, 1:410. Opinions are in disagreement
concerning her marriage with Muhammad. Ibn 'Abd al-Barr claims that their
marriage seems to have taken place either two or five years after the Migration
(Usda~ghaba, 5:501).
1Q. Tabaqat Ibn Sa(d, 8:64; al-Bukhari, Nikah 9, Tafslr al-Nur8.
11- Tabaqatlbn Sa'd, 8:83.
12- Anssba~shraf, 1:422.
13- Ansab Hshraf, 1:422; Usd a/-ghaba, 5:366.
14- Usd a/-ghaba, 5:486.
15- TabaqatlbnSa'd, 8:415.
16- Anna's ofa~Tabarl, 3:164.
17- Ansab a~shraf, 1:429.
-135 -
 Muhammad'. Wiuea
16- Ansab a/-ashraf, 1:433: Usd alghaba, 5:560.
19- Ansab a/-ashraf, 1:433: Usd alghaba, 5:462.
20- Usd alghaba, 5:420.
chapter twenty five
21- a/-Sira al-nabawiyya, 4:296ff.
22- Tabaqat Ibn Saed, 8:120-129: Ansab a/..shraf, 1:422ff; Usd alghaba, 5:490ff. Muhammad's Wives
23- Tabaqat Ibn Sacd, 8:96-100; af.S/ra al-nabaw/Wa, 4:290; Annals of al-Tabarl,
3:165; Ansab a'..shraf, 1:438ff: Usd alghaba, 5:645. in the Books of al-5ira
24- T8b8qat Ibn Sa(al 8:212; Annals of al-Tabarl, 2:645.
25- aI-Tabar!, 2:21. AJ.Muqawqas santhar, according to Ibn Saed,lnthe savanth 18ar
after the Migration. She reached Medina in the eighth year after the Migration,
1. KhadlJa Blnt Khuwallld: Muhammad married Khadija
according to Usd algh.ba (5:544). Ibn Saed apportioned a sapa_ sactlon lor
this issue (Tabaqal Ibn Saed, 8:212-216). Her name wes not listed among "the Bint Khuwailid when he was 25 years 01d. 1 She was a
\Mves of the Prophet" in the sources of Muhammad's life (al-Sira), butwas listed merchant and enjoyed a high position among the people.
among the concubines and under the heading "the Mother of Ibrahim" (Tabaqat
Ibn sard, 8:212 ff; aI-KamU" al-tarikh 2:231: al-Dsahabl, Tarikh al-lslam 1:59T). She hired men for her business and competed with
26- Tabaqat Ibn SaId, 8:132. others. She was a forty-year-old widow when she married
27- ibid., Annals of al-Tabar/, 3:167; Ansab al-ashraf, 1:445; Usd aI-ghaba, 5:550.
28- "He used to recUne with her and spend much time with her. She remained wlth
him. 2 She offered to let Muhammad go out as a merchant
him till she died" (Tabaqat Ibn Sa'd, 8: 130). with one of her mercantile caravans to Syria. 3
29- Ibid. 8:129; Ansab a/-ashraf, 1:453: Usd alghaba, 5:380.
30- Tabaqat Ibn sard, 8: 131; Ansab a/-ashraf, 1:453; Usd alghaba, 5:460. "And God, Muhammad was offered the chance of marrying her, but
Most High, gave the Messenger of God as booty Rayhana 81nt laid" (Annals of he was not sure of himself and said, "I possess nothing
a.Tabari,3:16T).
whereby I can marry.,,4 Khadija, however, took the
initiativeS and expressed her desire to marry him.

Muhammad married no one else till Khadija died. 6 One

tradition says that Khadija said to her sister, "Go to
Muhammad and make a mention of me to him." Her
sister went to Muhammad, and he answered her
according to God's will. They made an agreement that
the Messenger of God would marry her. Khadija's father
was given wine to drink. When he was overcome by wine,
they called Muhammad and her father wedded them as
he was intoxicated. Muhammad gave him a suit of
clothes, so when he woke up, he asked, "What is this
suit?" They answered, "This is the gift of your son-in-law,
Muhammad." He grew angry and picked up his sword, as
Banu Hashim also did. AftelWard they were reconciled?
Khadija gave Muhammad all his children, except for
-136 -
-137 -
 Muhammad'. WII1eB In al-8ira
Ibrahim: al-Qasim, al-Tayyib, lainab, Ruqayya, Umm
Kalthum, and Fatima. s Ibrahim, however, was the son
of Maria, the COpt.9 She was fair-skinned, curly- haired,
and beautiful. CA)isha narrated: "When Ibrahim was born,
the Messenger of God came to me and said, 'See how
much he resembles mel' I said, 'I see no resemblance.'
The Messenger of God said, 'Don't you see how white
and robust he is?' I replied, 'Anyone would tum white if he
received so much semen.' ,,10 As to al-Qasim, ai-Tahir
and al-Tayyib, they perished in Jahiliya [the period
preceding Islam], while all his daughters lived, attained
Islam and migrated with him. 11 Strange things were told
concerning Ibrahim, of all of Muhammad's children.
These reports were told about him by Muhammad
himself. Muhammad said, "Had Ibrahim lived, he would
have cancelled the tribute that all the Copts pay.,,12
When he died at the age of sixteen months, Muhammad
said that he would continue to be nurtured in paradise. 13
AI-Suddi narrated: "I asked Anas Ibn Malik whether the
Prophet prayed over his son Ibrahim. He answered, 'I
don't know. May the mercy of God fall upon Ibrahim. Had
he lived, he would have been a righteous man and a
prophet.' ,,14
2. Sawda Blnt Zamca: She was the first woman
Muhammad married after the death of Khadija. He
married her after her husband's death. Muhammad sent
a message of proposal to her in Ramadan in the tenth
year after the Migration, before his marriage with Wisha.
According to Wisha, "It was Sawda Bint lamca and the
Messenger of God did not lie with her much. Knowing my
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Muhammad'. Wipu in al-8lra
importance to the Messenger of God, she was afraid he
would leave her, so she said, '0 Messenger of God, give
the day allotted to me to CA)isha [from now on], and you
are under no obligation to me.' The Prophet accepted it
and this verse was revealed: 'If some woman fears abuse
or desertion by her husband, it should not be held against
either of them if they should try to come to terms: coming
to terms is best.' ,,15 AI-Nucman Ibn Thabit al-Taymi said,
"The Messenger of God said to Sawda Bint lamca, 'Start
you legal period [i.e., you are divorced].' So she waited for
him on the road, and said, '0 Messenger of God, I do not
love [the relationship with] men; I rather love to be
resurrected among your wives, so please take me back.'
The Messenger of God took her back.,,16
3. CA)lsha Blnt Abl Bakr: She was Muhammad's third
wife. (A)isha herself narrated, "The Messenger of God
married me in Shawwal in the tenth year after of his
prophethood, three years before the Migration as I was
six years old. I was nine years old when he consummated
the marriage with me. 17 Ibn Hisham holds that
"Muhammad married her when she was seven years
old and consummated the marriage with her when they
were in Medina when she was nine years old. The
Messenger of God did not marry any other virgin but
her. 1s Wisha narrated, "The Messenger of God married
me when I was still playing with the girls. I did not know
that the Messenger of God married me until my mother
took me and locked me up in the house. Then I realised
that I was married.,,19 Tr.ere is another tradition by
CAtiyya: "The Messenger of God proposed to Wisha Bint
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 Muhammad'. Wives in al-Sira
Abi Bakr while she was a little girl. Abu Bakr said, '0
Messenger of God, can a man marry his brother's
daughter?' Muhammad replied, 'You are my brother in
my religion.' So he [Abu Bakr] married her off for the
chattel of a house, fifty [dirhams] worth, or SO."20 "I was
playing with the girls during the lifetime of the Messenger
of God. The Messenger of God came to me when I was
playing with the girls, and asked me, 'What is this,
CA)isha?' I said, 'The horses of Solomon.' He laughed. ,,2:1.
Wisha said, "I am held superior to the wives of the
Prophet for ten things." She was asked, "What are they,
mother of believers?" She replied, "He did not marry any
virgin but me, he did not marry someone whose parents
were migrants [that is from Mecca to Medina] but me.
God revealed my innocence [of adultery] from heaven,
and Gabriel brought him my image in a piece of silk and
said, 'Marry her; she is your wife.' So I used to bathe with
him from the same receptacle. He never did that with
anyone else but me. He used to pray while I was lying
between his hands, which is something that he never let
any of his other wives do. The inspiration used to come
down upon him while he was with me. He passed away
when he was in my bosom during the night when he was
supposed to have intercourse with me, and he was buried
in my home.',22
Once CA)isha asked the Prophet, "Who will be your wives
in paradise?" He answered, "You will be one of them. ,,23
We leam from the stories that Wisha was Muhammad's
favourite wife. <Amr Ibn al-<As asked him, "0 Messenger
of God, who is your favourite among people?" He replied,
-140 -
Muhammad'. Wives in al-Sira
"CA)isha." cAmr said, "I meant male ones." He
answered, "Her father.,,24 And lastly, we mention the
following, "The superiority of Wisha to other women is
like the superiority of tarid [a meal of bread and meat] to
other kinds offood. ,,25 Another tradition says that he died
before he had enough of tarid. 26 Wisha was eighteen
years old when the Prophet died. 27
4. Hafsa Blnt cUmar: It was cUmar, Hafsa's father, who
wedded them, and the Messenger of God gave her 400
dirhams. Before she married him, she was married to
Khanis Ibn Huzafa al-Sahmi. 28 Salim narrated, according
to Ibn cUmar, "When Hafsa was widowed, cUmar met
<Uthman and offered her to him. <Uthman said, 'I have no
need of women.' He met Abu Bakr and offered herto him,
but he kept silent. He was angry at Abu Bakr. But shortly
afterward the Messenger of God proposed to her and
married her. Later <Umar met Abu Bakr and said to him, 'I
offered my daughter to CUthman but he refused my offer,
and offered herto you but you kept silentl' Abu Bakr said,
'It was the Prophet. He mentioned something about her,
and it was a secret and I disliked to divulge a secret.' ,,29
<A)isha narrated: "The Messenger of God liked sweets
and honey. Whenever he performed the afternoon prayer,
he would visit his wives and have intercourse with them.
Once he went to Hafsa and was delayed there more than
usual. I asked about that, and I was told that a woman
gave her [Hafsaj a pot of honey, from which she gave the
Messenger of God to drink. So I said, 'By Godl I am going
to trick him.' I told the incident to Sawda and said to her,
"When he comes to you, he will try to have intercourse
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 Muhammad'. WI.... In al-8lro
with you. Then say to him, "0 Messenger of God, have
you eaten euphorbia?" He will answer you, "No." So say
to him, "Then what is that bad smell?" [The Messenger
of God disliked to smell bad.] So he will say to you,
"Hafsa gave me honey to drink." Then say to him, "The
bees that produced it must have licked euphorbia." I will
say likewise and Safiyya as well.' He came to Sawda and
she said to him, 'Have you eaten euphorbia?, He said,
'No.' She said, What is this bad smell then?' He
answered, 'Hafsa gave me honey to drink.' She said, 'The
bees that produced it must have licked euphorbia.' When
he came to me, I said the same and Safiyya said the
same. Later when he came to Hafsa, she said to him, '0
Messenger of God, shall I give you a drink from it?' He
replied, 'No. I don't need it.' Sawda said, 'Praise be to
God. We managed to prevent him [from delaying].' And I
told her to keep silent.',30
5. Umm Salama: Her name is Hind Bint Abi Umayya.
Muhammad visited her after the death of her husband
and the completion of her legal period [of cleansing]. He
31
asked her if she would marry him. He had heard that
she refused many men and that she had no desire for
them. So he asked her, "What is it that keeps you [from
marrying], Umm Salama?" She replied, "I have three
characteristics: I am old, with a child, and jealous." He
said, "As to jealousy that you mentioned, I will call on
God to take it away from you. As to old age, I am older
than you; and as to the child, leave him to God and His
Messenger. ,,32
Wisha said, "When the Messenger of God, married
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Muhammad'. WI.... In al-8lro
Umm Salama, I was deeply grieved because she was said
to be so beautiful. I spoke nicely to her till I was able to
see her. When I saw her, I found out she was much more
beautiful and fair than I had heard. So I mentioned this to
Hafsa [the two of them were in league]. She said, 'No by
Godl This is nothing but jealousy. She is not as [beautiful
as] they say.' So Hafsa spoke nicely to her till she was
able to see her, and then she said, 'I have seen her; she
is not as [beautiful as] you said. She is jUst beautiful.' I
saw her later, and I swear by God that she was as Hafsa
said, and it is I who was jealous.,,33
(Abd ai-Rahman Ibn al-Harith narrated, "The Messenger
of God was on some of his travels, and took with him on
this specific joumey Safiyya Bint Huyay and Umm Salama.
The Messenger of God approached Safiyya's hawdqj
[camel litter] thinking it was Umm Salama's. This was
Umm Salama's day [on which Muhammad was supposed
to have sex with her]. So the Messenger of God started to
talk with Safiyya which provoked Umm Salama to
jealousy. When the Messenger of God knew it was
Safiyya, he came to Umm Salama, who said, 'You talk
with the daughter of the Jew on my day, you who are the
Messenger of God?' She later said, 'But I regretted what I
had said, and kept asking for pardon for it.' She said, '0
Messenger of God, it was only jealousy that caused me to
do this.' ,,34
6. Umm Hablba (Ibn Abi SUfyan's widow): She was the
wife of (Ubaid Allah Ibn Jahsh who migrated to the land of
Ethiopia, where he adopted Christianity and died. Umm
Habiba remained in her religion. 35 She said, "In my sleep
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 Muhammad', Wloea In a/-sl,...
I saw my husband, IUbaid Allah Ibn Jahsh, in the worst
and most contorted shape, so I was appalled. I said, 'By
God, he has surely changedl' When he woke up he said,
IUmm Habiba, I considered [the issue of] religion and
came to the conclusion that Christianity is the best
religion,' So I said, 'By God, it can't be the best for youl' I
told him about the dream, but he cared nothing for it and
took to wine till he died. I saw in my sleep as though he
came to me and said, '0 mother of believers,' so I was
terrified, and took it to be that the Messenger of God will
marry me. As soon as my legal period was finished the
messenger of the Negus came knocking at my door
asking for admission. It was a slave named Abraha who
attended to his clothes and ointment. She entered in and
said, 'The king says to you that the Messenger of God
wrote him to give you to him in marriage.' I said, 'May God
carry good tidings to you,' The slave said, 'The king says
to you that you should appoint a guardian to wed you,' ..
So she sent for Khalid Ibn Salid Ibn al·IAs and appointed
him guardian, and gave Abraha two bracelets of silver,
two bangles that were round her legs, and silver rings that
were round her toes out of joy at what she heard. When it
was night, the Negus ordered Jalfar Ibn Abi Talib and the
Muslims that were there to come. On their arrival, he
said, "Praise be to God, the Holy, the Peace-Maker, the
Believing, the Sovereign, the Powerful, and the Mighty. I
bear witness that there is no god other than Allah and
that Muhammad is the Servant and Messenger of Allah,
and that he is the one who was foretold by Jesus son of
Mary. Now then, the Messenger of God wrote me to give
him Umm Habiba Bint Abi Sufyan in marriage. I answered
·144 .
Muhammad'. W'PU in al-8'ra
him positively and gave her four hundred dinars as dowry.
Then he poured the dinars into the hands of the people.
Khalid Ibn Salid spoke and said, "Praise be God, whom I
thank and lean on for help and victory. I bear witness that
there is no god other than Allah and that Muhammad is
the Servant and Messenger of Allah, who was sent by
Him with the guidance and the religion oftruth to help him
overcome all religions to the chagrin of idolaters. Now
then, I have answered what the Messenger of God asked,
and have given him Umm Habiba Bint Abi Sufyan,"
He paid the dinars to Khalid Ibn Salid Ibn ai-lAs. They
wanted to rise up, but he said, .. Sit down; it is the
tradition of the prophets that people eat at their wedding.
He called for food, they ate and dispersed. Umm Habiba
said, "When the money came to me, I sent for Abraha,
who gave me the good tidings, and said to her, 'I gave you
what I could that day, but I had no money in my
possession. Here are fifty; take them and use them.'
But she refused. I brought out all that I said I would give
her, but she gave it back to me and said, 'The king made
sure that I do not burden you with anything; for I am the
one responsible for his clothes and ointment, and I follow
the religion of Muhammad, the Messenger of God, and I
have surrendered to God. The king has also ordered his
wives to send you all the perfume they have,' The next day
she brought me alone juniper and amber, and a great deal
of civet. I went to the Prophet with all this; he used to see
it on me and with me and did not complain.' Abraha said,
What I request of you is to greet the Messenger of God
from me, and to tell him that I followed his religion,' She
·145·
 Muhammad', Wi.... in ,.1-8'ro
treated me kindly and equipped me [for the journey].
Every time she entered my room she would say, 'Do not
forget what I need of youl' So when I came to the
Messenger of God, I told him how the speech was and
how Abraha dealt with me, The Messenger of God smiled
and, when I passed on her greetings to him, he said,
'Peace be upon her, the mercy of God, and His
blessings: .. 36
7. Zalnab Blnt Jahsh: Muhammad's marriage with Zainab
Bint Jahsh was the strangest and most critical one. We
know from the stories told about her that she was a
beautiful woman. Muhammad had wedded his adopted
son Zaid Ibn Haritha to her in spite of her displeasure with
it, for she said, "0 Messenger of God, I don't like this for
myself, as I am a Kuraishite widow: 037
Muhammad Ibn Yahya Ibn Hayyan narrated, "The
Messenger of God came to Zaid's house seeking him.
[Zaid was then called Zaid Ibn MUhammad]. Perhaps the
Messenger of God missed him at that time, that is Why he
said, Where is Zaid?' He went to his house seeking him
and, when he did not find him, Zainab Bint Jahsh stood up
to [meet) him in a light house dress, but the Messenger
of God turned away from her. She said, 'He is not here,
Messenger of God, so please come in; my father and
mother are your ransom: The Messenger of God refused
to come in. Zainab had hurried to dress herself when she
heard that the Messenger of God was at her door, so she
leapt in a hurry, and the Messenger of God was deeply
moved by her when she did that. He went away muttering
something that was hardly understandable but for this
-146 -
Muhammad's Wivu in al-Sira
sentence: 'Praise be to God who disposes the hearts:
When Zaid came back home, she told him that the
Messenger of God came. Zaid asked, 'You asked him to
come in, didn't you?' She replied, 'I bade him to, but he
refused: He said, 'Have you heard [him say] anything?'
She answered, When he had tumed away, I heard him
say something that I could hardly understand. I heard him
say, "Praise be to God who directs the hearts:" Zaid
wel'lt out to the Messenger of God and said, '0
Messenger of God, I learned that you came to my house.
Did you come in? 0 Messenger of God, my father and
mother are your ransom. Perhaps you liked Zainab. I can
leave her: The Messenger of God said, 'Hold on to your
wife: Zaid said, '0 Messenger of God, I will leave her:
The Messenger of God said, 'Keep your wife: So when
Zaid left her, she isolated herself and finished her legal
period. While the Messenger of God was sitting talking
with IA'isha, he was taken in a trance, and when it was
lifted, he smiled and said, Who will go to Zainab to tell
her the good news that God wedded her to me from
heaven?' The Messenger of God recited, 'Thus you told
someone whom God had favoured and whom you yourself
have favoured: "Hold on to your wife:' , .. 38 lA'isha said,
"I heard a great deal about her beauty and, moreover,
about how God wedded her from heaven, and I said, 'For
sure she will boast over this with us: Salama, the slave
of the Messenger of God, came out running and I told her
about that. She gave me some silver jewellery for her...39
Zainab Bint Umm Salama narrated, "I heard my mother,
Umm Salama, say, 'I once mentioned Zainab Bint Jahsh
and asked for God's mercy upon her soul, and narrated
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 Muhammad', WI... in al-Slra
some of the things that happened between her and
(A)isha. Zainab said, "By God, I am unlike any of the
wives of the Messenger of God; he was given them in
marriage by dowries and needed guardians to wed them.
As for me, it was God who wedded me to the Messenger
of God and revealed the scripture on my account;
Muslims will continue to read with no change or
alteration- 'Thus you told someone whom God had
favoured.' " Umm Salama said, "The Messenger of God
found her desirable and used to visit her frequently. She
was a good woman and used to fast regularly, did good
and gave her money away to the needy." ,,,40
The traditions tell us that Muhammad sent Zaid to
propose to her. Anas narrated: "When the legal period of
Zainab Bint Jahsh was finished, the Messenger of God
said to Zaid Ibn Haritha, 'I have none that I can trust,
other than myself, but you. Go to Zainab and propose to
her for me.' So Zaid went off and came to her while she
was leavening dough. Zaid said, When I saw her, she
became greater in heart, and I could not look at her since
I knew that the Messenger of God mentioned her. So I
turned my back on her and said, "0 Zainab, rejoice; the
Messenger of God has mentioned you.'" She said, 'I
shall do nothing until I ask the advice of my Lord.' She
rose up and went to pray [or to her mosque). Then the
verse was revealed: 'Once Zaid has accomplished his
purpose with her, We married her off to you.' Then the
Messenger of God came and entered without perrnis-
sion.,,41
Muhammad's marriage with Zainab Bint Jahsh was the
-148 -
Muhammad'. Wiva in al-Sira
reason why some of the Qur)anic verses were
"revealed". One of these verses is the "verse of the
curtain", which can help us understand what kind of
curtain [Arabic hijab means either curtain or veil) was
meant by Muhammad at first. Sulaiman Ibn Harb
narrated, quoting Hammad Ibn Zaid, quoting Ayyub Ibn
Abi Qulaba that Anas said, "I know about this verse, 'the
verse of the curtain', more than anyone else. When
Zainab was given to the Messenger of God, he held a
banquet on the night he married Zainab, invited the
people and served them a meal. He wished that they
leave afterward, because his mind was set on his bride.
He stood up to let them know he wanted to leave, so
some left. He stood up once more, but some stayed. He
stood up a third time, and then they all left. So he entered
his house [where the bride was) and Anas followed him,
but he prevented him [from coming in) by letting down the
curtain and said, "You who believe do not enter the
Prophet's [private) quarters unless an invitation had been
extended to you for a meal, though still without watching
how it was prepared. However once you have been
invited, then go on in; and once you have been fed, then
disperse, not indulging in conversation. That has been
distUrbing the Prophet and he feels ashamed [to tell] you
so. Yet God is not ashamed [to raise] the Truth. Whenever
you ask [his wives] for any object, ask them for it from
behind a curtain. ,,42 The people arose and he let the
curtain down. 43
Another tradition by Anas says: "The Messenger of God
held a banquet for Zainab and fed the Muslims bread and
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 Muhammad'. WiPei in a'-Biro
meat. Then he went out to the quarters of the mothers of
believers to greet them and bless them, and be greeted
and blessed by them. He used to do that in the morning
following his consummation of marriage. He and I
retumed together. When we reached Zainab's house,
we found two men indulging in conversation at one side of
the house. On seeing them, the Messenger of God
returned from his house, when the two men saw this, they
hurried away. I cannot remember whether it was I who told
him that they left or someone else. As soon as he entered
the house, he let the curtain down between him and me,
and God revealed the verse of the curtain.,,44
One tradition says that Muhammad said, "The most
generous among you is the one who will be the closest in
catching up with me."45 So his wives used to act
generously toward everything. The Messenger of God
meant alms-giving when he said that, and Zainab was a
choice woman who used to give alms to the people, and
46
was therefore the closest in keeping up with him.
(A)isha narrated: "May God show mercy on Zainab Bint
Jahsh; she has received in this world an honour that no
one else received- namely that God married her off to His
Prophet in the world and expressed this in the Qur)an,
and that the Messenger of God said to us when we were
around him, 'The fastest one in keeping up with me is the
most generous one among you,' and then the Messenger
of God gave her the good news that she was the fastest
one in keeping up with him and that she will be his wife in
paradise.,,47
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Muhammad'. Wives in al-Sira
(Urwa narrated, quoting (A)isha concerning the latter:
"When Zainab Bint Jahsh died, she ['A'ishaj started to
weep and remember Zainab and ask the mercy of God on
her soul. (A)isha was asked why she wept, and she
answered, 'She was a good woman.' I said to her, 'My
aunt, which of the wives of the Messenger of God was his
favourite?' She replied, 'I did not have a lot of him. Zainab
Bint Jahsh and Umm Salama, however, had a [special]
place in his [heart]. They were the most favoured by him
after me as far as I know.,,48
8. Zalnab Blnt Khuzalma (who was called "the mother of
the poor"): She was the divorcee of al-Tufail Ibn al-Harith.
She was known in the Jahiliya as "the mother of the
poor". She was married to Muhammad in Ramadan 31
months after the Migration, remained eight months with
him, and passed away at the end of the month of Rabi ( ai-
Awwal. The Messenger of God prayed over her and had
her buried in al-Baqi(.49 Muhammad Ibn (Umar narrated
that he asked (Abdullah Ibn Ja(far about her age when
she died. He answered that she was thirty years old, or
SO.50
9. Juwalrlyya Blnt al·Harlth: (A)isha narrated: "The
Messenger of God fell upon the women of Banu al-
Mustaliq, took one fifth of them and distributed them
among the people. He gave the horse one portion and the
man two portions. So it happened that Juwairiyya Bint al-
Harith fell to the lot of Thabit Ibn Qais Ibn Shammas the
Ansarite. She had been married to her cousin Safwan Ibn
Malik Ibn Judsaima Dsu al-Shifr, who was killed. So Qais
offered to free her for the sum of nine ounces [of gold].
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 Muhammad', WI .... In "/-slre
Now she was a lovely woman; all who saw her were struck
by her loveliness. So while the Messenger of God was at
my place, Juwairiyya came asking him concerning the
offer that was made her to be freed, and as soon as I saw
her, I hated that she had come to the Prophet and knew
that he would see in her exactly what I saw. She said, '0
Messenger of God, I am Juwairiyya Bint al-Harith, the
master of his people, and you know that I fell to the lot of
Thabit Ibn Qais, who offered to free me for nine ounces
[of gold]. So please help me to be freed.' He said, '[Do
you want] something better than this?' She asked, What
is it?' He said, 'That I pay your ransom for you and marry
you.' She replied, 'Yes, Messenger of God.' The
Messenger of God said, 'This is done.' The news was
spread around and the people said, 'The in-laws of the
Messenger of God are made slavesl' So they freed all
Banu al-Mustaliq that were captured by them who were
around a hundred, just because of his marriage with her. I
do not know of any woman who was more of a blessing to
her folk than her. This is a result of the raid of al-
Marisa (. ,,51
The traditions make it obvious to us that Muhammad's
wives ridiculed him and said that he married her out of
pity and to show his graciousness. So Juwairiyya said, "0
Messenger of God, your wives boast over me. They tell
me that the Messenger of God has not married me." He
replied, "Have I not paid you a costly marriage dowry?
Have I not freed forty of your folk?,,52
Abu Qulaba narrated that the Prophet took Juwairiyya Bint
al-Harith captive, and her father came to the Prophet and
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Muhammad'. Wives in ol-Slra
said, "The like of my daughter should not be taken
captive. It is beneath my dignity to have something like
this done to me; so release her and let her go."
Muhammad replied, "Wouldn't it be better if we give
her the choice?" He said, "Yes, and you have done what
you ought to." So her father went to her and told her,
"This man has given you the choice, so do not dishonour
us." She replied, "I have chosen the Messenger of
God." So he said, "You have surely dishonoured US.',53
The traditions attest that she enjoyed the treatment of a
wife since he covered her under the curtain and divided
things equally between her and the rest of his wives. 54
10, Saflyya Blnt Huyay Ibn al-Akhtab: "When the
Messenger of God raided Khaibar, and God gave him
their possessions as booty, he took away Safiyya Bint
Huyay and one of her cousins from al-Qumus, and ordered
Bilal to carry them to his own camel. [The Messenger of
God had a choice of every booty and Safiyya was one of
those who were chosen in the battle with Khaibar.l The
Prophet offered her freedom if she chose God and His
Messenger, so she surrendered [adopted Islaml, was
freed by him, was married to him, and her dowry was her
freedom. He saw in her face, near her eyes, a green scar,
and asked, What is this?' She answered, '0 Messenger
of God, I saw in a dream a moon from Yathrib that fell in
my lap, and I related this to Kinana, my husband. He said,
"You like to be under that king who hails from Yathrib,
don't you?" He hit me on the face, and I started to count
my legal period.' The Messenger of God had not left
Khaibar till she was clear.sed of her menses. The
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 Muhammad'. Wives in «'-S'N
Messenger of God went out of Khaibar before he
consummated the marriage with her. When the camel
was brought near the Messenger of God to go out, he put
out his leg for Safiyya so that she could put her feet on
his thigh, but she refused and rather put her knee on his
thigh, The Messenger of God covered her, carried her
behind him, put his raiment upon her back and face and
then pulled it tightly under her legs and took her as one of
his wives. When he reached a house called Tabar, six
miles away from Khaibar, he tumed to it wanting to
consummate the marriage with her. Nevertheless, she
refused, even though he was eager. On coming to al-
Sahba), which is four leagues away from Khaibar, the
Messenger of God said to Umm Salim, 'You must tend
. your friend and comb her.' The Messenger of God wanted
to consummate the marriage with her there. Umm Salim
said, 'But we have neither tent nor pavilion.' So she took
two covers or raiments, hung them to a tree, combed her
and perfumed her there. Umm Sinan al-Aslamiyya said, 'I
attended the wedding ceremony of the Messenger of God
and Safiyya; we combed and perfumed her. She was the
sort of woman who looks brilliant when she is adomed. I
have not found a better smelling ointment than that night.
Before we were aware of it, we heard someone saying,
"The Messenger of God is consummating the marriage
with his wife; we have plucked the hair over her under a
doom palm." The Messenger of God went forward to her,
and she stood up to meet him [we had told her to do sol,
we went out and left them together, and the Messenger of
God consummated the marriage with her there and spent
the whole night with her. We passed by her in the moming
-154 -
Muhammad'. Wi.... In al-Blro
when she was about to wash. We took her along till we
were hidden from the soldiers. She did what she needed
to do and washed herself. I asked her about what she
saw in the Messenger of God, and she told me that he
was so pleased with her that he did not sleep the night,
but kept on talking to her and said to her, "Why did you
do that when I wanted to enter upon you [marry you] in the
first house?" She answere<;l, "I feared for you because
the Jews were near." This endeared her more to the
Messenger of God: When the morning came he held a
banquet for her there. The banquet consisted of nothing
else but pressed dates and the only bowls they had were
animal skins, The people there and they all went on their
journey till they reached al-Qasiba which was 16 miles
away.,,55
Abu Huraira narrated: While the Messenger of God was
consummating the marriage with Safiyya, Abu Ayyub
spent the night at the door of the Prophet. When the
Messenger of God woke up and he said, "Allahu akbar,"
there was a sword with Abu Ayyub. Abu Ayyub said, "0
Messenger of God, she was a newly married woman, and
you killed her father, brother, and husband, so I did not
feel secure about you with her." The Messenger of God
laughed and said, "It all went well.,,56
11. Rayhana 81nt Zald: (Umar Ibn al-Hakam narrated:
"The Messenger of God freed Rayhana Bint Zaid Ibn (Amr
Ibn Khunaqa. She had been married to a loving and
honouring husband, She said, 'I shall never have a
husband after him: She was beautiful, When Banu
Quraiza were taken captive, the booty was shown to the
-155 -
 Muhammad'. Wives In alooSlra
Messenger of God, and she was among the captives that
were shown him so he commanded her to be set aside.
He used to have a choice from each booty. She herself
narrated, When I was set aside, he chose me and sent
me to the house of Umm al-Mundsir Bint Qais for some
days till he had the captives killed and the spoils
distributed. Then the Messenger of God entered upon
me, and when I was too shy to meet him, he called me
and sat me between his hands. He said, "If you choose
God and His Messenger, the Messenger of God will
choose you for himself." I said, "I choose God and His
Messenger." So when I surrendered, he freed me,
married me, and gave me twelve ounces [of gold] as a
bridal gift as he would do with his wives. He consum-
mated the marriage with me in the house of Umm al-
Mundsir, and he used to distribute for me as he did all his
wives, and commanded me to be veiled.' The Messenger
of God was fond of her and he granted her all she asked
for. She was told, 'Had you asked the Messenger of God
for Banu Quraiza, he would have freed them.' She
answered, 'He reclined with me after he had already
distributed the booty.' He reclined with her frequently and
she remained with him till she died. He buried her in al-
Baqi(. He married her in Muharram, six years after the
Migration.',57
Muhammad Ibn Ka(b narrated: "Rayhana was among
those God gave him as captives. She was a beautiful
woman. When her husband was killed, she was taken
captive and became the choice of the Messenger of God
in the battle with Banu Quraiza. When the Messenger of
-156 -
Muhammad'. Wives In alooSlra
God gave the freedom to choose either Islam or her
religion, she chose Islam. Then the Messenger of God
freed her, married her and had her veiled. She was
strongly jealous over him once, which made him divorce
her one time while she was still at her place. She could
not bear that and wept profusely, then the Messenger of
God entered on her when she was in that state and
remarried her. She remained with him till she died.',58
12. Malmuna 81nt al-Harlth: She was the last woman the
Messenger of God married. This took place the seventh
year during Umrat al-qadhiyya. (Ali Ibn (Abdillah Ibn Abbas
narrated: When the Messenger of God wanted to go out to
Mecca in the year of the Qadhiyya, he sent Aws Ibn Khuli
and Abu Raft ( to ai-Abbas who wedded him off to
Maimuna. Their camels went astray and they had to
spend some days till the Messenger of God reached them
with slices of meat and found that they had bound their
two camels together. They went with him to Mecca where
Muhammad sent for al·Abbas and mentioned what
happened to him. Maimuna surrendered herself to the
Messenger of God. The Messenger of God came to the
house of ai-Abbas and proposed to her from ai-Abbas who
wedded her to him. The importance of this marriage lies
in the question whether a Muhrim can marry during the
Pilgrimage, since the traditions have it that Muhammad
married Maimuna while he was muhrim (that is, abstinent
while on a pilgrimage).
-157 -
 Muhammad'. Wives in al-Biro Muhammad'. Wives in al-Biro.

1- aJ.SiraaJ.nabawiyya,1:198. 28- ibid. 8:80-82; aiSlra, 4:294

2- Tabaqat Ibn Sa'd, 1:132. Tha Swedish ortanfaUst Frants Buhl thinks It Is an 29- Tabaqat, 8:83; Ansab al-ashra/, 1:402; Usd aJ1/haba, 5:486
exaggeration to say that Khadlja was forty years old since she already had five 30, ibid. 8:85,9011. aiSira, 4:294.
sons, knowing that Arab women suffer from eariy aging ("Khadldja", EI, vol.2, 31- Tabaqat, 8:9111.
p.922). 32- ibid. 8:94
3- aJ.Sira, 1:199. 33-lbld. 8:95-96. 'vVhlle eye-witnesses ofthe household of Muhammad (the chiefone
4- Tabaqat, 1:131. of whom Is (A)lsha) tell us that about the beauty of Umm Salama and the way she
5- aJ.Sirs, 1:200; Tabaqat, 8:52. rivalled the rest In beauty, Muslims in the twentieth century try to convince us that
8- aiSirs, 1:201; Tabaqat, 8:52 she was mlckfle-aged and that Muhammad married her only out of pity (Hasan
7- Tabaqat, 1:132ff. Kamilal-Maltawi, Rasul Allah lIa/-Qur'an af.lrarim (Cairo, 1979), p.339; al-Manar,
8· aiSlra, 1:202. 5:305; Muhammad Rashid Ridha, Fatawa al<niam, 5:1911).
9· Ibid. 1:132. 34- Tabaqat, 8:96; Annals of al-Tabari, 3: 164; Ansab aJ.ashra/, 1:429; Usd alghaba,
10, Tabaqat, 1:137; cf. al-5ira, 3:19311; aiSlmt a/-thamin, p.13; aJ.lst/'ab, 4:1817ff. 5:560.
11- aJ.Sira, 1:202. 35- Tabaqat, 8:101.
12- Tabaqat, 1:144. 36- Sura al-Ahzab 33:37.
13- Tabaqat, 1:144. 37· Tabaqat, 8:101·102.
14- Ibid. 38- ibid.
15- Sura al-Nlsa' 4:128; Tabaqar, 8:52. AI-labari says in his commentary: "If a 39- ibid. 8:104.
woman fears that her husband feels aloof to her and starts looking at another 40, Sura al·Ahzab 33:53.
woman, either because he hates her or hates some things about her, such as 41- Tabaqat, 8:105-106.
ugliness or old age, there Is no faUlt In such a woman who fears the desertion of 42- Ibid.
her husband to free him from her appoInted day {of conjugal right], and thus win
43-lbid. 8:108; aiSlmtaJ.thamin, p.110; aJ4stJ'ab, 40:1851; al-lsaba, 9:83.
his kindness" (ai-laban, 5:305f.). Yet the case Is otherwise with the men who 44- Ibid. 8:108.
fear the rebelllousness of their wives: "And those you fear may be rebellious 45- Ibid.
admonish; banish them to their couches, and [even] beat them" (Sura al-Nlsa' 48-lbid.8:114.
4:34). 47- Ibid. 8:110-116; Usd al-ghaba, 5:466.
16- Tsbaqat, 8:53. IA1isha IAbd af.Rahman says conceming Muhammad when he 48- Tabaqat, 8:166.
drove Sawda away and received her again among his wives, "But he pitied her
49- Tabaqat, 8: 116-117; Ansab aJ.ashra/, 1:433; Usa aJ.gh8ba, 5:462.
emotional deprivation and did not like her to fall a victim to the bn.rtal feeling that 50, Tabaqat, 8:117; aiSira, 4:296; Usd aJ.ghaba, 5:420.
she was not like the other [Wives]. He tried his best to open his heartto her, but he 51- Tabaqat, 8:118.
could not get his human nature to do so. The uttermost he could do for Sawda was 52- Ibid.
to equalise her wJth the rest of hIs wives in terms of housing and keep; as to his 53-lbld.8:121-122:
emotions, he found It impossJble to force something unpleasant to them, or 54- Ibid. 8: 126; Ansab al-ashra/, 1:422; Usd alghaba, 5:4900.
subdue them by his will-power to the balances ofjustice and the regulations of 55- Tabaqat, 8:129-130.
faimessl" (Nisa' al-Nabl, p.66). For more information on Sawda, see Ansab sl- 56- ibid.
ashra/, 1:407; Usd alghaba, 5:584; Annals ofal-Tabari, 3:161. 57- Ibid. 8:132; Ansab a/-ashraf, 1:453; Usa aJ.ghaba, 5:460; al·Tabart, 3:167.
17· Tabaqat, 8:58; Abu Oawud, Nikah34; Ansaba/-ashra/, 1:410; UsdaJ.ghaba, 5:501
56- Tabaqat 8:133. ct. tha tradilions quoted hara (8: 13311.)
18- aiSlra, 4:293
19- Tabaqat, 8:58
20, Ibid.
21- Tabaqa~ 8:50
22-lbid. 8:64
23- ibid. 8:65
24- ibid. 8:67
25-lbld. 8:318; al-Bukhart, Mima 25,30, Fadha'ii al-sahaba 30
26- Tabaqa~ 1:318
27- ibid. 8:62

-158 - -159 -

chapter twenty six
Muhammad's Further Attempts to Marry
Women Muhammad proposed to but did not
marry:
1. AI·Kllablyya: She was called Fatima Bint al-Dhahhak or
Amra Bint Yazid al-Kilabiyya. 1 Narrators gave contra-
dictory stories about the reason why Muhammad left her.
In a tradition by Wisha we read the following, "When she
was brought in to him after marriage, he approached her,
and she said, 'I take refuge with God from you.' The
Messenger of God said, 'You have taken refuge with the
Great One; go back to your family.' ,,2 Some claim that
Muhammad left her due to vitiligo alba (a mild leprosy),3
and some said that she lost her mind after she refused
him. 4
2. Asma) Blnt al-Nu(man al-Klndlyya: Ibn Abbas narrated:
"The Messenger of God married Asma) Bint al-Nu(man,
and she was the most beautiful and elegant woman of her
time. When the Messenger of God began to marry foreign
women, (A)isha said, 'His attention is now so drawn to
the foreign ones that they nearly tumed his face away
from us,' When the wives ofthe Prophet saw Asma), they
envied her and said to her, 'If you want to have favour with
him, take refuge with God from him as soon as he enters
upon you.' So when he entered, took away the veil, and
stretched out his hand to her, she said, 'I take refuge with
God from you.' He replied, 'Go back to your family.' ,,5
Abu Usaid narrated: "The Messenger of God married a
-160 -
Muhammad'. FUrther Attempt. to Marl')'
woman from Baljun, and ordered me to bring her. I
brought her and stationed her in al-Shawt behind a blade
of a henna flower in a square house. I came to the
Prophet and said to him, 'I have brought your wife to you.'
He went out on foot and I walked with him. When he
reached her, he fell down on her to kiss her (the
Messenger of God used to lean to the back and then
kiss), so she said to him, 'I take refuge with God from
yoU.'6 Muhammad was told that she was deceived and
that she was quite young, but he never took her back,',7
3. Qutalla Blnt Qals: Ibn Abbas narrated: "When Asma)
Bint al-Nu(man took refuge with God from the Prophet, he
went out and his face showed an immense anger. AI-
Ash (that said to him, 'Let this not bother you, Messenger
of God. Shall I give in marriage one that is more beautiful
and honourable?' He asked, Who?' He replied, 'My
sister Qutaila.' He said, 'I marry her.' So al-Ash(that left
for Hadramawt and carried her. And when he had left
Yemen, he leamed that the Prophet died, so he took her
back to his country and turned away amongst those who
turned away. ,,8
4. Mallka Blnt Ka(b al-lalthl: The Prophet married Malika
Bint Ka (b who was known for her resplendent, magnifi-
cent beauty. Wisha entered to her and said, "Are you
not ashamed of marrying the killer of your father?" So
she took refuge with God from him, and the Prophet
divorced her among her folk, who said to him, "0
Messenger of God, she is still young and she was
deceived, so please tal<e her back." But he refused. 9
-161-
 Muhammad'. Further Attempte to Marry
5. Blnt Jundub: The Messenger of God married Bint
Jundub. Muhammad Ibn (Amr said, "Our friends deny
that and hold that the Messenger of God never married a
woman from the tribe of Kinana."10
6. Sana Blnt al-Salt: Muhammad married her but she
died before she reached him. (Abdullah Ibn <Ubaid
narrated: "A man from Banu Sulaim came to the
Prophet and said, '0 Messenger of God, I have a
daughter who possesses beauty and intelligence that
none else possesses but you.' So the Prophet was about
to marry her, but the man said, 'And another, 0
Messenger of God, who has never been afflicted with a
disease while she was with me.' The Prophet said to him,
We have no need of your daughter. Have you come to
take away her sins? There is nothing good in a
possession that cannot be humiliated, and a body that
cannot be afflicted.' ,,11
Women Muhammad married but with whom he
did not consummate the marriage, or women who
had given themselves to Muhammad:
1. Lalla Blnt al·Khatlm: Ibn Abbas narrated: "Lalla Bint
al-Khatim came to the Prophet while he had his back
facing the sun, and tapped on his shoulder. He said,
Who is this? May the lions eat him.' (He used to say this
many times.) She replied, 'I am the daughter of the one
who feeds the birds and competes with the wind. I am
Lalla Bint al-Khatim and have come to you offering myself.
Marry me.' He said, 'Your request is done.' So she
returned to her people and told them that the Messenger
of God married her. They said, What a bad thing you have
-162 -
Muhammad'. Further Attempts to Marry
doneI You are a jealous woman and the Prophet is a
polygamist. You may feel jealous over him and he would
then call upon God against you. So ask him to release
you.' Thereupon she went back to him and said, '0
Messenger of God, release me.' He said, 'I release you.'
Later Mas<ud Ibn Aws married her.',12 <Asim Ibn (Umar
Ibn Qatada narrated: "Laila Bint al-Khatim bestowed
herself upon the Messenger of God, and he accepted her.
She used to ride her mule in an obscene manner, as she
was also ill-mannered. She said, 'No by Godl I shall not
let Muhammad marry an Ansarite woman in this district.
By Godl I shall go to him and bestow myself upon him.'
She went to the Prophet while he was standing with one
of his friends, and he was not aware of her till she laid her
hand on him. He said, Who is this? May the lion eat himl'
She replied, 'I am Lalla, the daughter of the master of his
people; I have bestowed myself upon you.' He said, 'I
have accepted you; go back until my command reaches
you.' She went back to her people, who said to her, 'You
are a woman who cannot bear adversaries [wives], and
God has made it lawful for his Messenger to marry
whomever he wills.' She retumed to him and said, 'God
has made women lawful for you and I am a woman of a
lashing tongue and I bear no adversaries.' She asked him
to release her, and he did.,,13
2. Umm HanJl Blnt Abl Tallb: Ibn Abbas narrated: "The
Prophet asked Abu Talib for the hand of his daughter,
Umm Hanfl, in marriage in the Jahiliya. But Hubaira
proposed to her and married her. The Prophet said, 'My
uncle, you mar~ied Hubaira off and left me out!' He
-163 -
 Muhammad'. Furlher AlfOmpto 10 Marry
replied, 'My nephew, we have become related to you by
marriage, and the dignified man rewards [or is the reward
of] the dignified man: Afterwards, she surrendered
[adopted Islam] and Islam separated her from Hubaira.
Then the Messenger of God proposed to her personally.
She said, 'By Godl If I loved you in the Jahiliya, so how
much more in Islaml But I am a woman with children and I
hate that they would hurt you: The Messenger of God
said, 'The best women who ride on horseback are the
women of Quraish; they are tender to their little children,
and take good care 0 f th elr. husband' s possessions.
. ,14
Abu Salih, the guardian of Umm HanP, narrated: "The
Messenger of God proposed to Umm HanP, Abu Talib's
daughter, who said, '0 Messenger of God, I am the
mother of orphans, and my children are young: So when
her children attained pUberty, she offered herself to him,
but he said, 'No, not now,' because God revealed to him:
'0 Prophet, We have permitted you [to deal with] your
wives to whom you have given their allotments, and
anyone your right hand controls whom God has given you
[as captives] and your paternal uncles' and aunts'
daughters, and your maternal uncles' and aunts'
daughters who have migrated along with YOU',15 and
she was not among those who migrated. Another said,
'She bore for Hubaira Ibn Abi Wahb, Ja(da, (Umar, Yusuf,
and Hani): ,,16
3. Dhaba(a Blnt Qlrt Ibn Maslama: Ibn Abbas narrated:
"Dhaba (a Bint <Amir was married to Haudsa Ibn (Ali al-
Hanafi, from whom she inherited a great amount of
money after his death. (Abdullah Ibn Jud(an al-Taymi was
-164 -
Muhammad'. Furlher AlfOmpto 10 Marry
an impotent man. She asked him to divorce her, and he
did. Hisham Ibn al-Mughira married her, and she gave him
Salama, who was one of the best Muslims. Hisham died
and she was widowed. She was one of the most beautiful
and well-mannered women among the Arabs. When she
sat down she would occupy a great part of the floor, and
her body would be covered with her long hair. Her beauty
was described to the Prophet, he asked her son, Salama
Ibn Hisham Ibn al-Mughira, for her hand. He said, '[Wait]
till I ask her permission: (Meanwhile the Prophet was
told that she had grown old.) Her son went to her and told
her that the Prophet asked her hand from him. She asked
him, What have you said to him?' He answered, "told
him [to wait] till I ask your permission: She said, Would
someone need permission when the Prophet is the one
involved? Go back and wed me to himl' So he went back
and told the Prophet, but the Prophet kept silent:,17
4. Saflyya Blnt Bashshama: Ibn Abbas narrated:
"Muhammad proposed to Safiyya Bint Bashama Ibn
Nadhla al-(Anbari, who was taken captive. The Messenger
of God gave her the choice and said, Whom do you
desire: me or your husband?' She said, 'Nay, my
husband: So he sent her away and Banu Tamim cursed
her.,,18
5. Umm Shuralk Blnt Ghazlyya: (Ali Ibn ai-Husain
narrated: "The woman who bestowed herself upon the
Prophet was Umm Shuraik. (Ikrima mentioned in a
tradition of his that she was the one meant by the verse:
'And any believing woman who bestows herself upon the
Prophet, provided the Prophet wants to marry her; such is
-165 -
 Muhammad'. Further Attempts to Marry
exclusively for you and not for [other] believers.' ,,19 A
tradition by Munir Ibn (Abdillah al-Dawsi says: "She is the
one who bestowed herself upon the Prophet. She was
from the Azd tribe. She offered herself to the Prophet, and
she was beautiful but a little old. She said, 'I bestow
myself upon you and give myself to you as a free gift.' The
Prophet accepted her. (A'isha said, 'There is nothing
good in a woman when she bestows herself upon a man.'
Umm Shuraik said, 'This is I.' Then God called her "the
believing" when He said, 'And any believing woman who
bestows herself upon the Prophet.' When this verse was
revealed, Wisha said, 'Indeed, God hastens to do what
you desire.' ,,20
6. Khawla Blnt Hakim Ibn Umalyya: Hashim Ibn
Muhammad narrated, quoting his father: "Khawla Bint
Hakim was among those who bestowed themselves upon
the Messenger of God, and he put her off. She used to
serve the Prophet. (Uthman Ibn Maz'un married her and
died while she was still alive.',21
7. Umama Blnt Hamza Ibn (Abd al-Muttallb: Ibn Abbas
narrated: "The Messenger of God was constrained to
[marry] Hamza's daughter, but he said that she was his
step-sister [or sister by nursing] and that this kind of
relationship is forbidden. So the Messenger of God
married her off to Salama Ibn Salama and the Prophet
used to say, 'Have you been rewarded by Salama?' ,,22
8. Khawla Blnt al-Hudsall: al-Sharqi Ibn al-Qatami
narrated that the Messenger of God married her but
she died on the way before she ever reached him. 23
-166 -
Muhammad'. Further Attempts to Marry
9. Shurafa Blnt Khallfa: (Abd ai-Rahman Ibn Sabit
narrated: "The Messenger of God proposed to a woman
from the tribe of Kalb and (Alisha was sent to look at her.
She went and, after she came back, the Messenger of
God said to her, What did you see?' She replied, 'I saw
nothing of value.' The Messenger of God said to her, 'I
have seen something of value; I have seen a mole on her
cheek that causes every hair of yours to stand on end.'24
She said, '0 Messenger of God, there is no secret hidden
from you.' " Mujahid said, "The Messenger of God used
not to propose again once he was refused. Once he
proposed to a woman and she said, 'Ask my father's
permission.' She found her father and he gave her
permission. Later she met the Messenger of God and told
him, but he said, We have found ourselves another
mantle.' ,,25
1- There is no agreement on her name; some call her "Saba) Blnt Sufyan"
(Tabaqat, 8:141).
2- Tabaqat, 8: 141: Usd a/tlhaba. 5:525.
3- Tsbaqat, 8:142.
4- ibid.
5- ibid. 8: 143; Usd a/tlhaba, 5:396ff.
6- Tabaqat, 8:144; al-5/ra, 4:29T.
T- Ansab aI-ashraf, 1:456.
8- Tabaqat, 8:148; Usd a/tlhaba, 5:532,533.
9- Tabaqat, 8:148.
10- Tabaqat, 8:148ff.
11- Tabaqat, 8:148ff.; Usda/tlhaba, 5:483.
12- Tabaqat, 8:150.
13- Ibid. 8:150; Usd a/tlhaba, 5:542.
14- Tabaqat, 8:151-153; Usd a/tlhaba, 5:624.
15- Sura al~Ahzab 33:50. Scholars are In disagreement concerning this verse as is
mentioned in the story of Umm Shuraik below.
-167 -
 Muhammad'. Further Attempte to Marry
16- Tabaqat, 8: 153ff.
17· Ibid. Usd al-ghabs, 5:495-496. chapter twenty seven
18- Tabaqat, 8:1554; Usd al-ghabs, 5:490.
Ill- Sura al-Ahzab 33:50; Tabaqat, 8:156. The Story of Muhammad's Marriage
2Q. Tabaqat, 8:154-15T.
21- Ibid. 8:160; Usd alghaba, 5:444.
22- Tabaqat, 8:160; UsdaJ.ghaba, 5:399-400.
to Zainab Bint Jahsh
23- Tabaqat, 8:160; Usd alghaba, 5:337.
24- Tabaqat, 8:160; Usdalghaba, 5:486.
as the Qur1an Expositors See it
25- Tabaqat, 8:1600.

Muhammad's marriage to Zainab Bint Jahsh has become

a profound problem for the old expositors, and needs
justification and explanation due to the strange incidents
involved. 1 These incidents are not in harmony with the
~r ethics and conventions that Muhammad introduced to
mankind, as Muslims claim. But before we delve into the
opinions and the arguments that the expositors used to
justify what happened, it is worthwhile to quote here what
Ibn SaId and al-Tabari said concerning this story:

Muhammad Ibn Yahya Ibn Hayyan narrated, "The

Messenger of God came to Zaid Ibn Haritha's house
seeking him. Perhaps the Messenger of God missed him
at that time, that is why he said, Where is Zaid?' He went
to his house seeking him and, when he did not find him,
Zainab Bint Jahsh stood up to [meet] him in a house
dress, 2 but the Messenger of God turned away from her.
She said, 'He is not here, Messenger of God, so please
come in; my father and mother are your ransom: The
Messenger of God refused to come in. Zainab had hurried
to dress herself when she heard that the Messenger of
God was at her door, so she leapt in a hurry, and the
Messenger of God liked h.er when she did that. He went
away muttering something that was hardly understand-
able but for this sentence: 'Praise be to God who
-168 - -169 -
 Story 01 Muhammad'. Marriage to Zainab
disposes the hearts.' When Zaid came back home, she
told him that the Messenger of God came. Zaid asked,
'You asked him to come in, didn't you?' She replied, 'I
bade him to, but he refused.' He said, 'Have you heard
[him say] anything?' She answered, When he had turned
away, I heard him say something that I could hardly
understand. I heard him say, "Praise be to God who
disposes the hearts." , Zaid went out to the Messenger of
God and said, '0 Messenger of God, I learned that you
came to my house. Did you come in? 0 Messenger of
God, my father and mother are your ransom. Perhaps you
liked Zainab. I can leave her.' The Messenger of God
said, 'Hold on to your wife.' Zaid said, '0 Messenger of
God, I will leave her.' The Messenger of God said, 'Keep
your wife.' So when Zaid left her, she finished her legal
period after she had isolated herselffrom Zaid. While the
Messenger of God was sitting and talking with Wisha, he
was taken in a trance, and when it lifted, he smiled and
said, Who will go to Zainab to tell her that God wedded
her to me from heaven?' The Messenger of God recited,
'Thus you told someone whom God had favoured and
whom you yourself have favoured: "Hold on to your
wife.'" (A)isha said, 'I heard much about her beauty and,
moreover, about how God wedded her from heaven, and I
said, "For sure she will boast over this with us.'"
Salama, the slave of the Messenger of God, hurried to tell
her about that. She gave her some silver jewellery that
she was wearing. ,,3
Zainab used to boast over the wives of the Prophet and
say, "Your families married you off, but it was God who
-170 -
Story of Muhammad', Marriage to Zalnab
married me off from above seven heavens, ,,4 Expositors
are in unanimous agreement that this incident that took
place between Muhammad and Zainab on the one hand,
and between Muhammad and Zaid on the other hand was
the reason why this verse was revealed: "Thus you told
someone whom God favoured and whom you your~elf
have favoured: 'Hold on to your wife, and heed God,'
while you kept to yourself what God had disclosed and
you dreaded people's [opinions], although it is more
correct for you to dread God, Once Zayd has accom-
plished his purpose with her, 5 We married her off to you
so that there would be no objection for believers in
respect to their adopted sons' wives once they have
accomplished their purpose with them, God's command
must be donel" (Sura al-Ahzab 33:37),
Muhammad's marriage to Zainab, who was the wife of his
adopted son, led to many accusations against
Muhammad. The dissimulators said, "Muhammad pro-
hibits the wives of the son while he himself marries the
wife of his son Zaid.,,6 (Abdullah Ibn (Umar narrated:
"We have always called him [namely Zaid] Zaid Ibn
MUhammad.'~7 So this charge that the dissimulators,
among others, levelled against Muhammad necessitated
the revelation of yet another verse: "Muhammad is not
the father of any of your men, but [he is] God's
Messenger and the Seal of the Prophets. God is Aware
of everythingl" (Sura al-Ahzab 33:40). (Abdullah Ibn
(Umar said, "We only called him Zaid Ibn Muhammad
till the verse 'Muhammad is not the father of any of your
men' was revealed.',8
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 Story 0' Muhammad'. Marr'- to Zainab
The interpretation of t.he verse by Muslim
expositors:
Muslim expositors explain the verse (Sura al-Ahzab
33:37) as follows: Remember, MUhammad, when you
said to laid,9 "Hold on to your wife, and heed God in
regard to her, and do not divorce her owing to necessity or
offering her haughtiness as excuse.,,10 In fact lainab
Bint Jahsh appealed to the Messenger of God when he
saw her, as is told, when she was under the bond of his
next of kin, so God placed in his heart aversion toward her
when he knew that the heart of his Prophet was so
stricken by her. So laid wanted to leave her and he told
the Messenger of God. The Messenger of God said to
him, "Hold on to your wife" even though he desired him
to be finally divorced from her so that he could marry her,
"and heed God" namely fear Him in the duty you owe
Him for your wife. 11
A tradition by Wahb, "Ibn laid said, 'The Prophet had
married laid Ibn Haritha to lainab Bint Jahsh, his cousin,
and the Messenger of God went out one day seeking him.
On laid's door was a curtain which the wind moved to
show her unveiled in her chamber. The -heart of the
Prophet was filled with admiration for her. When this
happened, she became undesirable to the other [namely
to laid], who came [to the Messenger of God] and said,
"0 Messenger of God, I want to leave my wife." He
replied, "Did she do anything to arouse your suspicion?"
He said, "Nol She did nothing to arouse my suspicion at
all,O Messenger of God, and alii have seen from her was
good." Then the Messenger of God said to him, "Hold on
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Story 0' Muhammad'. Marr'- to Zalnab
to your wife, and heed God." This is why God said, "Thus
you told someone whom God had favoured and whom you
yourself have favoured: 'Hold on to your wife, and heed
God,' while you kept to yourself what God has disclosed."
[This means that] you hid in yourself that you would marry
her if he leaves her.' ,,12
(Ali Ibn Husain narrated: "God, may He be blessed and
exalted, had made known to His Prophet that lainab will
be one of the wives, so when laid came to him
complaining of her, he said, 'Heed God, and hold on to
your wife.' But God said, 'You kept to yourself what God
has disclosed.''' (A)isha narrated: Had the Messenger of
God kept to himself any part of the Book of God that was
inspired to him he would have kept "You kept to yourself
what God has disclosed and you dreaded people['s
opinions], although it is more correct for you to dread
God.,,13
AI-Hasan said, "None of the verses that were revealed to
him was more burdensome to him than this: 'You kept to
yourself what God has disclosed. And you dreaded
people's [opinions], although it is more correct for you
to dread God.' The Prophet of God dreaded what people
would say.,,14 There only remains Ibn Kathir (A.D. 1373)
among the old expositors who rejects the oldest
traditions about the incident that took place between
Muhammad and lainab. He does that without resorting to
any modification or justification to his claim. He says,
"Ibn Jarir and Ibn Hatim related many stories in this
regard which we discard on the grounds of being
incorrect.',15 Ibn Kathir, however, who contests the
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 Story of Muhammad'. Marria,ge to Zainab
accuracy of those stories claiming that they are incorrect,
finds no fault in citing a late tradition that says: "'YOU
kept to yourself what God had disclosed' means that God
told you, Muhammad, that Zainab will be one of your
wives and therefore you said to him " 'Hold on to your
wife.' ,,16
The greatest problem that faces al-Razi is the "dread of
the Messenger of God," since the Qur'an says, "You
dreaded people's [opinions], although it is more correct
for you to dread God." Butthis does not point outthat the
Prophet dreaded the people and did not dread God, it
rather means: "God alone is worthy to be dreaded, and
you should not dread any of the people together with him.
So dread Him alone.,,17 It is no secret that this
interpretation of al-Razi has not been known before him,
and that it was, no doubt, a product of his imagination.
AI-Zamakhshari, on the other hand, treats other aspects
in his analysis of the story. (A)isha narrated:
Had the Messenger of God kept anything to himself of
what has been revealed to him, he would have kept
this verse hidden. If you ask, "What then did God
want him to say when Zaid told him he wanted to
leave her, knowing that it was improper for him to tell
him to do so because he wanted to marry her, I would
answer, "It seems that God, may He be exalted,
wanted him to hold his peace or to tell him, 'You know
better what to do,' so his inward [intention] should not
be contradictory to his outward [expression), since
God requires of the Prophets that their inward
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Story of Muhammad's MarrlQlle to Zatnab
[intentions] and outward [expressions] be equal, that
they should be firm in [pursuing) matters, responding
according to circumstances and persisting on a
settled course. In the Hadith, when the Messenger
of God wanted to kill (Abdullah Ibn Abi 5arh, and when
(Uthman interceded for him, (Umar said, "My eye was
facing yours, will you make a gesture with your eye so
that I should kill him?" Muhammad replied, "The
prophet should not give orders through an eye-
gesture; their inward [intention] and their outward
[expression] is the same." If you say, "How did God
reprove him for refraining to express something that
he disapproved of expressing? The Prophet would not
disapprove of expressing something unless it is
worthy of disapproval for him and the people talk
only against that which is considered loathsome to
the intellects and habits. And why has He not
reproved him concerning the same matter, ordering
him to repress [his) lust and quell [his] soul to keep it
from desiring and chasing after Zainab? Why has He
not kept His Prophet free from anything that would
attach fault to him and expose him to gossip?" I
would say, "How often a man is cautious about
something and is ashamed to let people know about
it, while it is inside him allowable, appropriate,
absolutely lawful, indisputable, and God finds no fault
in itl And perhaps entering into that which is allowable
serves as a ladder whereby one can attain duties that
leave a great effect on religion for which a man is
rewarded. Unless he is cautious regarding this many
people spread rumours about him, except those who
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 Story of Muhammad'. Marria6e to Zatnab
have favour with God, knowledge, religion and God-
given insight into the true state of affairs and into their
essence, not their outward appearance. Do you know
that when they would feast in the houses of the
Messenger of God, reclining in their seats, not
[showing desire] to leave, indulging in conversations,
and the Messenger of God would be hurt by their
sitting feeling upset by their speech, but constrained
by shyness? Had the Messenger of God revealed what
was hidden in his breast, and commanded them to
disperse, they would have found it difficult [to receive]
and there would be some defamatory talk. This is like
man's ambition for certain objects, such as a woman.
It is a desire not characterised by ugliness in intellect
or in religion, since it is not one of free choice. Also
achieving what is allowable through legal means is
nothing ugly; namely proposing to Zainab and marry-
ing her without Zaid's suggestion that the Messenger
of God marry her, or to console him for leaving her
knowing firmly that Zaid's soul was not attached to
her at all, but was rather indifferent to her, and at the
same time the soul of the Messenger of God was so
attached to her. It was not offensive among them that
a man would relinquish his wife for his friend so that
the latter could marry her. When the Migrants entered
Medina, they were consoled by the Helpers [al-Ansar]
in everything, to the extent that if a man had two
wives, he would relinquish one ofthem to the Migrant.
So then, the matter was allowable on all sides, and it
was not offensive at all. It also has not hurt or
demoralised Zaid or anyone else. On the contrary, it
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Story of Muhammad', Marrkwe to Zainab
has been the source of goodness; to mention only
one of them, a cousin of the Messenger of God [that
is Zainab] secured herself [a marriage With] a close
relative and high honour, As to the general good in his
saying, "so that there would be no objection for
believers in respect to their adopted sons' wives once
they have accomplished their purpose with them,"
God should rather have reproved His Messenger when
he kept it to himself by saying to him, "Hold on to
your wife, and heed God." Since God approves for him
only conformity of conscience and outward [expres-
sion], and standing firm in the issues of truth so that
the believers would follow his example and not be
ashamed of fighting for their rights, even if it is bitter
[to do SO].18
Muslim writers have added nothing to the listof apologies
that al-Zamakhshari (A.D. 1144) and al-Razi (A.D. 1209)
presented, as they use the same arguments trying to
interpret this story, and even defend it. They believe that
it involves hidden wisdom that the understanding of
mankind is not yet mature enough to fathom. 19 We also
observe a bizarre agreement between the rigorists, who
call themselves traditionalists, and those who maintain
reform and progress. Muhammad Husain Haikal, for one,
in the course of "refuting" the claims of V. Vacca in the
Encyclopaedia of Islam regarding Zainab, speaks about a
"glorious deed" of Muhammad, which the orientalists
and missionaries have turned into a romance. He says,
"As to Zainab Bint Jahsh, who has been wrapped up by
orientalists and missionaries in an imaginary picture of
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 Story of Muhammad'. Marriage to Zainab
romance and infatuation, true history judges that
[Muhammad's act with] her was one of the glorious
deeds of Muhammad. Being the perfect example of faith,
he applied to her the Hadith that says, 'Man's faith is not
made perfect till he loves for his brother what he loves for
himself.' It is enough to destroy the story that it was he
who betrothed her to his adopted son, Zaid.,,20 The
scholar Haikal does not fail to add that "we could have
spared him all these sayings by saying, 'Let it be true!'
Why would this detract from the greatness, message, and
prophethood of Muhammad? The laws that bind [ordinary]
people have no power over the luminaries, so how much
more the messengers and prophetsI Hasn't Moses seen
a dispute between two men; one was from his sect and
the other from the enemy's sect, so he thrust the enemy
and killed, committing an unlawful murder? So Moses
broke the law, and was not subject to it. Yet this did not
detract from his prophethood or message, and did not
diminish his greatness. The way Jesus broke the law [of
nature] was even greater than Moses, and thus with
Muhammad and the rest of the prophets. For his
condition is not bordered by a certain limit of power or
desire, he rather went beyond the laws of nature by his
birth and lifeI,,21
Putting all these points aside, let us ask Muslims to find
the relation between the murder that Moses committed,
on the one hand, and the birth of Jesus from a Virgin, on
the other hand, and the relation between these two
people and the story of Muhammad and Zainabl The
strangeness of the matter lies in the fact that the scholar
-178 -
Story of Muhammad'. Marrl.age to Zainab
Haikal presents Muhammad's giving Zainab in marriage
to Zaid as a cogent argument to ,refute the claims of his
opponents who hold that the matter was merely romance
and infatuationl It is unbelievable that Haikal has no
knowledge of the fact that "the heart of the Prophet was
deeply moved by her after her marriage with Zaid,,22
which is found in trustworthy Islamic reference books. AI-
Sabuni, however, excludes any love affair or romance
from this marriage, as he says, "How can a man give a
virgin woman to [another] person, and then desire her
after she is deflowered?,,23 AI-Sabuni attacks the
fraudulent "orientalists" and "missionaries" who
claimed that God reproved Muhammad for his hidden
desire forZainab. Yet, these "slanders" ofthe orientalist
and missionaries have already been listed in Tabaqat Ibn
Sa(d and al-Tabari's works, as they have been quoted in
the books that were written after them. Ibn Sa (d and ai-
Tabari were neither the enemies of Islam nor "fraudulent
orientalists". They did not know that Muhammad only
married her to cancel and abolish the act of adoption. 24
This argument was not known at all at the time of al-
Tabaril
On the other hand, there are some Muslim fundamental-
ists and writers whose work wins the favour of
fundamentalists, who discovered a further virtue in the
Prophet- his fondness for womenl The Prophet has
proven through this fondness that he was a man in the full
meaning of the word.25 It was Wisha (Abd ai-Rahman
who was the first to express this argument.26 Her
frankness is to be considered a criticism of the writers
-179 -
 Story 0' Muhammad'. MarrlaBs to Zalnab
who endeavour to rid the Messenger of all human
feelings. She comments on what Haikal said in regard
to the Prophet's marriage with Zainab, "Am I then right in
saying that Dr Husain Haikal was wrong in his attempt to
defend the Messenger? Indeed, when he denied the
Messenger's fondness for Zalnab and refused the fact
that he was attached to her, he cast upon the matter
many dark shades of suspicion that would make us
believe that this attachment was forbidden for the
Messenger and a flaw that we should free him from.
This has nothing to do with the matter at all. It is just
human nature that is subject to passions it cannot drive
away. So it rises high in nobility and self-control,
determining to continue refraining from what God
permitted in order to escape the gossip of the people.
But God Insisted that His Messenger should embark on
such a marriage that has been permitted by law and
necessitated by the general good, which is 'that there
would be no objection for believers In respect to their
adopted sons' wives once they have accomplished their
purpose with them.' The other private good was that
'Zainab should secure herself [a marriage with] a close
relative, of high honour, and become one of the mothers
of believers. Hence God reproved him when he kept it to
himself by saying, 'Hold on to your wife, and heed God.'
Since God approves only conformity of conscience and
outward [expression], and standing firm when it comes to
the issues of truth so that the believers would follow his
example and not be ashamed of fighting for their rights,
even if it is bitter [to do SO].'027
-180 -
Story 0' Muhammad'. Marriage to Zalnab
1- Compare the story of Zafnab Blnt Jahsh and her marriage with Muhammad:
_.fs of al-TBbari, 2:563; al-Taban (commentary), 22:9; Tabaqat Ibn sa'd,
8:101-10211.; AnsBb aI..shraf, 1:433; Usd af.ghaba, 5:463; aI-5fmt a/-thamin,
p.l08; Rudi Paret, Muhammad und der Qur'an, p.1441. Montgomery Watt,
Muhammad at Madfna (Oxford, 1956), p.32~331.
2- We read the following In a tradition by al-Tabarf: "The Messenger of God went
out one day seeking him. On Zald's doorwas 8 curtain which the wind moved to
show her unveiled In her chamber. The heart of the Prophet was stricken by
edmlratlon for he(' (Annals ofal-Tabari, 2:453).
3- TBbsqat, 8:101-102; Annals ofal-Tabari, 2:45211.
4- TBbsqat, 8:103; al·Taban, 22: 12; AnsBb a!-ashraf, 1:435; aI-Bukhan, Tawhld 22;
Muslim, Tafslr alAhzab 33:16.
5- Check WBtarwhlch Is Interpreted usually by "the need" or "the necessity" (Abu
'Ubalda. Majaz al-Qur'an, edltad by Muhammad Fuad Sezgln (BelNt, 1987),
2:138;and else aI·Bukhan. Talsq11).A1·Tuslexpialns WBtarby"need," and thus
the verse Is Interpreted: "Once Zayd had satisfied his need of her, we married
her 011 to you, Muhammad" (al-Tlbyan, 8:244).
6- TBbsqat, 3:42.
7- Ibid. 4:43.
8- Ibid.
9- "And whom you yourself have favoured by emancipation and releasing" (al-
Taban (commentary), 22:12; al-Razl, 25:212; al-Buyuti. 5:202). "Whom God
had favoured with Islam; which Is the greatest favour, and by directing you
(Muhammad) to free him and love and have him as your own" (Mahmud Ibn
CU mar al-Zamakhsharl, al-Kashshafran haqa'lq al-tanzil wa Cuyun al-aqawll fI Wt.duh
al-la'wif(Beirut, n.d.), 2:539).
1()' al-Razl, 25:212; al-Baldawl, 2:273; al-Kashshal, 1:539
11- al·Taben (commentary), 22:12; al-Kashshal, 2:359. "The Messenger 01 God
sawher after he married her off, and he was deeply moved by her. Then he said,
'Praise be to Him, who changes the heartsl' She mentioned this to Zald, whose
soul was already estranged from her and did notwant her, so that he evenYlOuld
let her marry another if she willed iU When she heard Muhammad praise God,
she told this to Zald who perceived what It meant and started to grow a dislike for
her company and wanted to leave her to the Messenger of God."
12- al-Taben (commentary), 22:13.
13- Ibid.
14- ibid.; al-Kashshal, 2:53~540.
15- Ibn Kalhir, 3:491.
16- Ibid.; aI-Khazln, 5:120 (in Majma' aHafaslrthls story Is mentioned as a folktale).
17- The completion of the verse is: "Once Zayd has accomplished his purpose with
her, We married her off to you so that there YIOuld be no objection for believers In
respect to their adopted sons' wives." A1~RazI uses this verse as indisputable
evidence that Muhammad did not marry Zainab to satisfy his lust but to Illustrate
the Islamic Shana In doing so, as legislation benefits from both the sayings and
the deeds olthe Prophet (al-Razl, 25:212).
1ll- al-Kashshal, 3:27311.
1~ Muhammad Rashid Rldha states, "God prohibited adoption In Islam and
-181-
 Story of Muhammad'. Marriage to Zainab
annulled all the judgements pertaining to It; the most Important one ofwhfch was
the prohlb~lon olthe wile olthe edopted son 10 thelos1erlng lather as though he chapter twenty eight
Is the natural father. Yet, itwas so difficult for the people to apply this annulment,
and the public could not have done so unless the one who Is looked up to by old Muhammad's Marriage with the Mothers
and young Initiated It. So God commanded His Prophet to marry Zaid off to this
Zalnab, knowing that they would not remain In this marriage, as she would of the Believers in the Islamic Polemics
naturally act haughtily toward him and mistreat him. So he married them, and the
estrangement so increased between them that he had to divorce her. Then God
revealed the verse...." (FatawaaJ-lmam, 5:1910). AI-SaOOnl, however, speaks in
a more frank tone, "As to Zainab Blnt Jahsh, the Messenger of God married for
It is natural for a Muslim to be confused and ask himself
no hlghar wisdom than to abolish the haresy 01 adoption" (al·Sabunl, 2:333). how his prophet married eleven women while the Qur)an
20- Da)/rat sl-ma(arif aJ.lslamiyya, (reprint of the Egyptian edition (Tehran, n.d.)), permits a man to marry up to four women. Each Muslim is
11 :29. Hayatu Muhammad, p.333.
21- Hayatu Muhammad, p.333. required to take his Prophet as an example, so he should
22- Annals ofal-Tabari, 8:101 ff., 22: 13; Usd al-ghaba, 5:483ff.; al-Kashshal, 2:539; ai-
Khazin, 5:320 (In Majma( aJ-tafasi~. "The Messenger of God saw her after he
marry since the Tradition demands this: "Wedlock is my
married her off, and he was deeply moved by her. Then he said, .Praise be to tradition. ,,1
Him, who changes the heartsl' She mentioned this to Zald, whose soul was
already estranged from her and did not want her, so that he even would let her
marry another if she willed ItI When she heard Muhammad praise God, she told it
A young woman in Egypt asked Sheik Mahmud al-Ghurab
to Zald who perceived what It meant and started to develop a dislike for her in the 1960's, "What is the rationale in permitting the
company and wanted to leaveherforthe MessengerofGod" (al~Nasafi, 5:119in
Mtl/ma' aHalas/t'). Whlla the old exposrlo", do their bast trying 10 Intelpret the
Prophet to marry more than four women? If we account for
story, Ibn Said says, "It was notessy for Zald to let her go" (Tabaqat, 8:103). It this by [seeking] abundant offspring, [we find] that he did
seems that the earlier biographers of the life of Muhammad noticed the oddity of
this marriage, and perhaps this was the reason Ibn Ishaq never mentioned it and
not have any children from some of them, and if we
Ibn Hisham mentioned it so briefly (R. Pareto Muhammad und der Koran, p.145). account for this by saying that God wanted to give him
23- al-Sabunl, 2:335
24- Ibid.
pleasure, the answer would be that the status of a
25- "It Is obvious from the storyofMuhammad's man1agewith Zefnab that hewas an prophet is higher than that. I know why he married one
ordinary man under the control of his emotions and feelings, even if he tried to
conceal them. The personal side played a significant role In this marriage, who was the wife of his adopted son, as the Qur)an says,
togetherwlth the human side. Hence we see that Muhammad was human under "We married her off to you so that there would be no
the influence and weakness of love. Modem writers deny the human factors in
this marriage, yet the Muslim has the right to boast that his Prophet was an objection for believers in respect to their adopted sons'
ordinary human Prophet whom God chose for humanity" (Faruk Muhammad al- wives ... " But I do not know why he married the others or
Zayat, MGtterderGlilubigen, (MOnchen, n.d.), p.741.). This book by Muhammad
al-Zayat is only listed in order to inform the reader of the fact that the for what rationale. Yet it is hard for me to comprehend
fundamentalist Muslims especially, who address European readers, are In the
habit of explaining all "accusations against Islam" that are based on the lifestyle
that, since this kind of research is attained only by
of the Prophet In terms of human weakness on his part. Other than this, al- scholars and researchers. So, will you answer me, sir, in
zayafs book would have no real value since the writer has condensed Nlsa) al-
Nabl by (A1isha (Abd al-Rahman, which she presented as her doctoral thesis. sufficient detail. Yours respectfully.,,2
26- She Is known in the Islamic world as Bint aI-Shall). She wrote her thesis for her
doctorate on the marital life of Muhammad and his wives, which was printed In Sheik Mahmud al-Ghurab speaks at the beginning of his
Cairo in 1967 underthetltle Nisa' ai-Nabl.ltwastranslated Into English under the
title: (A'isha (Abel al-Rahman, The Wives of the Prophet (Lahore, 1971). letter about an issue that "has been tackled by many
27- (Alisha (Abd ai-Rahman, Nisa) aJ-Nabi, 13th ed. (Beirut, 1985), p.161. words and has been a stumbling block for many." He
-182 - -183 -
 Muhammad's MurrlClll8 In Islamic Polemics
says, "Every act he [Muhammad] did was for a rationale,
whether we know it or not. This issue is one of his private
matters. This means that after he restricted men to four
wives, he himself could marry many women beyond that
number. But if one follows the origin of legislation, he will
find that the Prophet was more restricted in this matter
than anyone else in his nation. Yet, he did not have a
special legislation to limit him in this matter." Let us read
first how al-Ghurab explains this:
It is common knowledge that before restricting the
legal number of wives to four, every man was allowed
to marry as many wives as he wanted, be he a prophet
or an ordinary man. Then came the restriction of the
legal number of wives and the Prophet commanded all
those who had more to keep only four and leave the
rest. He also instituted divorce and exchanging a wife
for another. As to the wives of the Prophet himself,
God gave them freedom of choice: "0 Prophet, tell
your wives: 'If you are wanting worldly life and its
attraction, then come onl I will let you enjoy them and
dismiss you in a handsome fashion. However if you
are wanting [to see] God and His Messenger, as well
as having a home in the Hereafter, well God has
prepared splendid payment for the kindly women
among you.' ,,3 They chose the second option and
were therefore honoured and called "the mothers of
believers". He was restricted to believing women only
as wives and was forbidden from divorcing them or
exchanging them for others. This involves a strict
restriction in relation to what has been permitted to
-154 -
Muhammad'. Marriage In I.lamlc Polemlco
his nation. God says concerning this, "0 Prophet, We
have permitted you [to deal with] your wives to whom
you have given their allotments, and anyone your right
hand controls from what God has given you [as
captives] and your paternal uncles' and aunts'
daughters, and your maternal uncles' and aunts'
daughters who have migrated along with you, and any
believing woman who bestows herself upon the
Prophet... No [other] women will be lawful for you
later on nor may you exchange them for other wives,
even though their beauty may entice you, except for
someone your right hand controls.',4
Sheik Mahmud al-Ghurab confuses things that do not
belong together. The verse that speaks of giving the
freedom of choice to Muhammad's wives, for instance,
was not exclusively addressed to Muhammad or limited
to his wives, but it was a warning and an admonition to
them so that they should not burden him by seeking the
attraction of this Iife. s Despite the fact that Sura al-Ahzab
33:28-32 do not form any legal intervention in
Muhammad's marital life, Sheik al-Ghurab is unaware
of, or ignores the fact that Muhammad married his last
wife in "the year of Pilgrimage", namely several years
after the revelation ofthis verse. 6 So then, "spending the
years of his youth with the widow Khadija, coupled with
the fact that all his wives were matrons [previously
married women], except for <Al!sha, are held by modern
Muslims to be the strongest proofs that Muhammad's
preoccupation was not women."7 AI-Sabuni speaks about
two significant points that played the essential role in
-185 -
 Muhammad'. Marrla6e in I.lamic Polemico
Muhammad's marriage with his wives. These two points,
he says, "drive away the accusation from the honourable
Prophet and throw a stone into the mouth of every mean
slanderer." They are as follows:
FIRSTLY: The honourable Messenger did not marry
several women except after he reached old age, namely
after reaching the age of fifty.
SECOND: All his pure wives were widows or previously
married, except for Wisha, who was a virgin. From these
two points we realise the insignificance of this accusation
and the invalidity of that charge which the grudging
orientalists have directed toward him. s
Despite the pride of the Muslim scholars in the true
humanity of the" Messenger of God", as is evident from
his marital Iife,9 they submit an account of how he
married his wives that is incompatible with reality and
with Muhammad's human nature. If we accept what they
write in this regard and believe the reasons they give in
explanation of polygamy in the household ofthe Prophet,
his marriage with Khadija was the only marriage that
could have been entered into out of human motives. They
claim that he wouldn't have married (Alisha unless his
father offered her to him,1o which is a distortion of the
oldest traditions that reached' us in this regard. l l Others,
however, believe that Muhammad sought to build a
rapport between him and Abu Bakr through this marriage.
"The Messenger's relationship by marriage with Abu
Bakr was the greatest boon and reward for him in this life,
as it has also been the best means of spreading
-186 -
Muhammad'. Marriage in Islamic Polemics
Muhammad's pure traditions, marital virtues, and the
judgments of his law; especially those pertaining to
women.',12 Building a relationship by marriage has also
been the reason for marrying Hafsa, the daughter of
(Umar, since he wanted to reward his other minister,
(Umar,13 and he married her out of pity for her,14 as well.
As for his marriage with Zainab Bint Khuzaima, it was a
reward for her charitable services to the poor.15 He
married Umm Salama, as modern writers claim, out of
appreciation for her devotion to her children and her
judicious opinion at the battle Hudaibiya. 16 The secret
underlying his marriage with Juwairiyya was his wish to
free her people from captivity after the Muslims had
conquered their fortresses. He married her so as to
release her people for a dower, thus she became the
greatest blessing to her people. 17 Safiyya Bint Huyay
belongs to this category of women who have been
married to the Messenger of God for strategic
reasons. 1S Muhammad Rashid Ridha says that he
married Safiyya to rescue her from being humiliated, as
she was the matron of her people. "The people of good
judgment among the Companions told the Messenger of
God, '0 Messenger of God, she is the matron of Banu
Quraiza and al-Nadhir and is not fit for anyone but you.'
He favoured their opinion and refused to let her suffer the
humiliation of slavery by her inferiors, so he chose her,
freed her, and married her so as not to let someone of her
descent and grandeur be enslaved. He also sought to
build relations with the Children of Israel [through this
-187 -
 Muhammad's Marrialle In Islamic Polemlce
marriagel, perhaps this would alleviate their enmity with
him.,,19
As to Umm Habiba, he married her to reward her faith. 2o
Muhammad Rashid Ridha admits that he could not find
any basis for Muhammad's marriage with Maimuna. "I
could not find any reason or basis for his marriage to
Maimuna. It has been said, however, that Abbas, his
uncle, interested him in her. She was the eldest sister of
Lababa Ummul Fadhl. He performed the marriage
contract with her by her permission. ,,21 AI-Sabuni did
not miss the rationale of Muhammad's marriage to
Maimuna. "His marriage with her obviously shows how
kind he was to her and how honourable and friendly he
was to her clan that backed and helped him."22
There remain the two slaves, Maria and Rayhana. Muslim
writers did not provide us with the reasons or the
rationales that led to the Messenger's marriage with
them.
AI-Sabuni summarised so-called rationales or underlying
reasons that modern writers connect with Muhammad's
multiple marriages under four headings:
FIRST: The didactic rationale.
SECOND: The legislative rationale.
THIRD: The social rationale.
FOURTH: The political rationale. 23
ARST: The didactic rationale:
The chief end of the Messenger's polygamy was to
produce some female teachers for women, who would
-188 -
Muhammad'. Marriage in Islamic Polemics
teach them legal judgments. This is because women are
half of society and they have been commanded to keep
the same religious obligations that are imposed on men.
Many of them were too shy to ask the Prophet about
certain legal matters, especially those concerning them,
such as menstruation, childbirth, ritual impurity, marital
affairs, among other judgments. Every woman needed to
overcome her natural shyness whenever she wanted to
ask the Messenger of God concerning any of these
matters. So these wives [of the Prophet] became
teachers and Hadith narrators who transferred the
guidance of the Prophet, and were known for their
intelligence.
SECOND: The legislative rationale:
This rationale is apparent and can be easily discerned-
namely to abolish some detestable pre-Islamic obser-
vances, of which the heresy of adoption is an example.
Zaid was his adopted son. The Prophet wedded him to his
cousin, Zainab Bint Jahsh al-Asadiyya. She lived with him
for a while, but their relationship did not last long
because it deteriorated. She used to speak harshly to
him and look down upon him since he was a slave before
the Messenger of God adopted him, while she was an
honourable woman of noble descent.
Because God willed it, Zaid divorced Zainab, and God
commanded His Messenger to marry her in order to
abolish "the heresy of adoption," thus levelling Jahiliya
to the foundations. But the Prophet dreaded that the
dissimulators and godless people would say,
-189 -
 Muhammad's Marriage in Islamic Polemics
.. Muhammad married his daughter-in-law". So he de-
layed till he was severely reproved by God, who said to
him, .....and thou wast concealing within thyself what
God should reveal, fearing other men; and God has better
right for thee to fear Him. So when Zaid had accom-
plished what he would of her, then We gave her in
marriage to thee, so that there should not be any fault in
the believers, touching the wives of their adopted sons,
when they have accomplished what they would of them;
and God's commandment must be performed" (Sura ai-
Ahzab 33:37).
This marriage, then, was for the sake of legislation, and
was by the command ofthe Wise, the Aware. Praise be to
Him whose wisdom is too lofty to be grasped by the
[human] minds and understandings. God expressed the
truth when He said, "You have been given only a
smattering of knowledge."
THIRD: The social rationale:
This rationale appears very much in the Prophet's
marriage with (A)isha, the daughter of Abu Bakr, who
was his first minister, and with the daughter of his second
minister, al-Faruq ((Umar). Later he linked himself with
Quraishites by marrying many of their women, which
connected these tribes and clans in a close bond,
gathering all hearts around him in belief, honour, and
veneration for him.
FOURTH: The political rationale:
The Prophet married some women to unite the hearts
around him and bring the tribes closer to him. When a
-190 -
Muhammad's Marriage in Islamic Polemics
man marries a woman from a certain tribe or clan, a
relationship is created by that marriage. Naturally they
rush to his aid and protection. His marriage with
Juwairiyya was an example of this,24
We may say at the conclusion of this chapter that there is
no great disagreement between the Muslim fundamen-
talists, who were known for their antagonism and
aggressiveness, and the moderate Muslims, who were
known for their reformation and openness when it comes
to Muhammad's marital life. They all agree that
Muhammad did not marry any of his wives for human
motives, except for Khadija perhaps, and that his purpose
was rather to reward them, protect them from sin, or for
political and legislative reasons, as al-Sabuni said. We
notice that both parties were more keen on giving the
affairs an ideal presentation than on abiding by the
historical objectivity.25
1- Ibn Maja, N1kah 1,
2- Muhammad Rashid Ridha, Fatsws ai-Imam, 5: 1902ff.
3- Sura al-Ahzab 33:27.
4- Fatawa aHmam, 5:1904.
5- AI-Tabari (commentary), 21:156.
6- Tabaqat, 6:132.
7- Fataws aI-Imam, 5:1905. This is also what Muhammad Rashid Rldha believes as
well, even though he finds that the objection of Sheik ar-Ghurab weak, "If the
Prophet wanted by polygamy to enjoy his rightfully wedded [women], as kings
and princes do, he would have chosen the fairest virgins, not the middle-aged
matrons. He said once to a man who married a matron, '\lVhy not a virgin that you
should pray with her' (al-Bukhari, JihBd113). I also remind the reader that
polygamy in that age was necessary since many [Muslim] men would fall In batue
and their women would need someone to take care of them, as most of the men
were idolaters" (al-Manar, 4:306; Muhammad Rashid Rldha, Fatawa aI-Imam,
5:1914; al-Sabuni, 2:317).
-191-
 Muhammad's Marriage in Islamic Polemics
"It never happened that he chose a wife because of beauty or fairness, and he
did not take a virgin except for the daughter of his best and favourite friend who
was also his successor: Abu Bakr. ' lust? Or do they rather find In nnobility. chastity, graatness. mercy, beneficence,
"This man who Is slandered by godless liars who claim that he was dissipated in
his sensual lusts, married his first wife when she was nearly fifty years old while
he was In the prime of his youth- hardly twenty five of agel She chose him for his
fame as truthful and faithful among his people, and he lived with her till the day
she passed away, not thinking to marry another one, until a Muslim lady pitied his
loneliness and took his permission to ask cAllsha in marriage for him. And aU what
this girl, who was dear to him, heard was words of praise for his deceased wife and
she was pleased by his loyalty to her.
"The Prophet did not many anyoneJust because she was described as beautiful
or vivacious; his Incentive was rather to save them the humiliation and to
maintain the blood relation that was between him and them. Most of them were
widows who lost their protectors and next of kin, and none of their peers offered
to marry them" (al-Aqqad, aI-Islam wa abatil khusumlhl (Beirut, 1974), p.183.
Hasan Kamil al-Maltawl, Rasul Allah fi al-Quran al-karim (Cairo, 1979».
8- al-Sabuni,2:316.
9- "They are Indeed grudging Ilarsl MUhammad was not a sensual man, but a
human Prophet. He married as men marry in order to be an example for them to
behave equally. He was not a god or a son of god, as the Christians believe their
prophet was, but a human being like them, who was favoured by God with the
revelation and prophethood [lit., who Is the recipient of revelation...]. 'Say: 'I am
only a human being like yourselves; it has been revealed to me that your deity Is
God alone' (al-Sabuni, 2:315).
10- FataW8aJ.lmam, 5:1905.
11- Annals ofal-Tabari, 3:162; Tabaqat, 8:58ff; Ansab al-ashraf, 1:410; Usd al-ghaba,
5:501ff. AU the authority references agree that Muhammad himself proposed to
Abu Bakr through a woman intermediary for his daughter, (Allsha. Sheik aj..
Ghurab does not give any reference showingwhere he found that tradition. Onlythe
book of cA~sha (Abd al-Rahman. The Wives of the Prophet, remains In this field, as
the writer quotes In full sincerity from the oldest sources what happened In
Muhammad's life, as does Hayatu Muhammadby Muhammad Husain Haike!.
12- al-Sabunl, 2:331; likewise the exposition of Muhammad Rashid Ridha In al-
Manar, 4:304.
13- a'Manar. 4:30311; al-Sabunl, 2:332; FatawaaHmam, 5:1910.
14- a'Manar. 4:30311: Fatawa a,lmam, 5:1909; al-5abunl, 2:231; al·Mallawi. p.339.
15- al-Manar, 4:304. We accept the Muslims' claIm that Muhammad married her to
keep her from [the harm of] her folk after the death of her husband in the raid of
Uhud. But, it is unrealistic to generalise Muhammad's'purpose in marrying 12
women, either to honour them as doers of good, or to protect the ones among
them who were In danger. It is doubtful that zalnab bint Khuzalma was sixty
years old when Muhammad married her, al-Sabunl claimed, since there Is
nothing to back up this claim. AJ-Sabunl quotes the following statement from
Muhammad Mahmud al-Sawwaf, "She had already reached sixty years when
the Prophet married her and she lived with him only two years, after which she
passed away. \/\'hat do the liars have to say about this Inculpable marriage,
-192 -
Muhammad'. Marriage in Islamic Polemics
which was performed for a noble reason? 00 they find In It any oftha things that
slanderers keep on bandying about? Do they find In It any trace of passion or
and charity on the side of the greatest Messenger of humanity, who came as
mercy to all beings? Let the prejudiced orientallsts fear God and be honest to
logic, not betraying It for the sake of maliclous ends. They Indeed took upOn
themselves to study Islamic sciences chiefly to plot and conspire against, and to
malign the lord of humanity, Muhammad" (al~Sabunl, 2:233).
16- aJ.Manar, 5:305. MUhammad Rashid Ridha claims that she would go out every
day to al-Abtah to weep till someone from her dan Interceded for her. She founcl
in Muhammad a caretaker for herself and her children (Muhammad Rashid
R1dha, FatBwaaHmam, 5:1911).
17- "In order to be a blessing to he< folk" (a/Manar. 4:304: Muhammad Rashid
Rldha. Fatawa aHmam. 5:1912). AI-Sabunilists Muhammad's marriage with her
among the women he married for political reasons:
The Prophet married some women to unite the hearts around him and bring the
tribes closer to him. When a man marries a woman from a certain tribe or clan, a
relationship is created by that marriage. Naturally they rush to his aid and
protection. His marriage with Juwairiyya Bint al-Harith, the master of Banu al-
Mustallq, was an example of this. She had been taken captive together with her
clan, and wanted to redeem herself. So she came to the Messenger of God
asking tor his help and offering hlm some money. The honourable Messenger
offered to pay the ransom for her and marry her. She accepted the offer and they
married. The Muslims said, "The kinsmen of the Messenger of God are our
captives?" Then they freed all the captives, thereupon all the tribe 01 al-Muslallq
adopted Islam when they Sft this nobility, sublimity, gentlemanlness, and
chivalry. His marriage with Juwalriyya was a blessing to her and to her folk and
clan since It was the reason they became Muslims, and thus freed (al-Sabunl,
2:324-325).
18- The same applies to his marriage with Saflyya Blnt Huyay Ibn Akhtab who was
taken captive by a certain Muslim after the death of her husband in the raid of
Khalbar. The people 01 good judgment among the Companions told the
Messenger of God, "0 Messenger of God. she Is the matron of Banu Quralza
and al-Nadhir [and] is notfltforanyone but you."So the MessengerofGod called
for her and gave her the chance to choose either of two alternatives:
A- To release her and marry her.
B- To release her and let her join her family.
She chose to be released and to be married to him, because she saw how gallant
and noble he was (Ibid. 2:335).
19- Muhammad Rashid Ridha, Fatawa aI-Imam, 5:1913. It Is difficult to believe that
Muhammad's motive for marrying her was his fear that she would be humiliated.
We know that she fell to the 10tolDihya al·Kalbi when the spoils were divided. But
he married her when the Companions of Muhamm$d said that she was the
matron of her people and that no one should have her but Muhammad (Tabaqat
8:120-129; Ansab aJ.ashraf 1:42211; Usd al-ghaba 5:490ff).
2Cl- Muhammad Rashid Rldha, Fatawa aHmam, 5:1913; a/-Manar. 4:306. AI-Sabuni
says, "\/\'hen Abu Sufyan heard about it, he acknowledged the marriage and
said, 'He is a stallion that none can subdue by piercing his nose.' The Messenger
-193 -
 Muhammad'. Marri<14/e in I.lamic Pokmico
was proud ofthis and did not deny he was amatch for him. Hence we see clearly
the distinguished rationale for marrying lila daughta, of Abu Suryan. This Conclusion
marriag. was fo' the sek. of allevleting 111. halm dona to him and his followers,
especially 1I1at now there was a relation of marriage between 1I1am" (.I-Sobunl,
2:326-327).
21- Muh.mmad Rashid R1dha, Fataws al-lmem, 5:1914; a.Mana" 4:305.
We tried in the previous chapters to show the status of
22- al-Sabunl, 2:337. woman in Islam, and her rights and duties toward her
23- al-Sabunl, 2:318.
24- Ibid. 2:316-324. husband and society. In this endeavour we depended on
25- Rudl Paret, ZUf Frauanfrals, p.55ff. recognised Islamic sources, namely the Qur)an, the
Hadith, and the writings of the jurists. From time to time
we quoted the opinions of modern Muslim scholars and
authors so that the reader would be aware of their
"modern" arguments, proofs, and exposition of the
topics discussed.

Now that we have reached the end of the book we can say
that women in Islam do not enjoy a status which the
"European woman would like for herself.,,1 Despite the
fact that Muhammad introduced many reforms to the
position of Arab women in the Arabian Peninsula and
despite the fact that Islam does not deny at all that the
female has a soul and a mind, she still remains half a
human being in the Qur)an, the Hadith, the sources of
jurisprudence, and even in the works of modem Muslims.
The reason for her existence is to serve her husband and
obey his commands unconditionally and unreservedly.
She also has to bear him children and hide herself from
the public, as though her very existence were a shame.
Since Islam teaches that the Qur)an is a book revealed to
Muhammad by God, and that its judgments are the best
imaginable ones, which are all-inclusive both in terms of
time and place, one finds it difficult to interpret the
Qur)an rationally as Muhammad (Abduh tried to do. It is
also next to impossible to reconcile and incorporate it
-194 - -195 -
 Conclusion
Conclusion
into the requirements of the present time; especially according to what the jurists determined, and are still
since a large portion of the verses is so distinct in determiningl Even if the woman still lives under the
meaning, that there is no room for reinterpretation. 50 the shadow of the 5hariaand under the control of men, yet
believing Muslim, who feels obliged to deliver his we see at the same time how the influence of 5haria is
honourable book to the modem society, has no other languishing, even disappearing in some places, in the
choice than to justify and' account for the Qur)anic fury of a relentless war between it and atheism and the
judgments and statements when they conflict with the liberation movements. Rigoristic Islam is not alone in
actual reality. The same goes for the Qur)anic verses that trying to mould society according to its concepts and
devalue woman, compared to modem understanding, and ideals, leaving its stamp on all different societies. The
compel the Muslim scholar or writer to check if there is a other extreme can be observed as well. The Islamic
hidden rationale underlying these statements. The great- fundamentalists' refusal to let go of obsolete social
est of these rationales is "God wants only good for norms and values causes anti-religious and even
woman:' 50 when it comes to the fact that the testimony atheistic attitudes to develop, and their contempt for
of the woman is half the testimony of man, they say that women is causing an anti-male feminist movement to
God knew that she would have no experience in the fields develop.
of life and that He wanted to spare her the temptations
and dangers. As to beating the rebellious wife, it is not a
directly lawful act, otherwise God would not have listed it
as the last means of reclaiming her. Polygamy, however,
was instituted in Islam by the foreknowledge of God, who
knew that the West would establish polygamy as a legal
act, which is actually supposed to have happened in
Germanyl2 The writings of both fundamentalist and open
Muslims at the present time are full of these various
arguments and examples.

At the end one needs to add that there is no expected

harmony between the texts and judgments of the 5haria
that deal with women, and reality in the Islamic countries.
In other words, it is unfair to claim that every Muslim
1· Mahmud Shaltut, 81.Jslam (aqida we shari(a, p.218.
treats his wife, daughters, or the whole female sex 2- al-Sabuni, 1:429,
-196 - -197 -

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Ibn QUdama, Muwaffaq ai-Din. A/-Mughni. 14 vols Beirut
1984. . ,
Eo General reference booles:
(Abd al-~ahman, (A'isha. a/-Quran wa a/-tafsir a/-hadith.
Cairo, 1970.
Abu Rayya, Mahmud. lama/ a/-Din a/-Afghani Cairo
1961. . ,
al-Aqqad, Abbas Mahmud. a/-Fa/safa a/-Quraniyya.
A/-/s/am wa abatil khusumihi. Beirut, 1974.
A/-Mara fi a/-Quran. Beirut, 1985.
ai-Baghdadi, (Abd al-Qahir. Kitab usu/ a/-<1ln. Istanbul,
1982.
al-Rruzabadi, al-Qamus al-Muhit. Beirut, 1987.
al-Ghazzali, Abu Hamid. Ihya> (U/um a/-Din. 4 vols. Cairo
n.d. ' Ibn al-Jawzi, Abu al-Faraj. Kitab ahkam a/-nisa>. Beirut,
ai-Haddad, Tahir. Imra>atuna fi a/-sharia wa a/-mujtama(.
al-Jahiz, Abu (Amr. a/-Bayan wa ai-tabyin. ed. by (Abd al-
Salam Harun. 2 vols. Beirut, 1989.
Ra~a>iI al-lahiz. ed. by (Abd ai-Salam Harun. 2 vols.
Beirut, 1984.
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Blbl/oflraphy
al-Khuli, Muhammad Ibn (Abd al-(Aziz. Miftah a/-Sunna.
Cairo, 196L
Miftah kunuz a/-5unna. Cairo, 192L
al-Maltawi, Hasan Kamil. Rasu/ Allah fi a/-Quran a/-karim.
Cairo, 1979.
al-Nuwayri, Shihab ai-Din Ahmad Ibn (Abd al-Wahhab.
'
Nihayat a/-(arab fi funun a/-adab. 24 vols. Cairo,
1960s.
al-Sadiq, Afifi Muhammad. R fiqh a/-mara a/-muslima.
Beirut, 1986.
al-Tha(alibi, Abu Mansur. Tuhfat a/-wuzara>. Baghdad,
1977.
al-Zirikli. a/oAr/am. 9 vols. Beirut, 1910.
Amin, Qasim. a/-Mara a/-ladida. Cairo, 1987.
Tahrir a/-mara. Cairo, 1928.
Ghalayani, Mustafa. Nazarat fi kitab a/-Sufur wa a/-hijab.
Beirut, 1928.
Haikal, Muhammad Husain. Hayatu Muhammad. 17th
ed. Cairo, 1986.
Ibn (Abd Rabbih. a/-(/qd a/-farid. ed. by Ahmad Amin. 8
vols. Cairo, n.d.
1988.
Ibn Manzur. Lisan a/JArab. Beirut, 1955.
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Ibrahim, Magdi al-Sayyid. B/da( wa khurafat a/-nisa. Cairo,
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Nahju/ Ba/agha. ed. by Muhammad (Abduh, Cairo, n.d.
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Ridha, Muhammad Rashid. Fatawa ai-Imam. ed. by Yusuf
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Nida fi al-jins al-Iatif. Cairo, 1932.
Salih, MUhammad (Sidi). a/-Hidad film ralat ai-Haddad.
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Salih, SUbhi. ai-Nuzum al-/slamiyya. Beirut, 1965.
Shalabi, (Abd al-Wadud. Hiwar sarih baina (Abdillah wa
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Shalaq, (Ali. al-Tatawwur al-talrikhi fi-awdha( al-mara
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Shihata, (Abdallah. a/-Da(wa al-/slamiyya wa al-i(/am
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F. Non-Arable References:
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AI-Zayat, Faruk Muhammad. Mutter der Glaubigen.
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Burgel, Johann Christoph. Allmacht und Machtigkeit im
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Hurgronje, Snouck. Bijdragen tot de Taal- en Volkenkunde
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1909.
Paret, Rudi. Mohammed und der Quran. Stuttgart, 1985.
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Stuttgart, 1934.
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Walter, Wiebke. Der Islam. Stuttgart, 1991.
Watt, Montgomery. Muhammad at Medina. Oxford, 1956.
Introduction to the Quran. Edinburgh, 1990.
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QUIZ
If you have read this book thoroughly, you will be able to
answer these questions easily. We are ready to send you
one of our spiritual books as a reward for your diligence.
Don't forget to write your full name and address when you
send us your answers.
1. What are some of the things in which the Qur)an does
not distinguish between woman and man, and Muslim
woman and non-Muslim woman?
2. How did al-Tabari interpret this Qur)anic statement:
"Men are the ones who should support (or be in charge
of) women since God has given some advantages over
others, and because they should spend their wealth on
them"?
3. Why was Sura al-Nisa) 3:34 revealed, which made it
legal to beat the women whose rebelliousness is feared?
4. How did Muhammad (Abduh see man's superiority
over woman in nature and earning?
5. Explain al-Aqqad's stance on women? What did he
base it on? What is the title of the book that recorded his
stance?
6. Why did the prophet of Islam see women as the
majority of dwellers in hell? How did he explain their
deficiency.of intelligence and religion?
7. What are the three things that corrupt prayer in the
Hadith narrated by Muslim: "Three things corrupt
prayer..."?
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QUIZ
8. Write the words about woman that were attributed to
(Ali Ibn Talib.
9. Summarise the opinion of Qasim Amin on the position
of woman.
10. List a man's rights over his wife, as seen by al-
Ghazzali in his book Ihya l (ulum al-din.
11. When do angels curse the woman, as stated in the
Hadith?
12. What are the rights of woman over her husband, as
stated in the Hadith?
13. What are the benefits of marriage in Islam?
14. Identify five qualities that jurists believe are the
qualities of the ideal wife.
15. What are the four arguments Muslim give on behalf of
polygamy?
16. What is the "marriage of enjoyment," why did the
Prophet of Islam permit it, and when did he cancel it?
17. What is the reason given by Muslim jurists for making
the portion of the woman in the inheritance half that of
the man?
18. Why do Muslim scholars hold that the testimony of
one man is equal to the testimony of two women?
19. Tell the story that shows how Job beat his wife.
20. How can women be the majority among the dwellers
of Paradise (because each man can marry more than one
woman), and at the same time be the majority of the
dwellers of Hell?
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 QUIZ

21. Why was the verse of the curtain revealed?

22. What are the benefits of the veil, as Muslim jurists
see them?
23. Why did the prophet of Islam see that the
circumcision of girls brings honour to them?
24. How many kinds of women were permitted to the
Prophet of Islam according Sura al-Ahzab 33:50?
25. What did Sawda Bint Zam(a do when she feared that
Muhammad would divorce her?
26. Wisha was favoured over the rest of Muhammad's
wives for ten things. What are they?
27. What was the plan that (A)isha made when she
wanted to prevent Muhammad from eating sweets and
honey at the house of Hafsa Bint (Umar?
28. Tell the story of Muhammad's marriage to his cousin,
Zainab Bint Jahsh.
29. Why did Muhammad dread people, although it is
more correct for you to dread God (cf. Sura al-Ahzab
33:37)?
30. Why did al-Kilabiyya say to Muhammad, "I take
refuge with God from you," when he approached her after
he had married her?

LIGHT OF LIFE. P.O. BOX 13. A-9503 VILLACH, AUSTRIA

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