BRIAN A.

VASQUEZ, Ψ, RN, MAN

LEADERSHIP
A learned behavior involving
influence and role modelling
that inspires people to achieve
personal and group goals

It is influencing people—by providing purpose,

direction, and motivation—while operating to
accomplish the mission and improving the
organization.
By Stogdill
LEADERSHIP is the
process of influencing the
activity of an organized
group in its effort toward
goal setting and goal
achievement
By Gardner
LEADERSHIP is a process of
influence and persuasion to
example by which an individual
induces a group to take action
that is in accord with the
leader’s purposes or the shared
purposes of all
By Talbott
LEADERSHIP is the
vital ingredient that
transforms a crowd into
a functional and useful
organization
 LEADERSHIP
A process of sustaining an
initiated action
Process of inspiring a group of
constituents to work together
using appropriate means to
achieve a common mission and
common goals
 LEADERSHIP
Is viewed as a dynamic and
interactive process that involves
3 dimentions:
LEADER
FOLLOWERS; and the
SITUATION
Leaders inspire thru personal
trustworthiness & self-
confidence
Leaders communicate a
vision that turns self-interest
into commitment to the job
What are the 3 primary tasks of a
leader?
Set direction: mission, goals,
vision
Build commitment: motivate &
inspire
Confront challenges:
innovation, deal with change,
turbulence, take risks
Leadership
All people have untapped
leadership potential …it is there
in you.
The attempt defines
leadership…it does not have to
be successful
To be a leader you must make a
decision to act
 LEADERS MANAGERS

Motto Do the right thing Do things right

Focus Purposes, People Structures,
and Effectiveness Procedures and
Continuity
Acts Change, Initiate Copy and Keep the
and Innovate “Status Quo”
Concern Human Potentials Human Performance
Outcome Journeys: his eyes Destination: his eyes
on horizon on the bottom line
Asks Why Who, What, When,
Where, How
TYPES OF LEADERSHIP

Formal
Informal
 4 Primary Conditions for
Effective Leadership
 A person receiving a communication
understand it
 The person has the resources to do what is
being asked of him
 The person believes the behavior being
asked of him is consistent with personal
interest and values
 The person believes the request is
consistent with the purposes and values of
the organization
LEADERSHIP
THEORIES
GREAT MAN THEORY
Leaders are born and not made.
(Aristocrats)
Great leaders will arise when
there is a great need. (Jesus,
Moses, Mohammed, and
Buddha)
GREAT MAN THEORY
Certain people are
born to lead and that
others are to be led
Aristotelian
Philosophy
GREAT MAN THEORY
Application:
An effective nurse
leader in one situation
will be an effective
leader in any situation
GREAT MAN THEORY
Downside:
Does not give
opportunity for others
to become leaders
(Political Dynasty)
 Mainly Based from the Great Man Theory

TRAIT THEORY continued....

People are born with inherited
traits.
Some traits are particularly suited
to leadership.
People who make good leaders
have the right (or sufficient)
combination of traits.
 Mainly Based from the Great Man Theory

TRAIT THEORY continued....

Traits though inherited
can be obtained thru
learning and
experience
 Mainly Based from the Great Man Theory

TRAIT THEORY continued....

Four primary traits by which leaders could succeed or 'derail':
 Emotional stability and composure: Calm, confident and
predictable, particularly when under stress.
 Admitting error: Owning up to mistakes, rather than
putting energy into covering up.
 Good interpersonal skills: Able to communicate and
persuade others without resort to negative or coercive
tactics.
 Intellectual breadth: Able to understand a wide range of
areas, rather than having a narrow (and narrow-minded)
area of expertise.
 Mainly Based from the Great Man Theory

TRAIT THEORY continued....

Other Common Traits
Initiative
Creative
Has Integrity
Persuasive
Participative
 Mainly Based from the Great Man Theory

TRAIT THEORY continued....

Problem
 Definition of characters are
overlapping
 Not mutually exclusive and not clear
which traits are the most important
 Avoids environmental influences and
situational factors
 Mainly Based from the Great Man Theory

TRAIT THEORY continued....

21 Qualities 6. Courage 16. Responsibility
7. Discernment 17. Security
of a Leader
8. Focus 18. Self-Discipline
(John 9. Generosity 19. Servanthood
Maxwell) 10. Initiative 20. Teachability
1. Character 11. Listening 21. Vision
2. Charisma 12. Passion
3. Commitment 13. Positive Attitude
4. Communication 14. Problem Solving
5. Competence 15. Relationship
 Mainly Based from the Great Man Theory

TRAIT THEORY continued....

Basis for most
LEADERSHIP
theories in mid
1940’s
BEHAVIORAL THEORIES
Leadership is best understood in
terms of actions taken in the
conduct of leading
Monitoring employees
work
Providing clarification on
ambiguous issues
 3 Types of Leadership Behavior
(University of Michigan Research)
Task Oriented
Relationship
Oriented
Participative
Rensis Likert’s
Activity No. 1
1. Identify and explain the 3 types
of variable in the organization,
and provide an example.
2. Identify and explain the 4
types of management systems,
and provide an example.
Robert Blake and Jane Mouton
 2 critical dimensions of leadership:
 Concern for people
 Concern for production
 9x9 managerial grid:
 1.1 Impoverished Management
 9.1 Authority Obedience
 5.5 Organization Man Management
 1.9 Country Club Management
 9.9 Team Management
Robert Blake and Jane Mouton
Impoverished
Management
Exertion of minimum effort
to get required work done is
appropriate to sustain
organization membership
Robert Blake and Jane Mouton
Authority Obedience
Efficiency in operations results
from arranging conditions of
work in such a way that
human elements interfere to a
minimum degree
Robert Blake and Jane Mouton
Organization Man
Management
Adequate organization
performance is possible through
balancing necessity to get out
work with maintaining morale of
people at a satisfactory level
Robert Blake and Jane Mouton
Country Club Management
Thoughtful attention to needs
of people for satisfying
relationship leads to a
comfortable, friendly
organization atmosphere and
work tempo
Robert Blake and Jane Mouton
Team Management
Work accomplishment is from
committed people:
independence through a
common stake in organization
purpose leads to relationships
of trust and respect
LEADERSHIP
STYLES
(Kurt Lewin)
 Leadership style is the manner and
approach of providing direction,
implementing plans, and motivating
people. Kurt Lewin (1939) led a group of
researchers to identify different styles of
leadership. This early study has been
very influential and established three
major leadership styles. The three major
styles of leadership are (U.S. Army
Handbook, 1973):
1. Authoritarian or autocratic
2. Participative or democratic
3. Delegative or Free Reign
LEADERSHIP STYLES
 AUTOCRATIC Other names:
1. Authoritarian
DEMOCRATIC 2. Directive

LAISSEZ-FAIRE
Other names:
1. Participative
2. Consultative Other names:
1. Nondirective
2. Permissive
3. Ultra-liberal
4. Free reign
What are the key differences in the
3 leadership styles?
Democratic leader moves the
group toward its goals
Autocratic leader moves the
group toward the leader’s goals
Laissez-faire leader makes no
attempt to move the group
 Comparison of Authoritarian,
Democratic, & Laissez-Faire
Authoritar.Democrat. Laissez-F
Degree of
freedom
Little Moderate Much
Degree of control
High Moderate None
Decsision making
By leader Leader& Group or
group no one
Leader activity level
High High Minimal
Assumption of
Responsibility Leader Shared Abdicated
Output of group
High& High & Variable-
good qual. creative Poor?
SITUATIONAL THEORY
Leadership Styles or
Behaviors that are
effective in one
situation may not be
effective in a different
situation.
SITUATIONAL THEORY
 Traits required of a LEADER
depends on the demand of
the situation
 One may be a leader in a
certain situation and a
follower in another situation
SITUATIONAL THEORY
 Focuses on the Combination
of factors
 People
 Task
 Situation
 Other factors
 SITUATIONAL THEORY
 4 Basic Elements of a Situation
 Organization
 Climate
 Emotional State, Perceptions, and Feelings
shared by members of the system (formal,
relaxed, defensive, cautious, accepting,
trusting, etc.)
 Characteristics of the Leader
 Characteristics of the Follower
 SITUATIONAL THEORY
 5 Kinds of Situational Leader
 Natural Leaders
 Does not present self as a leader but is already
presumed to be
 Charismatic Leaders
 Seen as a hero, unquestioned acceptance
 Rational Leaders
 Thinks of the Pros and Cons
 Consensus Leaders
 Majority decides, socially influenced
 Leadership by Force
 Leadership by coercion; Authoritarian
 Considered a subset of Situational Theory

FIEDLER’S CONTINGENCY THEORY

There must be a
group before
there can be a
leader
Considered a subset of Situational Leadership

FIEDLER’S CONTINGENCY THEORY

Refuting the leadership
style theory, he argued
that a leadership style will
be effective or ineffective
depending on the
situation
 Considered a subset of Situational Theory

FIEDLER’S CONTINGENCY THEORY

He identified 3 aspects of
aspects of situation that
structures the leaders role
These 3 Classifications also
measures the kind of power and
influence the group gives to its
leader
 Considered a subset of Situational Theory

FIEDLER’S CONTINGENCY THEORY

1. Relationship between the leader
and group members
 Involves the amount of
confidence and loyalty the
followers have to the leader
 Assessed by:
 Group Atmospheric Scale; and
 Least Preferred Co-Worker Score
 Considered a subset of Situational Theory

FIEDLER’S CONTINGENCY THEORY

 Implication
 Although LPC Score are
difficult to interpret and its
hard to say what it measures
 High Scorers – relationship
oriented
 Low Scorers – task oriented
 Considered a subset of Situational Theory

FIEDLER’S CONTINGENCY THEORY

2. Task Structure

 Degree to which
details of the group
assignment are
programmed
 Considered a subset of Situational Theory

FIEDLER’S CONTINGENCY THEORY

4 Criteria to Determine the Degree of Task Structure
 Goal Clarity – goals are understood by the
followers
 Extent to which a decision can be verified
– knowing who is responsible for what
 Multiplicity of goal paths – number of
solutions
 Specificity of Solutions – number of
correct answers
 Considered a subset of Situational Theory

FIEDLER’S CONTINGENCY THEORY

3. Positional Power of the
Leader
 Refers to the authority inherent
in a position like the power to
use rewards and punishments
 Great power does not yield
better group performance
Considered a subset of Situational Leadership

Path-Goal Theory
Path – behavior the leader exhibit
Goal – is the desired outcome
Styles
1. Directive – provides specific guidelines
2. Supportive – concern and support for
subordinates
3. Participative – solicit ideas and suggestions
4. Achievement oriented – sets challenging
goals, emphasize improvement in work
performance, and encourage high level of
goal attainment
 Considered a subset of Situational Theory
THEORY OF HERSEY, BLANCHARD
& JOHNSON: LIFE CYCLE THEORY
 Focuses on the combination oftask
behaviors and relationship behavior
○ TASK BEHAVIOR- characterized by
endeavoring to establish well-defined
patterns of organization, channels of
communication, ways of getting jobs done.
○ RELATIONSHIP BEHAVIOR – providing
socio-economic support, actively listening,
“psychological strokes”
 Considered a subset of Situational Theory

Reddin’s Three Dimensional Theory

4 Basic Leadership Styles
Orientation Low Task High Task

Low
Relationship
Separated Dedicated
High
Relationship
Related Integrated
Motives
 a disposition/tendency/desire/aspiration
 a drive or impulse that arouses interest
and sustains and regulates behavior
A need or desire that incite or direct a
person’s action
Motivation
 explains why people behave the way they
do.
 is an inner state that causes an individual
to behave in a way that ensures the
accomplishment of some goals
 a force within the individual that influences
strength and direction of behavior: the
willingness and the ability to work
Intrinsic vs Extrinsic Motivation
 Intrinsic
 Within the person, related to the
person’s aspirations, goals and
expectations in life
 Extrinsic
 Coming from the environment;
external rewards (promotion, salary,
benefits, etc.)
 (Types of Motivation)
I. Achievement Motivation
 the drive to pursue and attain goals
 the drive to achieve objectives and
advance up the ladder of success
 accomplishment is seen as
important primarily for its own sake,
not just for the rewards that goes
with it
 Achievement-oriented people:

work harder when their supervisors

provide detailed evaluation of their work
select others to work with who are
technically capable with little regard for
personal feelings
enjoy getting things done and move on
to the next objective
II. Affiliation motivation
• the drive to relate to people on a social basis
Affiliation-motivated people:
 work better if they are complimented for
their favorable attitude and cooperation
 tend to select friends to surround them
 receive inner satisfaction from being with
friends and they want the job freedom to
develop the relation.
 III. Competence motivation

• the drive to be
good at something,
allowing the person
to perform high-
quality work
Competence-motivated people:
seek job mastery, take pride in
developing and using their problem-
solving skills, and strive to be creative
when confronted with obstacles;
are learning individuals who profit
from their experiences and continually
improve their skills
Competence-motivated people:
Are more responsive to quality-oriented
goals
Expect high-quality work from their
associates
May become impatient if people working
with them do poor work
Ask, “How well can I do the job?”
 IV. Power motivation
• the drive to influence people
and
change situations

• once the power is obtained, it

may
be used either constructively or
destructively
Power-motivated people:
 wish to create an impact on
the organization and are
willing to risks to do so.
 make excellent managers if
their drives are for
institutional power instead of
personal power
 POWER
is the ability to influence others and events
Sources of Power:
personal power
legitimate power
expert power
reward power
coercive power
 Personal Power
also called referent, charismatic
power or power of personality
the ability of leaders to develop
followers
from the strength of their own
personalities
people follow them because they
want to
leaders have the personal magnetism,
an air of confidence, and belief in
objectives that attract and hold
followers
A specific type of Personal Power

Charismatic power

the leader’s ability

to attract and
inspire followers
 Legitimate power
 also known as position power
and
official power
 comes from higher authority
 gives leaders the power to
control
resources, reward and punish
others
Expert power
authority of knowledge
coming from specialized
learning
the power arising from a
person’s
knowledge of and information
about a complex situation
it depends on education,
training and experience
 Reward power
the capacity to control the
items that are valued by
others
it arises from an individual’s
ability to give pay raises,
recommend someone
for promotion or transfer
 Coercive power
 the capacity to punish another
uses fear as a motivator, a
very powerful force in inducing
action
managers with coercive
power can threaten an
employee’s security
 Source of Commitment Compliance Resistance
Leaders
Influence
Likelyis IfPossible
request is If Possible
request is for
Referent If request
believed to be something that will
believed to be
Power important to leader
unimportant to
leader
bring harm to
leader
If request If request is
Expert Likelyis Possible
persuasive but
If Possible
arrogant and
persuasive and insulting or
subordinates are
Power subordinates share
leader’s task goals
apathetic about task subordinates
oppose task goal
goals
Possible Likely If arrogant
Possible
Legitimate If request is polite If request or order
demands are made
and very is seen as
Power appropriate legitimate
or request does not
appear proper

Reward Possible If Likely

used in a Possible
If used in
If used in a subtle
mechanical, manipulative,
Power and personal way
impersonal way arrogant way

Coercive Very Likely Possible Likely

If used in helpful If used in hostile or
Power nonpunitive way manipulative way
CONTENT vs
PROCESS
MOTIVATION
 CONTENT
MOTIVATIONAL
THEORIES
Types:
PRIMARY
NEEDS

 basic physical needs

 basic requirements of life and are
important for survival of the human
race
Types:
SECONDARY
NEEDS

 social and psychological needs

 are strongly conditioned by
experience
 •Maslow's Hierarchy of
MASLOW’S
HIERARCHY
Self-Actualization
Needs states that weandmust
OF NEEDS fulfillment

Esteem and
satisfy each needstatus in turn,
Belonging and
starting
Safety and
with
Social the first,
which deals with the most
Security

Physiological
obvious needs for survival
Needs

itself.
 Spiritual

Cognitive

Emotional

Physical
 ALDERFER’S
E-R-G
Growth MODEL

Modified Need
Relatedness
Hierarchy
based from
Existence Maslow’s
(Clayton Alderfer)
 Work itself
Achievement
Motivational Possibility of growth
Factors Responsibility

Advancement
Recognition
Hertzberg’s
Status
Two-Factor
Relations with supervisors
Peer relations Model
Relations with subordinates
Quality of supervision
Maintenance
Factors
Company policy and
administration
Job security

Working conditions
Pay
 Work itself Growth
Self-Actualization Achievement
and Fulfillment Possibility of growth
Responsibility

Esteem and Status Advancement

Recognition

Status
Relatedness
Belonging and Relations with supervisors
social needs Peer relations
Relations with subordinates
Quality supervision

Safety and Company policy and

security administration Existence
Job security

Physiological Working conditions

needs Pay

Maslow Hertzberg Alderfer

David Mc CLELLAND’S BASIC NEED THEORY or LEARNED NEEDS
THEORY
 Identified 3 basic needs that all people have:
○ Need for achievement; Need for power; and Need
for affiliation
A. NEEDS FOR ACHIEVEMENT:
 Is a strong desire to overcome challenge, to
excel, to grow, to advance or to succeed.
 Individuals set moderate but achievable goals
 Take personal responsibility for finding
solution to problems, have need for
competence and strong desire for making
contribution and do quality work.
 People are eager for responsibility and desire
concrete feedback
 Mc CLELLAND’SBASIC NEED THEORY
or LEARNED NEEDS THEORY
B. NEED FOR POWER
 Is the desire to be in control and to get others to
behave contrary to what they would naturally do.
 They spend much time thinking how to gain
authority, dominate decisions and change other’s
behavior and control the environment around them.
 They are demanding and manipulative in dealing
with peers and subordinates.

C. NEED FOR AFFILIATION

 A desire to work in a pleasant environment and the
desire for friendly close relationship
 A desire to relate to people
 Avoid decisions that oppose the group
 Chris Argyris’ PSYCHOLOGICAL
ENERGY THEORY
 Believers that people will expert
more energy to meet their own
needs than those of the org.
 The greater the difference between
the individual goal from the
organizations goal will lead to
DISSATISFACTION, TENSION &
CONFLICT.
 PROCESS
MOTIVATIONAL
THEORIES
 SKINNER’S OPERANT CONDITIONING:

 BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION: Focuses on

encouraging appropriate behavior as a result of
the consequences of that behavior.

 Giving different levels of rewards

depending on the quality of
performance.
 Telling workers what they are doing
wrong.
 Punishing workers privately.

 Always giving rewards and

punishments when earned.
 OPERANT CONDITIONING
REINFORCEMENT – INCREASE
IN BEHAVIOR
PUNISHMENT – DECREASE IN
BEHAVIOR
POSITIVE – ADD SOMETHING
NEGATIVE – DEDUCT SOMETHING
 APPETITIVE – PLEASANT
 AVERSIVE – UNPLEASANT
 The Consequence Matrix
Type Supply Remove
Appetitive Positive Time-Out or
Reinforcement Negative
Increase in Punishment
Behavior Decrease in
Behavior

Aversive Positive Negative

Punishment Reinforcement
Decrease in Increase in
Behavior Behavior
 Arousal-Activation Theory
 Peter Lang developed an information-
processing model of imagery, which
presumes that an image is a functionally
organized, definite set of propositions
stored by the brain. It is not simply a
stimulus in a person's head to which one
responds.
 This image has two main types of
statements:
1. response propositions: describe the
imager's response to that scenario.
2. stimulus propositions: describes the
content of the scenario to be imagined.
 Arousal-Activation Theory
 Lang further states that an image
contains a motor program which
holds instructions for the imager
on how to respond to the image.
Hence, the image is a template for
overt responding. So modifying
either overt behavior or vivid
imagery will result in a change in
the other (Suinn, 1990).
 Equity Theory
 Equity Theory attempts to explain
relational satisfaction in terms of
perceptions of fair/unfair distributions
of resources within interpersonal
relationships. It was first developed in
1962 by John Stacy Adams, a workplace
and behavioral psychologist, who
asserted that employees seek to
maintain equity between the inputs
that they bring to a job and the
outcomes that they receive from it
against the perceived inputs and
outcomes of others (Adams, 1965).
 Equity Theory
 Equity theory proposes that individuals
who perceive themselves as either
under-rewarded or over-rewarded will
experience distress, and that this
distress leads to efforts to restore
equity within the relationship. It
focuses on determining whether the
distribution of resources is fair to both
relational partners. Equity is measured
by comparing the ratios of
contributions and benefits of each
person within the relationship
6.9. Equity theory
TENSION
Staff member may feel that less
work is required because some
may be getting the same
reward with less effort
Staff may feel that more work/
effort are required if new they
recognize that others are
working at a higher
level & receiving additional
rewards.
 Victor VROOM’S EXPECTANCY THEORY
 BY Victor Vroom (1960)
 States that motivation depends on how
much people want something and their
estimate probability of getting it.
 VALENCE – strength of a person’s
preference to something. (-) or (+) rating
 Ex. If the person doesn’t want something
= (-)
 If the person is indifferent = 0
 If the person desire something = (+)
 VROOM’S EXPECTANCY THEORY
 EXPECTANCY – probability of getting
something through specific actions
 Ex. If persons believe action will yield
an outcome = 1
 If without probability is perceived = 0
 Implication:
 High V + high E = high/ increase
motivation
 Low V + high E = low/decrease motivation
 One is high other is low = moderate
INTERACTION
THEORIES
TRANSACTIONAL LEADERSHIP
 People are motivated by reward and
punishment.
 Social systems work best with a clear chain
of command.
 When people have agreed to do a job, a part
of the deal is that they cede all authority to
their manager.
 The prime purpose of a subordinate is to do
what their manager tells them to do.
TRANSFORMATIONAL THEORY
Influencing major changes in the
attitudes and assumptions of
organization members and building
commitment for major changes in the
organization’s objectives and strategies.
Influence = Empowerment
(making leaders)
 Components of Transformational
Leadership
 Idealized Influence – role model
 Inspirational Motivation – motivates and
inspire
 Intellectual Stimulation – stimulates
innovation and creativity
 Individualized Consideration – pay
special attention to individual needs of
followers for advancement and growth
(coaching and mentoring)
 Considered a subset of Transformational
Leadership
CHARISMATIC LEADERSHIP
Charisma is an
inspirational quality that
some leaders posses that
makes others feel in their
presence
 Considered a subset of Transformational
Leadership
CHARISMATIC LEADERSHIP
Followers perception that leaders
possesses a divinely inspired gift
There is unquestionable trust and
respect in the leader
Idolize or worship the leader
Willing OBEDIENCE among
followers
 Considered a subset of Transformational
Leadership
CHARISMATIC LEADERSHIP
Inspires others by obtaining
emotional commitment from
followers and by arousing
strong feelings of
LOYALTY
ENTHUSIASM
 Considered a subset of Transformational
Leadership
CHARISMATIC LEADERSHIP
PROBLEM
So elusive
Some may sense it
while others do not
 Considered a subset of Transformational
Leadership
CHARISMATIC LEADERSHIP
Characteristics:
 Strong convictions in their own
beliefs
 High self-confidence
 Need of power
 Communicate high expectations to
followers and express confidence in
them
 Considered a subset of Transformational
Leadership
SERVANT STYLE OF LEADERSHIP

 ROBERT GREENLEAF=
conceptualized the idea of the
“servant” as “leader”
 SERVANT LEADER
 Putting service first, takes holistic
approach, shares decision making
and building community
 Considered a subset of Transformational
Leadership
SERVANT STYLE OF LEADERSHIP
 10
CHARACTERISTIC
S OF A SERVANT-
LEADER  8. building community
 1. listening  9. commitment to the
 2. empathy growth of people
 3. healing  10. stewardship - one
 4. awareness who is actively
 5. persuasion
concerned with the
direction of the affair
 6. conceptualization of the org.
 7. foresight
An integration
of leadership
theories.
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE
EFFECTIVE LEADER
 VISION – the mental image of a desirable and possible
future state.
 INFLUENCE – an informal strategy to gain
cooperation without exercising formal authority.
 COMMUNICATION SKILLS
 TRUST FROM EMPLOYEES
 POWER – ability to influence or exert actions that
result in changes in attitudes or behaviors of followers.
Other Leadership Styles
Bureaucratic – the leader
presumes the group is externally
motivated and does not trust self or
others to make decisions. Instead,
the leader relies on organizational
rules and policies taking an
inflexible approach.
Other Leadership Styles
Connective – the leader
promotes collaboration and
teamwork within the
organization and among
other organizations in the
community.
Other Leadership Styles
Shared – leader assumes that a
professional work force contains
many leaders. No one person is
considered to have knowledge
or ability more than any others.
In effect, all are leaders.
 
End of
Prelim
I. MANAGERIAL COMMUNICATION

Perhaps the most basic

motivation strategy for
managers is simply to
communicate with
e m p l o y e e s
II. THEORY X and THEORY Y by Douglas McGregor

Another strategy a manager

can use in motivating
employees involves the
assumptions he or she
possesses about the nature of
p e o p l e
 Theory X Assumptions
 Work is inherently
distasteful to most people.
 Most people are not
ambitious, have little
desire for responsibility
and prefer to be directed.
 Most people have little
capacity to creativity, in
solving organizational
problems.
 Motivation occurs only at
the physiological and
safety levels.
Theory Y Assumptions
 Work is as natural as play if the
conditions are favorable.
 Self-control is often
indispensable in achieving
organizational goals.
 The capacity for creativity in
solving organizational
problems is widely distributed
in the population.
 Motivation occurs at the social,
esteem and self-actualization
levels, as well as physiological
and security levels.
Theory X Assumptions
 The average human being has an inherent dislike of work and
will avoid it if he can.
 Because of their dislike for work, most people must be
controlled and threatened before they will work hard
enough.
 The average human prefers to be directed, dislikes
responsibility, is unambiguous, and desires security above
everything.
 These assumptions lie behind most organizational principles
today, and give rise both to "tough" management with
punishments and tight controls, and "soft" management
which aims at harmony at work.
 Both these are "wrong" because man needs more than
financial rewards at work, he also needs some deeper higher
order motivation - the opportunity to fulfill himself.
 Theory X managers do not give their staff this opportunity so
that the employees behave in the expected fashion.
 Theory Y Assumptions
 The expenditure of physical and mental effort in work is as
natural as play or rest.
 Control and punishment are not the only ways to make
people work, man will direct himself if he is committed to
the aims of the organization.
 If a job is satisfying, then the result will be commitment to
the organization.
 The average man learns, under proper conditions, not only to
accept but to seek responsibility.
 Imagination, creativity, and ingenuity can be used to solve
work problems by a large number of employees.
 Under the conditions of modern industrial life, the
intellectual potentialities of the average man are only
partially utilized.
 THEORY Z by William Ouchi
Theory Z is the name applied to the so-called "Japanese
Management" style popularized during the Asian economic
boom of the 1980s. Theory Z focused on increasing employee
loyalty to the company by providing a job for life with a
strong focus on the well-being of the employee, both on and
off the job. Theory Z management tends to promote stable
employment, high productivity, and high employee morale
and satisfaction.
Characteristics of the Theory Z
 Long-term employment and job security
 Implicit, informal control with explicit, formalized measures
 Slow evaluation and promotion
 Moderately specialized careers
 Concern for a total person, including their family
 III. JOB DESIGN

To motivate organization members

relate to the design of jobs
organization members perform
 III. JOB DESIGN

• JOB ROTATION entails moving

individuals from job to job or not
requiring the individuals to perform only
one specialized job over the long run
• JOB ENLARGEMENT advocates that jobs
become more satisfying as the number
of operations a worker performs
i n c r e a s e s
MANAGEMENT
 Is a process by which a cooperative group directs
actions towards common goals. It involves techniques
by which a distinguished group of people coordinates
the services of people.
 Roles of Manager:
 Interpersonal role
 Information role
 Decisional role
LEVELS OF MANAGEMENT
 FIRST-LEVEL MANAGERS – manage the work of non-
managerial staff and the day-to-day activities of a
specific work group.
 MIDDLE-LEVEL MANAGERS – supervises several
first-level managers and serve as liaisons between then
and upper-level managers.
 UPPER-LEVEL MANAGERS – are organizational
executives who are responsible for establishing goals
and strategic plans for the organization.
EFFECTIVE MANAGEMENT
FUNCTIONS:
 LEADERSHIP – providing guidance, direction, and motivation.
 PLANNING – Assessing a situation, establishing goals, developing a
plan of action.
 ORGANIZING – establishment of the formal structure of authority
through which work subdivisions are arranged, defined, and
coordinated for the defined objective.
 COMMUNICATION – an interactive process of information transfer
from person to person that is essential in any relationship. Verbal
communication is influenced by the speaker’s tone, inflection, and
volume, while nonverbal messages are expressed through gestures,
posture, facial expressions, and eye contact.
 DIRECTING – the continuous task of making decisions and
implementing those decisions the work of others.
 CONTROLLING/MONITORING – includes evaluating and rewarding
others for their work.
EFFECTIVE MANAGEMENT
FUNCTIONS:
 RECOGNITION – positive feedback, promotion, salary change.
 DELEGATION – entrusting others with tasks they are competent
to perform.
 DEVELOPMENT – staff education.
 ADVOCACY – representing staff and clients.
 COORDINATION – ensuring that interrrelated parts of the work
are completed.
 STAFFING – ensuring that appropriate staff is available to do the
work.
 REPORTING – keeping those to whom you are responsible
informed.
 BUDGETING – ensuring the availability of needed resources to
meet the needs.
 PROBLEM SOLVING – conflict resolution
The NURSE Manager: CHARACTERISTICS
 Result-oriented or outcome-oriented.
 Good problem-solving and team building methods.
 A gatekeepers as they interpret and enforce unit and
hospital policy procedures and mandates.
 Self-awareness and good evaluative skills.
 Use of a combination of leadership styles.
Communication Skills and
Competencies of a Manager
 Critical thinking
 Communication
 Networking
 Managing resources
 Enhancing employee performance
 Team building
 Evaluating effectiveness and efficiency
 Delegating
 Clinical and organizational expertise
 Flexibility
 Collaboration
 Coordination
 Change agent
 Staff Development
SCOPE OF PRACTICE of a NURSE
MANAGER
 Excellence in the clinical practice of nursing and
delivery of care.
 Organization, coordination, and control of staff, fiscal,
and other resources
 Institutional/organizational compliance with
standards of care
 Strategic planning
 Facilitating cooperative and collaborative relationships
with all health care providers to ensure effective client
care.
ROLES OF THE NURSE MANAGER
 CONFLICT MANAGEMENT
 ASSERTIVENESS – includes goal-setting, consistent
implementation of action toward the goal, and the
ability to evaluate the response and make adjustments
as necessary.
 ADVOCACY – to plead on the behalf of another
 SUPERVISORY – with the authority from the employer
to hire, transfer, suspend, assign, discipline, and
terminate employees.
MANAGEMENT BY OBJECTIVES
AND BY EXCEPTION
 MANAGEMENT BY OBJECTIVES (MBO) – a managerial
method that focuses on identification of objectives and
measuring results. The objectives represent expectations .
Individuals, small groups, or the entire organization may
use MBO. Objectives are identified and written. After they
are implemented, the results are evaluated. This evaluation
is then used to identify new objectives. MBO is a method
that can involve all levels of staff.
 MANAGEMENT BY EXCEPTION (MBE) – a management
approach that focuses in responding only when a problem
occurs. This approach tends to focus more on negative
feedback, and is generally not an effective managerial
method.
NURSING MANAGEMENT PROCESS
 PLANNING
 ORGANIZING
 STAFFING
 DIRECTING
 CONTROLLING
PLANNING PROCESS
 It is the deliberate determination of a course of action
to achieve the specified goals. The process involves
deciding what needs to be done, when, by whom, and
why.
 Decision-making requires you to know where you are
going, which makes planning critical.
PLANNING PROCESS
PROJECT SELECTION ELEMENTS OF A PLAN
1. Purpose and objectives
2. Supportive data:
advantages and
DEVELOPMENT OF A disadvantages.
SOLUTION 3. Budget and allocation of
resources
4. Timeline
5. Strategies/interventions
IMPLEMENTATION OF 6. Identification of
THE PLAN responsibilities
7. Implementation
8. Monitoring and evaluation
MONITORING AND
9. Follow-up
CORRECTING THE
PLAN
TYPES OF PLANS
 STRATEGIC – focuses on long-range operations and
clarifies the organization’s beliefs and values.
 OPERATIONAL – focuses on the day-to-day
operations of an organization.
 CONTINGENCY – developed for specific problems
that may occur, so that the organization can be
proactive.
 PROJECT – some action or series of actions that is
needed to solve a problem.
BUDGETING
 Budget – is a detailed fiscal plan for carrying out the
mission, values, and goals of the organization over a
determined period of time.
 Fiscal planning – is the formal plan for managing the
financial resources. The balance of expenditures and
revenues are projected during a specific period of time,
usually annually.
TYPES OF BUDGETS
 CAPITAL
 Long-range budgets, usually 3 years, that involve physical
changes and the purchase of major capital items.
 OPERATING
 Short-term budgets (annually) that allocate funds for day to
day activities of organization.
 CASH
 Budget that accounts for the monthly expenditures and
receipts to the department and/or organization.
 PERSONNEL
 Budget that allocates expenses related to personnel. (salary)
BUDGETARY PROCESS
1. PLANNING
- Gathering information related to goals and objectives, setting
priorities, conducting an environmental assessment, and
identifying financial objectives.
2. DEVELOPMENT OF THE BUDGET
- Collecting and analyzing data from past budgets, allocating amounts
based ob priority, and approving the operational and capital
budgets.
3. IMPLEMENTATION AND MONITORING
- Analyzing variances and adjustments during the fiscal period,
negotiating and revising the budget as necessary, allocating
departmental and cash budgets.
4. EVALUATION
- Obtaining performance reports and analyzing efficiency.
DECISION-MAKING PROCESS
Traditional Problem- Nursing Process Managerial Decision-
solving Process making process
Identify the problem Assess Set objectives

Gather data to analyze Problem identification

causes and consequences Nursing Diagnosis
Explore alternative Plan Search for alternative
solutions
Evaluate alternatives Evaluate alternatives

Select the appropriate Choose

solution
Implement the solution Implement Implement

Evaluate the results Evaluate Follow-up

ORGANIZING
 ORGANIZATION – a group of people working together to achieve a
shared goal.
 ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE – describes the design for working
relationships, methods of communication, decision-making process,
and designation of responsibilities within the organization.
 ORGANIZATIONAL FUNCTION – the way that interactions usually
occur within an organization.
 ORGANIZATIONAL CHART – a schematic representation of the
structure of the organization, including positions, departments,
functions, and reporting relationships. It defines the lines of authority,
responsibility, and accountability for goal attainment.
 CHAIN OF COMMAND – identifies the path of authority and
accountability within an organization.
 ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE – refers to the prevailing attitudes,
feelings, relational patterns, communication, and interactions that
influence the operations within an organization.
ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE
 Line Authority: a chain command considered to be the more traditional
approach.
 Staff Authority: staff members that function in an advisory capacity use their
influence for change, rather than forced changed through the use of control of
staff. This can be a difficult position but has become more common in
workplace.
 Span of control: refers to the number of people a group or individual
supervises.
 Vertical Structure: establishes a line authority and uses centralized decision-
making.
 Horizontal structure: the departmentalization related to functions; uses
decentralized decision-making.
 Division of labor: jobs, and who does which activities.
 Hierarchy : organization of staff-based authority.
 Rules and Regulations: policies and procedures are of particular importance, as
one mission statements, and the goals and objectives of an organization.
 Technical skills: required by staff.
 MEDICAL
CENTER CHIEF

DEANS OF
CHIEF NURSE AFFILIATING
SCHOOLS

ASSISTANT CHIEF CINICAL

NURSE COORDINATOR

SUPERVISING SUPERVISING SUPERVISING SUPERVISNG NURSE CLINICAL

NURSES NURSES NURSES INSTRUCTOR INSTRUCTORS
CPD-ER CLINICAL AREAS DR-CR-CSR IN-SERVICE R/S

SENIOR NURSES NURSE

SENIOR NURSES SENIOR NURSES
CPD-ER INSTRUCTORS

NURSING &
MIDWIFERY
STAFF NURSES STAFF NURSES STAFF NURSES TRAINEES
AFFILIATES

NURSING
MIDWIVES MIDWIVES
ATTENDANTS

NURSING INSTITUTIONAL NURSING

ATTENDANTS WORKERS ATTENDANTS

INSTITUTIONAL INSTITUTIONAL
WORKERS WORKERS
TYPES OF ORGANIZATIONAL
APPROACHES
 Centralized – gives a staff development department the responsibility
for staff orientation and education throughout the hospital, whereas a
decentralized approach gives the responsibility to the units divisions.
 Decentralized – the division of responsibility gives nurse mangers more
independence in the management of their units.
 Matrix – a type of centralized structure that designates dual authorities
that are responsible for product and function-related tasks. The focus
of a product manager in the health care setting is outcome-based,
client care. The functional manager handles the provision of care and
actions required to produce the outcome, or product.
 Hybrid – describes the structure that operates with the characteristics
of different types of structure.
 Self-governance – involves the participatory management of managers
and staff members. The delineation of responsibility, decision-making,
and accountability are shared. Successful for enactment of a
professional practice model.
ORGANIZATIONAL PROCESS
Integral Parts of the Organizational Process:
1. Mission Statement – clarifies the organization’s
unique purpose.
2. Vision Statement – clarifies the future direction the
organization will take.
3. Philosophy – describes the organization’s beliefs and
values.
4. Goals and Objectives – indicate how the
organization plans to attain its mission and
philosophy.
NURSING CARE DELIVERY SYSTEMS
FUNCTIONAL CARE – a
task-oriented approach,
focusing on jobs to be done.
The nurse in charge assigns
tasks.
 FUNCTIONAL
NURSING
HEAD
NURSE

Medication Housekeeper
Nurse (Linen Attendant)
Nursing
Treatment Attendant
Nurse (Hygienic Care)

PATIENTS
NURSING CARE DELIVERY SYSTEMS
TEAM NURSING – is lead
by an RN, a team of two or
three people provide total
care for a group of clients
during an 8- or 12-hour
shift.
 CHARGE
NURSE

TEAM TEAM
NURSING LEADER

NURSING
STAFF
PATIENTS
NURSING CARE DELIVERY SYSTEMS
TOTAL CLIENT CARE/CASE
METHOD – requires that one
nurse be responsible for all of the
care for one client during a shift.
Though not a common practice
anymore, this method is currently
utilized by student nurses
 CASE/TOTAL
CARE NURSING
HEAD
NURSE

Staff Nurse

PATIENT
NURSING CARE DELIVERY SYSTEMS
PRIMARY NURSING – one
nurse is responsible for total
care of clients throughout
hospitalization. Associates
provide care on some shifts with
the primary nurse coordinating
the client’s care.
PRIMARY
NURSING

Head Hospital and Community

Physician
Nurse Resources

Primary
Nurse PATIENTS

Secondary/Asssitant Secondary/Assistant Secondary/Assistant

Nurse PM Nurse Night Nurse Relief
STAFFING
Refers to the required number and mix of nursing
personnel in a nursing unit within a 24-hour period.

Purpose: To provide a safe and quality care

Determinants of Staffing:
1. Number of personnel
2. Mix of personnel
3. Number of patients
4. Type of care delivery system
5. Classification of patients
Types of Staffing
 CENTRALIZED
 Assignment of personnel is made by the nurse manager
at the organizational level.

 DECENTRALIZED
 Allocation of nursing personnel at the unit level.
 Scheduling Methods
Scheduling Method Advantages
Permanent Fewer health problems, less
absenteeism, grater job satisfaction,
can plan social life.
Flextime Improves weekend coverage and
reduces turnover, more time to relax
on consecutive days off.
Alternating/Rotating This type of scheduling could be
advantageous if entire work group or
teams that are compatible are rotated.
Block/Cyclic Reduces fatigue, sick time reduced,
schedue is known in advance, staff
treated fairly, decreases floating,
improves continuity of care
Variable Census determines staffing, less need
to call in unscheduled staff.
Disadvantages
Day shift most desired, evening
and night shifts staffed mostly
with new graduates
12-hour shifts correlated with
greater fatigue
Increased stress and physical
complaints, reduced work
quality, higher turnover ,
rotation of personnel is
disruptive to work groups.
Somewhat inflexible, rigid
schedule
Dependent on a valid, reliable
client-classification system
DIRECTING
 It is the issuance of assignment, orders and
instructions that permit the worker to understand
what is expected of him or her and the guidance and
overseeing of the worker so that he or she can
contribute effectively and efficiently to the attainment
of organizational goals
DELEGATION
 An act to enhance the efficiency and effectiveness f
managerial or clinical nursing practice. It involves
empowering others to perform a task or assume a role for
the shared goal of the group.

THREE FACTORS IMPACT THE DELEGATION PROCESS:

1. Responsibility is the obligation to perform a given task of
function.
2. Authority refers to the decision-making power.
3. Accountability relates to the acceptance of responsibility
for the outcome of a duty.
PRINCIPLES OF DELEGATION
 Select the right person to whom the job is to be
delegated.
 Delegate both interesting and uninteresting tasks.
 Provide subordinates with enough time to learn.
 Delegate gradually.
 Delegate in advance.
 Consult before delegating.
 Avoid gaps and overlaps.
DELEGATION PROCESS
1. IDENTIFY AND DEFINE WHAT NEEDS TO BE
DELEGATED
2. SELECT THE BEST PERSON FOR THE JOB/ACIVITY
3. COMMUNICATE THE JOB/ACTIVITY
4. ACCEPT THE DELEGATED TASK
5. PROVIDE FEEDBACK AND MONITORING
What cannot be delegated?
 Overall responsibility, authority and accountability for
satisfactory completion of all activities in the unit.
 Authority to sing one’s name.
 Evaluating the staff and/or taking necessary corrective
or disciplinary action.
 Responsibility for maintaining morale or the
opportunity to say a few words of encouragement to
the staff especially the new ones.
 Jobs that are too technical and those that involve trust
and confidence.
MOTIVATION
 Strategies to develop and support motivation:
 Be aware of the staff member’s needs, goals, personal style,
and situation.
 Identify mutual goals.
 Encourage self-determination.
 Reward positive attitude and desired behaviors.
 Communicate directly, openly, and honestly.
 Support mentorship and persons that serve as role models to
others.
 Acknowledge persons with the desire to make a difference.
 Promote an environment of growth, caring, and commitment.
THEORIES EXPLAINING MOTIVATION
 Maslow’s Heirarchy of Needs
 Aldefer’s Modified-Need Heirarchy Theory – similar with
Maslow’s but emphasizes on the three levels of needs:
EXISTENCE NEEDS, RELATEDNESS NEEDS, and
GROWTH NEEDS.
 Argyri’s Psychological Energy Theory – focuses on the
individual goals. The more these goals are more in tune
with the organization’s goals, the more the staff member
will be motivated.
 McClelland’s Basic Needs Theory – focuses on three basic
needs that motivate people: ACHIEVEMENT, POWER,
AND AFFILIATION. If work responsibilities are matched
with these needs, than staff will be more motivated.
THEORIES EXPLAINING MOTIVATION
 Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory – emphasizes the need for
achievement, growth, responsibility, advancement, recognition, and
the job itself. Dissatisfaction with work occurs when the employee
think he or she is treated unfairly—in pay, benefits, job security, and
supervision. These are hygiene factors that do not motivate, which
create discontent, and do not make work more interesting. If a job is
interesting, hygiene factors are better tolerated.
 McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y
 Theory X supports the assumption that people avoid work because they
dislike it and are unmotivated. This results in the need for managers to
use direction and control, leading to management that is far from
positive. Staff members really want security
 Theory Y makes the opposite assumption: people like work and are self-
directed. According to the theory, work itself is rewarding; therefore
the management style that uses positive feedback and encourages staff
participation and creativity will be more successful.
 Skinner’s Positive Reinforcement Theory (Behavior Modification) –
focuses on behavior and the use of positive reinforcement to affect
behavior.
COMMUNICATION
THREE BROAD TYPES OF
CONFLICTS
 INTRAPERSONAL – occurs within an individual in
situations involving a choice between mutually
exclusive alternatives.
 INTERPERSONAL – involves two or more persons who
do not share the same perspectives, views, or attitude
in a given situation.
 INTRAGROUP OR ORGANIZATIONAL – exists
between two or more persons within a group or
organization.
CONFLICT MANAGEMENT
 SOURCES OF CONFLICT:
 Individual issues and values
 Organizational communication
 Organizational values
 Lack of staff recognition and participation
 Financial instability
 SOME TYPICAL WAYS OF COPING WITH CONFLICT:
 Avoidance/Withdrawing
 Compromise
 Confrontation
 Collaboration
 Competition
 Accommodation
 Negotiation
 STRATEGIES FOR CONFLICT MANAGEMENT
WIN-LOSE COMPETING One party seeks to win, regardless of the cost to the others involved.
This type of win-lose conflict resolution leaves the losing party angry
STRATEGIES and frustrated and is used by managers only when a quick or
unpopular decision needs to be made.

WIN-LOSE COMPROMISING Compromise is often seen as a ‘win-lose’ strategy since each person
gives up something. It is appropriate, however, when an agreement is
STRATEGIES needed and the goals of both parties are at odds. Compromising can
be a potential lose-lose strategy when either or both parties perceive
they have given up more than the other; therefore, both parties must
agree upon relinquishing something of equal value in order for this
strategy to be effective.

LOSE-WIN ACCOMMODATING One party sacrifices a belief or goal, wanting the other party to win.

STRATEGIES
LOSE-LOSE AVOIDING OR Both parties are ware of the conflict, but choose not to acknowledge it
and/or attempt to resolve the conflict
STRATEGIES WITHDRAWING
LOSE-LOSE SMOOTHING OR An approach where one party tries to reduce emotions without
addressing the problem itself. It is often used to preserve or maintain a
STRATEGIES SUPPRESSING peaceful work environment, but involves sacrificing personal goals or
values; however, the problem still exists.

WIN-WIN COLLABORATING A cooperative approach where both parties work together to establish
a common goal.
STRATEGIES
CONTROLLING
 A process of checking to make sure that things are
done as intended. It is a process by which managers
attempt to see that actual activities conform to
planned activities.
PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL
 Done to assess the effectiveness and efficiency of care
delivered to clients
THE PROCESS
1. Data collection
2. Preparation
3. Conducting the appraisal
4. Follow-up
COMMON ERRORS OF
PERFORMANCE EVALUATION
 Halo Error – results when the evaluator allows one trait to
influence evaluation of other characteristics.
 Horns Error – the opposite of halo error and occurs when
the evaluator is overly critical.
 Contrast Error – occurs when the evaluator rates the
employee opposite from the way they perceive their own
abilities and traits.
 Recency Error – the tendency to base the performance
appraisal on recent events rather than on performance over
the entire evaluation period.
 Central Tendency Error – occurs when the evaluator is
reluctant to give a true appraisal, rating all employees as
average.
 A SMALL
TRUTH TO
MAKE LIFE 100%
Then what makes 100%?

Is it Money? ... NO!!!!!

[M+O+N+E+Y =
13+15+14+5+25 = 72%]

Leadership? ... NO!!!!

[L+E+A+D+E+R+S+H+I+P =
12+5+1+4+5+18+19+9+16 = 89%]
 Every problem has a
solution, only if we
perhaps change our
attitude.
To go to the top, to that
100%
what we really need to go
further...a bit more...
 ATTITUDE
A+T+T+I+T+U+D+E
1+20+20+9+20+21+4+5 = 100%

It is OUR ATTITUDE towards

Life and Work that makes OUR
Life 100%
“Of all the creations of the earth,
only human beings can change
their patterns. Man alone is the
architect of his destiny. Human
beings, by changing the inner
attitudes of their minds, can
change the outer aspects of
their lives.”
William James
DAGHANG
SALAMAT