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Introduction:
The optical frequency range is extremely large when compared with radio
frequency range. As such a light beam can be used for communication purposes.
A light beam can carry a more information to far off places.
Optical fibre is a long thin transparent dielectric material made up of
glass (or) plastic, which curries electromagnetic waves from one end of the fibre
to other end of the fibre by means of multiple total internal reflection. Thus
optical fibres works as wave guides in optical communication systems.
An optical fiber consists of inner
cylinder made of glass (or) plastic. It is
called the core. The core carries light and
it is surrounded by a second cylindrical
shell of glass (or) plastic. It is called the
cladding. The reference index of core
(n1) is slightly larger than the refractive
index of cladding (n2) the typical
refractive index values are n1=1.48 and n2=1.46. the core diameter ≈ 50μm. The
fiber from the surrounding atmosphere. Many fibres are grouped to form a
cable.
Let the refractive index of core is n1 and that of cladding is n2 such that
n1>n2. A light ray AO is incident at ‘O’ on the end face of core and this ray
makes and angle ‘θ0’ with the axis of the fibre the ray AO is refracted into the
core and passes along OB. Let θ1 is the angle of refraction in the core. The ray
I B.Tech CSE/ME/EEE/ECE Applied Physics Unit-VII 1
OB is incident on the core-cladding interface with an angle of incidence 90- θ1.
suppose this angle of incidence is equal to critical angle [θc= 90-θ1] then the
angle of refraction is cladding is 900, so that the ray passes along the
interference between core and cladding. If the angle of incidence for a ray is
less than θ0 (at end face) then angle of refraction is less than θ1 and angle of
incidence at the core-cladding interface is larger than critical angle so the ray
suffers total internal reflection at the core-cladding interface.
If a ray falls at the end face of the optical fiber at an angle greater than θ o then
the ray does not undergo total internal reflection at the core – gladding interface,
if enters into cladding material and get lost in the cladding material. Thus for
light rays to propagate through the optical fiber by total internal reflection they
must be incident on the fiber core with in the angle θ o this angle in known as
acceptance angle.
Acceptance angle is defined as the maximum angle of incidence at the end
face of an optical fiber for which the ray can be propagated in the optical fiber,
This angle in also called acceptance core half angle.
A core obtained by rotating a ray at the end face of the optical fiber around
the fiber axis with acceptance angle is known as acceptance cone.
Applying Snell’s law at B and ‘O’.
n1 n1
sin θ o = sin (90- θ c ) = cos θ c → 4
n0 n0
If 'θ i ' is the angle of incidence of an incident ray at the end of optical
fiber, then the ray will propagate if θi < θ o (or) sin θ i < sin θ o (or) sin θi <
n12 − n2 2 (or) sin θi < NA is the condition for propagation of light within
the fiber.
The causes of attenuation are numerous, some of them are wave guide
structure, material compositions, material dispersion, micro bending losses,
mode coupling radiation losses, etc., the attenuation is function of wave length
and material. Optical communication wave lengths are 0.8, 1.3 and 1.55 μm.
The attenuation is mainly due to (i) absorption and (ii) Scattering.
(ii) Scattering losses: The molten glass, when drawn into very thin fibre
under proper tension causes submicroscopic variation in the density of
glass in the fibre takes place. The do pants added to glass to vary the
refractive index also leads to inhomogenities in the fiber the
microscopic variation of density and inhomogenities act as reflecting
and refracting facets, these
scatter a small portion of light
passing through the glass.
Thus the scattering losses. If
the size of density fluctuating
regions is of order of D/10 or
less than they act as point
source scattering center. This
kind of scattering is known as
Raleigh scattering. The
scattering losses are
4
proportional to 1/ D . On
these bases the scattering
losses at a wave length of 1.3
μm is about 0.3dB/Km where
as at a wave length of 0.7 μm
it is about 5dB/Km. the Raleigh scattering losses for silica is shown in
fig.
(iii) Bending losses: In a bent fibre, there is loss in power of the transmitted
signal called bending losses. Einstein explained the bending losses.
According to Einstein’s theory of relativity, the part of the ray that enter
into cladding will travel faster. The energy associated with this part of
the ray is lost. This loss can be represented by absorption coefficient ( α
).
−R
α = C exp Where C is Constant
Rc
r
R = radius of curvature of fibre bend and Rc = NA 2
( )
r = radius of the fibre. The bends with radius of curvature is of magnitude
of the fibre radius gives rises to heavy losses.
Principle of holography:
It can be explained in two ways
(1) Recording of hologram
(2) Reconstructing the image
1. Recording of hologram:
Fig shows the arrangement for recording a hologram. First of all the laser
beam is divided in to two parts ( part-1 and part-2). The second beam
illuminates the object the diffracted
(or) scattered beam fall on the
photographic plate P The first beam
(reference beam) is reflected on the
photographic plate by means of a
plane mirror M. In this way the film
is exposed simultaneously to
reference beam and diffracted
beam. Since both the beams belong
to same laser. The beams interfere
on the plate. Thus we obtain a
complicated interference pattern on
the film. This film is called hologram the hologram consist of numerous points
making up the mage on photographic plate.
The hologram given no hint regarding the image embedded in it but it
contains information not only about the amplitude but also about the phase of
the object.
Fig shows the arrangement to reconstruct the image from the hologram. This is
a reverse process of making hologram.
The hologram is illuminated by a single beam from laser the beam is
identical to the reference beam used during the formation of hologram
The hologram now act as a complex grating and diffracts the light so in the
direct direction of the beam we get zero order giving no information the reason
is that the laser beam passed
though the hologram has only
amplitude of the waves
originally diffracted by the
object when the hologram was
made. The object wave fronts
have thus been reconstructed.
Here it is important to note
that one of the diffracted
beams forms real image while
another forms a virtual image
as shown in the fig. By
moving the position of our eye, we can see different perspective of the object in
the image. The real image can be photographed without the aid of lenses just by
placing a light sensitive medium at the position of real image. The virtual image
has all the characteristics of the object.
Applications of holography
A hologram can be made not only with the light waves of a laser, but also with
sound waves and other waves in the electromagnetic spectrum. Holograms
made with –rays or ultraviolet light can record images of particles smaller than
visible light, such as atoms or molecules. Microwave holography detects images
deep in space by recording the radio waves they emit. Acoustical holography
uses sound waves to see through solid objects.