CHAPTER 21

ELECTRleAL/
ELECTRONIC
CONTROLS

Eleclrical controls are thc domina nt mct hod [or con- Electrical control circuits
Irolling fluid powcr systems. The solenoid-oper ated Direct-current (DC) electrical conlrol circuits are
directional control valve is t hc basic building block rated at 6, 12,24, or 36 volts; the Iirst three are the
for eleclrical control circuits, most popular.
Just as the designer had .10 learn ISO graphic Alternating-curr ent ratings for conlrol circuits
syrnbols to cornmunica te about-R-uid power-circuits, are 6, J 2, 24 and 110 volts. Control circuits can
t,

he rnust also learn standard electrical syrnbolcgy. operate al any voltage íevéi suitable for t he .system.
This cha pter deals prirnarily with electrical control However , operating control systerns at high voltages
circuits, not power circuits. is inefficicnt a nd introduces unnecessary hazards for
pcrsonncl.
Switches and other electrical control s Switchcs ¡HC r.i t cd on the basis of syst crn voltugc
Swi chcs a re lhe ba sic clcviccs 'ror gCllcr:11 ing COII-
í and t hc ma x iuunu currcnt l he)' can h.uidlc snfcly. A
trol signals. figures 21.1 t luou g h 21.10 il lust rute typic:d r:llin).'. fm:1 push-but ton switch dcsiuncd [or
a nd bricfly describe (1)(; s y m hnlx nI' ¡lIllsl couunonly 1'/, hp dutv iS.J():lIllllL'res (/\):IIIt1 120V,or IOÁ:llld
used types 01'eleclric switchcs, contacts, relays, and 250 V. Somc switch ratings include data on De as
motors, -r . well as AC cur rent and voltage. Others specify fur-
/v_/:/5) ther ·thal the rating given applies lo a non-inductive
RATINGS AND SPECIFICATIONS load. Inductive loads can ea use high currenl su rges in
the circuir whieh t he switch rnay not be able to
Electrical power circuits handlc.
Eleclrical power is primarily used lo drive fluid When relays are used, it is necessary lo specify coi I
power systerns. Alterating current (AC) power cir- and contact ratings. fOI exarnple, a designer might
cuits are rated at 110-120 V (volts), 220-240 V, 440 use a relay with a 6- V DC opcrating coil and eontacts
V, 880 V, and 2300 V. They rnay be either single- or capable of handling a lO-A, 240- V load. Or he rnay
thr ee-phase syslerns. Srnall motors, up to 1 hp, rnay want a relay lo opera te on lhe sarne voltage as the
be startcd "across the linc," i,c., with a simple push- contact circuit: in his case thcdcsigncr
í could spccify
button control. 110 V Ior the coil, and 20 A and 110 V for the
In these fractional horsepower rnotors, the inrush contacts. Spccifications for a relay can become as
current during start-up is not large enough to cause complex as those Ior a directiona l conlrol va lve. The
significant problerns. However, motors larger than 1 designer must inelude the voltage ratings, the con-
hp rnust havc a motor st arter built into their control tacl paucrn, and a ny spccial conlrol Iunctions, such
circuit. as tirne delay, latehing, or stepping.
Molar starters protect against excessive inrush
currenl during start-up. Thcy may also provide Application example 1
"overload" protection when thc electric motor is run- One of t he simplest conlrol applications in fluid
ning lo prevent overheating of the motor windings powcr involvcs t he actuat ion of a doublc-acting cylin-
and damage Irom excessive loads on thc motor shaft. del' through a cycle: start, extend ihrough a given
Motor starters must be ma lched lo the electric motor str oke, reverse, and stop after full relraclion. Figure
on the basis of voltage ra ting, phase, a nd horsepower 21.11 (a) illustra tes l he hydraulic circuit Ior this
rating. For the highcr-horsepowcr motors, the starler a pplica l ion usi ng ISO gra ph ic sym bols. The se-
costs a lmost as much as thc motor. ThIlS, t he motor t¡lICIICC diagr:llll, (rc lcr a lso to Chu ptcr 22), clct cr-
st a r t cr is a significanl cost [actor in thc dcsign of thc mincsthc or dcr of cvcnts, Figure 21.1/ (h); the clcc-
systcm and cannot be ovcr lookcd. tr icn l cOIII rol circuit , Figure 1..1.11 (r) shows how l he

223
 Fig. 21.1. Basic electrícel pushbutton switches

NO-SPST Normally open - single pote,

\ I t, I)'JJ - '> • r) r. 1). , ,'¡-
single thrQw
-<l o---
t":) e f) " . f !~ I)'¡ r- 1_, '"1'

NC-SPST Normally closed - single pole,

single throw

NO/NC-DPST Oouble contacts normally open!

norrnaíly closed - double poi e , single throw
---D o---

NO/NC-DPDT Two pairs normally open and two

pairs normally closed - double pole,
double throw
--o o---

Fig. 21.2. Basic electricallimit switches

--~-- NO Nomwlly open

--_ .. _----
--~~. . NO Normally open, held closed

NC Normally closed

NC Normally closed, held open

NC!NO Double pole, normally closed/

normally open

Fig. 21.3. Basic pressure switches

~o-
o, - NO Normally open

~ NC Normally closed

Fig. 21.4. Basic temperature switches

~ ~ NO Normally open

~ NC Normallyclosed

Fíg. 21.5. Floal switcnes

"-ó--9-' NO Norurulty opcu

._-_.- - - •• o ~

-°6-0'-' NC Normallyclosed

224

.~--------~_._~_._--------------_.=
 Fíg. 21.6. Foot actuated switches

'-~ NO Normally open

~ NC Normally closed

Fig. 21.7. Time de/ay contacts

NO Normally open (timed closed

when energized)

NC Normally closed (timed open

when energized)

I----~--------_._-_ ..-...

NO Normally open [timad opcn

when deenergized)

NC Norrnally closed (timed closec

when deenergized)

Fig. 21.8. F/ow switches

~o-
6.- - NO Norrnallv opon

1-------_·_·_-_·_-_·······....
-...
-.------.--
..
-
--~ .-- NC Nonnnüy d(l~;(~d

Fíg. 21.9. Coí/s andcontact symbols

-o-- Control relay coil

I------------,-!--'-----·-···----

~ ~. -NO Normally open relay contacts - .

1-------------_ ..
_--- .----
~ NC Normally closed relay contacts

1------------ ..
-----------..,
--o-A.ro- Solenoid

1------,----_ ..
_--_._---_._-----1
~ Fuse

--n- Pilotlight·

Fig. 21.10. E/ectricmolorsymbo/s

.- -::=:'0 3·phase

'-.QQ.QQ.QQ.r Field winding

----.--.-------.------------1
---0- Molor armature

225
control Iuncrions are accornplishcd. The circuir should includc ,a revcrsing switch
A nor mally opcn SPST push buuon initia tcs IhL: which is a NC push buHon connccicd in series wit h
cyclc. Whcn t hc opcrator dcprcsses rhc cvc!c st art t he starl buuon, the holding contacts, and ihclimit
push buuon, il cncrgizcs control r clay, eR-I. '(he switch. Opcning t his revcrsing switch' breaks thc
coil closes onc p.iir uf contu cts ("1<-2 holding tlic 'holding circuir Iur thc relay coil. This causes t he
rclay in - t hat is, it ma intains a circuir to keep t hc solenoid circuit cont acts 1 •• open - thesarne aciion
coil cner gized afterúv: PUS'11 buuonis released be- that was initiated bylirnitswitch. I~LS. Sce ILS,
ca use lhe push bu uon a nd the holding cont act s a re in Figure 21.11 (b).
pa ru llel. Control rclay CR -l· also closcs a sccond pai r
of co n t a c t s , CR-3 w h ic h e n e r g izc s ol c nci d Application example 2
SOL-I in i hc dircct ional control va lvc, Thc hydiaulic Anot hcr cornmon Iluid powcr control applica tion
va lve shifts, por ting pressure Iluid lo t hc cap cnd of involves two cylinders which rnust ex tend a nd retraer
the cylindcr which exrends.
W hcn 1 he pis Ion rod reu ches 1 he cnd of ils st rokc, it
opens a NC lirnit switch, I-LS connccrcd in series f1-Lsl )US]
wit h he coruacrs CR~2 in t he holding cu cuit Whcn
í

l-f.S opcns, i t brca ks t hc holding circuit u n.l de-

encr gizes the rclay eoi!. This opens t he contacts, qg.
Cylindcr)

~
~

q; ,
,
\)

I
I
i:;-~
; l
: ¡
0C
.:\;...
, I
eR-] which dccner gizes t hc solcnoid. Whcn t hc . .
I
I
I
I I ,. _.--
"1 11" 1).\ ' -. 1

solcnoidjs dccucrgizcd,
lh,? val.vcspring.,.~hiJls, t hc ..
valvc SPOOI'll) port oi'l tot hc hcad cndof t hc cylindcr
whic h rctruct s.

~ I
I
I
I
I
I (a)
I
P,

(a)
Start ' Cycle '·LS· 2·LS.
start
• ~ operated
(b)

Reverse

Retrae!
I
I
I
Start Cyele siart )·LS. CR·2 I
I
• ....c..o operated (b) . I

Cycte s t art ---'=- __ I-;I,~.,.S~

¡8,CR,;r
"2.
..:.L~' ..
.
)·LS .
CR·l
r:
·C'1·4
1
I- ó~

2·I.S
CII,:; i
CR.21 ..

CR.3 I-Il_~___ SOL·)

(e) (e)

Fig. 21. 11. System tor opera ting a oouble-ectinq cylinder: (a) Fig. 21.12. System for operating two cylinders sequentistly'
hydraulic circuit using ISO symbots: (b) sequence diagram: (e) witti timit s witctvee fa) I Jydraulic circ uií: (b) seQuence diagranl;
erecrncar conrror Circuir. re) e/ectriu1/ circuit.
226
alternately. Figure 21.12(0) shows t he fluid power
diagr arn; the sequencediagr am, including electrical
control designations, is shown in Figure 21.12(b);
the eleclrical diagram is in Figure 21.12(c) ..
The cycle is started by depressing a push bu tton, as
was the case in Example l. Limit switch, I-LS, is
now of the DPST type.
Carnming I-LS opens the holding circuit.Ior the
Iirst relay el? -1 a nd simul la ncousl y closcs [he hold-
ing circuir Ior the sccond rclay, CR-J. Limit switch
I-LSenergizes relay CR-J.
Thc circuit diagra m in figure 21.12«') shows that
thc elcclrical conlrol circuir is esscntially thal of
Exarnple 1, with extra paths added to control cylin-
der 2. The two br a nches of the circuitar c interlocked
through limit switch LS -l.

Application example 3
The hydraulic circuir, Figure 21.13(0) must pro-' (a)
vide the following work sequence: Cylinder 1 ex-
tends, conlacts the workpiece, dwells until a preset
pressure is rcachcd, reversos. a nd rct racts. When
Cylindcr 1 reversos. Cylindcr 2 bcgi ns lo cx tcnd ,
contacts thc workpiece; dwells until a prcsct pressure
is r cachcd, then rcvcrscs ami rct ra cts. Thc scqucncc
diagram Ior t hc opcr a t io n is s hown in Figure
21.13(b); the electrieal laddcr dia gr a m is shown in
Figure 21.13(c). .
'~I(1r
~!,'.'
Application example 4
A Iurther modification of the basic cylinder circuit
uses the retracting eylinder lo l~igger the extending Start Cycle ·2·LS
eylinder al sorne preset point along the retraction start
• = operaled
str oke. The fluid power eireuit is shown in Figure (b)
21.14(0), the eleelrieal ladder diagra m in Figure
21.14(c). ,/~0Dle{l.v CR·l
The scqucnce of e~ríls, as shown in the sequence
diagrarn, Figure 21.,1 4(b) is as follows: Cylinder. 1 '[
eXlelld~. When it í6'a~he.s its end of sl.roke position, I
thc cylindcr rod trrps limit switch 2-L,) lo reverso thc CR·2 ~~......¡.I
_-.-_¡",;C::.;,R.:.....4~Hf---"-~
1, which begins to re- /1
¡""I

stroke direction of Cylinder

tract. Al some poinl along its return stroke, Cylinder r;t CR·3 [r
l acluales limit switch 5-LS which initiatcs thc ex-
tension stroke of Cylinder 2. Cylinder l continues lo <)
retraer, trips lirnit switch I-LS and stops al the end of
its stroke. Cylinder 2 extends until it rcaches the end G
of its stroke, when il actuates limit switch 3-LS and 1- -T~~",-o-~"";"=~~-"""'--.--------I
reversos its direction. When Cylinder 2 is fully re- I

tractcd, it actuales limit switch 4-LS which stops the

-
J CR·3
2.LS I

cycle.
1~--~ ... ~.-=-=-=========~~~
Apptication example 5 j "
CR·l
A cylinder must reciprocate a preset number of ,f.,
cycles. The fluid power circuit is shown in Figure CR·3
'SOL·3
21.15(0); the scqucncc diagr.un in f-igure 21.15(b); ¡/
the elcctrical ladder d ia gr a m in Figure 21.15(c). CR·2 SOL6JVD- -4
12
Fig. 21.13. Syslem tor aperaling Iwo eylin<lers sequenlially SOL·~
with limil switcbes and pressure switches: (a) hvdreutic eircuil; (j cn·~
(b) sequence d/agram; (e) etectrtcnt r:/rcIIII. .' . . (e)

227
 ,----~- :'_
'.-.,;:...-r:r~-A
.~v.'
PS-,

-1
I
.J

(a)

(a)
1imer Couriter

- Olfor 1iming: Timed _ 'Oltor

reset
Ó .. out
O
reset
O

0= open • '= closed

,1imiñg
_relay TR·l
1imer
- rnotor . M
1imer
clutch ' T

CR-2
Relay,
CR-3
S"', I Cycle ---- --
Counler
• 0.;, oper ateo .' . stan . clutch
(b) Counlcr
eoil
Solenoid 1
CR-11 1-1 ---

Cylinder 1 - r- Retrael
Cycle start
Start
~ I ~~:~
O Cycle ,PS-1.· ', l-LS. ,_ PS- 2. out -
start Counter eounts TR-I open
2-LS
.-...---- • ~ operated
-, (b) _:-"
oullime, starts
on press, dwell
T-' reset

CR-,

Reverso
CR-2 4-LS 5-LS)--~_C~R..;,-4
__ -_-C-iR~

CR-3
~ I \i'
'\:7

Counter
CR-2 1-LS clutch
CR-1 SOL-1
1° PS--1- ó.o
t--'---~:>-"" o---j J-+-----I
CR-2 50L:-2 -
1/ Cyl-l

CR-2
CR-3 SOL-3

SOL-4 CR-3 SOLo'

CR-4

(e) (e)

lu]. 21 I~J. .sy:;/I~111 t.» PI)!!'''''''!.! (l\'() t:yilllt/¡:I:; vvttl t 1I/f/11fl'h.· lid; ;,>/.15. SV:;[CUfl 1,)1 /(.'¡;¡I)f(JCiltUI!) .1 c/ouiJ/u ¿!GIIIIY cvtu uto,
timit switcnes: (él) IlyuI uutic cit cint; (b) SU,/lJUIICt! d1J!J1 ;111I; le) with tnnu iJlJ(l oi essuro swucues: (iJ) IIY(/¡iJlJlic circuit, (b) se-
eJeclricaJ circuito
auence diagram: fe) eleelrieal circuit.

228
1-+1-+

- ---_._-.~-._---- ~:::.:..,---'. -._:_--_._- -------- -------------------'----.:._-----~:;::

 Thc cycle is as follows: I he cyl inder ex tcnds a nel nccd Ior intcr locks bctwecn parts of a circuit,
coutacts the workpiecc, Whcn a prcset pressure as cmcrgcncy shuulowns, cte. The sequcncc diagra m
controlled by pressure switch, PS -1, is reached, the rnay indicate where these functions ought to be in-
cylindcrreverses and retracts. At sornepoint during c1uded, but it is up to the designer lo recognize the
the retract stroke, the cylinder actuales limit switch need for thcm.' ,
I-LS, causing the cylinder to reverso and extend
again until it contacts the workpicce, again actuating MICRO ELECTRONICS
prcssurc switch PS -l. The cyclc is rcpcatcd a preset The elcclronics tcchnology was stimulatcd not
nurnber of times, as controllcd by acouutcr. ' only by aerospace .and defense systems and asso-
The counter is a n clectrical control whiclr; for each ciated rcscarch and developrnent efforts, but also
pulse it rcccivcs, subtracts onc digit Irom a numbcr through spcctucular dcvclopmcnts in t hc COIllIllU-
preset into it. When the balance in Ihe countcr nications industry, televisión, consurncr-oricntcd ac-
rcaches zero, the counter perforrns a 'control function tivities.
- for exarnplc, it may opcn a switch or send a n The result was a series of advances in electronics:
elect r ical pulse, These type counters are comrnonly Irorn vacuurn tube icchnology, lo discrete elernent
uscd to control nurnbers of cyclcs or cvcn ts. Thc solid-stu tc dcviecs, lo inlegraled ci rcu it r y bascd on
operalor rncr cly dials into thc cou nt cr thc numbcr of solid-suu c dcviccs, to mucr o-intcgr.ucd circuits, ami
cvcnts dcsircd bcforc slarli~'lg thc sysicm. Iina lly lo micro-intcg rut cd circuiis. To progrcss [rom
Th is sysrcm isnlso cq uippcr! '\Vil h :1 t imcr, Fkc- lile solid-sl:llc C!)lIiV:i1CIII of lile c lcctromcchn nicn l
tricu l t imcrs are mcchanisms drivcu by xynchrouous íi.:I;IY lo I lit' Illin(ll'l!)lTSSOr 1001\ bu l OIlC dCC:lllc,

motors. Thcsc rnotors r u n at constant spccd, usually To pu t hcsc dcvclopmcnts

í into pr opcr pcrspcct ivc,
based on 60-Hz, AC current in the United States and we must distinguish bcl wccn:
Canada - (the current would be 50-eycle in Eu-
'rope). Suitablegear trains provide the desired time '.,1. The.control or data processing function of micro-
del ay. At the end of a timed period, the timer initiates : electronic technology and ',' . .' -
some control action such as opening or closing a' 2. The power transmission and control function of
switch, Pneurnatic and electronic tirners are also Iluid powcr.
available.
In t his exarnple, the tirner shuts down the entire Industrial controls, to which Iluid power is closely
circuir after a presetlcngth of time by conlrolling lhe relatcd, have barely bcgun lo adopt new clectronic
solenoid operator on the directional control valve. developmcnts. The use of state-of-the-art electronics '
by aerospace-defensc. t he cornputer industry, thc
Application exarnple 6 communications industry, and process conlrol is Ia r
An intcrcsting control npplic.uion is shown in Fig- ahcad 01' currcnl prucí iccs in basic manufacturing,
ure 21.16(a) in which a cylinder reciprocates, each hard goods, and metal wor king industries. Most con_o
succcssivc sI roke bcing longcr I ha n I he prcccd i ng trol install.u ions use old, siandby, clcctromcchuuical
one. This.stcppcd control is achicvcd wit h a numbcr rclays.
of limit swilches appropriarcly spaccd ¡¡long the cyl- Keep in mind rhatclcctrohydraulic systcms are
-- indcr strokc. Thc clcctrical laddcr diugra m is shown only (J/I(' part of a Iluid powcr control systcm; ot hcr
in Figure 21.16(c). When a cycle is started, the conlrols i nc manual,
lu d c: i l, mec h a n ca ea m-

cylindcr cxtcnrlx. uní il il ClllIl;ICts 1)Ic sccond limit npcru tcrl, lcvcrs, pllsh but lons, trcndlcs, n nd air-I(;~
switch, 2-LS, Thc cylindcr reversos and retracls until 'oil as wcll as oil-to-uir pilots.
it contacts I-LS. Limit swilch' ¡-LS reverses the
cylinder which extends aga in until it contacts 3-LS, Prograrnrnable controllers
and so on. According to NEMA Standard 1-28-1976, a pro-
The sequence diagrarn, figure 21.16(b) displays grammable conlroller is a "digitu lly operu tcd elec-
í hc switching scquence Ior t his circuit. Two addi- lronie a ppa r a t us w h ich uses a (progrn mruable)
1ionn 1 cout rol Iu nct ions a re 1101:\ ppa rC1l1 [rom thc 11ICll)(1ry rol' t hc i nt c rna l st orn g c 01' inst ruct ious rol'
opcr a ing scqucnce. First , it is possiblc lo reverso hc
í íim plcmcnt i ng spccific fllnelions such as log ic, se-
cylindcr and rctur n it to it s st.ut posi t ion :\1 a ny poinl qucnc ing. tilnillg, cou nt ing. a 11(1u r it hmcr ic lo C01l-
in t hc cyclc. Second, a ny i mc t hc rct r.ict Iuuct ion
í t rol , t hroun h digil:\1 or an:!lllg illJllll/ollI 1'1It u iud-
has bccn dcprcsscd, íhc cylc sturt bu t lon must be u les, v.uious t ypcs 01' machincs or proccsscs."
\'.
opcratcd lo initiate a new cyclc. A dcsigner who is a lso experienccd in the Ilu id
The need for these additional control functions power leehnology should expand the clefinition of
brings up an imporlant point. Designers of conlrol programmable controllers. (PCs), lo inclucle (luid-
circuits must have the necessary skill and experience rnechanical and eleclro-mechanical sequencing de-
to perceive the need Ior these little "extras," Such . vices such as drurn-switch progranuners, fluidic se-
extras are [requently r equir ed to convert a the- quenccs, etc.
oretical circuit derived from a sequence diagrarn inlo
a practical system. The diagrum alone cannol en- Sorne definitions
cornpass and display all the requircments such as the Figure 21,17 illustra tes a block diagrarn of a

229 _ (j
1-J .:..l..í1_1 J J"kA t~)
-c, le..c..' h' n
'.f'- C:.¡J(
,'-.[ (':ll';,' _"~ ,~,;_
!
(,1-.('"
 I~;~ .'.
Lt~1 IP;~I
~ ~
fTIF§~~-, ,
r--' 1 Path o{ cylinder

~~~====J
L -" __ -"~'-- _~.
2 ./'
..
i
I
,--_· ...J3
,
L ,

, .
r-
/
----------,----J4
.
L .. -,

/
'.. --- ---...J5
(a)

, -~..

'0',"'- .,

..~ operated o ~ re/eased

(b)

Cyc/estart
Reverse .-L S·L.$.
~--------~-L~------~_o o CR.lll-..,.--.c;~=m:.-..--ICA-2,......,-__;
'C~'J
. 1-1---'
.: 1-t~
:";' . ." _.·A"· . 'J...;.t-------,-,-, -.~.~...-,"',~:..::¡;r_------..,,--~-------------{
.,.

,¡ •... -Ó. '.J.•. """"".'C::-" •. C-:,/~,-. --o -"'.

-~,.....,-----'-::~
::,---
.CH.:JI~.

-'1 CR·' 1-1

.,;.'.
__ --,. _ CR.2
11
-1 CR·5

r .&...-
.,- -o.2'-..LS
O CR.31~ CR.2
1
CR·6
CR·4

y CR.l/ CR.4
1 11
Ó·t--:--~C~R~.5~. _J
.. í _+------o.3~.L.So 'CR-511~ CR.2
11
CR·6
/o
CR-l ' CR.6¡ CR~9
// ll
11- CR.7¡¡1- _

1>.+. o4~.LSo CR.71~

CR.2
j
/<1 . ¿R.S-¡

!í CR.l, ¡-I' _ .CR.S11- --'_-¡ ~r9'1-----"

lb 'CR·9 ¡-j'_' J

n -..,------..,,---..,~C~R..:..~3 r-
t-__
CR-5 CR-6
~C~R.:..c~_'_4+r--~------S-O-LC-l~

Fig. 21.16. System for recip- 'O

rocating a double acting cylinder ¡(¡ll +- ---'C:.,cR..:..c.:.¡7
1- --=C.:..cR'-'.S~I---4
successively longer .strr;kes: (%0 CR·9
hydrauflc circuit; (b) sequence oie:
gram: (e) etoctricet circuito (e)

230
 rnicroprocessor- based progra m mable con troller.
Note that many of these Iunctions are also used in
. rnicrocornputers. .
Programming device may be a built-in section of the
rc or a separale, self-contained accessory.
CPU (Central Processing Unit) is an inlegrated
circuit (ICjon a chip which includes t hc necessary
circuitry, logic Iunctions, ctc., lo providc hc func- í

tions required of the PC. .

Power supply is the electrical power source for the
re. It is a regulated power supply whieh provides
clcctricity lo the rc al rcquircd voltagc and currenl
levels.
Memory is another integratcd circuir which may be
on the samc chip as thc CPU or 011 an individual chip Fig, 21.17, BlOCk diagram of a microprocessor-based pro-
, qremmsbteconíroíier.
depending on PC requir c me n ts. Some m icr o-
eleclronic 'systerns are totally contained inthe cir-.
cuitry en .a single chip. Others are "board 'level"
systcms in which individual functional chips are
mounted ona board or car d a nd inter connected by
conduoíingpat hs deposited on (he board orcard. ':
The memory is the pa rt .of the ptograrnmable
cont roller wher e instruct ions (t he program) are
storcd. Da taTrom inputs or lo oul pu ts IlIay,also be
stor ed in appropria te ad dresses in.t hc mernory. One
of t hc Iunct ions which t he CI'U proccsscs ami con-
trols is the routing, storing, ano retr icval of dala in'
the mernory.
Input/output (l/O) modules are the integrated cir-
cuits designed lo handle inpul or outpul data (in the
forrn of an clectricalvoltage) from exlernal input or
ou tpu t devices.
Input devices Ior fluid power syslems lypically may
include push-bullons, li m it swit ches, selector
switches, relays, punch cards readers, sensors, lrans-
ducers, or any device which can supply an electrical
voltage signal to the rc input ;il~dtilé,ln'put devices
are hard- wired lo thc terminal strip on t hc re.
Output devices typically might be rclay coils, valve Fig, 21, 18, Iflus Ira tion ot simple programmable comrouer.
solenoids, molar slarter coils, cte. Oulput devices are
also hard wired lo the re. The CPU prograrn in- requirerncnts. Typically, the designer must propcrly
structions from mernory and feedback signals on the match the characteristics of l/O devices, tirning re-
status of the l/O devices lo conlrol t he operating quirernents, program faults, defective rnemory, irra-
scqllencc of t he output dcviccs. tional commands, faulty logic, etc. all ofwhich make
Programmable conlrollers of the type described . prograrnmable controllers more difficult to use than
abovc rangc from very simple systcrns, Figure 21,18 might be construcd by an inexperienced designer.
lo highly sophisticated distributed systerns which are Such dctailcd discussion is beyond the scopc ofthis
hardly distinguishable frorn cornputer control instal- book: However, the con cerned reader should sludy
lations. theabundant availableliterature which describes ihe
The principal diffcrencc belween.relay~Iagic and j-c tcchnology. • ' •• ,_ •. ,... • '. 0,

programmable controllers is programmability and

cost . lb change a relay logic systern, componenls Microprocessors and microcomputers
may have lo be added or removed and the system hard Why should the fluid power lechnology prepare lo
rewircd. 10 makc a corrcsponding chango in a PC intcrFacc wit h control computcrs? Beca use i hn t is
requires only reprogramming, or al worst, adding t he direclion induslrial conlrols are following. Fluid
additional modulcs, if incrcnscd capn cit y is rcquircd. powcr is not a lcnd cchnolog.y. í When the growth of a
lmplcmcnting PC controls Ior Ilu id powcr a pplica- givcn indusuy is spur rcd by mu rkcl dcma nds or
t ions must mcct sorne lirnilations a nd satisfy ccrt a in tcchnologica l innova t ions WI;lhi'll t hat industry, t hcrc

231
 are changes in production tcchniqucs, machincry, cxisting construints.
and processes. Fluid power must accomrnodate these Signal level ~ Because solenoidvalves currently
change~. ; used in Iluid powcr systems operate at power levcls
Most arcas of industrial activity incviiably.adopt substantially above the normal signallevel generated
computer control. The microprocessor has made this by microprocessors, signai amplification is neces-
possible bccause of the capability incorporatcd iuto sary. The amplification stage could be:'
low-cost control cornponents. . • par! of the microcomputer package
Atthe tirneof this writing, the adaptaiion of.elcc- • a separa le, .t hird leve! between t hc rnicro-,
tronic and rnicro-elcctronic control is procccding . cornputer and the lluict power valve, or
rnuch more rapidly than hadbeen anticipated in the • part of the fluid power valve package, for exarn-
la t e 1970s. The industry will-nccd o t ra i n
í
plc, by adding it io íhcsolcnoid opcrator. Bccause the
hybridengineers/technicia'ns who undcrstand micro majority of solenoid valves are digital devices, they
electroniés and Iluid power arid haveihe knowledge would be most compatible with microcornputcr out-
and skill to combine them." ' pul signals.
Some cornponent problerns mal ha ve to be re- Electrohydraulic servovalves are analog devices
solved before the hybrid technology can overcorne and therefor e harder to interface t han solenoid

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h cqucncy 01 ercctronyorautic valve 90" pnase lüg (1Iz) .

Fig, 21. 19, Cetitrut reqion o(grnpli roprO;;01/1s ¡I/ai'" i'I'JJliCiI'tiOIl urou rol' iO¡füy's otoctronvctruuüc ~y~l¡'¡ms, Stuuied arou below
IOO-I/L bunctpue», tnatcute» wt ies e lypiCIJIII'¡CIUPIUC()~:i()/~ coukl be usoct ue ctosed-toop controttors. ttowever sucti con/rols
would add ttttte lo syetems opéretinq et.ttiese speeds. Aoove 100-Hz bandpass. microprocessors are 100 slow to Perform we/l as '
cioe eci-locu» conlrollers and have no t~n)elar orh er svsfeí71 activilies. f •

232
 valvcs, Rcfcr lo Cha ptcr. 1·2. Signal :llllpiifica!;iol1, qucncy of Mi n7.
011 -1 (i biísof dn t a , mig h: llave an
may be lcssthan rcquircd Iorsolcnoids beca use lhe'< updntc t imc of 500 ms. Thus, if t hc ba ndpass is
t orquc-motor intcr Iacc.opcr.ucsa I IO,\Ycrp('lwerlevels conxidc-rcd I he [rcqucncy Ior a 90-dcgree phnsc shif't ,
111:111mosl solcnoirls. Illll'wilh ¡he l iruit x of 'cI'lr;'~ill ' I he 111 icroproccs:« 11' cOIlI rol lcr would llave ;\ 1>;1 lid pass
tcchnology, a digi laiclp~<;l.1alog (D /./\) convcrsion 'or 1 k 1 1/ ..
would be necessary. Perha ps converling t he torque As a ru le ofthu m b, the signa I processor should be 5
motor to a frequency rnodulated, (FM) or pulse - to 10 times more responsive t han the power-control
width rnodulatcd, (PWM) device might provide a 'elerncnls in t he: loop: Thus, practica] servos which
solution. ' ' . could use .microprocessors toeJose the loop would
Sensors/transdu~'ers,~ At present.imost 'sensors/ have a bandpass of less than 100 Hz. 1n this region,
transducers used in fluid POWef systerns are analog the use of microprocessors would provide little eco-
devices. Digital lransduce~s are particularly com- .nomicadvanlage.
patible with microprocessor inputs; a swing toward There are techniques for increasing the speed at
micro controls would increase demand for digital which signal information is processed. However, they
transducers. However, the differences between ana-' are highlyspecialized and increase hardware devel-
log or digital transducer outputs presently lie in the , opmenl costs.
area of signal condilioning rather than basic trans-
ducer designo .The solution rnay be within the elec- c=J Posilion, .Conventional digilal
lronics rclaled lo the scnsor systcm. • c=J rates. etc. or analog servo
O
FM- and PWM-controlled valves -,Because mi-
"•rf1I <iJiJb;'. ~';t
croprocessor ou tput is digital, ~~~I11'e
uscd to mn ke lhe',co,nyersioh
frequency or digital-to-pulse-width.
semble those of arnplifying
n~el.llOd rnust b~
I r om digital-to-

t he signal
TÍle choices re-
a
to solerÍoid
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valve. Signal arnplificalion would also be necessary il1pUI~ ,

~ Machine stale
beca use a'solenoid interface would berequired. ,
Ilydraulic systerns caupack a lot of powcr i¡l a Fig. 2/.20. Pre-loop processitiq i;; most common use of
small package. However, they often require greater microorocessor-besea 'controts -in tiydreuiic systems. Typical
control consists of components shown in block diagram. One
positioning accuracy a nd responso. Electronic con-
advaritage of such controls is that sq!Jle, or similar, hardware
trol of hydraulic systerns is helping overcorne these , cen be useo for a varietyof applications.
pr oblcms, making possible thc development of a new
breed of cquipment which will be ublc lo do more 2. Pre-Ioop ilrocéssing. Using« microproccssor as a
wor k a t lcss cost. prc-loop proccssor or cornmund-gcncrn tor Iora COI\-
In somc insta nccs, Illicroprocessor-based,col1trols vcntiona l a na log scrvo is probably thc most comrnon
are replacing convent ionn l f1uid-logic dcviccs. Thc a ppl ica t ion t od ay. :11\ such a rsystcm. a m icro-
clcctronicpackagcs ma kc il possiblc lo altcr.systcm comput cr C:111be uscd for interface Iunct ious, such as
pa r ameterswit h simple progr a m mi ng changos keyboard rcading, or' lo: proccssavailablc informa-
'Talher thanby altering orifice or .piston sizes, or 'by , tion, such as calcula ting Ieed ra tes or end points. This
rero,u ting conríections. < ' inf or ma t iori istlieri·.Ú'ansrúi'fttd ro: a ~high-
Beyondthese relrofit applications, the use Ot mi- performance scrvo ,for implerrrentn t ion, Figure
croprocessoricontrols promises to usher' in a new 2"1.20. .
breed of intelligent fluid-powersystems. Thccorn- ' .The sarnc, oi cssentially the same hardware can be
putational power and prograrnrnability ofihese con~' used in a varieiy of pre-loop processing a pplica tions.
trols make radically new auiornatcd machines possi- ' Minorsizing changes may be needed, but rnost fine-
ble. Figure 21.19 is a graphic representation of the tuning can bedone in the processor section, that is, by
spectrum of applications for electrohydraulic.servo- soft ware ra thert lia n hardwar e cha nges.
valves. ' , ''¡'he kcy tothis var icty o( possible applications is
the similarity of systern eornponents. Mostelectro-
Types of systems "hydraplic positioning servosare similar in concepl,
Applications of micropr ocessor-controlled hy- although different in size árid shape. Thus, if char ac-
draulicsystems lypically Iall into-six categorics. ,terislic,gairis -can be njade similar, t he micro-
L'Closíng aIoop. This is lile most ternpting applica- ,_. coinputer can' be applied.io a var iety of systerns. This
tion of microprocessorsin clcctroliydráulic syst~rns: versatility c~n reduce the.high costs of custorn con-
thcmicroprocessor repluccs thc.unalogordigital trol syslcJús. " " ,''. ; ,
surnming poinl and conditions the error information - A rnore~onin,~n advariiage of pr e-Ioop processing
driving he hydraulic controllcr.
í is that two vast ly different processes, having cornplex
However, to serve effcctively as a c1osed-l~p'qll1~"jn!er.rclati9nships, can be tied together. This re-
troller, a microprocessor must handle inforrnat ion at quires, ofcourse, that the interrelationships be de-
a rate compatible with the servobandpass. A typical scribcd and predicted with rneasurablc variables.
microprocessor controller, opern ing al a clock fre-
í 3. Per ipheral processing. In this type of syslem, a
233