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Chlorine (Cl2) is a pale yellow gas that reacts with nearly everything.
– It is toxic and cause death, so it was used as a chemical weapon during World War I.
Sodium and chlorine react explosively with one another to form sodium chloride (NaCl), which
is common table salt. The image below shows sodium metal (gray spheres) and chlorine gas
(Cl2 molecules in green) reacting to form sodium chloride (green and grey particles together).
While sodium metal and chlorine gas are so reactive, the resulting white sodium chloride solid
they form is so harmless, we generally use it to season our food.
Ex. 1: Write the electron configuration (using core notation) for each element below:
Ex. 3: When sodium and chlorine react to form white sodium chloride solid, the resulting
compound consists of Na+ and Cl− ions. Write the electron configuration (using core
notation) for each ion below:
core electrons: innermost electrons belonging to filled electron shells, corresponding to the
number of electrons in the Noble gas in the period above the element.
potassium
magnesium
sulfur
fluorine
Mg: _____ P: _____ Al: _____ Br: _____ K: _____ Si: _____ Se: _____ Xe: _____
Ex. 1: Write the Electron Dot Formula or Lewis Symbols for each of the following atoms:
neon boron phosphorus carbon chlorine
IONIC RADII: distance from the nucleus to the outermost electrons in an ion
– An atom loses electrons to form a cation
→ the cation has a smaller radius than its corresponding atom
– An atom gains electrons to form an anion
→ the anion has a larger radius than its corresponding atom
11 p+ loses 1 e– 11 p+ 17 p+ gains 1 e– 17 p+
11 e– 10 e– 17 e– 18 e–
Ex. 1: Order the following in terms of increasing ionic radii: Mg2+, Sr, K+, Al3+, Ca.
Ex. 2: Order the following in terms of increasing ionic radii: Br−, N, O, F, I−, Cl−.
Note in HCl, H has 2 e– (like He) and Cl has 8 valence e– (like other Noble gases).
H Cl
This overlapping region is the covalent bond where electrons are shared.
MULTIPLE COVALENT BONDS (Single Bonds, Double Bonds, and Triple Bonds)
– Covalent bonds can also be shown as a line to represent the pair of electrons
•• ••
H―H O=C=O
•• ••
:N≡N:
single bond double bond triple bond
bond length: distance between the nuclei of two covalently bonded atoms
– optimum distance maximizing attraction, minimizing repulsions
octet rule (rule of eight): atoms bond in such a way that each atom gets eight valence
electrons (an octet), except hydrogen which only needs 2 electrons
1. Calculate the total # of valence electrons for all atoms in the compound
– Number should be even
3. Write symbol for central atom (usually underlined or indicated in some way), then put all the
other atoms around it.
5. Distribute remaining electrons around outer atoms so they all have an octet (8 e–), except
hydrogen (H) only needs 2 electrons.
6. If there are not enough electron pairs for all atoms to have an octet, move a nonbonding
electron pair from outer atom to a position between the outer atom and the central atom
– A single pair of e–s between atoms = single bond between the atoms
– Two pairs of e–s between atoms = double bond between the atoms
– Three pairs of e–s between atoms = triple bond between the atoms
Example: Draw the Lewis Structure for each of the following molecules:
H2O CH2O
a. NH3: e. Cl2O:
b. OF2 f. PCl3:
c. CF4: e. CH2F2:
d. CO2: f. HCN:
Note: The textbook covers molecules with more than one central atom. Don’t worry about
drawing Lewis Structures for any molecule with more than one central atom.
5. Distribute remaining electrons around outer atoms so they all have an octet (8 e–), except
hydrogen (H) only needs 2 electrons.
6. If any atom does not have an octet, move nonbonding electrons from central atom to a
position between atoms, forming double and triple bonds until all atoms have an octet.
7. Put brackets around all the atoms, and put charge on upper right-hand side
– This indicates the charge belongs to entire entity rather than to a single atom in the ion.
Example: Draw the Electron dot formula for each of the following polyatomic ions:
a. NH4+: c. OH–:
b. SO4–2: d. PO4–3:
BUT experimental evidence indicates that both oxygen-oxygen bonds in ozone are identical,
so neither of the structures accurately represents the molecule.
O
The actual structure is a cross between the two structures,
where the electron pair is actually spread over all three atoms:
••O O
••
•• ••
These electrons are considered delocalized electrons because they are spread between
more than two atoms.
To correctly represent such delocalized electrons using Lewis formulas we show all the Lewis
formulas with a double-arrow between each:
•• ••
O O
••O O
•• ••O O
••
•• •• •• •• •• ••
where each of these structures is called a resonance structure.
resonance structure: one of two or more Lewis structures representing a single molecule
with bonds that are usually between a single bond and a double bond
that cannot be described fully with only one Lewis structure.
resonance: the use of two or more Lewis structures to represent a molecule with these bonds
that are usually between a single and a double bond.
– The real ozone molecule does not oscillate between the two resonance structures but is a
unique, stable structure in which the bond between the oxygen atoms is a bond and a half.
For molecules with three or more atoms, determine a general formula—in the form ABx (for
x=2, 3, or 4)—to determine the molecular geometry (or shape).
AB2: linear
– the two outer atoms are 180˚ from each other
– Example: Give the Lewis structure and shape for CO2, where both carbon-oxygen
bonds are equivalent. Also indicate the bond angles.
AB4: tetrahedral
– tetra = four, so “tetrahedral” is used to indicate four sides or four faces
– each outer atom is 109.5˚ from the other three outer atoms
– Example: Draw the Lewis structure and shape for CH4 (including bond angles).
109.5°
AB4 4 tetrahedral 109.5˚
Lone pairs of electrons take up more space than bonded pairs of electrons because the
bonded pair is held between two atoms whereas the lone pair belongs to only one atom.
AB2E: bent (or angular) (central atom and 2 outer atoms have a bent shape)
– start with AB3 (trigonal planar) molecule and replace one B atom with a lone pair
of electrons (E) → AB2E
– Example: Give the Lewis structure and shape for SO2 (including bond angles).
AB3E: trigonal pyramid (central atom and 3 outer atoms make a pyramid)
– start with AB4 molecule (tetrahedral) and replace one B atom with a lone pair of
electrons (E) → AB3E
– Example: Give the Lewis structure and shape for NH3 (including bond angles).
AB2E2: bent (or angular) (central atom and 2 outer atoms have a bent shape)
– start with AB4 molecule (tetrahedral) and replace 2 B atoms with 2 lone pairs of
electrons (E) → AB2E2
– Example: Give the Lewis structure and shape for H2O (including bond angles).
bent or
AB2E 2 1 <120˚
angular
<120°
trigonal
AB3E 3 1 <109.5˚
pyramid
<109.5°
bent or
AB2E2 2 2 <109.5˚
angular
<109.5°
Given any molecule or polyatomic ion, draw the Lewis Structure, then determine the
molecular geometry (or shape) and bond angle(s) for the molecule.
Ex. 1: Draw the Lewis structure (including resonance structures if they apply), and determine
the molecular geometry and bond angles for SO2.
a. CH3Cl b. OF2
Lewis structure Lewis structure
iii. bond angles in CH3Cl: ____________ iii. bond angles in OF2: ____________
iii. bond angles in NO3–: ___________ iii. bond angles in N3–: ___________
CHEM 110 Chapter 5 Page 14
5.7 WATER: POLAR BONDS AND POLAR MOLECULES
NONPOLAR COVALENT BOND: Bond between 2 atoms with equal electronegativity values
Simplest example of nonpolar covalent bonds are those between two identical atoms:
– H–H bond in H2, F–F bond in F2, etc.
Nonpolar covalent bonds can also occur between different atoms which have equal
electronegativity values (see Table of electronegativity values above)
– e.g. N–Cl bond, C–S bond, etc.
Ex. 2: Identify the type of bond described for each of the following:
ionic bond (I) polar covalent bond (P) nonpolar covalent bond (NP)
_____ i. The C–O bonds in CO2 _____ iv. The C–C bonds in C3H8
_____ iii. The bonds in K2O _____ vi. The bonds in H2O
POLARITY OF MOLECULES
1. Use Delta Notation and an arrow to indicate the more electronegative atom in a polar bond.
CO2: H2O:
SO3
CCl4 CHCl3
i. SO2 i. CH2F2
Lewis structure Lewis structure
ii. shape of SO2: (Circle one below) ii. shape of CH2F2: (Circle one below)
iii. bond angles in SO2: (Circle one) iii. bond angles in CH2F2: (Circle one)
180˚ 120˚ 109.5˚ <109.5˚ <120˚ 180˚ 120˚ 109.5˚ <109.5˚ <120˚
iv. Sketch the 3D shape of the SO2 molecule iv. Sketch the 3D shape of the CH2F2
below, then draw an arrow to show the molecule below, then draw an arrow to
dipole on each polar bond. show the dipole on each polar bond.
iii. bond angle in PF3: ___________ iii. bond angles in COCl2: ___________
iv. Sketch the 3D shape of the PF3 molecule iv. Sketch the 3D shape of the COCl2
molecule
below, then draw an arrow to show the below, then draw an arrow to
dipole on each polar bond. show the dipole on each polar bond.