Quantum Dots 1

Quantum Dots: Applications in Modern

Technology
K. Li and R. Lan

Optical Engineering

Dr. K. Daneshvar

July 13, 2007

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Abstract:

As technology moves forward, the need for semiconductors becomes more and more apparent.

Conventional semiconductors, however, fall short of our needs and expectations. They are too

large, too slow, and too inefficient. The discovery of quantum dots presents the possibility of

faster, smaller, and more reliable semiconductors. Quantum dots, sometimes called pseudo-

atoms, mimic the structure of atoms. They can be tuned and adjusted for many applications,

including some in optics, medicine, and quantum computation. This paper will introduce the

concepts behind quantum dots, explain the methods of creation, and explore applications in

modern technology.
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Quantum dots are minuscule semiconductor nanostructures that limit electron movement

in all three spatial directions, confining them to a tiny area around the dot. These dots can range

in size from 2 nanometers to 10 nanometers in diameter, with the entire dot encompassing 100 to

100,000 individual atoms. (evidenttech) Because quantum dots are semiconductor materials,

their conductivity changes in relation to external stimuli. The conductivity of a material depends

primarily on the bandgap, which scientists define as the space between the conduction band and

the valence band of an atom where electrons cannot propagate. The bandgap determines how

much energy is required to elevate an electron from the valence band into the conduction band.

In conductors, the bandgap is small or does not exist and current freely passes through the

material. In semiconductors and insulators, a large bandgap usually exists and external energy is

required in order to energize an electron into the conduction band beyond the bandgap, which

then allows the material to conduct a current. When this happens, the electron in the conduction

band and the hole in the valence band it leaves behind are bound together and collectively called

an exciton. Because quantum dots are semiconductors, the concepts of energy levels and

bandgap energy apply. In bulk semiconductors, however, energy levels are considered to be

continuous because almost no energy difference exists between each individual level.

(evidenttech) Quantum dots on the other hand have distinct energy levels, much like individual

atoms. For this reason, quantum dots are sometimes called artificial atoms or pseudo-atoms.

The existence of discrete energy levels around quantum dots can be explained by the

exciton Bohr radius, which is the average distance between an electron and the hole it leaves

behind when it enters the conduction band. Different materials have different exciton Bohr radii.

As a semiconductor crystal becomes smaller than its exciton Bohr radius, its energy levels will

become discrete. By definition, a quantum dot must be smaller than the exciton Bohr radius of
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the material with which it is made out of. The existence of discrete energy levels around a

quantum dot, called quantum confinement, has important repercussions on the absorptive and

emissive behavior of the semiconductor material. (evidenttech) One special property of quantum

dots is that they emit light at very specific wavelengths depending on several factors including

shape, the material makeup, and most importantly the size of the dot. Altering the size of a

quantum dot will change the distances between energy levels, changing the bandgap and thus the

energy required for an electron to cross it. As dots become larger, the wavelength of light they

emit becomes longer, causing the color to move towards the red end of the visible light spectrum.

As dots become smaller, the wavelength becomes shorter and the coloration shifts towards the

blue end of the spectrum. This is because as a quantum dot grows larger, its energy levels move

closer together. (Nanoscienceworks) Thus, a larger dot requires less energy to create an exciton

and will release less energy when the electron returns to the valance band, corresponding to a

longer wavelength of light. Thus, scientists can control the wavelength and energy of the light

emitted by a quantum dot by tuning its size. Studies show that quantum dots have a high

quantum yield, which means that they produce many excitons for each high-energy photon that

they absorb. (Weiss, 2006) Theoretically, a quantum dot could yield as many as seven excitons

for each photon, raising the possibility that they could be used in highly efficient photovoltaic

cells and high yield lasers.

Scientists can produce quantum dots through several methods including molecular beam

epitaxy, electron beam lithography, and colloidal synthesis. When fabricating quantum dots,

scientists must ensure that individual dots do not come in contact with each other. If quantum

dots begin to cluster, they will reform into bulk material. Thus, quantum dots must form in a host

medium that keeps the dots separated. Molecular beam epitaxy is a method that deposits layers
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of crystals on a wafer. In this process, pure elements are heated in a vacuum chamber until they

begin to evaporate, forming “beams” of evaporated atoms. They are called “beams” because the

high vacuum prevents them from interacting with other particles until they reach the wafer. The

beam of vapor then condenses and combines on a wafer, slowly depositing layers of individual

crystals on the surface. A computer controls the thickness of each crystal layer. When the lattice

structures of the crystals and substrate do not match, unique structures may form, including

structures that confine the movement of electrons, namely quantum dots. In some systems the

chamber must be chilled to a temperature of –196 degrees Celsius. This is accomplished via

liquid nitrogen pumps. Unfortunately, vacuum levels must be significantly higher to deposit

crystals under these conditions. In other systems, wafers are loaded onto rotating platters that are

heated to several hundred degrees Celsius. The quantum dots formed through MBE lend

themselves to quantum cryptography and quantum computation. However, the cost of this

process is high and the positioning of the dots is random and cannot be controlled. Another

process that can create individual quantum dots is electron beam lithography. This process uses a

beam of electrons to etch a pattern onto a semiconductor chip, similar to the process used in

photolithography, and then deposits conducting material on top. Usually, the pattern is an array

of holes, where quantum dots will be formed. By applying voltage, the electrons can be confined,

resulting in a quantum dot. This process allows for control over the positioning of individual

quantum dots. However, the machinery required for this process is quite expensive and the

process itself is very time consuming. MBE and EBL are both costly and high maintenance

processes. In order to mass-produce quantum dots, scientists use a process called colloidal

synthesis. The reason this process for this is its low cost and low toxicity. It can also occur at

standard temperature and pressure, which means that no vacuum or extreme temperatures are
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required for this method of fabrication. (Nanoscienceworks) Pure elements, usually from groups

two and four of the periodic table, are dispersed in solution and come together to form quantum

dots. The solution ensures that the dots do not clump together and form bulk material. This

process is also favored because it allows scientists to control the size of the quantum dots. Their

size is proportional to how long the quantum dots remain in the solution. Controlling the size

allows scientists to engineer the properties of the dots because the size of the dot affects the

amount of energy required to cross the bandgap.

Quantum dots have many applications in optics such as in semiconductor lasers or light

emitting diodes (LEDs). Semiconductor lasers are key components in technological products

requiring optical scanning such as compact disk players and laser printers. Lasers function by

amplifying light inside an optical cavity before allowing the light to exit the laser in a

concentrated beam. The light bounces around the optical cavity, passing through a gain medium

that has optical amplifying properties. To amplify the light, a pumping mechanism supplies

energy to the gain medium in order to achieve the stimulated emission required to form a beam

of coherent light. Coherent light is a beam where each particle has the same wavelength and is

aligned in the same way, making the light very powerful. Prior to the 1970s, lasers only

used bulk materials in the gain medium, but with the discovery of nanostructures, scientists

began considering lasers that take advantage of quantum properties. Beginning in the 1980s,

researchers predicted that lasers using quantum dots as their principle gain medium would

operate more efficiently than conventional semiconductor lasers. (Loyola, 1999) Today's

quantum dot lasers are capable of operating at high speeds and efficiencies. The use of quantum

dots in the gain medium lowers the threshold current required to activate the laser, reducing the

amount of power consumed by operating the laser. Quantum dot lasers also have high
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adjustability because scientists can manipulate the wavelength that the laser emits by changing

the size of the quantum dots used in the active layer. In 2004, researchers in Japan developed a

quantum dot laser that operates at 10 gigabits per second (Fujitsu 2004). This laser can operate

without fluctuations in performance at temperatures from 20 degrees Celsius to 70 degrees

Celsius. Previous semiconductor lasers, called strained quantum-well lasers, experienced sharp

drops in output at elevated temperatures, requiring input of a coolant. Thus, the development of

quantum dot lasers reduced the impact that temperature had on the performance of the laser. A

drawback to the quantum dot laser, however, is that all the dots used in the gain medium must be

of high quality and uniform size or else the medium will act like bulk material, causing the laser

to lose efficiency.

Because quantum dots are able to generate light efficiently at specific wavelengths, they

may very well be the basis for next generation light bulbs. Special LEDs coated with quantum

dots have been found to be more efficient and emit up to 60% more light than conventional

LEDs. (Sandia Corporation – quantum dots as a new approach to solid-state lighting) In order to

produce white light, conventional semiconductor LEDs must contain a carefully prepared

mixture of red, blue, and green emitting materials. Such mixtures are costly to make and cannot

compete with conventional fluorescent lighting. Conventional fluorescent lights emit UV

radiation that has wavelength of 400 nanometers that is absorbed by a coating of phosphor,

which then emits visible white light. However, the phosphors cannot efficiently absorb radiation

at that wavelength. Quantum dot nanophosphors in LEDs work in a way similar to that

of traditional phosphor coatings, but unlike the conventional phosphor layer, scientists can

engineer quantum dots to efficiently absorb any wavelength of light depending on their size.

Utilizing chemical changes that change the size of the dots, it is possible for a single quantum dot
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to emit multiple colors. The dots used in LEDs will be engineered to absorb the 400 nanometer

wavelength light and emit light in the visible spectrum. Scientists can also increase the intensity

of light emitted by increasing the concentration of quantum dots in the coating around the

LED. One drawback is that when the quantum dots are made to coat the LED, they tend to clump

together, losing their light emitting properties. In order to prevent this, they must be bonded

to the "backbone" of the encapsulating polymer.

One of the more exciting applications of quantum dots is the fabrication of super

efficient solar cells. The world's oil resources are running out and scientists have been searching

for efficient alternative energy sources. Solar cells are relatively easy to maintain and are

environmentally friendly. However, conventional solar cells are expensive and can only use 30%

of the sunlight that reaches the cells. This is due to the fact that conventional solar cells can only

absorb certain wavelengths of the suns's energy, with the rest lost as heat. By using quantum

dots, it is possible to raise the theoretical yield of a solar cell by almost 30%. Quantum dots can

have their bandgaps altered, allowing researchers to tune their absorptive properties to optimum

efficiency. It has been established that quantum dots with larger bandgaps will produce greater

output voltage toward electricity generation, and that dots with smaller bandgaps will produce

less voltage but more current towards electricity generation. (EvidentTech - Quantum Dot Solar

Cells) The bandgap that produces the best solar energy conversion is what researchers are

striving for. In addition to having tunable bandgaps, quantum dots are also more flexible in form.

Quantum dots produced by colloidal synthesis are suspended in solution, making it easier to

mold them into any form. Quantum dots also have the advantage of being more stable and

longer-lasting than standard photovoltaic cells. They can be made with protective shells and do
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not need to be replaced as often as conventional solar cells. Super efficient solar cells using

quantum dots may be the solution to the world's energy crisis.

Another application of quantum dots is the quantum computer. Conventional computers

process information in terms of binary bits. The information is transferred via transistors, which

can be "on" or "off", representing a 1 or a 0. A quantum computer would utilize quantum bits,

sometimes called "qubits". Quantum theory states that it is possible for objects like atoms and

electrons to exist in two states at the same time. (Chang, 2001) Quantum bits would be able to

process all on and off combinations simultaneously. Quantum dots can act like the transistors of

a normal computer, each dot defining a single qubit. Each dot can be a 1 or a 0, based on its

electrons. Electrons have a "spin" of either up or down, which corresponds to a 1 or a 0. So far,

researchers have been able to identify the spin of two qubits linked together by analyzing the

flow of electricity through the dots. (Chang, 2001) One obstacle that still needs to be overcome is

scaling such devices up to workable computers. Continuing research will also aim to control the

spins of each dot, not just to detect them.

Another important application of quantum dots is in biomedical imaging. Conventional

techniques use organic dyes and MRI scans to locate tumors when diagnosing and removing

diseased tissue. There are several disadvantages to these techniques. The light emitted by organic

dyes is not very bright and the dyes degrade quickly. Surgeons often must stop in the middle of

an operation, get another MRI scan done, and then proceed with the operation. The properties of

quantum dots can solve these problems. It is possible to inject a person with specially prepared

quantum dots that attach themselves to specific types of cells, for instance diseased cells. This is

sometimes accomplished by having macrophages deliver the dots to the diseased area. Once the

dots attach themselves to the cells, doctors can shine infrared light on the person and the dots in
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the affected area will emit visible light. Due to their high quantum yield, the dots will emit a

bright light. Their lifetimes are also orders of magnitude longer than conventional dyes. (Weiss,

2005) With quantum dot dyes, doctors will not have to suspend operations to get more MRI

scans. Quantum dot dyes can also be used to study biological processes in healthy cells. Minor

drawbacks include the irregular blinking of quantum dots and the toxicity of the elements used to

make quantum dot dyes.

Quantum dots have the potential to revolutionize many fields in modern science and

technology. As nanostructures, they have optical properties that bulk materials cannot replicate.

Although research is still being conducted in methods of fabrication and applications, quantum

dots have already demonstrated substantial success and efficiency.

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References

Chang, A (2001).Kondo effect in an artificial quantum dot molecule. Science. 293

Electron beam lithography. (2005). Retrieved Jul. 6, 2007, from Wikipedia: the Free

Encyclopedia Web site: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_beam_lithography.

Evident Technologies, (2005). Quantum dots explained. Retrieved Jul. 6, 2007, from Evident

Technologies Web site: http://www.evidenttech.com/qdot-definition/quantum-dot-

about.php.

(2004, September 10th). Fujitsu, University of Tokyo Develop World's First 10Gbps Quantum

Dot Laser Featuring Breakthrough Temperature-Independent Output. Retrieved July 10,

2007, from Fujitsu Ltd. Web site:

http://www.fujitsu.com/global/news/pr/archives/month/2004/20040910-01.html

Molecular beam epitaxy. (2005). Retrieved Jul. 6, 2007, from Wikipedia: the Free

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http://www.nanoscienceworks.org/nanopedia/quantum-dot

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encyclopedia Web site: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_dot.

(1999, September). Quantum Dot Lasers. Retrieved July 10, 2007, from Chapter 5: Quantum Dot

Lasers Web site: http://www.wtec.org/loyola/nano/05_04.htm

(2003, July 14th). Sandia researchers use quantum dots as a new approach to solid-state lighting.

Retrieved July 11, 2007, from Sandia National Laboratories Web site:

http://www.sandia.gov/news-center/news-releases/2003/elect-semi-sensors/quantum.html

Weiss, P. (2006, June 3). Quantum Dot Leap: Tapping tiny crystals’ inexplicable light harvesting
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talent. Science News. Vol. 169, No. 22.