Lecture 1 - Ecosystems

Ecosystems
Ecosystems
Ecosystems are characterised by assemblages of organisms together with their
physical and chemical environment - the so-called abiotic frame.
Ecosystems are highly complex and distinct functional units such as a forest, a lake,
an estuary which have relatively little exchange of energy or substances between
them compared with the innumerable transformations within each of them.
Ecosystem ecology provides a framework for studying the transformation of

energy and the cycling of elements within ecological systems.
Ecosystems
Organisms interact within food webs to accumulate, circulate, and transform organic
and inorganic matter.
The abiotic frame of an ecosystem consists of all physical and chemical properties
such as morphometry, soil conditions, nutrient concentrations, light availability, flow,
temperature, pH, which maintain food webs and nutrient cycling.
Changed abiotic frame
Abiotic frame
Organisms
Food web interactions
Environmental Gradient
friedrich.recknagel@adelaide.edu.au 1
Ecosystems
Ecosystems
Nutrient Cycling
Inorganic nutrients (CO2, phosphorus and nitrogen) in an ecosystem are utilised by
autotrophs for photosynthesis. They are either imported or recycled from particulate and
dissolved organic matter (detritus, excrements) by microbial and photochemical processes.
Example of nutrient cycling in aquatic ecosystem:
Ecosystems
Nutrient Cycling
Organic and inorganic

matter in an ecosystem
have distinct half-life
constants indicating
the time that is needed
to reduce their
concentration by 50%.
Half-life constants
provide information on
recycling (turn-over)
times of different
matter.
Nutrient Cycling
Seasonal dynamics of
nutrient cycles
Ecosystems
Food Webs
Organisms in
ecosystems are
hierarchically structured
by biological interactions
between
carnivores (predators),
herbivores (grazers),
plants and decomposers
Food Webs
In an aquatic food web the top
predators (large piscivorous fish) are
limited by the availability of small
planktivorous fish that is for its part
limited by the availability of carnivorous
and herbivorous zooplankton which is
for its part limited by the availability of
algae.
Algae are limited by sunlight and
nutrients which are supplied externally
and recycled internally by benthivorous
organisms and bacteria.
Ecosystems
Trophic Cascades
Trophic cascades depend on the number of trophic levels of the food web and determine the structure
and function of ecosystems. Changes in the abundance at one trophic level alter the abundance of
other trophic levels across the food web.
Odd number of trophic levels: Even number of trophic levels:

Plant biomass abundant Plant biomass reduced
Trophic Cascades
Through trophic cascades typically a carnivorous population A has an indirect positive
effect on a autotrophic population C by reducing the abundance of the herbivorous
population B.
Ecosystems
Trophic Cascades
In food webs with 3 trophic levels, the carnivores are limited by herbivores, herbivores are limited
by predation, and autotrophs are limited by nutrients and light.
Trophic Cascades
Example of trophic cascades in the Simpson Dessert:
Heavy rainfall in summer 1991 triggered a temporary pulse of arid plants growth causing
an increased abundance of Long-haired Rats.
Rat-predators , in turn, increased after the arrival of rats. Both rats and their predators
disappeared by late 1992 after plants had died off.
Ecosystems
Trophic Cascades
Example of trophic cascades in Lake St George, Ontario:
A winterkill of fish in 1982 triggered a trophic cascade down the food web over the next 4
years.
Trophic Cascades
Example of otter-urchin-kelp interactions in Alaska:
After increased predation of sea otters by killer whales in the mid 1990s the sea urchin
biomass increased significantly causing high grazing pressure on kelp
Ecosystems
Trophic Cascades
Biomanipulation: Utilising trophic cascade effects for lake management
Multiple Stable States of Ecosystems

The response of an ecosystem to disturbance (stress)
can be characterised by following attributes:
- Resistance: Tendency not to change
- Response: Magnitude of change
- Resilience: Rate of return to original state
- Recovery: Extent of return to original state
- Change: Reaching a new stable state
Ecosystems

Ecosystems can have multiple stable states imposed by disturbances where the “new” abiotic
frame and assemblages of organisms are in a relative equilibrium.
Stability properties of ecosystems:
Stable equilibrium point
Unstable equilibrium point
Multiple equilibrium points both

stable and unstable

ns
Time
tio
ra
ent
nc
Co
t
en
tri
Lake Category II
Nu
Mediterranean eutrophic lake

Stable state at
time t+j
Lake Category I
Transitional
state at time t+i
Temperate mesotrophic lake
Stable state at
time t
Water Temperature
Ecosystems
Time
e
ur
st
oi
il M
So
Forest Category II
Semi-arid shrub land
Stable state at
time t+j
Forest Category I
Transitional
state at time t+i
Temperate deciduous forest
Stable state at
time t
Air Temperature

Changing
efficiency of
parasite attack
upon the host
moving the system
from stable to
unstable
equilibrium
Ecosystems

Multiple stable states of lake ecosystems:
II
II

Multiple stable states of shallow lake ecosystems:
Ecosystems
Ecological Processes
Ecological processes are determined by temporal and spatial interactions between
ecosystem components such as growth, predation, competition, mortality etc.
Interaction diagrams and matrices can be used to represent ecological processes.
Transport processes can be driven by hydrological and meteorological
conditions :
Terrestrial Nutrient Export
Aquatic Nutrient Import

Surface Water Runoff
Rainfall Surface Water Runoff Terrestrial Nutrient Export
Ecosystems
Growth processes can be driven by meteorological and climate

conditions :
Plant Growth
Plant Growth
Plant Growth
Solar Radiation Temperature Nutrient Concentration
Growth processes can be driven by inter-specific nutrient

competition:
Anabaena Growth
Diatom Growth
Diatoms
Silica, Phosphorus, Nitrogen Phosphorus Anabaena
Ecosystems
Growth processes can be driven by food-web interactions such as

grazing and predation:
Zooplankton Growth
Large Fish Growth

Small Fish Growth
Algae Biomass Zooplankton Biomass Small Fish Biomass
Ecosystems are highly complex, non-linear

and stochastic
- Complexity of ecosystems is determined by the formation of

hierarchical food webs and cycling of nutrients
- Nonlinearity of ecosystems is determined by distinct feedback

relationships between their organisms and the abiotic frame
- Stochasticity of ecosystems is determined by the random nature of

climatic, meteorological, hydrological, epidemical, chemical driving
variables such as occurrence of droughts, floods, thunderstorms,
tornados, fire, diseases, pollution.
Ecosystems
Temporal Scales and Patterns
Different temporal scales produce

different temporal patterns.

Cyclic Dynamics
• Diurnal patterns:
– Photosynthesis greater in morning than afternoon; plants are “hungry” for carbon
in the morning
– Diurnal zooplankton migration with greater algal grazing in the evening than in the
morning
• Seasonal patterns:
– Plants grow in response to photoperiod rapidly in spring but senesce in autumn
– Production exceeds herbivory in summer
– Herbivory exceeds production in winter
– Seasonal changes in ecosystem C balance
– Seasonal succession between diatoms, green algae, dinoflagellates and blue‐green
algae
• Interannual patterns:
– El Nino events occur every 3 to 7 years by large scale air‐sea interactions that
couple atmospheric pressure changes with changes in the ocean temperature over
the equatorial Pacific Ocean
Ecosystems

• Instantaneous events:
– Rain effects on soil moisture
– Overcast effects on photosynthesis
– Predator effects on prey activity
– Species migration
• Long‐term events:
– Regime shifts in food webs and ecosystem evolution
– Salinisation of soils and freshwater in arid climates
– Eutrophication of aquatic ecosystems
Similarities and Differences between

Aquatic and Terrestrial Ecosystems
Criteria Aquatic Terrestrial

Habitat Water, Sediments Soil
Limiting Factors for Biota Light, Nutrients Water, Nutrients
Variations of Low High
Temperature
Variations of O2 and CO2 High Low
Variations in Productivity Low High
and Diversity by
Changing Climate
Sources of Phosphorus Water (Dissolved), Soil (Dissolved and
and Nitrogen Sediments (Particulate) Particulate)
Typical Ecosystems Oceans, Estuaries, Tundra, Forests,

Lakes, Wetlands,Ponds, Rainforests, Mangrove
Rivers, Streams, Springs Forests, Grasslands,
Tropical Savannah
Ecosystems

Aquatic and Terrestrial Ecosystems
Terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems have
fundamentally different physical environment
Basic Properties of Water and Air that Influence Ecosystem Processes
Property Water Air Ratio water:air

Oxygen concentration (ml L-1) 7.0 209.0 1:30
Density (kg L-1) 1.000 0.0013 800:1
Viscosity (cP) 1.0 0.02 50:1
Heat capacity (cal L-1 (˚C)-1) 1000.0 0.31 3000:1
Diffusion coefficient (mm s-1)
Oxygen 0.00025 1.98 1:8000
Carbon dioxide 0.00018 1.55 1:9000

Production and Natural Ecosystems
Prod Ecosystem Natural Ecosystem
Species Diversity and Life Forms:
Spatial Pattern:
Temporal Pattern:
Pathways of Nutrient Cycles:
Spatio-Temporal Scales of Processes:

Lecture 1 - Ecosystems

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Lecture 1 - Ecosystems

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Ecosystems

Ecosystem ecology provides a framework for studying the transformation of

Changed abiotic frame

Food web interactions

Organic and inorganic

Odd number of trophic levels: Even number of trophic levels:

Multiple Stable States of Ecosystems

Multiple Stable States of Ecosystems

Stability properties of ecosystems:

Stable equilibrium point

Unstable equilibrium point

Multiple equilibrium points both

Multiple Stable States of Ecosystems

Mediterranean eutrophic lake

Multiple Stable States of Ecosystems

Multiple Stable States of Ecosystems

Multiple Stable States of Ecosystems

Multiple Stable States of Ecosystems

Aquatic Nutrient Import

Rainfall Surface Water Runoff Terrestrial Nutrient Export

Growth processes can be driven by meteorological and climate

Growth processes can be driven by inter-specific nutrient

Silica, Phosphorus, Nitrogen Phosphorus Anabaena

Growth processes can be driven by food-web interactions such as

Large Fish Growth

Algae Biomass Zooplankton Biomass Small Fish Biomass

Ecosystems are highly complex, non-linear

- Complexity of ecosystems is determined by the formation of

- Nonlinearity of ecosystems is determined by distinct feedback

- Stochasticity of ecosystems is determined by the random nature of

Temporal Scales and Patterns

Different temporal scales produce

Temporal Scales and Patterns

Temporal Scales and Patterns

Similarities and Differences between

Criteria Aquatic Terrestrial

Typical Ecosystems Oceans, Estuaries, Tundra, Forests,

Similarities and Differences between

Property Water Air Ratio water:air

Similarities and Differences between

Species Diversity and Life Forms:

Pathways of Nutrient Cycles:

Spatio-Temporal Scales of Processes:

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