Industrial Instrumentation and

Measurements

Pressure
Measurements

Dr Rosdiazli Ibrahim
Electrical & Electronics Engineering Programme
Universiti Teknologi Petronas
22.03.027
Email: nordiss@petronas.com.my
Tel: 05-368 7821

EEB5223/EAB4223 Industrial Automation & Control Systems Topic 1.3 Pressure- 1

 Learning
Learning Outcomes
Outcomes Assessment
Assessment Criteria
Criteria
To achieve the following Learning Outcomes: Assessment criteria:
• Have knowledge and understanding of the various process To demonstrate student has achieved the learning
industry instruments, the concept of measurements, outcomes
calibration and configuration requirements and their
applications. • Describe the measuring principles, calibration and
configuration requirements of different process
• Be able to design and develop a control loop consisting the industry instruments and their applications.
process instruments, based on a prescribed requirement. • Design and develop a control loop using the relevant
. instruments to meet specifications

Process
Process ,, Industrial
Industrial Instrumentation
Instrumentation &
& Measurement
Measurement
Assessment criteria: Lab experiences Assessment criteria:
• Basic concepts of measurements • Calibration, • Signal Conditioning
configuration of
• Process control terminologies transmitters, • P,T,L,F to mA, V
• Calibration controllers, • V-V,V-mA,mA-V
recorders and
other peripherals,
wiring, selection
and installation.
Assessment criteria: Assessment criteria:
• Design and
• Applications and selections of sensors and actuators implementation of • Design and implement a simple control
used in industries a simple control loop.
• Pressure Level Temperature Flow loop.

EEB5223/EAB4223 Industrial Automation & Control Systems Topic 1.3 Pressure- 2

 Definition of Pressure

Pressure and Force are interrelated.

Similarly, force and acceleration, along with mass,
weight, velocity and distance, all depend upon
each other.
9 THE DEFINITION OF PRESSURE
Pressure = Force per unit area
Eg. Consider at sea level, a car of mass=1000kg was dropped from a
height of 9.81metres. It takes 1.0 second for the car to hit the
ground.
The force the car possesses when it strikes the ground is,
Force = mass x acceleration
F=1000kg x 9.81 m.s-2 = 9810 N.
Note: Each wheel of the car would absorbed 25% of the
resistive concrete force.

EEB5223/EAB4223 Industrial Automation & Control Systems Topic 1.3 Pressure- 3

 The Unit Area
• The Unit Area
The unit area refers to the Reference Unit Area, i.e., either a”square
inch” in British System or “square metre” in SI system.
Suppose, the tyre footprint = 0.15 by 0.25 metres.
Hence, Area = 0.0375 sq metres.

The force on the four wheels due to gravity and balanced by the
concrete is 9810 N. Each wheel experiences 2452.5 N of force.
Hence, the pressure on the concrete P=F/A
=2452.5 N / 0.0375 m2 = 65,400 N/m2. [expressed in SI system].

EEB5223/EAB4223 Industrial Automation & Control Systems Topic 1.3 Pressure- 4

 Calculation in BS system
Calculation in BS system:
Weight of the car is 2200 lb.
Note: lb is a unit of force.
The Mass of the car in BS:
The mass = Force / Acceleration = 2200 lb / 32.17 ft.s-2 = 68.39 slugs.
The area of the tyre footprint in sq inches:
Conversion unit: 1 inch = 2.54 cm
Length of tyre footprint = 25 cm/2.54 cm per inch = 9.84 inches.
Width of tyre footprint = 15 cm/2.54 cm per inch = 5.91 inches.
Area of tyre footprint = 58.15 sq inches.

The pressure of each tyre footprint:

P = F / A = (2200 lb / 4 wheels) / 58.15 sq. in.
= 9.46 lb per sq. in.
Note: The unit pound per sq inch is abbreviated “psi”.
In BS system, tyre footprint pressure = 9.46 psi.
In SI system, tyre footprint pressure = 65, 400 N/m2.
EEB5223/EAB4223 Industrial Automation & Control Systems Topic 1.3 Pressure- 5
 Calculation in BS system
The SI system offers standard pressure unit that
is applicable to pressure measurements in fluids
as well.

Definition of pascal: {named after Blaise Pascal}

1 pascal (Pa) = 1 newton / metre2 (N/m2)
However, Pa is still a very small unit. The SI system
decided to use kilopascal (kPa).

1000 pascal (Pa) = 1 kilopascal (kPa).

Conversion unit to BS system:
1 lb / in2 = 6.894757 kPa
1 psi = 6.895 kPa.

EEB5223/EAB4223 Industrial Automation & Control Systems Topic 1.3 Pressure- 6

 Pressure in Fluids

PRESSURE IN FLUIDS (Gases and Liquids)

Pascal discovered two extremely important
characteristics of pressure:
• The liquid level in a mercury barometer rises and falls
not because of the vacuum at the top, but because of
changes in the pressure of atmospheric air.
• A point of pressure in a fluid acts equally in all
directions. Thus pressure can be measured in any
direction if and only if any other acting pressures are
taken into account.

EEB5223/EAB4223 Industrial Automation & Control Systems Topic 1.3 Pressure- 7

 Hydrostatic Pressure

• Hydrostatic Pressure
– Consists of two pressure components: the applied
pressure (Pa) and the elevation or head pressure
(Ph).

Consider the pressure in a 2-metre diameter

water duct. Suppose the pressure applied from a
pump is 100 kPa.
Since pressure acts equally in all directions, the
pressure at a point in the duct = Pa + Ph.

Note: A 1 metre head (or height of water) is the weight of the 1 metre
“column” of water, directly above the duct centreline.
EEB5223/EAB4223 Industrial Automation & Control Systems Topic 1.3 Pressure- 8
 Pressure Head relationship
Pressure Head relationship:
Ph = mg / A, where
m = the mass of 1 metre3 of water at
4oC and 101.325 kPa: In the metric system, 1 metre3 of
water has a mass of 1000kg;
g = acceleration due to gravity at sea level = 9.81 m/s2 ;
A = 1 metre2.
At centre of duct, the head pressure Ph= [1000kg x
9.81m/s2] / 1 metre2 = 9810 Pa.= 9.81 kPa.

EEB5223/EAB4223 Industrial Automation & Control Systems Topic 1.3 Pressure- 9

 Hydrostatic Pressure
Total Pressure in a large water duct (Ptotal = Pa +Ph)

Ph = 0 kPa at
level C
C

Ptotal at level C = Pa +Ph

100 kPa
=100 kPa

1 metre
Ph = 9.81 kPa
at level A
100 kPa 100 kPa

2 metre
Ptotal at level A = Pa +Ph
=109.81 kPa
A

100 kPa
Ph = 19.62 kPa
at level B

B
Ptotal at level B = Pa +Ph
=119.62 kPa

EEB5223/EAB4223 Industrial Automation & Control Systems Topic 1.3 Pressure- 10

 Pressure Measurement

PRESSURE TRANSMITTER PLACEMENT

• When measuring pressure in liquid lines, and

particularly in large diameter lines with heavy
liquids, transmitter placement must take into
account head pressure (Ph) due to vertical height of
the liquid.
• In gas measurement, the vertical height of a
column of gas produces negligible head effect. In
gas measurement, the location of the transmitter is
not important.

EEB5223/EAB4223 Industrial Automation & Control Systems Topic 1.3 Pressure- 11

 Relative Density - RD

Type of fluid:
Involve two concepts: Density , and Specific gravity
(or Relative Density)
Density, ρ = mass / unit volume
Relative density, RD= Density of liquid/Density of
water.
Hence, P = h ρw g RD
Where, P = Pressure in N/m2
h=column height, metres
ρw= density of water
g=gravitational acceleration, 9.81 m/s2
RD = relative density of fluid.

EEB5223/EAB4223 Industrial Automation & Control Systems Topic 1.3 Pressure- 12

 Relative Density - RD
Example:
a. The total height (h) of a fuel oil storage tank is 6.2m
and the Relative Density of the fuel oil is 0.755.
Assume the tank is vented to atmosphere.
Calculate the pressure at the base of the tank when
it is three-quarter full.

Total h = 6.2 m.
Actual h=6.2 x 0.75 = 4.65 m
P = h ρw g RD = 4.65m x 1000kg/m2 x 9.81 m/s2 x 0.755
P = 34,440 N/m2 = 34.4 kPa.

EEB5223/EAB4223 Industrial Automation & Control Systems Topic 1.3 Pressure- 13

 Relative Density - RD
b. If the tank has a diameter of 11.5 m. Calculate
the total force of the fuel oil on the base of the
tank.
F=PxA
F = 34.4kPa x [(11.5/2)2 x 3.1416 m2]
F = 3573 kN

c. Calculate the mass of the tank liquid in kg?

in tonnes?
m = F/g = 3 573 000N / 9.81 m/s2
= 364, 220kg, or 364.22 tonne

EEB5223/EAB4223 Industrial Automation & Control Systems Topic 1.3 Pressure- 14

 Relative Density - RD
d. Calculate the pressure in psi.
Use conversion: 1 psi = 6.895 kPa
34.4 kPa / [6.9 kPa/psi] = 4.99 psi, OR,
P = h ρw g RD
= 4.65 x [100/2.54] in x 0.0361 lb/ in3 x 0.755
= 4.99 psi.
Note: 0.0361 represents density of water (lb/in3).

e. Find the total mass of the fuel oil in pounds:

F =PA
F = 4.99 psi x [(11.5m/(0.0254 m/in)/2)]2x 3.1416
F =4.99 psi x [4.52.8 in/2]2 x 3.1416 = 804,987 lb

EEB5223/EAB4223 Industrial Automation & Control Systems Topic 1.3 Pressure- 15

 Problem example
Example:
A pressure transmitter connected at a position 10 cm above
the bottom of a tank sends 13.57 mA to a computer. The
transmitter was calibrated for a range of 0-200kPa to
produce 4-20 mA.
If the liquid has a specific gravity of 1.26, calculate the level
of the liquid in the tank.
P=h!wgRD
RD=1.26 !w =1000 kg/m2 g=9.81 m/s2
Reading 13.57 mA : (200 kPa * 13.57mA/16mA)-50 kPa=119.62 kPa
h=P/ !wgRD=119.62kPa/(1000 kg/m2 *9.81 m/s2* 1.26)=967.75cm
h actual = h+10 cm = 977.75 cm

EEB5223/EAB4223 Industrial Automation & Control Systems Topic 1.3 Pressure- 16

 Unit Conversion Factors
Pascal (Pa) Bar mbar Torr N/m2

1 Pa 1 1 x 10 -5 0.01 0.0075 1
1 bar 1 x 105 1 1000 750.062 1 x 105

1 mbar 100 0.001 1 0.750 100

1 torr 133.322 0.001333 1.33322 1 133.322

1 N/m2 1 1 x 10 -5 0.01 0.0075 1

1 atmosphere = 101.325 kPa

1 bar = 100 kPa = 0.987 atmospheres
1 torr = 1mm mercury (Hg) = 1.33322 mbar

EEB5223/EAB4223 Industrial Automation & Control Systems Topic 1.3 Pressure- 17

 Gauge, Absolute, Differential
Gauge, Absolute, Differential Pressure

All pressures must be measured relative to some reference.

• Reference zero pressure (0 atm)
• Reference absolute pressure (101.325 kPa)
Consider the following illustration:

Sensing
Element

P1 P2

EEB5223/EAB4223 Industrial Automation & Control Systems Topic 1.3 Pressure- 18

 Gauge, Absolute, Differential
Gauge Pressure:
The pressure being measured using atmospheric pressure at sea level (101.325 kPa) as
the reference point.
0 kPa (gauge) = 101.325 kPa (absolute). Gauge pressure is the unit we
encounter in everyday work (eg., tyre ratings are in gauge pressure). A gauge
pressure device will indicate zero pressure when bled down to atmospheric
pressure (i.e., gauge pressure is referenced to atmospheric pressure at sea
level).

Absolute Pressure:
The total pressure being measured including ambient (atmospheric) pressure.
Absolute pressure starts at 0 kPa (at perfect vacuum).
Absolute pressure = Gauge pressure + Atmospheric pressure.

Note: Majority of pressure measurements in plant are Gauge.

Absolute measurements tend to be used where pressures are below
atmosphere.
EEB5223/EAB4223 Industrial Automation & Control Systems Topic 1.3 Pressure- 19
 Gauge, Absolute, Differential
Gauge Pressure

• Reference absolute pressure (101.325 kPa)

•If P1 is equals to atmospheric pressure (101.325 kPa), the
pressure sense is ‘gauge pressure’ or simply the ‘pressure’.
Consider the following illustration:

Sensing
Element Reference side open to atmospheric pressure
(vented gauge).
Or,
P1 P2 Reference side is sealed to atmospheric
pressure(sealed gauge).

EEB5223/EAB4223 Industrial Automation & Control Systems Topic 1.3 Pressure- 20

 Gauge, Absolute, Differential
Absolute Pressure

• Reference zero absolute pressure (0 atm)

•If P1 is equals to 0 atm (0 kPa), the pressure sense is known as
the ‘absolute pressure’.
Consider the following illustration:

Sensing
Element

Reference side is evacuated and

P1 P2 sealed.

EEB5223/EAB4223 Industrial Automation & Control Systems Topic 1.3 Pressure- 21

 Pressure Detectors

Bourdon tube:
A circular-shaped tube with oval
sections. The pressure of the medium
acts on the inside of the tube. The
outward pressure on the oval cross
section forces it to become rounded.
Because of the curvature of the tube
ring, the bourdon tube then bends as
indicated.
Often used in harsh environments and
high pressures, but can also be used for
very low pressure: the response time is
slower than the bellows or diaphragm.

EEB5223/EAB4223 Industrial Automation & Control Systems Topic 1.3 Pressure- 22

Pressure Detectors

Bellows:
Bellows type elements are constructed
of tubular membranes that are
convoluted around the circumference.
The membrane is attached at one end
to the source and at the other end to
an indicating device or instrument.
The bellows element can provide a
long range of motion in the direction
of the arrow when input pressure is
applied.

EEB5223/EAB4223 Industrial Automation & Control Systems Topic 1.3 Pressure- 23

 Pressure Detectors

Diaphragms:
A diaphragm is a circular-shaped
convoluted membrane that is attached
to the pressure fixture around the
circumference. The pressure medium
is on one side and the indication
medium is on the other. The deflection
that is created by pressure in the
vessel would be in the direction of the
arrow indicated.

EEB5223/EAB4223 Industrial Automation & Control Systems Topic 1.3 Pressure- 24

Pressure Detectors
Capsule:
The capsule consists of two circular
shaped, convoluted membranes
(usually stainless steel) sealed tight
around the circumference. The
pressure acts on the inside of the
capsule and the generated stroke
movement is shown by the direction of
the arrow. This arrangement is not
much different from the diaphragm
except that it expands both ways.
In a D/P transmitter, the capsule is
constructed with two diaphragms
forming an outer case and the inter-
space is filled with viscous oil. Pressure
is applied to both sides and it will
deflect towards the lower pressure.
EEB5223/EAB4223 Industrial Automation & Control Systems Topic 1.3 Pressure- 25
 Pressure Detectors

A strain gauge is a device (a metal

wire with very small diameter)
that is affixed to the surface of the
capsule to detect the force
applied. When force is applied
the overall length of the wire
tends to increase while the cross-
sectional area decreases. The
output of the strain gauge is a
change in resistance that can be
measured by the input circuit of
an amplifier, which then used to
produce a 4-20 mA signal.

Typical DP Transmitter construction

EEB5223/EAB4223 Industrial Automation & Control Systems Topic 1.3 Pressure- 26

 Impact of operating environment
The sensors are widely used in control and instrumentation systems. Their
existence will not normally be evident because the physical construction will be
enclosed inside manufacturers’ packaging. However, each is highly accurate
when used to measure the right quantity and within the rating of the device. The
constraints are not limited to operating pressure. Other factors include
temperature, vapor content and vibration.

Vibration: causes inconsistency of measurement, stress on the

sensitive membranes, diaphragms and linkages that can leads to the
failure of sensor.
Temperature: effects the elasticity of the detectors. An operating
temperature outside the rating of the sensor will create significant
error in the readings.
Vapor content: Vapor density or ambient air density can affect the DP
cell readings. A DP sensor located in a hot and humid room will tend
to read high.

EEB5223/EAB4223 Industrial Automation & Control Systems Topic 1.3 Pressure- 27

 Failures and abnormalities
Over pressure:
Diaphragms and bellows are usually the most sensitive and fast-acting
of all pressure sensors. They are the most prone to fracture on over-
pressuring. Bourdon tubes are very robust and can handle very high
pressures, although when exposed to over-pressure they become
slightly distended and will read high.

Faulty sensing lines:

A cracked or punctured sensing line has the characteristic of
consistently low readings.

Loss of loop electrical power:

The output of DP transmitter will drop to zero or become irrational with
a loss of power supply.
End
End of
of Lecture
Lecture notes
notes on
on Pressure
Pressure Measurement
Measurement

EEB5223/EAB4223 Industrial Automation & Control Systems Topic 1.3 Pressure- 28