Basics Ele 01

Electronics Index Page
CLICK HERE FOR INDEX PAGE
V. Ryan © 2002-2007
The section is aimed at introducing pupils to basic concepts of electronics. You will find that a range
of basic electronics is covered including; component symbols, power sources, diodes, capacitors,
transistors, LEDs and many more. Click on the aspect of electronics outlined below to view the
information sheets.
COMPONENTS / SYMBOLS
1. Electronic Components and Symbols - 1
2. Electronic Components and Symbols - 2
3.Electronic Components and Symbols - 3
4. Symbols Summary Sheet
5. Lesson Starter - Electronic Components
6. Lesson Starter - Electronic Tools and Equipment
7. Basic Electronics - Wordsearch Exercise
COMPONENT AND CIRCUIT DETAILS

1. Batteries and LEDs
2. Button Batteries / Coin Cells - Simple Circuits
3. Switches -1
4. Switches - 2
5. Switches - 3
6. Incandescent Lamps (Bulbs) 1
7. Incandescent Lamps (Bulbs) 2
8. Series Circuits
9. Circuits in Parallel
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10. A Series / Parallel Circuit

11. Basic Circuit using Crocodile Technology®
Circuit Simulation Software
12. The Diode
13. Capacitors
14. Resistors
15. Using Crocodile Technology® to Test the
Relationship between Resistors and Capacitors
16. Test Instruments
17. Light Dependent Resistors
18. The Preset Resistor
19.Making a Light / Dark Sensor
20. Sequence Drawing - Light/Dark Sensor
21. LDR Examination Question - 1
22. LDR Examination Question - 2
23 LDR Examination Question - 3
24. Sensor Question - LDR
25. Switches, Diode, Transistor and General Circuit Questions
26. The Thermistor
27. Information Regarding Thermistor Circuits and Darlington Pairs
28. A Typical Temperature Sensor
29. Potential Dividers
30. SI Units and OHM's Law
31. Resistors - Questions
32. Relays and Practical Circuits
33. The Basics on Transistors
34. Transistors - Darlington Pairs
35. Transistor Exam Question
36. Transistor Breadboard Project
37. Transistor Darlington Pair Breadboard Project
38. Transistor Formulas and Calculations
39. Dual Transistor Multivibrator Circuit
40. Lesson Starter - Astable Transistor Circuit (Multivibrator)
41. Examination Questions : Dual Transistor Multivibrator Circuits
42. The Thyristor
43. Steady Hand Game - Thyristor Circuit
44. Breadboards
45. Examination Questions - Jigs

CONTROL SYSTEMS
1. Analogue / Digital Systems
2. Control Systems
3. Control Systems - An Example
MODULAR ELECTRONICS
1. Modular Electronics
2. Modular Electronics - Control Studio® -1
DIGITAL ELECTRONICS AND LOGIC GATES

1. Digital Electronics and Logic Circuits - 1
2. Digital Electronics and Logic Gates - 2 (Role of Transistors)
3. Basic Logic Gates and Logic Tables
4. Alternative representations of Logic Tables
5. Example Logic Circuit - 1
6. Example Logic Circuit - 2
7. The 4081B Integrated Circuit (AND gate) - a Practical Example.
8. The 4081B - Circuit Design
9. Digital Logic Circuit Exam Question 1
12. AND Gate Sample Question

13. AND Gate Sample Answer
12. The Binary System
13. Integrated Circuits - 1


THE 555 INTEGRATED CIRCUIT

1. The 555 Integrated Circuit (Timer) - a Simple Explanation
2. The 555 IC as an ASTABLE Circuit
3. The 555 IC as a MONOSTABLE Circuit
4. 555 MONOSTABLE Examples
5. The MONOSTABLE Circuit in more detail
6. Animation 1 - 555 Timer Circuit - Frames Created by Crocodile Technology 3D
7. Animation 2 - 555 Timer Circuit - Frames Created by Crocodile Technology 3D
8. Monostable Timer Examination Questions - 1

9. Monostable Timer Examination Questions - 2
10. ASTABLE 555 Breadboard Project

11. 555 ASTABLE Examples
12. The ASTABLE Circuit in more detail
THE 741 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER

1. The Operation Amplifier used as an Amplifier - a Simple Explanation
2. The 741 Operational Amplifier used as an Amplifier with Sensors
3. The 741 Operational Amplifier - an introduction
4. Inverting and Non-inverting 741 Amplifiers
5. The 741 Operational Amplifier as a Comparator
6. 741 Operational Amplifier Comparator Examination Questions and Information
THE 4017B DECADE COUNTER

1. How the 4017B decade Counter Works
2. Adding a Motor and a Solenoid to the 4017B Decade Counter
(UNDER CONSTRUCTION)

1. INDIVIDUAL RESEARCH THEME and EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

THEME: RAILWAY TRANSPORT
CONTEXT: OPERATING SYSTEMS
Pupils research the theme as they work through the resources/questions below. They should draw on
all the skills and techniques developed through the Systems and Control course.
*PLEASE NOTE: You may need to use the search facility on the index page of this site to find
information when answering some of the questions*
1. Systems Preparation Questions 2007 - 1

2.Systems Preparation Questions 2007 - 2
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A Design and Technology Site
A DESIGN AND TECHNOLOGY SITE
This website contains numerous information sheets and exercises to enhance the study, understanding
and teaching of DESIGN and TECHNOLOGY.
( CLICK HERE FOR THE WORLD ASSOCIATION OF TECHNOLOGY TEACHERS)
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TECHNOLOGYSTUDENT.COM - SITE SEARCH
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The information sheets cover a wide range and include, the design process, gear systems, electronics, cams,
printed circuit boards, PIC microcontrollers / computer control, key words/phrases, structures, vocational work,
technology and cultures, basic CNC work. They are intended to provide a valuable resource for teachers and
pupils AND they are free. By using this website you are agreeing to abide by the copyright outlined below.
V. Ryan © 2002-2005
CONTACT THE AUTHOR ? - techteacher@teacher.com

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laws and treaties.
Copyright law and other intellectual property laws in many countries protect the rights of the owner/author by
granting to the owner/author a number of exclusive rights. Copying, changing, editing or publishing software/
printouts without the permission of the owner is "copyright infringement," and the law imposes penalties on
infringers. These information sheets can be used by teachers and pupils. They can be printed and used for
educational purposes but must not be edited in any form or placed on other Websites.
COPYRIGHT AND DISCLAIMER

Electronic Components and Symbols - 1
ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS AND SYMBOLS - 1

V. Ryan © 2005
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There are a large number of symbols which represent an equally large range of electronic components. It
is important that you can recognise the more common components and understand what they actually do.
A number of these components are drawn below and it is interesting to note that often there is more than
one symbol representing the same type of component. (Check all your information sheets in the
electronics section for more symbols).
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CLICK HERE FOR MORE COMPONENTS AND SYMBOLS
CLICK HERE FOR ELECTRONICS INDEX PAGE


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CLICK HERE FOR MORE COMPONENTS AND SYMBOLS



V. Ryan © 2005
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Electronic Components
COMPONENT SYMBOLS
V. Ryan © 2002
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There are a large number of symbols which represent an equally large range of electronic
components. It is important that you can recognise the more common components and
understand what they actually do. A number of these components are drawn below and it is
interesting to note that often there is more than one symbol representing the same type of
component. (Check all your information sheets in the electronics section for more symbols).
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Lesson Starter - Electronics
LESSON STARTER - ELECTRONICS

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IDENTIFYING ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS
Below are a number of common electronic components you are likely to use when making circuits.
Underneath each component write the correct name.
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CLICK HERE FOR ANSWERS

Lesson starter - Equipment and Components
LESSON STARTER
EQUIPMENT AND TOOLS FOR CIRCUIT WORK
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Some basic tools / equipment / components you may use when working with circuits are shown below. Name
each tool / piece of equipment / component and explain what they are for.
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Lesson starter - Equipment and Components
CLICK HERE FOR ANSWERS

Basic Electronics - Word Exercise
BASIC ELECTRONICS - WORD EXERCISE

V. Ryan © 2006
Create your own wordsearch to help promote a basic understanding of

electronics - using the following words or your own ‘relevant’ words.
WIRE BUZZER POSITIVE TRANSISTOR

SOLDER APRON DIODE CELL
PCB ELECTRICITY FAULT SAFETY
PLIERS COMPONENTS SAFETY SWITCH
GOGGLES THYRISTOR NEGATIVE CIRCUIT
BATTERY CUTTERS
You will need two colours for this exercise. Write the words seen above in one
colour and add extra letters in another.
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SAMPLE ANSWER
Below is the start of a sample answer to the wordsearch. As a word placed in the
grid is crossed off the list below.
WIRE BUZZER POSITIVE TRANSISTOR

SOLDER APRON DIODE CELL
PCB ELECTRICITY FAULT SAFETY
PLIERS COMPONENTS SAFETY SWITCH
GOGGLES THYRISTOR NEGATIVE CIRCUIT
BATTERY CUTTERS RESISTOR

Try completing the word search started above.
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Batteries and LEDs
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V. Ryan © 2002-05
BATTERIES and LEDs
Many pupils are scared of electronics as they look at the books in the library. These are
often very complex as very few have been written for beginners. This can put off people
from learning about electronics and circuits. Everywhere we look there are examples of
electronics, ranging from a simple radio to a hi-tech digital television. However complex
looking an electronic device may be, they are all based on simple components gathered
together in circuits.
Batteries come in all shapes and sizes.

They store electrical charge and as we all
know when they are put into an electronic
device such as a portable radio, they
provide the power. The usual battery sizes
are seen opposite. These are the type used
in school projects and range from 1.5 volts
to 9 volts.
School projects are powered by batteries
because they are safe, easily bought and
safe.
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Batteries and LEDs
QUESTION
This shows one of the most simple

circuits. When the switch is pressed, the
LED (further information below) lights.
Resistors are used in circuits because
LEDs can be destroyed by voltages over
3 volts. Why do you think the circuit
opposite does not have a resistor to
protect the LED ?
ANSWER
Each battery is 1.5 volts. The two

batteries are connected in ‘series’, they
are both linked positive to negative and
this gives us a total of 3 volts. Therefore,
the LED is safe from damage.
THE LED
Light Emitting Diodes (LED) are very

rugged, they last a very long time and they
are an optical source. (A LIGHT
SOURCE)
LEDs produce red, green, yellow, or
orange light. They are used in a range of
products. Can you name any ?
Infrared LEDs are also available although
light from this type cannot be seen by the
human eye. These are used in security
devices.
LEDs are part of the diode family,
consequently they must be connected the
right way round or current will not pass
through. They are usually protected by a
resistor. (See DIODE information sheet).

Batteries and LEDs
A SELECTION OF THE MOST POPULAR ENLARGED LED - NOTICE THE LONG

COLOURS AND SHORT LEG

Button Batteries/ Coin Cells and Simple Circuits
BUTTON BATTERIES /COIN CELLS AND SIMPLE CIRCUITS

V. Ryan © 2008
A button cell is a very small battery. A good example is the type found in most modern watches.
This type of battery is often used in camcorders as backup batteries. They ensure that the date
and time are held in memory even when the rechargeable batteries are removed. Button batteries
are usually rated at 1.5 volts or 3 volts and consequently they are used in devices that need very
little power. Watches are ideal for this type of battery as well as low power calculators and
hearing aids. Large button batteries are used as backup batteries for the CMOS of computer
systems and ensure that the basic settings in the setup of the computer are held in memory, even
when the computer is switched off.
TYPICAL BUTTON CELL
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The diagram opposite

shows an LED and two
button batteries. When the
legs of the LED are
pressed against the positive
and negative sides of the
batteries the LED lights. If
an ultra bright LED is used
the light is quite intense.
The two coin cells shown

are each 1.5 volts. A
typical LED needs 3 volts
to emit light effectively.
The circuit diagram is shown below. The battery, switch and LED symbols have been included.
Although no switch is used in reality, the switch mimics the two fingers pressing the legs of the
LED together against the batteries.
If each button battery is rated as 1.5 volts, when two are arranged in series as shown in the
diagram below, together they are rated as 3 volts. Putting batteries together in series simply
means adding the voltages together. In this way button batteries can be used to provide higher
voltage outputs.

A simple LED torch can be made by using two sides of compressed polystyrene (high density
polystyrene), two button batteries, an LED and a piece of foam. The polystyrene sides are held
together by double sided tape.
The foam keeps the legs of the LED from touching the terminals of the button batteries. When
the torch is pressed the legs of the LED make contact with the batteries and the LED lights.
The small hand held torch seen below has 4 button batteries each rated at 1.5 volts. This means
that the sum of the batteries is equal to 6 volts. This is enough to allow the bulb to light. Bulbs
were once common in torches but they have been replaced by ultra bright LEDs. LEDs are more
efficient than bulbs, requiring less power and they can last for thousands of hours when in use.
Bulbs on the other hand tend to blow/fail after a relatively short time.

SIMPLE DESIGN SHEET LAYOUT

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Switches
SWITCHES - 1
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Some common switches are shown on this information sheet. Basically switches bring contacts
together in different ways but they do the same switching job.
Typical Switch Symbols
KEY SWITCH
This switch is available in different

forms. They provide limited security as a
key is required to ‘switch’ them on and
off.
PUSH SWITCH
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Switches
These can be ‘push to make’ (push the

switch to allow the circuit to work) or
‘push to break’ (push the switch to turn
off the circuit).
ROCKER SWITCH
This switch is common on many

electrical devices. For example they are
found on computer units for turning them
on and off.
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Switches
SWITCHES - 2
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TOGGLE SWITCH
These are available in miniature and

standard sizes. The advantage of the
toggle switch is that they can be
extended and operated by a lever.
SLIDE SWITCH

Switches
Can be stiff to operate and does not

operate smoothly. Available in a
range of sizes.
REED / MAGNETIC SWITCH

This is a thin glass tube that contains
two thin strips of metal (the reeds).
When a magnet is brought close to
the glass tube, the reeds move
together and make contact and the
switch is turned on. The reeds open
again when the magnet is removed.
Reed switches are common in alarm
systems, for example, in door frames.
When the door is closed the magnet
keeps the switch on. When the door is
opened the alarm system senses the
broken contact and goes off.
The top animation shows the reed

switch with its glass 'surrounding'
tube. The animation below shows the
reed switch with the glass removed so
that the two metal strips can be seen.
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Switches

Switches
SWITCHES - 3
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MICRO-SWITCH
Micro-switches can be very small.
Usually they include a small arm
which when pressed clicks. They are
very useful and can be found on many
machines - used a safety switches. For
example, if the 'lid' of a drilling
machine is opened to change the
pulley speeds, a micro-switch is
released ensuring that all power is
turned off. These switches can be very
useful in school projects
TILT SWITCH

Switches
One of the most common types of tilt

switch uses a ‘blob’ of mercury in a
small tube. When the tube is tilted the
mercury runs down and forms a
bridge across the two contacts turning
the switch on. This type of switch is
used in warning systems that alert
people to an excessive angle of tilt, e.
g. for drivers of farm vehicles.
PRESSURE PAD / SWITCH

This is a soft flexible switch available
in many sizes. It consists of two
flexible conductive foil sheets
separated by a thin felt, paper or foam
layer. If pressure is applied the
conductive surfaces touch and the
switch is ‘on’

Incandescent Lamps (Bulbs) - 1
INCANDESCENT LAMPS (BULBS) - 1

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Bulbs have been used in electronics for along time and they are used in a wide range of circuits.
Almost everyone has used a torch and if you look closely at the light source, it is more than likely that
it is a bulb. In more recent years bulbs have been slowly replaced by LEDs as these are brighter, much
more reliable, cheaper, energy efficient and have a much longer working life. They are also available
in a range of colours. However, bulbs are still popular.
Look closely at a typical torch
bulb. It basically consists of
glass ‘bulb’, inside which is a
filament made from a metal
called tungsten. The glass bulb
holds a gas called Argon or
Nitrogen or Krypton, which
increases the working life of
the filament.
When current passes through

the filament it illuminates
brightly, giving out bright
light.
Some bulbs such as the

example opposite have a screw
thread which means the bulb
can be unscrewed from its
holder and replaced, once the
filament fails.
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The ‘conductor’ at the bottom

of this example bulb carries
the current, allowing it to pass
through the filament.
A number of symbols can be
used to represent a bulb. Three
typical symbols are shown
opposite. These are often seen
in examinations and
consequently it is important to
know them.
Two versions of the same circuit are shown below. The conventional circuit diagram (on the left)
shows the filament bulb lighting brightly when the switch is turned on. The current flows through the
filament, causing light to be emitted.
In the pictorial circuit diagram on the right the components are shown as pictures rather than symbols.
This basic circuit has a battery as the electrical ‘source’ and a filament bulb. The bulb is called the
‘load’ as it does all the work in the circuit (ie. it lights).
Crocodile Technology © software is very useful when simulating this type of circuit diagram.


Incandescent Lamps (bulbs) 2
INCANDESCENT LAMPS (BULBS) - 2

V. Ryan © 2005
Filament bulbs are used in many applications in and around the home. Name and sketch
four examples that you have seen. Add a description of each example.
EXAMPLE ANSWER
SKETCH

SKETCH
SKETCH

SKETCH
The two bulbs below look very different. However, they are both composed of a filament, placed
inside an envelope of glass. The glass envelope of each bulb contains a gas. However, one of the bulbs
is used in the house for producing standard light and the other is used in a car head light and is very
bright.
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1. The household bulb is:______________

2. The car headlight bulb is:____________
Explain the differences between bulb ‘A’ and bulb ‘B’. You may wish to search the internet
for scientific / technical information on both bulbs

Series Circuits
SERIES CIRCUITS
V. Ryan © 2005
The circuit opposite

shows three bulbs
placed in series. This is
a called a series circuit.
Current flows through
each of the bulbs in
sequence. Current
flows through bulb A,
then bulb B and finally
bulb C. The more bulbs
that are added, the less
bright they shine. It is
possible to added so
many bulbs that they
do not light at all. This
is due to the resistance
in each bulb. If any of
the bulbs fail, current
cannot flow through
the circuit and the
other components will
not work.
ANOTHER SERIES CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
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Series Circuits
The circuit (right and

left) is another example
of a series circuit.
When the switch is
turned on current flows
through the bulb first,
then the solenoid and
last the motor. This
causes the bulb to light,
the solenoid to be
activated and the
motor’s spindle to
rotate. However, the
more components that
are added in series
means the less current
is available for all.
Eventually, each
component will fail to
work as too much
current is being drained
from the circuit.
QUESTIONS:
1. Draw a simple series circuit and explain how it works.
2. Draw the same components but this time arranged as a ‘parallel’ circuit. How do the two
circuits differ?
3. Is it possible to have a circuit that has some components arranged in parallel whilst others are
arranged in series? If your answer is ‘yes’ draw a circuit that has two bulbs and two motors.
Place the two bulbs in series and the two motors in parallel.
4. What will happen if one of the components fails in a series circuit?

Series Circuits
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Parallel Circuits
PARALLEL CIRCUITS
V. Ryan © 2005
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The circuit below shows three bulbs placed in parallel. This is a parallel circuit. Current can flow through
each of the bulbs without first having to flow through any others. If any of the bulbs fail the others will
still work as current can still flow through the rest of the circuit.
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Parallel Circuits
ANOTHER PARALLEL CIRCUIT
The circuit below is another example of a parallel circuit. When the switch is turned on current flows
through the bulb, solenoid and motor simultaneously. This causes the bulb to light, the solenoid to the
activated and the motors spindle to rotate, all at the same time.
PICTORIAL DRAWING OF THE SAME PARALLEL CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
QUESTIONS:
1. Draw a simple parallel circuit and explain how it works.
2. Draw the same components but this time arranged as a ‘series’ circuit. How do the two circuits differ?
3. What will happen if one of the components fails in a parallel circuit?

Parallel Circuits

Series and Parallel Circuit
A SERIES / PARALLEL CIRCUIT

V. Ryan © 2005
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The circuit below is both series and parallel. If you look closely you will see that the two bulbs are in
series with each other whilst the motors are an parallel. All the components provide a clear path for the
current.
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Series and Parallel Circuit
QUESTIONS:
1. What will happen if one of the motors fails to function? Will the entire circuit fail?
2. Draw another example of a circuit that is both series and parallel.
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SIMPLE CIRCUIT EXERCISE USING CROCODILE

TECHNOLOGY SIMULATION SOFTWARE
- BATTERY, LED AND SWITCH
V. Ryan © 2004
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The circuit seen below can be built using Crocodile Technology® electronics simulation
software. The software allows the circuit designer to build a circuit on the screen of a
computer rather than building a real circuit out of expensive components. It can then be
tested on screen. Furthermore, the software allows ‘pictorial’ representations of the
components to be used rather than circuit symbols. This makes the circuit look more
realistic.
By now you should have a good

understanding of LEDs and a
limited knowledge of resistors.
Build the circuit seen opposite using
simulation software.
When the switch is closed the LED
lights.
1. If the battery is 9 volts, what role has the resistor?
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2. Using simulation software, build the circuit seen

opposite. This time do not use the pictorial setting,
use actual electronic symbols.
When the switch is closed the LED should light.
3. Build the same circuit but this time remove the

resistor. When the switch is closed the LED and the
switch will explode. Why is the LED destroyed?
FURTHER EXERCISES:
1. Build a circuit using simulation software - composed of a 9 volt supply, a switch, a 380
ohm resistor and two LEDs, arrange in series (one after the other). What do you notice
about the brightness of the LEDS, compared to the same circuit with only one LED?
explain your answer.


The Diode
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THE DIODE
V. Ryan © 2002-04
A diode allows electricity to flow in one direction only and blocks the flow in the opposite
direction. They may be regarded as one-way valves and they are used in various circuits,
usually as a form of protection. There are different types of diode but their basic functions are
the same. These are noted below along with examples of diodes in use.
The most common type of diode is a

‘silicon diode.’ It is enclosed in a glass
cylinder with the dark band marking the
cathode terminal. This line points
towards the positive of a circuit. The
opposite terminal is called the anode.
Generally, diodes do not conduct until the
voltage reaches approximately .6 volts,
this is called the ‘threshold point’. If the
current becomes too high the diode may
crack or melt.
TYPICAL USES OF DIODES
REVERSE POLARITY PROTECTOR
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The Diode
The diode in this circuit protects a radio

or a recorder etc... In the event that the
battery or power source is connected the
wrong way round, the diode does not
allow current to flow. Electronic devices
can be damaged or even destroyed if the
polarity is reversed (positive and negative
are connected to the wrong terminals).
TRANSIENT PROTECTOR
When an ‘inductor’ device such as a relay

is turned off a high voltage can be
generated for a short time (Dia 1). This
voltage ‘spike’ can damage the relay and
other components. However, the diode
does not allow current to pass through it
in the wrong direction and short circuits
this spike.
The diode can also be used to protect a
‘meter’ from a reverse current (Dia 2).
ZENER DIODES
Normally a current does not flow through a diode in the reverse direction. The Zener Diode is
specifically designed to begin conducting in the opposite direction when the reverse voltage
reaches a voltage threshold. Zener diodes are sometimes used as a voltage sensitive switch.
Can you think of any other devices that may benefit from the use of diodes ? What about
solenoids ?
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Capacitors
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CAPACITORS
V. Ryan © 2002-05
Capacitors are components that are used to store an electrical charge and are used in timer circuits.
A capacitor may be used with a resistor to produce a timer. Sometimes capacitors are used to
smooth a current in a circuit as they can prevent false triggering of other components such as
relays.
A capacitor is composed of two conductors

separated by an insulating material called a
DIELECTRIC. The dielectric can be paper,
plastic film, ceramic, air or a vacuum. The
plates can be aluminium discs, aluminium
foil or a thin film of metal applied to
opposite sides of a solid dielectric. The
CONDUCTOR - DIELECTRIC -
CONDUCTOR sandwich can be rolled into
a cylinder or left flat
HOW A CAPACITOR WORKS
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Capacitors
When the circuit is switched on, the light

dependent resistor emits light and the
capacitor charges up. When the switch is
turned off the LED stills emits a light for a
few seconds because the electricity stored
in the capacitor is slowly discharged. When
it has fully discharged it's electricity the
LED no longer emits light. If a resistor is
introduced to the circuit the capacitor
charges up more slowly but also discharges
more slowly. What will happen to the
light ?
Electrolytic capacitors are ‘polarised’

which means they have a positive and
negative lead and must be positioned in a
circuit the right way round (the positive
lead must go to the positive side of the
circuit).
They also have a much higher capacitance
than non-electrolytic capacitors.
Non-electrolytic capacitors usually have a

lower capacitance.
They are not polarised (do not have a
Notice the positive and negative lead) and can be
electrolytic capacitors placed anyway round in a circuit.
above. They all have They are normally used to smooth a current
two polarised leads,
in a circuit.
in other words they
have a positive and
CAPACITANCE - means the value of a
negative leg. This
type of capacitor is
capacitor.
used with ICs such as
the 555 timer chip
and it is the
capacitors and
resistors that
determine the timing
sequence.

Capacitors
Look carefully at the photographs of the

two types of capacitors. Can you work out
which one is electrolytic and which is non-
electrolytic ?
The simple circuit below is basically a

switch which is connected to a computer.
When the switch is pressed the computer
detects that the relay is closed and then
turns on a motor.
However, there is a problem. When the
switch is pressed it only closes the relay for
a split second and this is not enough time
for the computer program to detect that it
has been pressed in the first place. A time
delay is the obvious answer and this can be
REMEMBER - there achieved by adding a capacitor in parallel
are polarised and non- to the switch. If the relay is held closed for
polarised capacitors. 3/4 seconds then the computer program
Look for a positive will have time to detect it - A capacitor
and negative sign. provides the time delay.
CLICK HERE FOR EXAMPLES - HOW CAPACITORS CAN BE USED

Resistors
RESISTORS
V. Ryan © 2002 - 04
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Resistors determine the flow of current in an electrical circuit. Where

there is high resistance then the flow of current is small, where the
resistance is low the flow of current is large. Resistance, voltage and
current are connected in an electrical circuit by Ohm’s Law.
Resistors are used for regulating current and they resist the current flow and the extent to which they do this is
measured in ohms (Ω). Resistors are found in almost every electronic circuit.
The most common type of resistor consists of a small ceramic (clay) tube covered partially by a conducting
carbon film. The composition of the carbon determines how much current can pass through.
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Resistors
Resistors are too small to have numbers

printed on them and so they are marked
with a number of coloured bands. Each
colour stands for a number. Three colour
bands shows the resistors value in ohms
and the fourth shows tolerance. Resistors
can never be made to a precise value and
the tolerance band (the fourth band) tells
us, using a percentage, how close the
resistor is to its coded value. The resistor
on the left is 4700 ohms.
The value of a resistor can be written in a variety of ways. Some examples are given below:
47R means 47 ohms

5R6 means 5.6 ohms
6k8 means 6800 ohms
1M2 means 1 200 000 ohms
A common value is 'K' which means one thousand ohms. So if a resistor has a value of 7000 ohms it can also be
said to have a value of 7K.
RESISTORS IN SERIES AND IN PARALLEL
Resistors can be connected together in two ways to give different overall values. This is especially useful if you
do not have a resistor of the correct value and need to make it up from other available ones.
1. Resistors in SERIES - When resistors are connected in series, their R total=R1+R2

values are added together:
For example: 1K+1K+3K9=5K9 (total value)

Resistors
2. Resistors in PARALLEL -When resistors are connected in

parallel, their total resistance is given as: 1/Rtotal = 1/R1 + 1/R2
For example: 1/Rtotal = 1/1K + 1/1K = 0.5K or 500 ohms
OR= R1 x R2
R1 +R2
=1x1=1
1 +1 = 2 = 0.5k
Click here for more resistors in parallel questions
VARIABLE RESISTORS
Variable resistors have adjustable values.

Adjustment is normally made by turning a
spindle (e.g. the volume control on a
radio) or moving a slider.
SYMBOL
The rotary variable resistor is the cheapest type of variable resistor.

A smaller version of this variable resistor is the pre-set resistor. The
pre-set resistor is the type usually used in small electronic projects
(you will probably use this type in school based projects).
PRESET RESISTOR
CLICK HERE FOR POTENTIAL DIVIDERS SHEET (RESISTORS CONTINUED)

Resistors

The Relationship Between Capacitors and Resistors
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CAPACITORS

AND RESISTORS - USING CROCODILE TECHNOLOGY
ELECTRONICS SIMULATION SOFTWARE
V. Ryan © 2004
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Electronics software such as Crocodile Technology® is perfect for testing circuits without
actually building them from real components.
Both capacitors and resistors are important components in circuits, especially delay or timer
circuits. Combining resistors and capacitors in a circuit will increase / decrease a timing
sequence.
A simple circuit is shown shows four capacitors and resistors in parallel. On the left hand side
of the circuit an LED is seen, this is protected by a 300 ohm resistor. As the switch is closed
the capacitors can be seen to charge up and the LED lights immediately. When the switch is
opened the LED stays on for a short time and then fades slowly. This happens because the
each capacitor has a charge of ‘electricity’. This is released slowly when the +9 volts is
switched off.

The total capacitance is calculated by simply adding the values of the capacitors together.
Using electronics software such as Crocodile Technology®, change the resistor values to 1K. When the
switch is closed the LED lights almost immediately. When the switch is opened the LED stays alight for
a longer time and fades more slowly until final it emits no more light. Increasing the value of the resistor
causes the capacitors to charge up more slowly. Most important of all, when the switch is opened the
capacitors discharge their electricity more slowly. The LED stays alight for a longer time
QUESTIONS:
1. Using simulation software such as Crocodile Technology®, build a capacitor and resistor circuit
incorporating a relay. The relay should remain energised for a short time after the circuit switch is
opened.


Test Instruments
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PAGE
TEST
INSTRUMENTS
V. Ryan © 2002
An Analogue Multimeter
Voltage, current and resistance can easily be measured by using a multimeter. There are
two types, analogue and digital. The multimeter is the most important electronic test
instrument. Two wires are normally used along with the multimeter (called probes) and they
are colour coded - black and red.
DIGITAL METER ANALOGUE METER
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Test Instruments
A DIGITAL Multimeter is highly accurate and easier to read than an analogue type. It is
best used for finding the precise value of a voltage, current or resistance.
An ANALOGUE Multimeter is less expensive and less precise than a digital type. Often it
will be used for measuring a slowly changing voltage, current or resistance.
The probes (seen with the digital metre) are connected to the meter. They can be disconnected and
so it is important to ensure that they are attached to the correct sockets when in use. Also, some
meters have four possible sockets which means you must follow the manufacturers instructions
carefully when attaching the two probes.
Either meter has a variety of settings depending on whether you need to measure resistance,
current or voltage. Normally the function selector has a setting for each of these and there is
also a setting for the range that you are trying to read.
For example you may need to measure the value of a resistor in ohms when a colour chart is
not be available.

Test Instruments
In order to do this you would follow these steps:

1. Set the function selector to ohms and to the range where you expect to find a reading.
There may be a range for zero to 1K OR 1K and over etc....
2. Ensure that the probes are attached correctly and touch them across the component you
are measuring, in this case a resistor.
3. The results can be read on the scale. If there is no reading, try another range setting.
To measure DC voltage follow these steps:

1. Set the function selector to one of the DCV positions.
2. Connect the test probes to the circuit and read the voltage on the scale.
EXAMPLE OF DIGITAL METER EXAMPLE OF ANALOGUE METER
QUESTIONS:
1. Draw simplified diagrams of both types of meters.
2. Explain how digital and analogue meters differ.

Light Dependent Resistors
LIGHT DEPENDENT RESISTORS

V. Ryan © 2002 - 04
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LDRs or Light Dependent Resistors are

very useful especially in light/dark
sensor circuits. Normally the resistance
of an LDR is very high, sometimes as
high as 1000 000 ohms, but when they
are illuminated with light resistance
drops dramatically.
The animation opposite shows that when

the torch is turned on, the resistance of the
LDR falls, allowing current to pass through
it.
http://www.technologystudent.com/elec1/ldr1.htm (1 of 3)18/02/08 11:08 AM

This is an example of a light sensor

circuit :
When the light level is low the resistance

of the LDR is high. This prevents current
from flowing to the base of the
transistors. Consequently the LED does
not light.
However, when light shines onto the

LDR its resistance falls and current
flows into the base of the first transistor
and then the second transistor. The LED
lights.
The preset resistor can be turned up or

down to increase or decrease resistance,
in this way it can make the circuit more
or less sensitive.
1. The circuit above is a light sensor. That means light must shine into the LDR for
the circuit to be activated. Draw a circuit composed of the same components that
activates when it is DARK (when the LDR is covered). This is a typical examination
question.
HINT: Simply swap the preset resistor and the LDR.
2. What is the role of the preset resistor ?


Preset Resistors
THE PRESET RESISTOR

V. Ryan © 2002-05
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Preset resistors are used in circuits when it

is necessary to alter the resistance. Dark/
light and temperature sensors usually have
these components as the preset resistor
allows the circuit to be made more or less
sensitive (they can be turned up or down -
reducing or increasing resistance).
A small screwdriver can be used to turn the

centre part of the preset resistor, altering the
value of the resistance.
The range of resistance varies, for example:

0 to 100 ohms
0 to 1M ohms
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Preset Resistors
The two circuits below are sensor circuits. The one of the left is a temperature sensor and
the one on the right is a light sensitive circuit. Increasing the value of the preset resistor by
turning the centre with a small screwdriver makes the circuit less sensitive. For instance,
the temperature sensor would require a higher temperature and the light sensitive circuit
would need more intense light before they activated.

Preset Resistors
TEMPERATURE SENSOR LIGHT SENSOR

MakingaLight / Dark Sensor
MAKING A LIGHT / DARK SENSOR

V. Ryan © 2005
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Opposite is a simple
light/ dark sensor. This
can be connected as an
input or switch to
another circuit. The
sensors has three green
wires (1, 2 and 3). Wire
2 should always be
connected to one of the
inputs. If wire 1 is also
connected then the
sensor acts as a dark
sensor. If wires 2 and 3
are connected to the
inputs then sensor
operates as a light sensor.
The preset resistor

allows the person using
the circuit to alter its
sensitivity to light/dark.
1. When are light sensors used?
CONSTRUCTING A CIRCUIT USING SIMULATION SOFTWARE
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All circuits are drawn on

software such as
Crocodile Clips. Using
this software the
individual components
can be joined together on
the screen. Once the
circuit is drawn its
operation can be
simulated to see if it
works. If it fails it can be
corrected on the
computer screen and
tested again.
Using software to test
circuit designs saves
time as there is no need
to physically solder
together components. It
also saves money as
components and
materials are not wasted
on failed circuits
The circuit is then made into a PCB (Printed Circuit Board). Components are added and soldered in
position (See PCB Section of this website). Two views of the same circuit are shown below. How do they
differ?

3. Complete the table below by writing some details about the components used in the light/dark sensor
circuit.



Sequence Drawing - Light/Dark Sensor
SEQUENCE DRAWING - LIGHT/DARK SENSOR

V. Ryan © 2006
A typical light/dark sensor is shown below. It consists of a number

of components and is known to be a reliable circuit. Study the
circuit carefully and list any improvements you think would make
the circuit even more reliable, easier to make, more robust etc.....
Arrange the stages of making a light / dark sensor shown below -

into the correct sequence. Draw your version of the sequence
drawing.



CLICK HERE FOR SAMPLE ANSWER

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LDR Examination Question
LDR EXAMINATION QUESTION

V. Ryan © 2005
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A pupil has designed and manufactured a model based on the automatic control of street lights. When
the light level drops the street light comes on automatically .The systems diagram below shows how
the pupil’s circuit works. The sensor detects when the day light fades and a relay circuit turns on the
street lights.

The circuit below has been manufactured as a sensor. It has been developed to sense a drop in the light
level.
1. Name of component A:_________________
2. Name of component B:_________________
3. Which component is the one that behaves as a sensor.

_____________________________________________
4. How does the resistance of this component change when

the light fades.
_____________________________________________
5. Which component is used to adjust the sensitivity of the

circuit.
_____________________________________________
6. The dark sensing circuit shown above can be altered to detect light. Complete the next circuit by
adding the light sensor.

7. What is the name of component C shown in the sensing circuit above?
Name of component C:_______________________
8. What is its function ?

Light / Dark Sensor - Animal Feeder Circuit
LIGHT / DARK SENSOR - ANIMAL FEEDER

CIRCUIT
V. Ryan © 2006
The sensor below is a light/dark sensor. This is part of an automatic animal feeder. As it becomes dark the
sensor activates a relay that in turn turns on a motor, rotating a fly wheel. The fly wheel operates a
mechanical system that releases food to a small animal, such as a hamster. Food is release during the
night. The circuit shown below is drawn using 'Crocodile Technology 3D' software. This is electronics
simulation software which allows the designer to draw a circuit in 3D and test it for faults.
1. A list of component names are seen below the diagram. Write each of the component names in the
correct place on the diagram.

SNAP TRANSISTOR BATTERY DIODE

LDR RELAY PCB MOTOR
CONNECTOR FLY WHEEL RESISTOR
2. Only one transistor is used in this circuit. The electronics simulation software 'Crocodile Technology
3D' has identified a possible fault - sometimes it is wise to include two transistors called a ‘darlington
pair’ rather than the one transistor shown in the diagram above. Draw below a circuit diagram
representing a darlington pair.
3. Why is it wise to use a darlington pair (two transistors) rather than a single transistor?

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Light / Dark Sensor Question
LIGHT / DARK SENSOR QUESTION

V. Ryan © 2006
Below is a typical chocolate bar dispenser. It includes a light sensor that detects when the
dispenser needs filling.
1. The circuit diagram below is incomplete. Add all the missing components and explain how the
circuit works. Include the following components: 1 LDR, 2 fixed resistors, 1 npn transistor and a
relay that is energised when light is sensed.

POSSIBLE ANSWER BELOW

2. The circuit/dispenser designer has recently improved the design of the dispenser and wants to
use to LDRs.
LDR 1 = LOW This will sense when there are five products left in the dispenser
LDR 2 = EMPTY This will sense when the dispenser is empty.
Indicate on the diagram below where LDR 1 and LDR 2 will be located.

3. A mechanism has been added to the drawer. This moves the drawer forwards and backwards
to allow chocolate to be removed from the drawer. Add a suitable mechanism to the incomplete
drawing below. Label your diagram

4. Add notes explaining how the mechanism works.
5. When there are only five chocolate bars left in the dispenser the low warning light should
light. This allows staff in the shop to fill up the machine. When the dispenser is empty the empty
warning light is turned on and an alarm sounds.
Complete the flowchart below with appropriate missing statements.



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Sensor Questiuon - LDR
SENSOR QUESTION - LDR

V. Ryan © 2006
1. Many production lines are automated. What is an automated production line?
2. An automated production line is shown below. Parts / components move along the production line
where they are sensed, clamped down, drilled and then released, moving down the production line again.
The whole process is controlled by a PIC Microcontroller. The conveyor belts rotates continually until the
sensor detects a component.
Write the sequence of instructions for the entire process on the following instruction sheet. Basic
instructions you are to use are described below.
http://www.technologystudent.com/elec1/senq1.htm (1 of 5)18/02/08 11:10 AM

You are to write your answer as a set of instructions and as a flowchart.

CLICK HERE FOR POSSIBLE ANSWER
3. The sensor being used on the production line is shown below. Complete the circuit diagram of the same
circuit. Label the components.

CLICK HERE FOR POSSIBLE ANSWER
4. Each component being drilled is identical. Each has a central hole and is rectangular in shape. It has
been decided that each component must be checked for the presence of the hole after drilling. This is part
of quality control.
4a. What is the meaning of quality control?
4b. Using sketches and notes explain how the circuit shown at the top of the page could be used to check
for the presence of the hole in each component.

SKETCH(S)
NOTES
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Circuit Question - Switches and Other Components
CIRCUIT QUESTION - SWITCHES AND

OTHER COMPONENTS
V. Ryan © 2007
The circuit below has a motor that can only be operated when both of the push to make switches are
pressed.
1. The component names are listed below. Clearly label each of the components in the circuit.
ANSWER
http://www.technologystudent.com/elec_flsh/switch1.html (1 of 7)18/02/08 11:10 AM

2. The component symbols that make up the circuit are shown below. Arrange them to form the circuit
diagram.
ANSWER

3. What is the function of the toggle switch?
POSSIBLE ANSWER
The toggle switch is the main switch to the circuit. It must be in the ‘on’ position for the circuit to work. It
isolates the circuit if it is in the off position.
4. What is the function of the relay?
POSSIBLE ANSWER
The relay is a type of switch. It is the physical link between two circuits. The first circuit on the left hand
side is the one with the two push to make switches. The second circuit is on the right and has the motor.

5. The component shown

opposite is to be added to the
circuit. What is it called?
NAME:
ANSWER
DIODE
6. What is the function of the new component?
ANSWER
The diode will be placed in parallel to the relay and the opposite way round. When the circuit is turned off
the diode will protect the other components from back emf.
7. Draw the symbol for this

new component in the box .
ANSWER

8. The npn transistor shown

opposite is also to be added to
the circuit. Draw its symbol in
the space below
ANSWER
9. In the space below complete the new circuit that incorporates the new and original components plus a
resistor to protect the transistor.

POSSIBLE ANSWER
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Thermistors
THE THERMISTOR
V. Ryan © 2002
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An example of a thermistor is seen to
the left. They are made up of a mixture
of sulphides or oxides or sometimes
metals such as copper, iron or cobalt.
They tend to be formed into a disc or a
bead sealed with plastic or glass.
They have great resistance at low

temperatures but when they warm up
their resistance decreases rapidly.
Current can then flow through them.
This makes them ideal as one of the
components for a temperature sensor.
Build the simple thermistor circuit below.

When the thermistor is cool or cold the LED
should not light because of the high
resistance.
However, warm up the thermistor by blowing

warm air from a hair drier across it. This
should warm it sufficiently that in a few
seconds the resistance will drop and the LED
will light.
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Thermistors
WHEN THE THERMISTOR IS COLD

RESISTANCE IS HIGH AND CURRENT
CANNOT PASS THROUGH. WHEN WARMED,
RESISTANCE FALLS AND CURRENT PASSES
THROUGH.
Circuit explanation in detail:
When the thermistor is warmed up by

the hair drier its resistance drops, this
will take a few seconds. As its
resistance drops current begins to flow
from positive 9 volts to negative 0
volts. Current flows into the base of the
transistors allowing the LED to light.
The preset resistor can be turned up or

down to increase or decrease resistance,
in this way it can make the circuit more
or less sensitive.
1. Explain how this circuit could be used in the home.
2. What is the role of the preset resistor ?
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Information Regarding Thermistor Circuits and Darlington Pairs
INFORMATION REGARDING THERMISTOR CIRCUITS

AND DARLINGTON PAIRS
V. Ryan © 2007
Sensors such as the thermistor based circuit shown below are not always reliable. This is usually due to
the circuit relying on one transistor. The circuit below has two transistors, called a ‘Darlington Pair’. This
arrangement of transistors amplifies current flowing from the thermistor and ensures that the LED lights.
When the temperature is LOW. Resistance of thermistor high and current flows through the transistors
allowing the LED to light
http://www.technologystudent.com/elec_flsh/therm1.html (1 of 2)18/02/08 11:13 AM

Information Regarding Thermistor Circuits and Darlington Pairs
High temperature. Resistance of thermistor reduces significantly and current flows from positive straight
to negative. The LED does not light.
QUESTION:
1. The LED in the circuit above lights when the temperature is low (icy). However, it would be useful if
the LED would light when it is warm/hot. This circuit could be used for a warning device when
temperatures are too high.. Draw an updated version of the circuit that would allow this to happen.
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A Temperature Sensor
A TYPICAL TEMPERATURE SENSOR

V. Ryan © 2005
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Opposite is a simple temperature
sensor. It operates in exactly the
same way as a light/dark sensor
except that it has a component
called a thermistor rather than a
LDR (Light Dependent Resistor).
The thermistor's resistance value
changes when the temperature rises
or falls. This ‘triggers’ the relay.
The preset resistor allows the

person using the circuit to alter its
sensitivity to changes in
temperature..
When are temperature sensors used?
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A Temperature Sensor
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Potential Dividers
POTENTIAL DIVIDERS
V. Ryan © 2002
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What are they - they can be used to split the voltage of a circuit. They are widely used in electronic circuits for
setting and adjusting voltages - e.g. in radios, games and toys. You may find that you need a supply of 6 volts and
you have a 9 volt battery, your only option may be to make a potential divider.
When two resistors of equal value (e.g. 1K) are

connected across a supply, current will flow through
them. If a meter is placed across the supply shown in
the diagram it will register 9v. If the meter is then
placed between the 0v and the middle of the two
resistors it will read 4.5v. The battery voltage has been
divided in half.
If the resistor values are changed to 2K and 1K the

voltage will be 6v. The voltage at the centre is determined
by the ratio of the two resistor values and is given by the
formula:
V = supply voltage x R2/R1+R

2
V= 9v x 2000

Potential Dividers
1000+2000
v = 9v x (2000/3000 ohms)
V = 9v x 0.6666666 ohms
V = 6v
An alternative way to work out the answer is to:
1K + 2K = 3K
1. Add both resistors together.
2. Divide the voltage by the sum of both resistors.

9v/3k (is the same as 9/3) = 3
3. Take the largest resistor and multiply it by the 2k x 3 = 6v

answer found in stage two.
CLICK HERE FOR MORE POTENTIAL DIVIDER QUESTIONS

SI Units and OHMs Law
SI UNITS and OHM's LAW

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SI UNITS PREFIX NAME MEANING
The system of units used in T tera multiply by 1 000 000 000 000
Technology and Science is
the Systeme Internationale (i.e. X 1012)
d’unites (International G giga multiply by 1 000 000 000
system of units). Usually
abbreviated to SI units and (i.e. X 109)
is based on the metric
system. This was introduced M mega multiply by 1000 000 (i.e. X 106)
in 1960 and is now adopted k kilo multiply by 1 000 (i.e. X 103)
by the majority of countries
as the official system of m milli divide by 1000 (i.e. X 10-3)
measurement. The basic divide by 1 000 000 (i.e. X 10-6)
µ micro
units in the SI system are
listed in the table to the right n nano divide by 1 000 000 000
with their symbols.
(i.e. X10-9)
p pico divide by 1 000 000 000 000
(i.e. X 10-12)
http://www.technologystudent.com/elec1/ohm1.htm (1 of 3)18/02/08 11:13 AM

Ohm’s Law
Provides us with a very important formula for working out current, resistance and voltage
(Potential Difference). In order to use this formula properly you must understand SI Units.
Voltage = V Resistance = R Current = I
Problem 1. If the current

through a resistor is 0.8A and
the voltage is 20v - what is the
resistance ?
Resistance R = 2kΩ= 2X 103 = 2000 Ω.
Problem 2. Determine the p. Current I = 10mA = 10 X 10-3 A or 0.01 A.

d. (voltage) which must be
applied to a 2kW resistor in From Ohm’s law, potential difference,
order that a current of 10mA
may flow.
V = IR = (0.01)(2000) = 20V
Problem 3. A coil has a

current of 50 mA flowing
through it when the voltage is
12 V. What is the resistance of
the coil?

Have a go at answering the following questions:
Problem 4. A 100 V battery

is connected across a resistor
and causes a current of 5mA to
flow. Determine the resistance
of the resistor. If the voltage is
reduced to 25 V, what will be
the new value of the current
flowing?
Problem 5. What is the

resistance of a coil which
draws a current of (a) 50 mA
and (b) 200mA from a 120 V
supply.
What is an INSULATOR ?
An insulator is a material that does not allow current to flow through it. Materials such as rubber
and plastic are good insulators and this is why they are used in the electrical industry to insulate
parts.
Consider electric drills. Why do they have a plastic case ? The plastic insulates the person using
the drill from all the electrical parts so that they are protected from electrocution.
CLICK HERE ELECTRONICS INDEX PAGE

Resistors - Questions
RESISTORS - QUESTIONS
V. Ryan © 2005
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Resistors determine the flow of
current in an electrical circuit.
Where there is high resistance
then the flow of current is small,
where the resistance is low the
flow of current is large.
Resistance, voltage and current
are connected in an electrical
circuit by Ohm’s Law.
Read the passage regarding resistors. Fill the gaps using correct the words listed below.
Resistors _____________ the flow of current through a ____________. Resistance is measured in ____
When resistance is high the flow of current is _______ . When resistance is low the flow of current is
_______Resistance, voltage and current are connected in an electrical circuit by ______________.
TYPES OF RESISTOR
A number of resistors are shown below. They include a VARIABLE RESISTOR, PRESET RESISTOR,
FIXED RESISTOR, LIGHT DEPENDENT RESISTOR and a THERMISTOR. Using the guidelines
above each drawing, print each correct name in BLOCK CAPITALS.
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Draw an arrow from each resistor to its symbol. Please note, one of the resistors has two symbols.
Explain / describe the use of each of resistors listed below:
FIXED RESISTOR:
VARIABLE RESISTOR:
LIGHT DEPENDENT RESISTOR:
THERMISTOR:
PRESET RESISTOR:
The circuit diagram and 3D drawing below show the same light / dark sensor circuit. Add labels to both
drawings, clearly identifying each component.

Why do you think a preset resistor is used on this sensor circuit?
How could a light / dark sensor be used to control a street lighting system?

Relays and Practical Circuits
THE RELAY
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A relay is an electromagnetic switch. In other words it is activated when a current is
applied to it. Normally a relay is used in a circuit as a type of switch (as you will see
below). There are different types of relays and they operate at different voltages. When
you build your circuit you need to consider the voltage that will trigger it.
RELAY SYMBOLS
http://www.technologystudent.com/elec1/relay1.htm (1 of 3)18/02/08 11:14 AM

The main part of a relay is the coil at the centre. A small current flowing through the
coil in the relay creates a magnetic field that pulls one switch contact against or away
from another. Putting it simply, when current is applied to the contacts at one side of
the relay the coil allows the contacts at the other side to work.
Usually relays are used to turn on a second circuit. The first circuit activates the relay
which then ‘turns on’ the second circuit.
EXAMPLE CIRCUIT
This simple circuit activates the relay only when the LDR is dark (covered). This could
be used as part of an automatic animal feeder. For instance, if the animal was fed at
night the circuit above would activate the relay. A second circuit, connected to the other
side of the relay releases food into a dish.
CLICK HERE FOR PRACTICAL EXAMPLES OF RELAYS


Transistor Basics
TRANSISTORS
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Transistors can be regarded as a type of switch, as can many electronic components. They are used in a
variety of circuits and you will find that it is rare that a circuit built in a school Technology Department
does not contain at least one transistor. They are central to electronics and there are two main types;
NPN and PNP. Most circuits tend to use NPN. There are hundreds of transistors which work at
different voltages but all of them fall into these two categories.
TWO EXAMPLES OF DIFFERENT SHAPES OF

TRANSISTOR
Transistors are manufactured in different
shapes but they have three leads (legs).
The BASE - which is the lead responsible for
activating the transistor.
The COLLECTOR - which is the positive lead.
The EMITTER - which is the negative lead.
The diagram below shows the symbol of an
NPN transistor. They are not always set out as
shown in the diagrams to the left and right,
although the ‘tab’ on the type shown to the left
is usually next to the ‘emitter’.
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Transistor Basics
The leads on a transistor may not always be in this

arrangement. When buying a transistor, directions
will normally state clearly which lead is the BASE,
EMITTER or COLLECTOR.
SIMPLE USE OF A TRANSISTOR
DIAGRAM 'A' DIAGRAM 'B'

Transistor Basics
Diagram 'A' shows an NPN transistor which is often used as a type of switch. A small current or
voltage at the base allows a larger voltage to flow through the other two leads (from the collector to
the emitter).
The circuit shown in diagram B is based on an NPN transistor. When the switch is pressed a current
passes through the resistor into the base of the transistor. The transistor then allows current to flow
from the +9 volts to the 0vs, and the lamp comes on.
The transistor has to receive a voltage at its ‘base’ and until this happens the lamp does not light.
The resistor is present to protect the transistor as they can be damaged easily by too high a voltage /
current. Transistors are an essential component in many circuits and are sometimes used to amplify a
signal.
CLICK HERE FOR MORE ON TRANSISTORS (DARLINGTON PAIRS)

Darlington Pairs
THE DARLINGTON PAIR

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Transistors are an essential component in a sensor circuit. Usually transistors are arranged as a pair, known as a
‘DARLINGTON PAIR’. It is very important that you can identify this arrangement of transistors and state
clearly why they are used.
A darlington pair is used to amplify weak signals so that they can be clearly detected by another circuit or a
computer/microprocessor.
The circuit opposite is a ‘Darlington Pair’ driver. The

first transistor’s emitter feeds into the second
transistor’s base and as a result the input signal is
amplified by the time it reaches the output.
The important point to remember is that the Darlington

Pair is made up of two transistors and when they are
arranged as shown in the circuit they are used to
amplify weak signals.
The circuit to the right shows a single transistor. When

the switch is pressed current flows from the 9v to the
0v and also to the base of the transistor. This allows the
transistor to switch and in turn, current / voltage flows

Darlington Pairs
through the bulb, which lights.
However, there is a potential problem with this circuit.

The signal / current at the base of the transistor may be
too weak to switch the transistor and allow the bulb to
light or it may flicker on and off.
A possible solution is seen to the right. A second

transistor is added to the circuit, the circuit is now
likely to work as the original signal / current is
amplified.
The amount by which the weak signal is amplified is

called the ‘GAIN’.
Below is a system designed to monitor the temperature of a car radiator. When the radiator temperature
becomes too high the voltage from the temperature sensor and sensor unit changes. The comparator detects this
change in voltage and activates the darlington pair. The darlington pair driver provides enough amplified
current for the motor to operate, cooling the car radiator. .

Darlington Pairs
If the darlington pair is replaced with a transistor module (composed of one transistor) - what would you expect
to happen?
The single transistor does not amplify the current to the motor. As a result the motor does not ‘spin’. Control
Studio software allows experimentation, without the need to build a real circuit using actual components. It
saves time and money as components are not wasted.
CLICK HERE FOR EXAMINATION QUESTION

Transistor Exam Question
TRANSISTOR EXAM QUESTION

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Above is a temperature sensor made up of different circuits called modules. When the
thermistor is warmed its resistance falls, allowing current to flow from positive 9 volts to 0
volts. In turn, current flows from the temperature module to the transistor module triggering
the transistor. The bulb module then lights.
However, there is a problem - the bulb flickers on and off. Redesign the transistor module to
ensure that the bulb is constantly alight.
Explain how the three modules work together.

Transistor Exam Question
THE ANSWER IS SEEN BELOW:

Transistor Breadboard Project
TRANSISTOR BREADBOARD PROJECT

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Components:
680 ohm resistor to protect the LED.

1K resistor from LDR to the base of
the NPN transistor.
One BFY50 npn transistor (try any
alternative).
One 10K preset resistor.
One LDR.
PIN LAYOUT OF NPN TRANSISTOR
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Transistor Breadboard Project
1. Build the breadboard circuit shown above. This is a dark sensor and relies on several
components, in particular the transistor. When the LDR is covered the LED will light,
although there may be a need to alter the setting of the preset resistor.
How it works:
When light shines into the LDR its resistance is high and consequently current cannot flow
from positive 9 volts to negative 0 volts. If the LDR is completely covered its resistance falls
dramatically. Current then flows into the base of the transistor switching it on. Consequently
current can flow through the collector and emitter - therefore, the LED lights.
2. Try building a light sensor, that is a circuit in which the LED lights if light shines into the
LDR. HINT; try swapping round the LDR and the preset resistor.
3. Try building a similar circuit but this time add an arrangement of transistors called a
Darlington Pair. Do you find any difference in the operation of the circuit ?
4. Try building a similar dark sensor but this time with a relay rather than an LED.
CLICK HERE FOR ELECTRONICS INDEX

Darlington Pair Transistor Breadboard Project
TRANSISTOR BREADBOARD PROJECT

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DARLINGTON PAIR PROJECT
Components:
680 ohm resistor to protect the
LED.
1K resistor from LDR to the base
of the NPN transistor.
TWO BFY50 npn transistor (try
any alternative).
One LDR.
Black and red wire.
LAYOUT OF FIRST TRANSISTOR:

Darlington Pair Transistor Breadboard Project
LAYOUT OF SECOND TRANSISTOR
The legs/pins on the second transistor have been twisted

slightly to allow them to be pushed into the breadboard in
the correct positions:
When a single transistor is used in the circuit, as seen earlier, the LDR has to be completely
covered before the LED lights. This is because the circuit lacks sensitivity as the current into
the base of the transistor is quite weak. A darlington pair is needed to amplify the current and
this is achieved by the first transistors emitter feeding into the base of the second transistor.
The current is amplified to a greater level and the LDR has only to be covered partially
before the LED lights.
CLICK HERE FOR ELECTRONICS INDEX

Transistor Formulas
TRANSISTOR FORMULAS
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Transistors are used to amplify current and so in an examination you could be asked to find the BASE current or
COLLECTOR current or the GAIN. The GAIN is simply the amount of amplification. The formulas and example
questions are set out below:
A simple way of remembering the

formula is seen in the diagram opposite
OR you can learn each of the formulas
below.
Another very important point to remember is that collector current is always greater than base current, sometimes
by many times.
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Transistor Formulas
TRY THE FOLLOWING

QUESTIONS:
1. If the collector current of a transistor is 0.12 amps and the gain is 40, what is the base current?
2. If the collector current of a transistor is 0.4 amps and the base current is 0.002 amps, what is the current gain?
3. If the collector current of a transistor is 0.5 amps and the gain is 100, what is the base current?
CLICK HERE TO RETURN TO ELECTRONICS INDEX
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Dual Transistor Multivibrator Circuit
DUAL TRANSISTOR MULTIVIBRATOR CIRCUIT

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A multivibrator circuit is a
circuit that has identical
components arranged on the
left and right hand sides. In
the case of the example
below, the two PNP
transistors, the capacitors
and the LEDs are the key
components. This circuit
will trigger itself repeatedly
and in this way the LEDs
flash alternately.
Increasing the value of the
two electrolytic capacitors
increases the time each LED
remains on/off. The
transistors are general PNP
type. It is important to
protect the LEDs and this is
achieved by adding the
680R (or lower if necessary)
fixed resistors.
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As the switch is pressed, the capacitors charge up and then discharge. As one capacitor
charges the other discharges. As the capacitors discharge, each triggers the base of the
transistor it is connected to. This allows current to pass from the collector to the emitter and
the LEDs light, alternately.

PCB VERSION OF THE MULTIVIBRATOR PCB VERSION OF THE MULTIVIBRATOR

CIRCUIT, WITH ALL COMPONENTS IN CIRCUIT, WITH THE OUTLINE OF ALL
POSITION THE COMPONENTS
QUESTIONS:
1. Name the two most important components in the multivibrator circuit shown above.
2. What would be the effect of increasing the values of both capacitors?
CLICK HERE FOR NEXT SHEET ON MULTIVIBRATOR CIRCUITS

Lesson Starter - Astable Transistor Circuit
LESSON STARTER
ASTABLE TRANSISTOR CIRCUIT
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1. You are going to use the components shown below to build an astable transistor circuit. Complete the
table by:
A. Writing the correct name of each component.
B. Indicating if the function of the component is TRUE or FALSE. If FALSE, write the correct function
of the component below.
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BATTERY SNAP - FIXED RESISTOR - CAPACITOR - TRANSISTOR - LIGHT EMITTING - DIODE

- MINIATURE SLIDE SWITCH - TOGGLE SWITCH - VARIABLE RESISTOR - BULB - DIODE
2. An astable transistor circuit is shown below. Label each of the components


Multivibrator Circuit Exam Question
DUAL TRANSISTOR MULTIVIBRATOR CIRCUIT

EXAM QUESTION
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A local garage has started selling a small electronic device. The device has two LEDs that flash
alternately and the entire circuit is housed in a small moulded case. It is to be placed on the ‘dashboard
of a car so that it looks as if an expensive alarm has been fitted.
The circuit diagram is shown below.

Three of the important components have been labelled A, B and C. Name each component and explain
the function of each in the circuit.
COMPONENT A:
FUNCTION IN CIRCUIT:
COMPONENT B:
COMPONENT C:
Ring the names of two components that work together to produce the flashing of the LEDs.
TRANSISTOR CAPACITOR RESISTOR
The Printed Circuit Board (PCB) for the dual transistor, multivibrator circuit is shown below. All the
components and their position on the PCB can be seen. The garage owners have decided to
manufacture a small moulded case for the circuit to fit inside. The LEDs and the switch must protrude
through the moulded box so that they can be seen.

Name a suitable material for producing the moulded case.
Name a suitable manufacturing process for producing the moulded case.
Sketch a suitable design for the moulded case, include detailed notes.

Using the boxes below, draw a sketch in each that represents a stage of manufacturing the moulded
case, using the process you have named. You do not need to use all the boxes below.
STAGE ONE STAGE TWO
STAGE THREE STAGE FOUR
STAGE FIVE STAGE SIX

CLICK HERE FOR INFORMATION ON MULTIVIBRATOR CIRCUITS

The Thyristor
THE THYRISTOR
V. Ryan © 2002
A Thyristor (silicon
controlled rectifier or SCR)
is a little like a transistor.
When a small current flows
into the GATE (G), this
allows a larger current to
flow from the ANODE (A) to
the CATHODE (C). Even
when the current into the
gate stops the thyristor
continues to allow current to
flow from anode to cathode.
It latches on.
The circuit opposite

represents a steady hand
game which consists of a
wire loop that has to be
moved around a wire course
without touching it. If the
wire course is touched by the
loop, current flows into the
'gate' of the thyristor and the
buzzer sounds.
The buzzer will continue to
sound after the loop has
touched the wire course. This
is due to the thyristor which
once activated cannot be
deactivated until all power is
turned off.
This type of circuit is also
known as a ‘latching circuit’
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The Thyristor
ALARM CIRCUIT
The circuit below is an alarm circuit and it incorporates a thyristor. When the house holder leaves he/she turns
on the master power switch and the exit switch. If an intruder steps on the pressure pad the alarm sounds and
‘latches’ on (stays on) because of the thyristor.
1. Draw the symbol for a thyristor.
2. Explain how a thyristor works.
3. Draw a circuit which includes a thyristor and explain how the circuit works.

The Thyristor
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The Thyristor - Breadboard Circuit
THE THYRISTOR - BREADBOARD CIRCUIT

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A Steady Hand Game is shown below. The aim is to move the handle around the wire shape
without touching it. If the handle touches the wire a buzzer sounds. This is the type of game
that contains a thyristor circuit. When the handle touches the wire the buzzer will sound until
the reset push switch is pressed, even if the handle is moved away from the wire.

The circuit for this type of game is shown below. The main component is called a thyristor.
This is a special type of switch. When it is activated it cannot be turned off unless electrical
power is removed from the whole circuit.
The symbol that represents the thyristor is shown opposite. It has three pins. The ANODE,
CATHODE and GATE.

1. Using circuit simulation

software draw the thyristor
circuit.
2. Close switch ‘A’ to
supply power to the whole
circuit.
3. Close switch ‘B’ to allow
current flow into the
thyristor’s gate.
The buzzer should sound.
4. Open switch ‘B’ - the
buzzer should still sound
because the thyristor cannot
be deactivated until all
power to the circuit is
removed.
5. Construct the thyristor circuit using a breadboard and the components listed below. Be
careful to line up the components accurately. The black dots show the position of wires and
components.

COMPONENTS
Three 1K resistors.
One thyristor.
One 6 volt buzzer.
One battery snap.
One 9 volt battery.
Red and Black wire.
When the battery is connected power is supplied to the circuit. Touching the red and black
wires for a split second activates the thyristor which allows the buzzer to sound. The buzzer
will continue to sound even though the red and black wires are not touching. The ‘buzzing’
can only be stopped if the battery is removed.

Breadboards the Basics
BREADBOARDS
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Breadboards are used to test circuits. Wires and
components are simply pushed into the holes to
form a completed circuit and power can be
applied. One of the main advantages of using a
breadboard is that the components are not
soldered and if they are positioned incorrectly
they can be moved easily to a new position on the
board.
On the breadboard (diagram 1) seen opposite,
letters are used to identify vertical columns and
numbers to identify horizontal rows.
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Breadboards the Basics
The red lines on diagram 2 show how some vertical

columns and horizontal rows are internally connected.
When power is applied to the breadboard current flows
along these internal connections.
Diagram 3 shows how a 380 ohm resistor and an

LED are setup on a breadboard. When a 9 volt
battery is attached the LED lights. Try replacing
the resistor with a higher value such as a 680 ohm
resistor. The resistance will be greater and the
LED should shine less bright.
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Examination Questions - Jigs
EXAMINATION QUESTION - JIGS

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1. The diagram below shows a jig used on a production line to check the length of a component (the steel
cylinder).
When the steel cylinder is inserted into the test jig, the green LED lights. This shows that the steel
cylinder is the correct length.
http://www.technologystudent.com/elec1/jigs1.htm (1 of 5)18/02/08 11:17 AM

The push to make switches control the LEDs.
If switch ‘C’ is not pressed none of the LEDs should light.
The red and green LEDs indicate whether the cylinder is the correct length, too short or too long.
If the cylinder is too long it will press switches A, B and C. The RED and GREEN LEDs will light.
If the cylinder is too short it will not press switches A and B.
If the cylinder is the correct length both switches B and C should be pressed.
1a. In the space below draw a circuit that shows how switches A, B and C can be connected to make the
jig and its LEDs work correctly.
include all three switches, the green and red LEDs and appropriate resistors (include values)

POSSIBLE ANSWER
1b. Explain the purpose of the resistors.

POSSIBLE ANSWER
The resistors protect the LEDs. They reduce the flow of electricity allowing the LEDs to light rather than
be damaged. Without the resistors the LEDs would ‘blow’
1c. What is the advantage of using a 9 volt power source for the jig?
POSSIBLE ANSWER
A 9 volt power source means that the jig is electrically safe as electrocution of the operator cannot take
place even if there is s fault. The 9 volt supply can be from a battery making the jig mobile and not
requiring a mains electric connection.
1d. In the space below draw a ‘push to make switch’ and describe how it works.
POSSIBLE ANSWER
As the switch is pressed a

connection is made across the
two terminals allowing
electricity to flow around the
circuit.
1e. Draw and label two other types electro mechanical switch.

POSSIBLE ANSWER
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Analogue and Digital Systems
ANALOGUE AND DIGITAL SYSTEMS

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Electrical signals are in two forms;
Analogue signals
Digital signals
This graph is typical of analogue signals.
Analogue signals: These are usually older

electronic gadgets (introduced before the
mid 1990’s). A good example of an
analogue signal is the loud-speaker of a
stereo system. When the volume is turned
up the sound increases slowly and
constantly.
Examples of analogue systems include;

Old radios, megaphones and the volume
control on old telephone hand sets.
This graph is typical of digital signals
http://www.technologystudent.com/elec1/anadig1.htm (1 of 3)18/02/08 11:17 AM

Digital signals: Modern electronic

products such as computers and mobile
phones depend on digital signals.
However, a good example of a digital
signal is Morse Code. The signal is sent as
a series of ‘on’ and ‘off’ pulses. The signal
is either present or it is not. Morse code
was introduced in 1837 by Samuel Morse,
as a method of communication.
For further information on digital

computers - see Bits and BYTES.
Both analogue and digital systems can be used as sensors. A thermistor is analogue as resistance
slowly changes, a micro-switch is digital, as it is ‘on’ or ‘off’.
Computers are digital devices and the various electronic parts communicate using 1’s and 0’s.
1 = ON
0 = OFF
LIST EXAMPLES OF ANALOGUE

LIST EXAMPLES OF DIGITAL SYSTEMS
SYSTEMS


Control Systems
CONTROL SYSTEMS
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CLOSED SYSTEMS:
When designing a control system it is good practice to consider it as a number of stages.

For example;
A simple weather station can be looked upon as the following;
http://www.technologystudent.com/elec1/consys1.htm (1 of 3)18/02/08 11:17 AM

Control Systems
INPUT: PROCESS: OUTPUT:

The heat from the sun Data is received by the The temperature levels
causes the temperature computer and it is are printed out. This is
sensor to produce data processed. The processed one form of output.
and this is sent to the data is displayed on the
computer. monitor as a graph.
The temperature is constantly monitored and this is called feedback. As long as the sensor
works, the computer processes and the printer prints out - feed back is taking place.
CONTROL SYSTEMS - OPEN SYSTEMS
A system that does not have feedback is an open system. An open system normally works
once and then stops. A good example is seen below. A digital camera is used to take a
photograph, it is transferred to the computer where processing of the picture takes place
and finally a printout is produced. This is a closed system because there is no feedback and
no attempt is made to improve the picture.
The person taking the picture decides to improve the final printout, using graphics
software. He prints out the photograph several times and alters the photo with the software.
Is the system still an open system or has it now changed to a closed system with feedback?

Control Systems
When drawing a systems diagram the boxes are labelled and there is no need to draw
pictures representing each stage. However, when attempting course work, adding drawings
helps present the diagram in a more graphical way. The open systems diagram shown
below represents use of a digital camera which is shown graphically above.
QUESTION:
Draw a systems diagrams to represent a closed system of your choice and an open system.
CLICK HERE FOR CONTROL SYSTEMS - MORE ANOTHER EXAMPLE

Control Systems - Sprinkler System
CONTROL SYSTEMS - AN EXAMPLE

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An Automatic Sprinkler System
An automatic water sprinkler system has been ordered by a farmer. The system must have
sensors that detect dry weather and turn on water sprinklers to water valuable crops.
The company manufacturing the system have decided that a starting point is to think in
terms of INPUT - PROCESS - OUTPUT and also include FEEDBACK. The basic plan
is set out below.
INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT

How will the dryness of What device(s) will be This may be a sprinkler
the soil be sensed? needed to control the output? device which is turned
Perhaps an electrode can A computer could monitor on when the computer
be used. incoming data and control the detects the need for
output, a simple program will water.
be required.
FEEDBACK
Feedback is constant as the
computer continually checks
the moisture level of the soil.
This is the layout to the systems diagram for the automatic sprinkler system.

One Possible Answer:
The moisture sensor detects when the soil is dry. The darlington pair is a simple electronic
device that amplifies the signal sent by the sensors so that the computer can read it.
Without the darlington pair it is possible that the signal from the sensor could be too weak
to be read by the computer. This would mean that the sprinkler system would not be
turned on.
When the sensor determines that the soil is moist/damp the signal to the computer ends
and the computer turns off the sprinkler. This is called FEED BACK.

QUESTION:
Draw a systems diagram for a domestic alarm system. Show clearly input, process and
output. Explain the need for feedback.
CLICK HERE FOR MORE INFORMATION REGARDING CONTROL SYSTEMS

Modular Electronics
MODULAR ELECTRONICS
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When building a circuit it is a good idea to treat it as being made up of modules or parts. For example you may
want a circuit to be composed of a switch and a bulb. To make it easier to design the circuit it is better if it is
treated as two separate parts, a switch circuit and a bulb circuit. These are then joined together - to produce one
completed circuit.
Two simple modules are seen

opposite and they are clearly
labelled. They can be rearranged
to produce a complete circuit.
When the switch is pressed the
bulb lights (see below).
Each module has a top rail
which is positive and a lower
rail which is 0 volts or negative.
The modules are linked together

by electrical wires and they fit
into the positive or negative
connections on the electronic
boards/modules.
Different makes of electronic
kits are available and each
allows pupils to build up
circuits, test them or experiment
and finally to dismantle the
modules so that another pupil
can use them in the future.
In this way circuits can be built
without the need to solder and
without wasting time linking
each individual component
http://www.technologystudent.com/elec1/modul1.htm (1 of 5)18/02/08 11:18 AM

Modular Electronics
using traditional methods.
Below is a temperature sensor circuit. When the temperature falls the resistance of the thermistor falls and a
bulb lights. Notice how the modules are put together to form the completed circuit.
The temperature sensor is connected to a transistor which is then connected to a bulb. The transistor allows
sharp switching of the bulb so that when the temperature falls the bulb comes on immediately and when it rises
it goes off just as quickly. Can you draw the circuit as a circuit diagram ?
QUESTIONS
Below are some modules that can be put together to form completed circuits. Cut them out with a scissors and
join them to complete the circuit questions on Sheet 3. If you require any modules that are not on this sheet,
design them yourself and add them to the ones below.

Modular Electronics

Modular Electronics
1. This question refers to the example ‘temperature sensor circuit’ near the top of this section.
A. Redesign the transistor module and bulb module so that they form one module.
B. Draw the completed temperature sensor and transistor/bulb modules connected together. Explain how the
completed circuit works.
C. Draw a new temperature module, this time one that ‘triggers’ the transistor module when the temperature
rises.
2. A. It is found that the bulb in the completed temperature circuit does not light because the output of the
single transistor is too weak. Design a new module that will provide a stronger output.
B. What is this new module called ?
C. Explain how this circuit works.
3. Design a ‘potential divider’ module. The module is for a nine volt supply and should allow six volts to be
drawn from it.
4. Design a simple game or toy for a very young child. It can involve sound, lights, a motor etc... Produce a
simple, clear diagram and an explanation.
5. Design the circuit(s) for the toy using modules and then draw the completed circuit as a ‘circuit diagram’.
You may need to design your own individual modules. Look at the photocopied sheets that have been given
out in previous weeks. (Suggestion - show your knowledge by using relays, LEDs, motors etc... alter sensors
so that they can be incorporated). Note, it is possible to set up components in ‘parallel’ so that they work
together. (example seen below).
Remember to show your understanding of components such as relays and circuits that include ‘Darlington
Pairs’ etc.... The examiner cannot give you marks for your understanding of electronics if you do not show it
on paper.

Modular Electronics

Modular Electronics Software - 1
MODULAR ELECTRONICS SOFTWARE - 1

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A range of software exists that allows the user to produce complex circuits by building up
‘modules’ into an overall circuit. Software such as Control Studio® is relatively simple to use
and once a circuit is built up it can be exported to software such as PCB Wizard® for production
as a PCB. The completed circuit can also be converted to an ordinary circuit diagram by
exporting it to software such as Livewire®. In both Control Studio and Live Wire the circuit can
be simulated to see if it works and how effective it is.
Modular electronics software allows the user to select the type of Inputs, Processes and outputs
for a particular circuit. Examples of some inputs, processes and outputs are shown below.
Control Studio® is based on a SYSTEMS approach. Most circuits have Inputs, a Process and
Outputs. When loading the software a menu appears that allows the user to choose either an
input, process, amplifier, driver, output or measure. This type of software allows the designer to
build a complex circuit without the complex knowledge of all components or how they are built
into circuits. A basic understanding of modular electronics is all that is needed.

The software also allows

the designer to add a
range of amplifiers and
drivers to circuits.
This means a
comprehensive range of
circuits can be developed,
by simply ‘clicking’ on
the appropriate electronics
modules and joining them
together with connectors.
CLICK HERE FOR NEXT CONTROL STUDIO® PAGE
CLICK HERE FOR PCB INDEX PAGE


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The circuit below has been built using Control Studio® software. The circuit has two
sensors - a light sensor and a push switch. These are connected to an AND gate. Both
sensors must be ‘ON’ for the AND gate to operate a motor.
The light sensor must be connected to a sensor unit. Also the voltage output from the AND
gate must be amplified by a Darlington Pair module before a motor can rotate.

The modular circuit is built by selecting an INPUT

or PROCESS or OUTPUT etc... The module is
then dragged into the design sheet area of the
screen. Each module is connected by wires or by
connectors. The connectors are found in the
Gallery and are simply dragged across into the
circuit design sheet area.
Once the circuit is put together, it can

be tested by using the software’s
simulation option (dia. ‘A’) When this
is selected, the animated circuit
operates as a real circuit.
In the case of the circuit shown above -
both the input sensors (push switch and
light sensor) must be ON / HIGH/
TRUE before the processing AND gate
activates the motor. The darlington pair
amplifies the current / voltage,
providing enough power for the motor
to turn.
Dia. A
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1. The diagram below shows a modular circuit and a conveyor belt system. The circuit has a push
switch which, when pressed, causes a solenoid to punch a hole in a piece of card. The card
travels across the conveyor belt, is punched and then falls into a basket at the end of the belt.
When the push switch is pressed, the sensor unit outputs current to the comparator. The
comparator detects this change and outputs current to the darlington pair. The darlington pair
amplifies the current driving the solenoid.

2. Below is a system designed to monitor the temperature of a car radiator. When the radiator
temperature becomes too high the voltage from the temperature sensor and sensor unit changes.
The comparator detects this change in voltage and activates the transducer. The transducer driver
provides enough power for the motor to operate, cooling the car radiator.
The modular circuit below is almost the same as the one above. However, this time the
transducer driver has been replaced with a darlington pair module. The effect is the same. The
darlington pair module amplifies the current so that the motor can be powered..
If the darlington pair is replaced with a transistor module (composed of one transistor) - what
would you expect to happen?

The single transistor does not amplify the current to the motor. As a result the motor does not
‘spin’. Control Studio software allows experimentation, without the need to build a real circuit
using actual components. It saves time and money as components are not wasted.

Digital Electronics and Logic Circuits - 1
DIGITAL ELECTRONICS - LOGIC CIRCUITS - 1

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Most modern electronic devices such as mobile telephones and computers depend on
digital electronics. In fact, most electronics about the home and in industry depend on
digital electronics to work.
Digital electronics normally based on ‘logic circuits’. These circuits depend on pulses of
electricity to make the circuit work. For instance, if current is present - this is
represented as ‘1’. If current is not present, this is represented as ‘0’. Digital electronics
is based on a series of 1s and 0s.
A good example of a digital electronic system is a mobile phone. As you speak into the
phone, the digital electronic circuits it contains converts your voice into a series of
electronic pulses (or 1s and 0s). These are transmitted and the receiving mobile phone
then converts the digital pulses back into your voice. Digital circuits are used because
they are efficient and work well, also, digital signals are easier to transmit than actual
sound (for example a persons voice).
http://www.technologystudent.com/elec1/dig1.htm (1 of 3)18/02/08 11:18 AM

The various parts of a computer communicate through the use of electronic pulses (1s
and 0s). Consequently digital logic circuits are ideal for the internal electronics. The
main part of the computer is the motherboard. This is a complex piece of electronics that
processes all the important data. For instance, when word processing, it is very important
to display letters and words on the monitor. The motherboard generates the individual
letters on the monitor by sending a series of 1s and 0s to the screen.
(For more information regarding digital signals see computer control)
When the computer operator presses the letter ‘H’ on the keyboard, the motherboard
converts this into a digital signal composed of 1s and 0s. The ‘H’ in the form of 1s and
0s is displayed on the monitor.
When you word-process a paragraph of writing all the letters/words are displayed on the
monitor in a similar way. In reality the letters are not composed of 1s and 0s but as black
or white pixels.
QUESTION:
Look closely at a computer monitor. The pixels are very small but you may be able to
see them especially if you use a magnifying glass. If you are looking at a colour picture,
the pixels will be in different colours, not only black and white.
CLICK HERE FOR NEXT LOGIC PAGE


Digital Electronics and Logic Circuits (Role of Transistors)
DIGITAL ELECTRONICS - LOGIC CIRCUITS - 2

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LOGIC circuits are normally composed of ‘gates’. A combination of gates make up a
circuit and some digital circuits can be extremely complex. It is the logic gates that produce
pulses of electrical current (1s and 0s). At school level, digital logic circuits are relatively
simple. Below are simple drawings that help explain the two most popular logic gates - the
AND gate and the OR gate.
The simplified AND gate

shown above has two
inputs, switch A and
switch B. The bulb Q
will only light if both
switches are closed. This
will allow current to flow
through the bulb,
illuminating the filament.

The simplified OR gate

shown above has two
inputs, switch A and
switch B. The bulb Q
will light if either switch
A or B are closed. This
will allow current to flow
through the bulb,
illuminating the filament.
When the bulb lights this represents a ‘1’ as current is running through the filament. If
current is not running through the filament the bulb will not light and this represents a
‘0’ (zero).
THE ROLE OF TRANSISTORS

Transistors are vital for digital circuits to work. These components are used as very fast
switches in digital logic circuits. Transistors are normally so small that hundreds of
thousands fit on one processing chip on a computer motherboard. The types of transistors
used in school projects are normally large enough to fit on the end of a small finger.
However, the way they switched on and off is the same (click here for transistor
information sheets) . When a transistor is switched on it produces a ‘1’ and when it is
switched off it produces a ‘0’.
Transistors in the circuit of a computer microprocessor can switch on and off thousands of
times per second. Without the invention of the transistor, computer processing power would
be very limited and slow.
Two basic examples of simple transistor driven logic (AND / OR) circuits are shown below.

This is an AND gate

circuit and it can be
made quite easily. The
example shown is built
from a modular
electronics kit. Both
switches ‘A’ and ‘B’
must be pressed together
for the bulb to light.
If you construct this
circuit, you may need to
alter the value of the
resistors. This will
depend on the type of
transistors used and
whether to bulb or an
LED is used.
This is an OR gate
circuit. Either switch ‘A’
or ‘B’ must be pressed
for the bulb to light. The
switches do not have to
be pressed together.
QUESTIONS:
1. Explain how an AND gate works. Use a circuit diagram to help explain your answer.
2. Explain how an OR gate works. Use a circuit diagram to help explain your answer.
3. Build a simple logic circuit using a breadboard and available components. You may wish
to build one of the circuits shown above.


Digital Electronics - Basic Truth Tables
DIGITAL ELECTRONICS - BASIC LOGIC TABLES

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A range of logic gates exist and they are represented as symbols, each with its own truth table
(sometimes called a logic table). Gates have inputs and produce outputs and these are in the
form of 1s and 0s. Remember, a 1 represents an input or output of electrical current. Each
truth table clearly shows the ‘state’ of inputs and outputs at any one time.
Study the symbols and tables below. You will soon find that they can be combined to design
interesting logic circuits.
The AND gate will only

output current (produce a 1
at Q) if both logic states at
inputs A and B change to 1.

The NAND gate has the

opposite outputs to the
AND gate. How does the
NAND gate symbol differ
to the AND gate?
The OR gate will output

current at Q if either of the
logic states of inputs A and
B change to1.
The NOR gate has the

opposite outputs to the OR
gate. How does the NOR
gate symbol differ to the
OR gate?
The INVERTER gate

reverses input. For
example, if the input is 1
then the output is 0.
This is a very useful gate
especially when designing
logic circuits.

QUESTIONS:
1. Draw each of the logic gates shown above and explain how each gate works.
2. Learn and remember each of the logic tables.

Alternative Representations of Logic Tables
ALTERNATIVE REPRESENTATIONS OF LOGIC GATES

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A ‘1’ means that current is present. For instance, if current is present at an output
of a gate then this is represented as a ‘1’. Instead of placing a ‘1’ at the output
other terms can be applied - high, true, on or up - all mean that current is present.
A ‘0’ means that current is not present. For instance, if current is not present at an
output of a gate then this is represented as a ‘0’. Instead of placing a'0’ at the
output other terms can be applied - low, false, off or low - all mean that current is
not present.
Alternative ways of representing the AND gate are written below.

Alternative Representations of Logic Tables
QUESTION:
Write the OR truth table using alternative terms other than ‘1s’ and ‘0s’.

Example Logic Circuit - 1
EXAMPLE LOGIC CIRCUITS - 1

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Below is the logic circuit for a simple house alarm. The alarm protects the front and
back doors and six windows. Once the alarm is set if any of the doors or windows are
opened the alarm will sound. OR gates have been used. The TIMER allows the house
owner to enter the house by either the front or back door and turn of the alarm system
before the alarm sounds.
The inputs for each of the gates representing the doors and windows can be connected
to a vast range of sensors (eg. movement and magnetic sensors).
On the circuit below the input states of each of the sensors are ‘0’ (false, low, off). This
means that they have not detected an intruder. As a result the alarm does not sound.

The situation changes when local thug, Ed the Handyman forces window 3 open.
Notice how the logic state of the input of GATE B changes from false to true. The
output state of gate ‘B’ changes to true, followed by the INPUT of gate ‘E’ and its
output. The input and output of gate ‘G’ also change to true. This train of events leads
to the alarm sounding. Because OR gates have been used, it only takes one input to
change to true at the windows or doors to activate the alarm.

EXAMPLE LOGIC CIRCUITS - 2

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In manufacturing industry safe use of machines is very important. All machines should be set up
in such a way that it is impossible for the machine operator to have an accident.
Machine ‘A’ is unsafe because it can be turned on and used when the guard is out of position,
especially if it is operated by a machinist such as Ed the Handyman (website cartoon character).
This means that the operator’s hands could be seriously injured by the dangerous blade as it cuts
the material.
Alternatively, machine ‘B’ has been fitted with a logic circuit. It is designed to ensure that the
guard must be in the correct position and the ‘ON’ switch is pressed simultaneously, before the
machine will work. This means that the operator must keep his/her spare hand on the switch or
electrical power will be cut, stopping the machine working.

The animation below shows what happens when the micro-switch has been switched 'ON' as the
guard is in the correct position. This means that the logic states of both inputs are 1 (true, on,
high, up), consequently the output logic state is 1 (true, on, high, up) and the machine works.
Remember, for the AND gate to output 1 both inputs must be 1.
QUESTION:
Draw a series of logic circuits that clearly show the logic states of inputs and outputs as the guard
is put in the correct position and the 'ON' switch pressed.

The 4081B Logic Circuit
THE 4081B LOGIC CIRCUIT

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Logic gates are usually
electronic circuits (based
on an integrated circuit)
and they are used to
make simple decisions. A
good example of this
type of circuit is based
on the 4081B integrated
circuit (IC) which can be
used effectively in school
projects.
For example, a dog owner wants to build an automatic animal feeder to work at night
and when his dog presses a switch (pressure pad). This type of device would
automatically feed the dog when the owner is asleep. A diagram of a simple prototype
design is shown opposite.
The 4081B integrated circuit will detect when the two switches are activated, one by the
dog and the other as darkness falls - the motor allows food to be released from a tube. If
only one switch is activated, food will not be released.

The logic diagram is

shown below. A micro-
switch (pressure pad) is
used as one input device
and a dark sensing circuit
as the other. The AND
gate has two inputs. If
both are activated - the
dark sensor and the
micro-switch - the logic
state of the output
changes to high and the
motor releases food to
the hungry dog.
The diagram below shows that the micro-switch has not been pressed and that it is
daylight, consequently the motor is off.
QUESTION:
Draw the diagram of the sensors and logic circuit above but it must clearly show the
motor working. Show and explain the logic states of inputs and outputs.
CLICK HERE FOR 4081B CIRCUIT DIAGRAM AND EXPLANATION


The 4081B Circuit Design
THE 4081B CIRCUIT DESIGN

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A circuit based around the 4081B integrated circuit can be seen below. The integrated circuit (IC)
contains a number of AND gates, although for this sample circuit only one of the AND gates has been
used.

The 4081B Circuit Design
The circuit above

represents an AND
GATE. This means that
switch one AND switch
two must be pressed
before the relay is
energised. When logic
chips are used in a
circuit the inputs of any
unused gates should be
connected to the positive
or negative, it does not
matter which.
The ‘chip’ diagram
opposite shows the gates
of the 4081B and its
inputs and outputs. In the
circuit above only input
pins 1 and 2 are used, for
the switches, which
when pressed produce an
output at pin 3. The
output at pin 3 energises
the relay and starts the
motor, releasing the food
for the dog.
QUESTIONS:
1. How many switches can be connected to the 4081B ?
2. Draw a 4081B circuit diagram with three switches connected.
CLICK HERE FOR MORE INFORMATION REGARDING THE 4081B LOGIC CHIP

The Design and Technology Site
DIGITAL LOGIC EXAM QUESTION 1

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An electronics company has developed a baby sitting device which warns parents when their child
turns on a lamp next to the bed or when the temperature of the room falls.
Sensor A is a temperature sensor which outputs false(0, low, off) when the room temperature falls
below a set level.
Sensor B is a light sensor and is attached to a lamp. The sensor outputs true (1, high, on) when the
lamp is switched on.
1. What is a transducer driver and what is its function?

A transducer driver is normally a circuit that amplifies a weak signal (current). In this case current
from the OR gate is amplified by the transducer driver which in turn energises a relaying - activating
the buzzer. A signal (current) from any gate is usually too weak to directly activate a buzzer. The
circuit diagram below shows the type of circuit needed for a typical transducer driver. Transducer
drivers can switch on buzzers, LEDs, motors etc....
http://www.technologystudent.com/elec1/digq1.htm (1 of 4)18/02/08 11:20 AM

2. The young child awakes and turns on a lamp next to her bed, changing the logic states of the
outputs / inputs of the sensors and logic gates. On the logic circuit below, write the logic state of
inputs / outputs of the sensors and gates.

3. As the child grows older she regularly gets out of bed and moves around during the night. A new
sensor needs to be connected to the system to detect this movement. A micro-switch (SENSOR C) has
been added to the system so that when the child opens her bedroom door the buzzer is activated.
Complete the circuit below by adding the necessary gate.
4. In the space opposite

write/draw the logic table
for your chosen gate.
5. The electronics company has decided to add a circuit that will pulse the buzzer on and off. Name a
circuit that could be used.
An ASTABLE 555 timer circuit.


Digital Logic Exam Question 2
DIGITAL LOGIC EXAMINATION QUESTION - 2

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1A. A metal cutting milling machine has two

switches, any one will allow the cutter to run. The
first switch is on the side of the machine and the
second is a foot operated switch.
However, the machine has two micro-switches
(used as safety devices) if any of these is released
the cutter will stop. The first micro-switch is on a
guard, if this is opened the machine will stop. The
second micro-switch is on a door which allows
access to the moving mechanism of the milling
machine. If this is opened the machine will stop.
The micro-switches are normally logic ‘1’ (true,
high, on) when pressed. Draw the logic diagram
for this machine.

1B. What moving parts would you expect to see behind the door leading to the internal mechanism of the
milling machine? Why would access to this area be dangerous if the machine is working at the same time?
Behind the door there may be a gear system or pulley system which moves / rotates at high speed. If
fingers or hands were trapped in this system, this would be extremely dangerous and could lead to a very
serious accident.
1C. Is having an ON and OFF switch on the floor a good idea? How would you improve the design of the
switch to make the machine safer to use?
The machine operator could easily switch the machine ON or OFF by mistake as the buttons are too close
together. An improvement would be to have only the OFF button on the floor.
1D. The room has two emergency stop buttons at either end of the workshop. If either of these are
pressed all machinery in the room will stop. Draw the new logic circuit for this arrangement of buttons
and switches.

The NOR gate seen opposite could replace the OR

and NOT gates, for the monitoring the emergency
stops buttons.

Digital Logic Circuit Question - 3
DIGITAL LOGIC EXAMINATION QUESTION - 3

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1. A local systems designer has developed a system to control street lights. The street lights can be turned
on manually, or by the use of a timer, so long as a light sensing unit indicates that it is dark.
1A. Below is an incomplete logic circuit for the control system. Redraw the logic circuit using the correct
logic gates. Note the output of the dark/light sensor is ‘1’ (true, high, on) when it is light. The lights must be
turned during the dark of night.

1B. Name the logic gates you have used:
GATE X .................
GATE Y .................
GATE Z ..................
Below is the logic circuit showing the logic states of inputs and outputs of all the gates when the street
lights are ON.
Below is the logic circuit showing the logic states of inputs and outputs of all the gates when the street
lights are OFF.

1C. On the logic circuit below, write the logic states of all inputs and outputs for the following:
It is night time, the manual switch is off and the timer is ‘on’. Will the street lights be on or off ?
1D. Complete the truth table for the logic circuit that controls the street lighting system.

1E. Normally a logic circuit such as the one used to control the street lights cannot power lights. In the
space below name the subsystem that could be used.

AND Gate Logic Circuit Question
AND GATE LOGIC CIRCUIT

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Below is a simple AND gate logic circuit designed for a dog. The dog’s owner is very concerned
that when he is at work he can gain entrance to the kennel he has made. The kennel is situated
outside. However, recently a cat has been entering the kennel and eating the dogs food. The
owner has fitted an electronic device that is activated when the dog passes close to a light / dark
sensor and presses a hidden pressure pad. Once this has been completed successfully, a motor
opens the kennel door.
1. The prototype circuit is built from a kit of modules eg. a light/dark sensor module, an AND
gate etc... However, the circuit has failed. Clearly identify the module that is likely to be the
cause of the failure.

2. Why is it likely that this part of the circuit will fail?
In the space below, draw the circuit built from modules, with a replacement module which makes
it much more likely that the circuit will work successfully. Label the new module.
3. Why is the new module likely to be successful?
4. The prototype circuit made from modules such as a light/dark sensor and AND gate module
etc... has be converted into a circuit diagram. This is shown below. However, four key
components are missing. Complete the diagram by adding the four correct symbols.

5. The complete circuit diagram has been converted to a PCB layout, shown below. However,
two key components are missing. They are still to be soldered into position. Draw the missing
components in position. Label the components.

6. Explain why it may be advisable to use a low voltage (transformer) to operate the circuit and
motor.
CLICK HERE FOR SAMPLE ANSWER

AND Gate Logic Circuit Answer
AND GATE LOGIC CIRCUIT - SAMPLE ANSWER

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Below is a simple AND gate logic circuit designed for a dog. The dog’s owner is very concerned
that when he is at work he can gain entrance to the kennel he has made. The kennel is situated
outside. However, recently a cat has been entering the kennel and eating the dogs food. The
owner has fitted an electronic device that is activated when the dog passes close to a light / dark
sensor and presses a hidden pressure pad. Once this has been completed successfully, a motor
opens the kennel door.
1. The prototype circuit is built from a kit of modules eg. a light/dark sensor module, an AND
gate etc... However, the circuit has failed. Clearly identify the module that is likely to be the
cause of the failure.

2. Why is it likely that this part of the circuit will fail?
The single transistor does not produce enough current to activate the motor. It does not amplify
the weak current produced by the AND gate module.
In the space below, draw the circuit built from modules, with a replacement module which makes
it much more likely that the circuit will work successfully. Label the new module.
3. Why is the new module likely to be successful?
The darlington pair module is composed of two transistors. This module amplifies the current to
a level that can drive the motor.
4. The prototype circuit made from modules such as a light/dark sensor and AND gate module
etc... has be converted into a circuit diagram. This is shown below. However, four key
components are missing. Complete the diagram by adding the four correct symbols.

5. The complete circuit diagram has been converted to a PCB layout, shown below. However,
two key components are missing. They are still to be soldered into position. Draw the missing
components in position. Label the components.

6. Explain why it may be advisable to use a low voltage (transformer) to operate the circuit and
motor.
Using mains voltage is potentially very dangerous. if the circuit fails or the dog ‘gnaws’ through
a cable, it could easily be electrocuted. A low voltage supply, such as 12 volts, avoids this
problem.
CLICK HERE FOR ORIGINAL QUESTION

The Binary System
THE BINARY NUMBER SYSTEM

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Binary numbers are closely related to digital electronics. With digital electronics a ‘1’ means
that current / electricity is present and a ‘0’ means it is not present. The different parts of a
computer communicate through pulses of current (1s and 0s).
As we all know, computers can calculate complex equations and perform complex
mathematics at lightening speed. Calculating using only 1s and 0s is called the BINARY
SYSTEM. Although a computer will only process 1s and 0s there comes a point when the 1s
and 0s have to be converted into our usual decimal numbers - that we are familiar with.
We tend to use the DECIMAL SYSTEM when attempting maths. This system deals with
numbers that we are using on a daily basis: 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9, 10s, 100s, 1000s etc..... As the
BINARY system is composed of only two numbers (1s and 0s) you may be wandering how it
is possible to count beyond one. The table below will help you understand how this is done.
http://www.technologystudent.com/elec1/biny1.htm (1 of 3)18/02/08 11:21 AM

The Binary System
Look at the row that represents the decimal number 10 (diagram below). The table can be
used to convert this decimal number to a binary number. The table shows that DECIMAL 10
is composed of one number 8 and one number 2. Zeros are used to fill the blank spaces which
gives 1010 as the binary equivalent of decimal 10.
Next look at the way decimal 60 is converted to its binary equivalent. 60 is composed of one
32, one 16, one 8, and one 4. The blanks are filled with zeros giving 111100 as the binary
equivalent of decimal 60.

The Binary System
The important point to remember is that when converting from decimal to binary OR from
binary to decimal, you must write down the top section of the table (seen in yellow above)
and underneath enter the binary number.
QUESTIONS:
1. What do you notice about the way the numbers along the top section of the table increase -
from right to left (yellow section of table)?
2. Complete the table by writing the binary equivalent of decimal numbers 44, 19, 27 and 7, in
the spaces available.

Integrated Circuits
INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
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Integrated circuits (ICs) are very important components found in many circuits. They are also called
silicon chips or microchips. Basic 555 timer circuits ranging to complex PIC Microcontroller circuits and
computer processors (CPUs) are based on the use of integrated circuits.
555 TIMER PIC MICROCONTROLLER
A typical integrated circuit package is very small.

The diagram opposite gives some idea of the small
scale of a typical 555 timer IC. It would easily fit on
the end of a finger. A 555 timer only has 8 pins, four
on each side. However, even the larger 19 pin ICs
are small enough to fit very easily in the palm of the
hand, if not on the end of a finger tip.
http://www.technologystudent.com/elec1/ic1.htm (1 of 2)18/02/08 11:21 AM

Integrated Circuits
People often get confused with the term integrated circuit. The diagrams below clearly show the
integrated circuit package with its 8 pins. However, the integrated circuit is found inside the package. The
package is the outer casing, usually made from non-conducting ceramic material.
The 555 integrated circuit is found inside a ceramic package. The IC is connected to the pins by fine
wires. Diagram ‘A’ shows part of the package cut away revealing the IC inside. Diagram ‘B’ shows the
package as transparent. This means that the connecting wires from the IC to the pins can be seen.
DIAGRAM 'A' DIAGRAM 'B'
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Integrated Circuits - 2
INTEGRATED CIRCUITS - 2
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Integrated circuits
are composed
hundreds,
thousands and even
hundreds of
thousands of
electronic
components. These
are formed on
interlocking
layers / wafers of
silicon making it
possible to create
small individual
electronic
components. An
example of the an
integrated circuit
with its many
layers can be seen
opposite.

If an area of an
integrated circuit is
magnified
thousands of times
its various layers
can be seen. The
drawing opposite
shows three layers,
each layer is shown
as a specific colour.
Although
transistors and
resistors do not
look like typically
sized components,
the interlocking
layers form
miniature versions
and they work in
the same way.
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INTEGRATED CIRCUITS - 3
V. Ryan © 2006
The packages of
popular integrated
circuits used in
schools and
colleges are
sometimes called a
Dual In-Line
Packages. They are
also called either
DIP packages or
DIL packages and
two examples are
shown opposite.
The PICAXE 18 is
a DIL package
with 18 pins and its
smaller relation is
the PICAXE 08
with 8 pins.
The pins of integrated circuits can be delicate and trying to solder each
pin to a PCB can be very difficult. It is often a good idea to solder a cheap
chip holder to a PCB and then press the integrated circuit package into it.

The circuit below is based on the PICAXE-18 integrated circuit. Two 19

pin chip holders have been soldered to the PCB and the 18 pin integrated
circuits pressed into them.
Soldering integrated circuit packages directly to a PCB can be awkward
because the heat from the soldering iron can damaged the integrated
circuit, if it reaches it. Therefore, holders are normally used.
Another advantage of using the holders is that the integrated circuits can
be removed at anytime.

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The 555 Integrated Circuit
THE 555 INTEGRATED CIRCUIT

V. Ryan © 2007
This integrated circuit is used for

timing. Many circuits are
composed of timers and the most
common of them all is the 555
Integrated Circuit. It is used in
many commercially manufactured
items such as video recorders and
timers.
You must understand the basic

workings of this important IC.
The 555 has eight pins (legs) but
the function of two are very
important. These are pin two and
three. This chip is used in timing
circuits.
http://www.technologystudent.com/elec_flsh/timer1a.html (1 of 5)18/02/08 11:22 AM

The circuit below is a simplified version of a 555 circuit. It is a timer. When the switch is pressed a
current / voltage goes into the IC through pin two (the input pin). The chip starts counting and when it has
finished counting it ‘pulses’ a current or voltage from pin three (the output pin). This voltage from pin
three switches a transistor and allows the LED to light.

The time from pressing the switch to the LED lighting could be anything from 1 second to twenty minutes.
A 555 will switch on a range of components not only LEDs. For example, it can switch on a relay which
then allows a second circuit to work.
The circuit shown opposite is a simple version of a real 555 circuit. The real circuit includes resistors and
capacitors. (See following sheets).

The 555 integrated circuit acts as a counter. When activated by current entering
in through pin 2, it starts to count for a certain amount of time. When it has
finished counting it emits current from pin 3. This usually activates other
components such as LEDs or relays.
When the push switch is pressed it allows current to flow into pin 2, starting
the timing sequence.
The combination of the resistor and capacitor determines the length of the
timing sequence. In general terms, if the resistor and capacitor values are high
the timing sequence is long. If the values are low the timing sequence is short.
The transistor acts as a very sensitive switch. When current enters the base
electricity can flow from the collector to the emitter. this allows the LED to
light.

The LED lights when current flows through it. In this circuit it indicates when
pin three is emitting current.
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The 555 Asatble Circuit
THE 555 ASTABLE CIRCUIT

V. Ryan © 2007
When the 555 IC is used to produce an ASTABLE circuit - it will continually pulse until power is
removed. Astable circuits can be used to flash lights/LEDs on and off or to turn a buzzer on and off
repeatedly. They are also used in many more school based circuits.
Look at the circuit drawn below. Pins 6 and 2 are connected and go to the negative (0 volts). This is
the easiest way of recognising that a 555 IC has been set up as astable.
An astable circuit such as the one seen below is sometimes called an oscillator as it resets itself,
continually turning the LED on and off.
http://www.technologystudent.com/elec_flsh/55ast1.html (1 of 3)18/02/08 11:22 AM

In an astable 555 circuit pins 2 and 6 are connected which means that the circuit will trigger itself
continually until power is removed. The larger the value of the capacitor the longer the LED stays on
and off.

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The 555 Monostable Circuit
THE 555 MONOSTABLE CIRCUIT

V. Ryan © 2007
When the 555 IC is used to produce an MONOSTABLE circuit - it will only pulse once.
Monostable circuits can be used to turn lights/LEDs on or off just once. They are also used in
many more school based circuits.
Look at the circuit drawn below. Pins 6 and 7 are connected and go to the positive (+9 volts).
This is the easiest way of recognising that a 555 IC has been set up as monostable.
http://www.technologystudent.com/elec_flsh/mono1.html (1 of 3)18/02/08 11:23 AM

When the switch is pressed current flows into pin 2. Current then flows out of pin 3 switching the
transistor. Current can now flow from +9 volts to -0 volts and the LED lights. In this monostable
circuit when the switch is pressed the LED only lights once. The switch has to be pressed each
time for the LED to light. This example shows the LED staying on for approximately 8 seconds.
If the value of the capacitor is increased the length the LED stays on increases.
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555 Monostable Examples
555 MONOSTABLE EXAMPLES

V. Ryan © 2006
A number of 555 monostable example circuits are seen below. They are all based on the
same circuit (DIA. A). The switch must be presses each time to light the LED as the timing
cycle only works once.
DIA 'A'
http://www.technologystudent.com/elec1/555ex1.htm (1 of 4)18/02/08 11:23 AM

FURTHER EXAMPLES
The bulb only
illuminates when
the push switch is
pressed. It works
once and then stops.
The switch must be
pressed again for
the bulb to light.
Increasing the value

of the resistors and
capacitor extends
the time the bulb is
illuminated.

The LED only

lights when the
push switch is
pressed. It works
The switch must be
pressed again for
the LED to light.
A 330 ohm resistor
has been added to
protect the LED.
Without it the LED
would ‘blow’.

capacitor extends
the time LED stays
illuminated.
The motor spindle
only turns when the
push switch is
pressed. It works
The switch must be
pressed again for
the spindle to rotate.

capacitor extends
the time the spindle
turns.
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The 555 Monostable Circuit - More Detail
THE 555 MONOSTABLE CIRCUIT IN DETAIL

V. Ryan © 2002
Electronic timers are central to school projects. You will find as you develop your circuits that the timer circuit
can be adapted to suit many purposes. There are several reliable timers but the 555 timer is the most common.
Whether you are putting together an alarm or a circuit to activate a computer, a timer is the common component.
The 555 timer IC (integrated circuit) is very stable, relatively cheap and reliable. It may be used as monostable
or astable.
MONOSTABLE
Monostable means that once the circuit is switched on it will time once and then stop. In order to start it again it
must be switched on manually a second time.
In the circuit drawn opposite, the 555 timer is

set to turn on the buzzer when the push
switch is pressed; the buzzer sounds for
approximately 8 seconds. This is a
monostable circuit as it works only once. The
switch must be pressed again for the buzzer
to sound again.
http://www.technologystudent.com/elec1/5554.htm (1 of 3)18/02/08 11:23 AM

On the diagram above if the components 'boxed in' by the dotted

line are removed and the alternative components (shown on the
right) are added - the 555 timer circuit can be used to energise a
relay.
The timer can now be used to trigger a relay which then allows
another circuit to work. In this case the timer holds the relay
closed for a preset amount of time allowing the second circuit to
work and then switches the relay open, which stops the secondary
circuit.
WHAT THE 'PINS' OF THE 555 ACTUALLY DO
The pin (leg) that triggers the 555 IC is leg

two. In other words leg two starts the timing
sequence once a voltage is applied to it and
after the 555 timer has ended it’s timing
sequence a signal (output) is sent down leg
three. In the circuit at the top of this page, the
signal down leg three starts the buzzer. The
variable resistor VR1 can be used to increase
or decrease the timing cycle.

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3D 555 MONOSTABLE EXAMPLE - 1

V. Ryan © 2006
A circuit shown below is a 555 monostable circuit. Normally a 9 volt battery would be connected but this
circuit is powered by a transformer. The circuit has be drawn on 'Crocodile Technology 3D' software and
then animated (using graphics/animation software). A circuit can be drawn with this software and tested
on screen. Furthermore, it can be seen in three dimensions and rotated into almost any position.
The bulb only illuminates when the push switch is pressed. It works once and then stops. The switch must
be pressed again for the bulb to light.
Increasing the value of the resistors and capacitor extends the time the bulb is illuminated.
Below are some of the main components used in a 555 monostable circuit. Name all the components and
explain the role they play.

1. EXPLANATION OF ROLE:
7. In your opinion, which of the components shown above is the most important in the 555 monostable
circuit? Explain your answer.
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3D 555 MONOSTABLE EXAMPLE - 2

V. Ryan © 2006
A circuit shown below is a 555 monostable circuit, powered by a 9 volt battery. The circuit
has be drawn on 'Crocodile Technology 3D' software and then animated (using graphics/
animation software). A circuit can be constructed with this software and tested on screen.
Faults can then be corrected before the circuit is manufactured with real components. This
saves time and money. Furthermore, Crocodile Technology 3D allows the circuit to be seen
and tested in three dimensions and rotated into almost any position. This makes it much
easier to understand the layout of the components and how the circuit works.
The motor only illuminates when the push switch is pressed. It works once and then stops.
The switch must be pressed again for the bulb to light.
Increasing the value of the resistors and capacitor extends the time the motor's shaft rotates.

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555 Timer examination Questions - 1
555 TIMER EXAMINATION QUESTIONS - 1

V. Ryan © 2006
1. Below are some of the main components used in a 555 monostable circuit. Name all the components
and explain the role they play.

555 Timer examination Questions - 1
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555 Timer Examination Questions - 2
555 TIMER EXAMINATION QUESTIONS - 2

V. Ryan © 2006
1. The following question is based on the 555 monostable circuit. The circuit shown is part of a production
line and controls the timing sequence. The automated production line is shown below. Parts / components
move along the production line where they are sensed, clamped down, drilled and then released, moving
down the production line again. The 555 monostable circuit controls the timing of the entire production
line.
The timer circuit is found inside the control circuit box. The incomplete circuit diagram is found below.
Add the following components to complete the timer circuit:
A. 0v and 9v supply
B. A variable resistor for altering the length timing sequence.
C. A buzzer that sounds during the timing sequence.

POSSIBLE ANSWER

D. Explain how your completed circuit works.
POSSIBLE ANSWER
When SW2 is pressed current flows into pin 2 of the 555 timer starting the timing sequence. Current flows
from pin 3 into the transistor, allowing current to flow from positive to negative, sounding the buzzer. The
buzzer sounds for the entire timing sequence.
2. What is the role of the variable resistor and capacitor?
POSSIBLE ANSWER
Both components are key to the length of time of the timing sequence. If a resistor and capacitor of higher
values are used then the timing sequence is longer.

3. The 555 timer is an IC. What does IC mean?
POSSIBLE ANSWER AND FURTHER INFORMATION
IC means ‘Integrated Circuit’ - click here for further information
4. The 555 timer has a DIL layout. What does DIL mean?
POSSIBLE ANSWER AND FURTHER INFORMATION
DIL means ‘Dual In-line. This means that there are two parallel lines of pins - click here for further
information
5. It has been found that the sound emitted by the buzzer is too low. A circuit designer has suggested that a
relay be added. The circuit also needs protecting by the addition of another component placed in parallel
with the relay. (See layout below)
Complete the circuit diagram by adding the relay and a suitable additional ‘protecting’ component.
POSSIBLE ANSWER

6. Name the component that protects the circuit and explain how it does this.
NAME:_____________________________
How the component protects the circuit.
POSSIBLE ANSWER
NAME : DIODE
How the component protects the circuit.
The diode is placed in parallel with the relay, placed the opposite way round to its normal direction. When
the relay is switched off it can cause back E.M.F. This is current that is sent round the circuit in the wrong
direction. This ‘spike’ can damage sensitive components such as transistors. The diode stops current
flowing round the circuit in the wrong direction. It acts like a one way valve.
click here for more on diodes

7. What is back EMF ?
POSSIBLE ANSWER
E.M.F is Electro Motive Force. Back E.M.F is current that is sent round a circuit in the wrong direction.
This can damage sensitive components such as transistors and integrated circuits.
8. The incomplete timer circuit is shown below. Some components are missing. Draw the missing
components in the correct positions, adding suitable labels. The missing components are shown below the
circuit diagram.

POSSIBLE ANSWER
9. In the space below explain how the entire circuit works. Include an explanation of the key components
and their role in the circuit.

POSSIBLE ANSWER
When switch 1 is closed current is available for the circuit. When switch 2 is pressed current flows into
pin 2 of the 555 timer, starting the timing sequence. Current flows from pin 3 of the timer into the base of
the transistor allowing the relay to become energised. The relay switches on the remaining part of the
circuit by allowing current to flow through the buzzer which sounds.
The diode protects sensitive components by preventing back E.M.F. The combination of the variable
resistor and the capacitor determines the length of time the 555 timer counts. When the timer has finished
counting, current no longer flows from pin 3 and the buzzer stops sounding.
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The 555 Astable Breadboard Circuit
555 ASTABLE CIRCUIT - BREAD BOARD

V. Ryan © 2002
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Components:
One 555 IC
270 ohm resistor from +9v to the
collector of the NPN transistor.
Two 1K resistors
One NPN transistor (try any
alternative).
One 47uf capacitor
Black and red wire.
One LED
Using a breadboard and components listed above, put together the astable 555 timer circuit.
Test the circuit to check that it works. Usually any faults are due to wires, components or
pins/legs of components in the wrong slots. The information below explains in detail how the
timer works.
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The 555 Astable Breadboard Circuit
Astable means that the 555 can operate repeatedly, it will switch on, then off, then on, then
off, continually. The 555 is sometimes called an oscillator.
This is a typical 555 astable circuit that drives an LED. It is known as a LED flasher as the
LED flashes on and off. The number of flashes per minute can be altered by turning the
preset resistor.
Remember the 555 is activated by current at pin two and the output is through pin three.
Altering the preset resistor alters the time between ‘pulses’ at pin three. The pulse at pin
three switches the transistor which allows the LED to come on.
The LED flashes on and off because with this astable circuit the pulses from pin three are
repeated until the power is switched off completely.
http://www.technologystudent.com/elec1/brd555.htm (2 of 2)18/02/08 11:24 AM

555 Astable Examples
555 ASTABLE EXAMPLES

V. Ryan © 2006
A number of 555 astable example circuits are seen below. They are all based on the same
circuit (DIA. A). The circuit continually resets itself and the LED flashes on and off until all
power is removed. The circuit diagram shows that pins 6 and 2 are connected, this means
that the circuit resets and triggers itself.
DIA 'A'

FURTHER EXAMPLES
The bulb is turned

on and off
repeatedly. This
cycle stops when
the toggle switch is
turned off.

capacitor extends
the time the bulb is
illuminated and the
time it is off.

The LED is turned

on and off
repeatedly. This
cycle stops when
turned off.

capacitor extends
the time the LED is
illuminated and the
time it is off.
The motor is turned

on and off
repeatedly. This
cycle stops when
turned off.

capacitor extends
the time the motor
is on and the time it
is off.
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The 555 Astable Circuit - More Detail
THE 555 ASTABLE

CIRCUIT IN DETAIL
V. Ryan © 2002
Electronic timers are central to school projects. You will find as you develop your circuits that the
timer circuit can be adapted to suit many purposes. There are several reliable timers but the 555
timer is the most common. Whether you are putting together an alarm or a circuit to activate a
computer, a timer is the common component.
The 555 timer IC (integrated circuit) is very stable, relatively cheap and reliable. It may be used as
monostable or astable.
Astable means that the 555 can operate repeatedly, it will switch on, then off, then on, then off,
continually. The 555 is sometimes called an oscillator.
This is a typical 555
astable circuit that drives
an LED. It is known as a
LED flasher as the LED
flashes on and off. The
number of flashes per
minute can be altered by
turning the variable
resistor.
Remember the 555 is

activated by current at pin
two and the output is
through pin three. Altering
the variable resistor alters
the time between ‘pulses’
at pin three. The pulse at
pin three switches the
transistor which allows the
LED to come on.

The LED flashes on and

off because with this
astable circuit the pulses
from pin three are repeated
until the power is switched
off completely.
This 555 circuit is very

similar to the one above
and it is called a ‘pulse
generator’. Circuits like
this are often used to
produce a pulse or signal
that will start a second
circuit. This can be seen in
a simple alarm.
Our alarm consists of two

circuits, one is a 555 pulse
generator and the other
detects the pulse. If the
pulse is removed a buzzer
on the second circuit
sounds.
This type of circuit could
be useful on a door. When
the door is shut the alarm is
turned on. The first 555
circuit generates a pulse
(positioned on the door
frame) and the second

circuit detects the pulse

and is positioned on the
door itself. If the door is
opened the connection
between the two circuits is
broken. The second circuit
can not detect a pulse and
so the buzzer sounds.
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The Operational Amplifier used as an Amplifier - A Simple Explanation

USED AS AN AMPLIFIER - A SIMPLE EXPLANATION
V. Ryan © 2007
741 Operational Amplifiers (also known as Op Amps) are used in a range of circuits. They are
generally used to amplify weak electrical current in a circuit. Radios, stereo systems,
headphones, TVs and many other electrical products include an operational amplifier as a
component in many of their circuits.
Circuits such as moisture sensors, light / dark sensors, movement sensors, sound sensors etc..
often need operational amplifiers in order for them to work properly.
The circuit below is part of a larger alarm circuit. When it detects movement (ie. an intruder) it
sends a signal to the main alarm system which sounds the siren. Without the Operational
Amplifier Integrated Circuit the signal would be too weak for the main alarm system to detect.
The Operational Amplifier increases the signal so that it is strong enough and the main alarm
circuit sounds the siren.
http://www.technologystudent.com/elec1/alarm1.html (1 of 4)18/02/08 11:26 AM

Make a list of other electrical products that you think have operational amplifiers as a component
(s) in their circuits.
Ed often plays his electric guitar without it being plugged into a speaker/amplifier system. This is
good for the general public as he is often plays out of tune. His music cannot be heard next door
which means his next door neighbour gets a good nights sleep.

However, recently he has bought a powerful speaker with his pocket money. Inside the speaker is
a circuit that amplifies the sound of the guitar. This circuit includes a 741 Operational Amplifier
which ‘amplifies’ every sound the guitar makes by a factor of 100. The volume of the music is
now extremely loud and consequently his neighbour cannot sleep

QUESTION:
Explain the main reasons for including an operational amplifier in a circuit for a product such as
an alarm sensor or a radio.
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The Operational Amplifier used as an Amplifier with Sensors
THE OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER USED AS

AN AMPLIFIER WITH SENSORS
V. Ryan © 2007
Sometimes it is necessary to increase the current in a circuit. This is especially important if a sensor is
being used as an input. Sensors are often used to switch on other devices. For example, a temperature
sensor may to used to detect fire and then to turn on a water sprinkler system to put the fire out. Look at
the example below.
When the rise in temperature (caused by the fire) is detected the sensor circuit (including an operational
amplifier) allows a small amount of current to flow through it. However, the current is too small to
activate the sprinkler system. The current must be increased for this to happen. An operational amplifier is
used to increase the current (called GAIN). Then the sprinkler system is turned on putting out the fire.
The diagram below clearly shows how a small current (sometimes called a signal) is amplified by the
Operational Amplifier to produce a larger current (signal)
http://www.technologystudent.com/elec1/opyamp1.html (1 of 2)18/02/08 11:26 AM

The Operational Amplifier used as an Amplifier with Sensors
QUESTION:
1. Name five different sensors and explain how each one could be used. For example, a temperature
sensor could be used to detect a fire in a fire prevention system.
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http://www.technologystudent.com/elec1/opyamp1.html (2 of 2)18/02/08 11:26 AM

The 741 Operational Amplifier

V. Ryan © 2002-05
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The Operational Amplifier is probably the most versatile Integrated Circuit available. It is
very cheap especially keeping in mind the fact that it contains several hundred components.
The most common Op-Amp is the 741 and it is used in many circuits.
The OP AMP is a ‘Linear Amplifier’ with an amazing variety of uses. Its main purpose is to
amplify (increase) a weak signal - a little like a Darlington Pair.
The OP-AMP has two inputs, INVERTING ( - ) and NON-INVERTING (+), and one output
at pin 6.
The chip can be used in a circuit in two ways. If the voltage goes into pin two then it is known
as an INVERTING AMPLIFIER.
If the voltage goes into pin three then the circuit becomes a NON-INVERTING AMPLIFIER.
http://www.technologystudent.com/elec1/opamp1.htm (1 of 3)18/02/08 11:27 AM

The 741 integrated circuit looks like any

other ‘chip’. However, it is a general purpose
OP-AMP. You need only to know basic
information about its operation and use. The
diagram opposite shows the pins of the 741
OP-AMP. The important pins are 2, 3 and 6
because these represent inverting, non-
inverting and voltage out. Notice the
triangular diagram that represents an Op-
Amp integrated circuit.
THE 741 IS USED IN TWO WAYS
1. An inverting amplifier. Leg two is the input and the output is always reversed.
In an inverting amplifier the voltage enters the 741 chip through leg two and comes out of the
741 chip at leg six. If the polarity is positive going into the chip, it negative by the time it
comes out through leg six. The polarity has been ‘inverted’.
2. A non-inverting amplifier. Leg three is the input and the output is not reversed.
In a non-inverting amplifier the voltage enters the 741 chip through leg three and leaves the
741 chip through leg six. This time if it is positive going into the 741 then it is still positive
coming out. Polarity remains the same.
CLICK HERE FOR NEXT OPAMP PAGE


Non-inverting and Inverting Operational Amplifiers
NON-INVERTING AND INVERTING 741 AMPLIFIERS

V. Ryan © 2002-05
1. An inverting amplifier - Leg two is the input and the output is always reversed or inverted.
2. A Non-inverting amplifier - Leg three is the input and the output is not reversed.
Opposite is a diagram of an
INVERTING AMPLIFIER.
This means that if the voltage
going into the 741 chip is
positive, it is negative when it
comes out of the 741. In other
words it reverses polarity
(inverts polarity).
Two resistors are needed to
make the 741 work as an
amplifier, R1 and R2. In most
text books diagrams like this
are used to represent the 741.
HOW TO CALCULATE THE 'GAIN'
An operational amplifiers purpose is to amplify a weak signal and this is called the GAIN.
INVERTING AMPLIFIER NON-INVERTING AMPLIFIER
GAIN (AV) = -R2 / R1 GAIN (AV) = 1+(R2 / R1)
Example : if R2 is 100 kilo- Example : if R2 is 1000 kilo-ohm and R1 is 100 kilo-ohm the gain would
ohm and R1 is 10 kilo-ohm be :
the gain would be :
1+ (1000/100) = 1 + 10
-100 / 10 = -10 (Gain AV) OR
GAIN (AV) = 11
If the input voltage is 0.5v the
output voltage would be : If the input voltage is 0.5v the output voltage would be :

Non-inverting and Inverting Operational Amplifiers
0.5v X -10 = -5v 0.5 X 11 = 5.5v
The polarity of a signal is A signal applied keeps its polarity at the output, pin six.
reversed at the output, pin
six. A positive input remains a positive output.
A negative input becomes a

positive output.
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The 741 as a Comparator
OP-AMPS AS COMPARATORS
V. Ryan © 2002-05
Below are some examples of 741 I.C. based circuits. However, this time the 741 is used as a comparator
and not an amplifier. The difference between the two is small but significant. Even if used as a
comparator the 741 still detects weak signals so that they can be recognised more easily. It is important
to understand these circuits as they very regularly appear in examinations.
A ‘comparator’ is an circuit that

compares two input voltages. One
voltage is called the reference
voltage (Vref) and the other is
called the input voltage (Vin).
When Vin rises above or falls

below Vref the output changes
polarity (+ becomes -).
Positive is sometimes called HIGH.

Negative is sometimes called LOW.
EXAMPLE CIRCUIT - LIGHT ACTIVATED ALERTER

The buzzer emits a tone when light falls on the light dependent resistor. Resistor 2 controls the
sensitivity of the circuit.
The 741 is working as a comparator and the piezo buzzer sounds when the output form the 741 goes
‘low’ or in other words, changes from a positive to a negative.
EXAMPLE CIRCUIT - DARK ACTIVATED ALERTER

This is a dark activated circuit, the reverse of the circuit above. Do you notice the difference ?
If you look carefully you will notice that resistor 1 and the LDR have changed positions. Also, the inputs
to the 741 are reversed.
Replace the LDR with a thermistor for a temperature circuit.
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741 Operational Amplifier Comparator Examination Questions and Information
741 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER COMPARATOR EXAMINATION

QUESTION AND INFORMATION
V. Ryan © 2007
A home-made anemometer can be seen below. It is part of a system that calculates the wind speed. It is
composed of four cups that rotate on a central shaft. As it rotates a light / dark sensor, housed in the
‘sensor bracket’ detects light from the light bulb found inside the sensor bracket. The sensor is connected
to a circuit that counts each time the disk rotates (light from the bulb is detected).
http://www.technologystudent.com/elec_flsh/windy1.html (1 of 8)18/02/08 11:28 AM

NOTES
SAMPLE ANSWER
NOTES
As the disk spins the light from
the bulb shines through the two
holes in the disk as it rotates.
The sensor detects the light.
The circuit it is connected to
counts each time light is
detected.
2. Below is a 3D version of the sensor / counter circuit.

The circuit diagram of the 3d circuit is seen below. When the light from the bulb shines on the light / dark
sensor the resistance of the LDR decreases. This allows current to flow into pin 2. The 741 compares the
current of pin 2 and pin 3. When a change in current occurs in either pin 2 or 3 the 741 outputs current at
pins 6. This energises the relay. The energised relay activates the counter circuit. Each time the counter
circuit is activated it adds a number.

However, there is a fault with the circuit due to the position of the light bulb and LDR. Sometimes the
LDR does not detect the light from the bulb. Explain why this may happen and how it could be corrected.
3. WHY THE LIGHT IS NOT ALWAYS DETECTED:
POSSIBLE ANSWER
The bulb is not directly above the LDR. This means that much of the light from the bulb shines away
from it.
4. HOW THE CIRCUIT COULD BE CORRECTED SO THAT LIGHT IS ALWAYS DETECTED:
POSSIBLE ANSWER
The LDR could be moved so that the light shines directly into it. This will reduce the resistance of the
LDR so that current flows through the circuit energising the relay.

5. A 741 Operational Amplifier

is represented by a distinctive
symbol. Draw the symbol in the
space opposite
POSSIBLE ANSWER
The sensor circuit has been altered slightly and it is now suitable for use in the sensor bracket. The LDR is
not soldered directly to the PCB as it is fixed in position with a electrical connector. This means that the
LDR is directly above the bulb. As the bulb lights the LDR detects the light immediately.

6. How does the position the LDR in relation to the bulb make the circuit more efficient ?
POSSIBLE ANSWER
The circuit is more efficient because light from the bulb shines directly into the LDR. Light is either
present or not present. The circuit is now an accurate light / dark sensor.
7. Identify the components listed below (label the components on the circuit diagram) :
Preset Resistor - Op Amp - Diode - LDR - Bulb - Relay

POSSIBLE ANSWER

8. Label the 741 Op Amp

shown in the circuit above
according to the Pin Table
shown opposite.
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The 4017B Decade Counter
THE 4017B DECADE COUNTER

V. Ryan © 2005
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The 4017B is an integrated circuit which has been designed to count pulses. It has 16 pins and
looks like any other 16 pin integrated circuit.
http://www.technologystudent.com/elec1/count1.htm (1 of 3)18/02/08 11:28 AM

They can be used in timing

circuits and are often used
to switch on and off LEDs
or motors or other circuits.
They are versatile and
relatively simple to put
together. Counters such as
the 4017B are cheap and
yet surprisingly useful.
The 4017B is most useful
when combined with a
timer such as a 555 based
circuit. The pulse from the
555 timer can be used to
activate the 4017B circuit.
A good example is seen
below. A 555 astable
circuit is used to pulse the
4017B at regular intervals.
The pulse from the 555 IC
is generated from pin 3. In
the circuit seen below, pin
3 of the 555 IC feeds into
pin 14 of the 4017B (called
‘clock in’). When this
occurs pin ‘A’ of the
4017B emits current,
lighting its LED. The next
pulse from the 555 IC
results in pin ‘B’ of the
4018B IC emitting current
and lighting its LED.
Continuous pulsing by the 555 IC results the LEDs of the 4017B turning on and off in sequence,
creating a ripple effect.
In this circuit a reset switch has been added. When pressed, counting will start again at pin ‘A’ of
the 4017B IC.

The wires from the battery snap and also the ones from the toggle switch are fed through small
holes in the PCB. This ensures that they cannot be accidentally pulled off the circuit easily.
A number of 4017B IC circuits can be connected together by connecting pin 10 (divide by 10
pin) to the input on the next 4017B IC. The outputs will change at one tenth the speed of the first
4017B IC. Linking the 4017B ICs together in this way allows for long interval timers to be made.
QUESTIONS:
1. Build a 4017B Decade Counter using either a breadboard and components OR simulation
software such as Crocodile Technology. Add a 555 timer to pulse the decade counter.

Adding Motors and Solenoids to the 4017B decade Counter
ADDING MOTORS AND SOLENOIDS TO THE 4017B

V. Ryan © 2005
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Outputs such as motors and solenoids can be added to the 4017B circuit quite easily. LEDs are
simply replaced with a low power motor (quality solar motor recommended). The motor must be
capable of working with a maximum of 3v. However, if a more powerful motor or a solenoid is
required a transducer module can be used. Watch outputs 'A' and 'D', these have a solar motor
and solenoid attached.

The high power transistor TIP 31A is ideal for this circuit. The connections are shown above. A
motor, solenoid or other output device can be connected. Normally a 9 volts secondary power
source is used, especially for school projects.
Alternatively, if the output rail of the 4017B is connected to the gate of a FET or the base of a
transistor such as a BFY51, every time any output is switched on, the transistor will be switched
and the motor will revolve. A separate transistor circuit is shown below.

QUESTIONS:
1. Build a 4017B circuit using a breadboard and components OR simulation software such as
Crocodile Technology. Add a solar motor and solenoid as shown in the animation above.

Systems Preparation Questions 2007 - 1
SYSTEMS PREPARATION 2007 - QUESTIONS - 1

V. Ryan © 2007
1. Diesel trains are used throughout the country. They use diesel as a fuel for engines which drive
the train forwards at high speed, creating movement. Complete the systems diagram below to
show the main energy changes.
ANSWER
2. What is Kinetic Energy ?
ANSWER
The energy a body possesses because it is moving.
http://www.technologystudent.com/sysprp7/sysq1.html (1 of 4)18/02/08 11:29 AM

3. The train seen below is at the top of an incline. At any point it could roll downwards,
gathering speed. What is potential energy?
Potential energy is:
ANSWER
The energy which a body has because of its position, eg. a coiled spring or a train at the top of a
hill.
4. The train at the bottom of the steep incline has a special gear system. On the diagram the gear
system is marked A and B. What are the correct names for parts A and B ?

PART A:_______________________________________
PART B:_______________________________________
ANSWERS
PART A: Pinion
PART B: Rack
5. Explain why the gear system shown above is used where there are speed inclines.
ANSWER
Trains cannot travel up steep inclines as their wheels have no grip. The rack and pinion allows the
train to grip the track. The pinion is a special gear. Its teeth ‘mesh’ with the teeth on the rack,
pulling the train up the incline.

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Systems Preparation Questions - 2007 - 2
SYSTEMS PREPARATION 2007 - QUESTIONS - 2

V. Ryan © 2007
6. Motion involves movement of some kind. Four types of movement are listed below. Label the diagrams
that represent motion with the correct name.
ANSWER
7. The items listed below all involve movement. Label each diagram with the correct type of movement

ANSWER
8. The sensor circuit seen below is used to sense the movement of model trains. It is normally positioned
before a model railway station. When a train is arriving the sensor detects a drop in the light level and a
motor changes the signal and sounds a buzzer

8a. Why has the circuits designer used a relay ?
ANSWER
The relay separates the two circuits. The sensor operates using 9 volts whilst the secondary circuit
operates using 24 volts. The relay separates the two sources of power as well as the two sets of
components.
8b. Name the component labelled ‘A’ and explain why its function.
NAME:_______________________________
FUNCTION:
ANSWER

NAME: DIODE
FUNCTION: To protect the circuits components form back EMF. When current to a relay is removed the
relay can emit current, sending it round the circuit in the opposite direction. This can damage sensitive
components such as transistors. The diode prevents this happening.
8c. What happens to reading on the voltmeter when a train passes the sensor ?
ANSWER
When the train passes the sensor circuit the light level drops. This increases the resistance of the LDR.
Current no longer flows through the LDR and consequently flows to the base of the transistor. The
voltmeter will show an increase as a result.
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SYSTEMS PREPARATION QUESTIONS 2007 - 3

V. Ryan © 2007
The railway barrier shown

below has been designed
and manufactured for a
model railway system. The
motor inside the post drives
the barrier up and down. The
motor is the output to a 555
timer circuit.

1. There are two types of 555 timer. What is the name of the 555 circuit shown below?
CIRCUIT NAME: ___________________________
ANSWER
CIRCUIT NAME: 555 ASTABLE
2. Label the components on the circuit diagram below (A TO G).
ANSWER

3. The relay is causing major problems because an important component is missing. Name the component
and draw its symbol in the correct position on the circuit diagram above.
COMPONENT NAME: ___________________________
ANSWER
COMPONENT NAME: DIODE
4. What is the function of the component ?
ANSWER

The diode protects sensitive components such as the transistors from back E.M.F. When a current to a
relay is removed the relay can emit current stored in its coils. This can be sent the wrong way round the
circuit damaging components. The diode operates like a one way valve preventing this from happening.
A second version of the

railway barrier has been
manufactured. This is
mechanically operated by a
rotating device.
5. What is the function of the pivot ?
ANSWER
The pivot allows the barrier to rotate at a specific point. In this case the barrier rotates upwards and
downwards about the pivot.
6. Draw the mechanical device on the diagram above.
ANSWER

7. Name the device and explain how it works.
NAME:____________________________
HOW IT WORKS:
ANSWERS
NAME: ECCENTRIC CAM
HOW IT WORKS: As the eccentric cam rotates in a clockwise direction the barrier is pushed upwards at
a constant rate. It then descends at a constant rate back to its original position.
8. What is the function of the barrier stop ?
ANSWER
The stop prevents the barrier from dropping below the horizontal.

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V. Ryan © 2007
As part of a GCSE project a student has designed a barrier system for a crossing. The
specification drawn up by the student says - As a train approaches the crossing it breaks a light
beam and the barrier is lowered, stopping cars and pedestrians. When the train has passed, the
barrier should lift allowing cars and pedestrians to cross the railway line safely.
The student’s prototype control circuit can be seen below.
http://www.technologystudent.com/sysprp7/sysq4a.html (1 of 6)18/02/08 11:30 AM

1. Name component ‘A’: ____________________________
ANSWER
Name component 'A': Light Dependent Resistor.
2. Give one reason why the circuit shown above will not meet the specification.
ANSWER
As the train passes the sensor the barrier will lower. However, the moment the train goes beyond
the sensor the barrier will begin to rise. This means that it is possible that a car could cross the
track and be hit by the train. There is no time delay holding the barrier in the lowered position.
3. Write a modification that would solve the problem with the specification

ANSWER
A timer circuit such as a 555 circuit will hold the barrier in the lowered position until the train
has passes the barrier
4. Why is a darlington pair positioned between the sensor and the relay?
ANSWER
The darlington pair amplifies the current (signal) from the sensor to the relay ensuring that the
current is high enough to energise the relay, turning on the motor that raises and lowers the
barrier.
5. The darlington pair circuit has been tested but it regularly fails. Draw a modification on the
circuit diagram below that will ensure that the circuit works without problems.
ANSWER

6. Explain how your modification works.
ANSWER
The diode protects sensitive components such as the transistors from back E.M.F. When a
current to a relay is removed the relay can emit current stored in its coils. This can be sent the
wrong way round the circuit damaging components. The diode operates like a one way valve
preventing this from happening.
7. The student has decided to use a PIC microcontroller to control the motor that raises and
lowers the barrier. The student uses outputs 1 and 2 to control the motor. Output 1 will turn the
motor on and off. Output 2 changes the direction of the motor.
Complete the circuit below to show how the control of the motor can be achieved.

ANSWER
8. The student decides to use one of the inputs to detect when the barrier has completely opened.
Name a suitable sensor: ____________________________________
ANSWER

Name a suitable sensor: Microswitch
9. Explain how the sensor would be used.
ANSWER
The microswitch will be positioned so that when the barrier is fully raised it is pressed. The
micrositch will be connected to an input of the microcontroller circuit. The microcontoller will
detect when the microswitch is pressed and keep the barrier raised until a train is detected.
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V. Ryan © 2007
A railway track has sets of points that allow trains to transfer from one track to another. This allows them
to change direction. However, in winter points can freeze and this is extremely dangerous as a train can be
easily derailed.
The block / systems diagram shows how a heating system works. This warms up points in freezing
weather ensuring that they operate safely.
The ice sensing part of the circuit is shown below.

1. Which component acts as a sensor in this circuit ?
ANSWER
Component B - Thermistor
2. What does the component sense ?
ANSWER
The component senses a change in temperature
3. Which component is used to adjust sensitivity of the circuit ?
ANSWER
Component A - Variable resistor

4. The ice sensing circuit shown above can be altered to sense heat. In the summer the points can expand
due to extreme heat. This can also be dangerous. To counter this problem a cooling unit is to be fitted to
the points. Complete the next circuit by adding the heat sensor.
ANSWER
5. What is the name of component C shown in the heat sensing circuit above?
ANSWER

Component C is a diode
6. What is its function ?
ANSWER
To protect the circuits components form back EMF. When current to a relay is removed the relay can emit
current, sending it round the circuit in the opposite direction. This can damage sensitive components such
as transistors. The diode prevents this happening.
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V. Ryan © 2007
The diagrams below shows the plan view and front view of an automatic sorting system. This sorts large,
medium and small packages so that they can be collected and placed in the correct carriage of a train, for
distribution to customers.
The sensors detect the size of each package and are connected to two control circuits. One circuit controls
arm X and the other arm Y. If the output of either of the control circuits is high (logic 1) then the
appropriate arm will swing to the position.

1. Complete the truth table below to show the logic states of the three sensors that would give the correct
outputs. The sensors provide a ‘high’ (logic 1) if they detect a package and a’ low’ (logic 0) if no package
is detected.
ANSWER

2. Part of each control circuit is

composed of AND gates.
In the space below draw a diagram that

represents an AND gate. Also,
complete the truth table (opposite) for
a two input AND gate.
YOUR DIAGRAM OF AND GATE:
ANSWERS
3. Draw a circuit diagram to show how two of these gates could be used to control arm ‘Y’
The inputs from sensors A, B and C are already drawn along with the output - arm ‘Y’

ANSWER
4. The control system has been found to be unreliable. It has been modified by using sensors which give
logic 0 when they detect a package and logic 1 for NO package.
What type of gate could be added to your circuit (drawn above) to allow for this change?
ANSWER
NOT GATE (INVERTER GATE)
5. Draw the modified circuit in the space below

ANSWER
6. Suggest a more cost effective modification to the one shown above.
ANSWER
A three input AND gate followed by a NOT gate would by more efficient. Or a three input NAND gate.
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SYSTEMS PREPARATION QUESTIONS 2007 -7

V. Ryan © 2007
Trains are often controlled by traffic lights. These tell the train driver when to stop and when it is safe to
move the train forwards. The lights are controlled by the outputs of a microcontroller circuit (seen below).
The table shows the operating cycle.
Outputs 0 to 5 are used to control the sequence of lights

What are the logic levels of the outputs when they are switched on by the microcontroller
ANSWER
HIGH / ON / TRUE / 1
Complete the table below to show the output bit pattern required to run the traffic lights for one cycle.
Begin with light A on GREEN and light B on RED.
ANSWER
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V. Ryan © 2007
A technology student has developed an automatic traffic control system for a level crossing.
A pressure sensor detects when a car passes over it. The sensor is connected to INPUT 1 of the control
system.
A light sensor detects the presence of a train close to the crossing. The light sensor is connected to
INPUT 2 of the control system.
When a car is detected the control system checks if a train has passed the light sensor. Then the traffic
lights run through a sequence of changes, eventually changing the lights from red to green, raising the
barrier and allowing the car to cross the railway line safely.
If a train is present the traffic light s stay on red and the barrier stays lowered / closed.
1. The sequence of events are listed below. However. they are in the wrong order. Write the correct
sequence of events in the available space. The first three stages have been completed.

ANSWER

2. Convert your sequence into a flow chart using the boxes also shown below. The first four stages
have been completed for you.
ANSWER


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V. Ryan © 2007
The traffic control system shown below has INPUTS and OUTPUTS. Each input and output has a
number - these are listed on the diagram below.
Write the control sequence for the following sequence of events: Please note, when the barrier is
raised/open it is ‘ON’. When the barrier is lowered/closed it is ‘OFF’. The first five stages have
already been completed.

ANSWER

Suggest two improvements to the traffic control system shown in the diagram above.
IMPROVEMENT 1:
IMPROVEMENT 2:
ANSWER
IMPROVEMENT 1: The system should have an audible (sound) warning as well. This would allow
the drivers to hear as well as see warnings that the barrier is about to be closed.
IMPROVEMENT 2: The system should have two sensors that detect the presence of trains. This
would mean that the system would work safely even if one of the sensors failed.
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V. Ryan © 2007
The toy train shown below has been manufactured using a plastic called HDPE High Density
Polyethylene. The coupling rod is of great importance as it is linked to both of the main wheels.
The manufacturing process is called injection moulding. In the space below draw a labelled sketch
showing this process. Add explanatory notes.

NOTES
ANSWER
NOTES
1. Granules of plastic powder (note the plastics listed above) are poured or fed into a hopper which stores
it until it is needed.
2. A heater heats up the tube and when it reaches a high temperature a screw thread starts turning.
3. A motor turns a thread which pushes the granules along the heater section which melts then into a
liquid.
4. The liquid is forced into a mould where it cools into the shape (in this case a coupling).
5. The mould then opens and the coupling is removed.

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V. Ryan © 2007
1. An orthographic drawing of a coupling rod for a toy steam engine is shown below. There is a
potential weakness to the design. Alter the design to shown a method of strengthening the
coupling. Include a label.
ANSWER

2. Coupling rods often wear out quickly if bearings are not used to the smooth movement of
moving parts. Complete the drawing of the roller bearing shown below.
ANSWER

3. Underline two of the following materials that are regarding as bearing materials (materials that
do not produce much friction when their surfaces ‘rub’ against other materials.
STEEL - BRASS - NYLON - PINE - IRON - CONCRETE
ANSWER
STEEL - BRASS - NYLON - PINE - IRON - CONCRETE
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V. Ryan © 2007
1. It has been decided that the

plastic being used for the
coupling wears out too quickly.
Aluminium is to be used.
Write two advantages of using

aluminium:
ADVANTAGE ONE:
ADVANTAGE TWO:
ANSWER
ADVANTAGE ONE: Aluminium is a light-weight metal. This means the finished coupling will not be
heavy and the rotation of the wheels will not affected by adding too much weight.
ADVANTAGE TWO: Aluminium is harder wearing than any plastic. This means that the coupling will
last longer than the plastic version.
2. A manufacturing process called casting is to be used to make the new coupling. Complete the diagram
of casting shown below by adding appropriate labels.

ANSWER
3. When casting it is extremely important to wear the correct safety equipment shown on the diagram
below. Name each piece of equipment and explain why each is necessary.

ANSWER
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V. Ryan © 2007
At a railway stock yard everyday goods are moved from one train to another by porters driving small
electric trains. These are charged up over night and used during the day time. The trains relay on geared
systems to propel them along at speeds exceeding fifteen mph.
It has been decided to change the gear system in each of the trains to reduce the speed to ten mph. The old
and new replacement gear systems are shown below.
Work out the gear ratio and rpm of gear ‘B’ for each system.

ANSWER

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V. Ryan © 2007
A new gear system has been designed as part of the power transmission system for a electric train. This
will be used to ferry passengers and their baggage from platform to platform.
The gear system is shown below. What is the name of this type of gear system?
NAME OF GEAR SYSTEM: __________________________________________

Gear A rotates in a clockwise direction at 30 revs/min. What is the output in revs/min at D and what is the
direction of rotation ?
ANSWERS
NAME OF GEAR SYSTEM: COMPOUND GEAR SYSTEM

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V. Ryan © 2007
1. A model railway system is remotely controlled using

a handheld unit (shown opposite). The unit is
manufactured from plastic and inside is an electronic
circuit. The unit controls the movement of model trains,
barriers, traffic lights etc.....
Name a suitable plastic for the casing:

____________________________
2. What are the properties of the plastic you name in the

previous question that make it suitable for the
manufacture of the handheld control unit?
PROPERTIES:
ANSWERS
Name a suitable plastic for the casing: HIGH DENSITY POLYSTYRENE
PROPERTIES: High density polystyrene has a relatively low melting point. This material is a
thermoplastic - which means when heated and then pressured in a mould it can be formed into different
shapes
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3. It has been decided that the casing is to be manufactured through the process of injection moulding. In
the space below draw a suitable diagram representing this process. Include labels and notes explaining the
process.
NOTES:
ANSWER

NOTES
Granules of plastic powder are poured or fed into a hopper which stores it until it is needed. A heater
heats up the tube and when it reaches a high temperature a screw thread starts turning. A motor turns a
thread which pushes the granules along the heater section which melts then into a liquid. The liquid is
forced into a mould where it cools into the shape of the casing. The mould then opens and the coupling is
removed.
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V. Ryan © 2007
The drawing shows one of the passenger doors to a train. The passenger doors will only open when the
train is stationary at the platform. A sensor circuit controls the opening and closing of doors which open
automatically when a passenger approaches.
1. Name a suitable sensor for this procedure.
2. The incomplete circuit for the operation of the doors is seen below. Complete the circuit by adding the
components required to represent your sensor.

ANSWERS
Name of suitable sensor: LIGHT DEPENDENT RESISTOR
Completed circuit:
3. Describe on safety feature the door control system should have.

ANSWER
As the doors close it is possible that a passenger could be trapped. A pressure sensor could be added to
each door so that if the door closed on a passenger a circuit would detect this and open the doors
immediately.
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V. Ryan © 2007
The sensor circuit (shown in the previous question) has been replaced with a programmable
microcontroller circuit. In the space below complete the flow chart that represents the
programming for the opening and closing of the doors.
Alongside the flow chart, explain each stage.

ANSWER


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V. Ryan © 2007
The drawing below shows the sliding doors of a train carriage. However, these trains are rather old and
the electric circuits are constantly breaking down. This leaves the doors stuck open or shut. The designers
are considering a mechanical backup system that would allow the train guard / porter to open and close
the door in the event of an emergency.
The two doors are shown below. Add to the drawing a suitable mechanical system that would allow the
doors to be opened and closed in the event of an electronic failure. Add explanatory notes and labels.

POSSIBLE ANSWER

NOTES: A rack and pinion mechanical system could be used to open and close the doors. A special
handle would be placed into the pinion. This would give leverage allowing the pinion to be turned
manually. Each door could be opened or closed if the electronic system failed.
The handle would be carried by the porter / train guard. A sample handle is seen below.

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World Association of Technology Teachers
CLICK HERE FOR TECHNOLOGYSTUDENT.COM

THE MAIN RESOURCE OF THIS SITE
The World Association of Technology Teachers aims to support teachers/lecturers and

educators across the world in the delivery of Design and Technology. Two forms of
membership exist; (A) full membership which requires no commitment and (B) W.A.T.
T Advisor Membership. The main aim is to set up a list of advisor members
throughout the world through which information/advice on a range of technologies
can be sought. Many websites only have links to other sites, this association is different
in that it allows advisor members to list their email address and details of their
technology specialities / interests or technology websites. Anyone can browse the list
of advisor members, with the aim of seeking advice regarding a technology specialism.
Other pages on the site contain links to recommended design and technology sites, a
list of suppliers and information regarding application for a quality mark for projects/
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World Association of Technology Teachers
schemes of work. One of the most important aspects of this site is the partnership page
which allows technology departments to form links with other departments across the
world or at home. Other sections include sample departmental documentation and
schemes of work.
Membership is not limited to teachers but is open to schools, departments, company

membership and other interested individuals. (Click on the MEMBERS page above for
details)
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Product Design Index Page
V. Ryan © 2007
Product Design involves a broad approach to the designing and making of innovative /
new products. Pupils/students studying Product Design should work closely with other
sections of the site including the Resistant Materials and Design Process sections.
1. What is Product Design? (1)

INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION
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1. The Client /Customer

2. Introduction to Industrial Production Techniques
3. Scales of Production - an Introduction
4. Single Item / Prototype Production - Example 1
6. Batch Production - Example 1
8. Batch Production Exercise
9. Continuous Production - Example 1
11. Production Methods - Lesson Starter
12. CIM - Computer Integrated Manufacture - 1
14. Remote Manufacturing
15. Continuous Improvement (CI) - Page 1
17. Flexible Manufacturing Systems - FMS - 1
19. Detailed Example of Flexible Manufacturing - CD / DVD Manufacture
QUALITY SYSTEMS
1. Quality Assurance
2. Quality Control
3. Quality Control Exercise
4. Tolerances - 1
5. Tolerance - 2
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
1. Factors that Affect Product Development
2. How the Design of a Product Changes Over Time - The Bicycle
3. Bicycle Exercise
4. The Life Cycle of a Product
5. Sustainability - What is a Sustainable Forest?
6. The History of Clocks - 1

7. The History of Clocks - 2

8. Making Model Sundials
COPYRIGHT - TRADEMARKS AND PATENTS

1. What is Copyright?
2. What is a Patent?
3. What is a Registered Trademark?
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Vocational Work Index Page
V. Ryan © 2002
(STILL UNDER CONSTRUCTION)
Vocational work is very important in schools as it provides pupils and students with a way of
learning that is based the pupils' own study through detailed coursework. Below are vocational
projects whereby pupils build a portfolio of work based on their own research and investigation.
This section has close links with the design process section so it is advisable to use both together.
THE CD-ROM STORAGE COMPANY ORGANISATION SCALES OF

PROBLEM PRODUCTION
This unit looks at the way In this unit pupils will study
departments are organised and 'scales of production', including
This unit takes pupils through
the way they function within a single item, batch and
the stages involved in the
company. The work roles of continuous production.
design of a storage unit and
people in departments are Industrial visits or video
involves working as part of a
investigated. All work in the examples of each scale are
team
classroom should be linked to a essential for this section of the
visit to a company. course
1. Setting the Scene 1. Organisational Structure 1. Scales of Production ?
2. Key Needs (1) 2. Company Work Roles 2. Continuous Production
3. Key Needs(2) 3. Departmental Functions 3. Batch Production
4. Design Brief 4. Work Role Responsibilities 4. Single Item Production
5. Examples - Continuous
5. Client Needs 5. Interaction of Departments
Prod.
6. Product Constraints 6. Examples - Batch Prod.
7. Functional Details QUALITY ASSURANCE 7. Examples - Single Item
8. Basic Designs 8. Single Item -
9. Design Team Meeting In this small project pupils put Materials/Components
together a report on quality 9. Single Item - Sequence
10. Presentation to the Group assurance with regards to the
manufacture of the CD-ROM
drawing
11. Design Requirements storage unit. 10. Single Item - Health and
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Vocational Work Index Page
12. Ideas and Features Safety

11. Batch Prod. Conditions in
13. Stages of Production 1. Introduction
the
14. The Specification 2. Quality Checks Workplace
12. Continuous Prod.
15. Team Discussion 3. Identifying Defects
Conditions
16. Selected Solution 4. Defective Products in the Workplace
17. Sequence Drawing 5. Industrial Quality Checks 13. Continuous Prod -
18. Product Feasibility Materials/Components
14. Continuous Prod-
19. Proposal Feasibility
Sequence
20. Planning for Mass
Drawing
Production
15. Continuous Prod - Health
21. Quality Control
and
Safety
16. The Report
17. Quality Control
18. Quality Control - Block
Diagram
SCALES OF PRODUCTION - CASE STUDIES

When designing a product you will have to decide how it will be manufactured (made) in
industry. Your final design could be manufactured by continuous production, batch production or
single item production Your choice will depend on a number of factors, the most important being
the customer or number of customers. Below is a simple Case Study of each scale of production.
When you are working on a project you will need to explain how your design could be
manufactured through each scale.
CONTINUOUS
SINGLE ITEM BATCH PRODUCTION
PRODUCTION
The manufacture of an The continuous manufacture
The manufacture of a (batch)
individually designed and - production 24 hours a day -
- large number of bicycles
hand-made guitar. of car bodies.
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Further Questions / Exercises - Energy Production
V. Ryan © 2006
Personal, Social and Health Education is taught widely in UK schools, as well as

Citizenship. Pupils are introduced to a range of topics and activities that help them develop
as members of the community. Many of the activities below are aimed at helping pupils
develop communication, discussion and reasoning skills
(Still Under Construction)
1. How to Organise the Way I Work.

2. Are you Equipped to Learn?
3. Listening Skills
4. How to be Successful in Life
5. Organisation - Fire Drill Practice
1. Helping Others / Putting Others First

2. Honesty
1. Vandalism - 1
2. The Cost of Vandalism
3. The Image of a Vandal
1. Why Bullying is Wrong - 1

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Further Questions / Exercises - Energy Production
1. New Pupil in School?

2. What Do You Know About Your School? (New Pupil in School)
3. What Do You Know About Your New School - Teachers and Subjects
4. Classroom Rules
5. Friendship - 1
6. Friendship - 2
7. My Type of Friend
8. Voluntary Groups
1. What is a Good Citizen?

2. Why it is Important to be a Good Citizen
3. Characteristics of a Good Citizen
4.Citizenship and Crime
5. School Report - Self Evaluation and Citizenship
6. First Parents Evening
1. Why is Smoking Bad for your Health?
1. What is a General Election?

2. What is a Political Party?
1. Looking Ahead
2. Carrying Out an Interview - Lesson Starter
3. Interview Questions
1. Raising Money for Charity

2. A Difficult Customer?
1. The Homeless - 1
2. Housing - 1
3. Sharing Living Accommodation - 1
4. Sharing Living Accommodation - 2
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Equipment and Processes Index Page
V. Ryan © 2001-2007
BASIC EQUIPMENT
1. The Fretsaw
2. Machine Drills
3. The Bench Drill
4. The Bench Drill - Worksheet
5. The Hand Drill
6. How to use a Hand Drill
7. G Cramps
8. Sash Clamps
9. Types of Planes
10. How to use a Smoothing and Jack Plane
11. The Woodworkers Try-Square
12. The Marking Gauge
13. The Engineers Try-Square
14. The Sliding Bevel
15. Back Saws
16. The Coping Saw
17. How to use a Centre Square
18. How to use a Surface Gauge
19. The Centre and Dot Punch
20. General Chisels
21. The Mortise Gauge
22. The Mortise Chisel
23. The Hot Glue Gun
24. The Power Hacksaw
25. Hand Files - 1
26. Hand Files - 2
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27. Hand Files - 3

28. Disk Sander - 1
29. Disk Sander - 2
30. Bending Tubes and Pipes
MATERIALS
1. An Introduction to Materials
2. Natural Woods
3. Manmade Boards
4. Plastics
5. Metals
6. Smart Materials - Polymorph - Shaping by Hand
7. Smart Materials - Polymorph - Using a Mould
8. Smart Materials - Shape Memory Alloys - Page One
9. Smart Materials - Shape memory Alloys - Page Two
PLASTICS EQUIPMENT
1. Injection Moulding and Extrusion

2. Blow Moulding
3. Examination Question - Injection / Blow Moulding
4. Moulding Through Compression
5. Vacuum Forming (two pages)
6. Vacuum Forming Examination Question - 1
7. Vacuum Forming Examination Question - 2
8. Using a Strip Heater
9. Strip Heater Question
10. Sequence Drawing - Use of the Strip Heater
11. The Profile Cutter
HEAT TREATMENT
1. The Brazing Hearth

2. Brazing a Joint
3. The Brazing Hearth - Health and Safety

4. Hardening and Tempering

5. Case Hardening of Steel
6. Annealing of Metals
7. Foundry Work 1(Casting 1)

8. Foundry Work 2 (Casting 2)
11. The Furnace
12. Safety Clothing for Casting
13. The Casting Procedure (1)
1. Pewter Casting -1
2. Pewter Casting - 2
3. Pewter Casting - Safety
4. Pewter Casting - Question Sheet-1
5. Pewter Casting - Question Sheet - 2
6. Pewter, Small Scale Casting Project - Part 1

7. Pewter, Small Scale Casting Project - Part - 2
8. Pewter, Small Scale Casting Project - Part - 3
9. Pewter, Small Scale Casting Project - 4
10. Pewter, Small Scale Casting Project - 5
ENGINEERING
1. The Shaping Machine.

2. The Polishing (Buffing) Machine
3. The Polishing (Buffing) Machine - Health and Safety
4. The Vertical Miller (1)

5. The Vertical Miller (2) - Making Adjustments
6. The Vertical Miller (3) - More Information
7. The Vertical Miller - Health and Safety
8. The Horizontal Milling Machine
9. The Horizontal Milling Machine - Cutters and Up-Milling

10. The Centre Lathe

11. The Centre Lathe - 'Facing Off' and Short Taper Turning
12. Turning a Long Taper
13. Using the Centre Lathe to Drill
14. Using the Automatic Traverse to Turn a Length of Steel
15. How to Centre a Lathe Tool - Types of Tool
16. How to use a Knurling Tool
PRECISE MEASURING
1. The Digital Vernier Caliper - 1

2. The Digital Vernier Caliper - 2
3. The Vernier Caliper - Manual Version
4.The Micrometer
5. The Depth Gauge Micrometer
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CNC Index Page
V. Ryan © 2002 - 2007
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CNC or Computer Numerical Control is growing in importance in schools. This section is
an introduction to CNC machining and explains in simple terms the equipment needed and
how it can be used.
1. CNC Work - An Introduction

2. Simple Diagram of a Boxford Duet
3. What does CNC mean ? Stages in CNC work
4. Production Flow Chart for CNC Work
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CNC Index Page
5. CNC Systems Diagram

6. CNC Product - Poster/Flyer Design
7. 2D Computer Aided Design and Manufacture

8. 3D Computer Aided Design and Manufacture
9. 3D Manufacture using CNC Machines
10. The CNC Control Panel
11. Setting up the Cutting Tool to the Correct Length
12. CNC Machines and Safety
13. Advantages and Disadvantages of CNC Machines
PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD MANUFACTURE

14. The Manufacture of PCBs through the use of CAD/CAM
BASIC QUESTIONS
1. Basic Questions - CNC Machines
3D MODELLING
1. Rapid Prototyping - The 3D Printer - Page One
2. Rapid Prototyping - The 3D Printer - Page Two
3. Manufacturing a Model with the 3D Printer
4. More Advantages of a 3D Modelling and Questions
LASER CUTTING / ETCHING MACHINES (UNDER CONSTRUCTION)

1. Laser Cutting / Etching Machines - 1
2. Laser Cutting / Etching Machines - 2
3. From Design to Manufacture
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POWER TOOLS
POWER TOOLS
V. Ryan © 2006 - 2007
THIS SECTION IS UNDER CONSTRUCTION
1. CORDED HAMMER DRILLS

2. BASIC ACCESSORIES AND DRILL BITS
3. CORDLESS HAMMER DRILLS
4. SDS (SPECIAL DIRECT SYSTEM) DRILLS
5. POWER SCREWDRIVERS
6. MACHINE PLANERS
7. SHEET SANDERS
8. PALM SANDERS
9. MACHINE ROUTERS
10. MACHINE ROUTERS AND ROUTER BITS
11. THE JIGSAW
12. FURTHER USE OF A JIGSAW
13. HAND HELD CIRCULAR SAWS
14. TABLE CIRCULAR SAWS - 1
15. TABLE CIRCULAR SAWS - QUESTION
16. DISK SANDER - 1
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POWER TOOLS
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Technology and Cultures Index Page
V. Ryan © 2001-2007
This section is concerned with the way societies/cultures in the past have used and
developed technology. This section covers areas of interest such as the Terra-cotta
Army and the Great Wall (China), also, Petra (Jordan). Great structures such as the
Eiffel Tower are included.
1. China - The Great Wall of China

2. China - The Terra-cotta Army
3. Jordan - Ancient Town of Petra
4. France - The Eiffel Tower
5. France - The Millau Bridge
6. The Pyramids of Egypt
7. Pyramids - Block Lifting Technology
8. The Mostar Bridge
9. The Hovercraft
10. The Race for Vertical Take Off and Landing Planes
11. The Harrier Jump Jet - The Technology
12. The Leaning Tower of Pisa
13. The Empire State Building
14. The Bridges of Budapest - Hungary
15. The Giant Ferris Wheel - Vienna, Austria
16. Switzerland - Modern Light Oil Steam Trains
17. Switzerland - Mountain Railway Technology - 1
18. Switzerland - Mountain Railway Technology - 2 -The Landwasser Viaduct
19. The Akashi-Kaikyo Suspension Bridge - Page 1 - General Facts
20. The Akashi-Kaikyo Suspension Bridge - Page 2 - Foundations and Towers
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Technology and Cultures Index Page
21. The Akashi-Kaikyo Suspension Bridge - Page 3 - Cables and Decking

22. The Akashi-Kaikyo Suspension Bridge - Page 4 - Animated Stages of Construction
23. Nepal - Bhaktapur - City of Culture
24. Morocco - The Medina in Fez
25. Hawaii - Background Information

26. Symbols of Hawaii - 1
29. Symbols of Hawaii - Helicopter Flights
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Joints and Fittings Index Page
V. Ryan © 2002 - 2007
RESISTANT MATERIALS STUDENTS/PUPILS SHOULD ALSO STUDY THE 'EQUIPMENT AND

PROCESSES' SECTION OF THIS WEBSITE
MATERIALS
1. An Introduction to Materials
2. Natural Woods
3. Manmade Boards
4. What is a Sustainable Forest?
5. Plastics
6. Metals
7. Smart Materials - Polymorph - Shaping by Hand
8. Smart Materials - Polymorph - Using a Mould
9. Smart Materials - Shape Memory Alloys - Page One
10. Smart Materials - Shape memory Alloys - Page Two
11. Modern Light Weight Modelling Materials
JOINTS
1. Cross Halving Joints

2.Tee Halving, Dovetail Halving and Half Lap Joints
3. Bridle Joints
4. The Mortise and Tenon Joint - The Basics

5. Mortise and Tenon Joints - 1
6. Mortise and Tenon Joints - 2
7. Double / Twin Mortise and Tenon Joints
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8. How to Mark Out and Cut a Mortise and Tenon Joint - the Mortise
9. How to Mark Out and Cut a Mortise and Tenon Joint - the Tenon
10. Dovetail Joints

11. How to Mark Out and Cut Dovetail Joints - The Tail
12. How to Mark Out and Cut Dovetail Joints - The Pins
13. Finger Joints
14. How to Mark Out and Cut a Set of Finger Joints - Part One
15. How to Mark Out and Cut a Set of Finger Joints - Part Two
16. Lapped / Rebate / Shoulder Joints
17. How to Mark Out and Cut a Rebate / Shoulder / Lapped Joint
QUESTIONS - JOINTS
1. Finger /Dovetail Joints - Questions

2. Tools Required for Cutting Finger / Dovetail Joints
SCREWS AND GLUES
1. Types of Screws - 1
2. Types of Screws - 2
3. Types of Nail
4. General Glues for Woods
5. How to Apply Cascamite
6. Glues for Plastics
7. Lesson Starter - Glues
HINGES
1. Types of Hinges
KNOCK DOWN FITTINGS
1. Knock-Down (K/D) Fittings

2. More Knock-Down (K/D) Fittings
3. The Table Plate

NUTS AND BOLTS
1. Bolts - Sheet 1
2. Bolts - Sheet 2
RIVETS
1. Pop Riveting
2. Cold Rivets - Types and General Use
3. Joining Plates with Rivets - 1
6. Rivets and Movement
FITTINGS FOR SHAFTS AND WHEELS
1. Push Fittings
2. Split Pins
3. Lock Nuts
4.Combination Lock Nut and Split Pin.
5. Fittings for Metal Tube Frames - 1
6. Fittings for Metal Tube - 2
7. Examination Question
BRAZING
1. The Brazing Hearth

2. A Brazed Joint
INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION

1. The Client /Customer

2. Introduction to Industrial Production Techniques
3. Scales of Production - an Introduction
8. Batch Production Exercise
11. Production Methods - Lesson Starter
14. Remote Manufacturing
19. Detailed Example of Flexible Manufacturing - CD / DVD Manufacture
QUALITY SYSTEMS
1. Quality Assurance
2. Quality Control
3. Quality Control Exercise
4. Tolerances - 1
5. Tolerance - 2
PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
1. Properties of Materials - 1
2.Properties of Materials - 2
3. Properties of Materials - Questions 1
4. Properties of Materials - Questions 2

EXAMINATION QUESTIONS
1. Exam Question 1
2. Exam Question 2
3. Exam Question 3
4. Exam Question 4
5. Exam Question 5
6. Exam Question 6
AS / A2 LEVEL QUESTIONS
1. Question 1 - Traditional Chair
2. Question 1 - Modern Plastic Chair
3. Question 1 - Contemporary Wood/Metal Chair
EXAMINATION PREPARATION THEMES

The aim of this sub-section is to set a design theme and context
THEME: OFFICE FURNITURE AND RELATED EQUIPMENT

CONTEXT: TABLE and DESKTOP ORGANISATION
all the skills and techniques developed through the Resistant Materials course.
1. Desk Top Organisation - Rich Picture

2. Product Analysis - 1
3. Product Analysis Exercise
4. Design Requirements
5. The Design Specification - Desk Top Organiser
6. Desk Organiser - Ergonomics.
7. Additional Resources You May Need
MANUFACTURING TECHNIQUE ONE

1. Manufacturing a Simple Desk Top Organiser - The Base

2. Manufacturing a Simple Desk Top Organiser - The Tubes
MANUFACTURING TECHNIQUE TWO

3. Injection Moulding
MANUFACTURING TECHNIQUES THREE

4. Line Bending / Strip Heater
EXAMINATION STYLE QUESTIONS

1. Questions - 1
2. Questions - 2
3. Questions - 3
4. Questions - 4
5. Questions - 5
6. Questions - 6
7. Questions - 7
ADDING ACCESSORIES
1. Adding a Sellotape Dispenser
2. Sellotape Dispenser Examination Question 1
3.Sellotape Dispenser Examination Question 3
4. Sellotape Dispenser Examination Question - 4

THEME: EDUCATIONAL TOYS
CONTEXT: YOUNG CHILDREN LEARN THROUGH PLAY
1. Rich Picture - Educational Toys

2. Product Analysis
3. Product Analysis (Toy) - Exercise
4. Educational Toys and Devices

5. Design Requirements - Educational Toy

6. The Design Specification - Educational Toy
7. Design Problem - Educational Toy
8. Further Explanation of Key Words /Phrases
9. Design Brief - Educational Toy
10. Educational Toy and Ergonomic Considerations
11.Educational Toy / Ergonomic Walking Toy
12. Symbols - Packaging- 1

13. Symbols - Packaging - 2
14. More Symbols and Questions
15. Safety Symbols - Lessons Starter
16. Toy Lessons Starter
17. Educational Jigsaw - 1

20. A Mechanical Toy

21. Another Mechanical Toy
22. Try the Mechanisms Index Page - CAMS and CAM Toys
23. Questions - 1
24. Questions - 2
25. Questions - 3
26. Questions - 4
27. Questions - 5


THEME: MEDIA STORAGE
CONTEXT: STORING DVDs, CDs AND COMPUTER GAMES
1. Rich Picture - Media Storage

2. Product Analysis of a Typical Homemade DVD / CD Storage Unit
3. Product Analysis Exercise - DVD Storage Unit
4. Design Requirements
5. Design Specification - Media Storage
6. Design Problem - Media Storage
7. Design Brief - Media Storage
8. Ergonomics - Media Storage
9. Manufacturing a Basic DVD / CD Storage Unit - Single Item Manufacture - 1

10. Manufacturing a Basic DVD / CD Storage Unit - Single Item Manufacture - 2
11. Assembly - Single Item Manufacture - 3
12. Manufacturing a Basic DVD / CD Storage Unit - Batch Production

13. Plastics - Batch Production - Many Made
14. Production Flow Charts - Single Item and Batch Production

17. Manufacturing a Cabinet - DVD / CD Storage Unit - Material Pine

18. Flat Pack DVD / CD Storage Unit
19. Free Gift - Glider - 1

20. Free Gift - Glider Manufacture
22. Making a Model Glider - By Hand

23. Flow Chart - Making a Model Glider By Hand
24. Examination Questions - 1

SUGGESTED FURTHER REVISION
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Technology and the Environment
V. Ryan © 2002 - 2008
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Our society and industry relies on large amounts of energy and the world is becoming increasingly
dependent on fossil fuels (oil, gas, coal etc...). The industrialised nations of Western Europe and
North America, China and India depend almost entirely on these fuels and the developing nations are
also increasing their use.
It is understood that there is a direct link between the way we produce energy and damage caused by
pollution. Finding cleaner and alternative ways of producing electricity / energy are now looked
upon as being very important for the future of our planet.
ALTERNATIVE ENERGY SOURCES
Alternative Energy is a term used to describe sources of energy that occur naturally in the
environment. For example, energy from the sun, the wind, movement of the oceans, etc.... Click on
aspects in the index below to view examples.
SOLAR POWER
1. Solar Power - An Introduction
2. Solar Power - A Basic Heat Exchanger
3. Solar Power - Parabolic Solar Collectors
4. The Odeillo-Font-Romeau Solar Furnace
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5. What is Photovoltaics?
6. Practical Examples of Photovoltaics
7.Advantages and Disadvantages of Solar Energy
8. Solar Powered Cars
9. Making a Model Solar Powered Car - Page One
10. Making a Model Solar Powered Car - Page Two
11. Basic Construction of the Model Car
12. Sequence Drawing of Making Solar Powered Model Car
13. More Solar Powered Devices
14. The Ozone Layer - Background and Symbol Design
WIND POWER
1. How the Air Moves to Form Winds
2. The History of Wind Power - 1
6. Wind Power on Land

7. Wind Power at Sea
8. The Scale of Modern Wind Turbines
9. Sample Photographs of Wind Powered Electricity Generators
10. Advantages and Disadvantages of Wind Power
SEA POWER
1. Sea Power - Tidal Power 1
2.The Proposed Bristol Channel Tidal Power Scheme
3. Sea Dams - The Rance Estuary Tidal Power Scheme
4. Off Shore Turbine Systems
5. Power from Waves - 1
6.Power from Waves - 2
7. Power from Waves - the Salter Duck
8. Coastal Defences and Electricity Generation
9. The Electricity Generating Sea Buoy

DAMS / HYDRO ELECTRICITY

1. Water Wheels
2. Building a Model Water Powered Generator
3. Hydroelectricity
4. Pump Storage Systems
5. Advantages and Disadvantages of Hydropower
GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
1. What is Geothermal Energy ?
2. Dry Steam Power Plant
3. Binary Power Cycle Plant
4. Flash Steam Power Plant
MORE ALTERNATIVE ENERGY

1. Bio-Fuels - Using Fast Growing Willow
2. Bio-Fuels - Methane From Animal Waste
3.Bio-Fuels - Burning Domestic Waste to Produce Electricity
4. Bio-Fuels - Ethanol
NUCLEAR POWER GENERATION

1. Nuclear Power Generation
2. The Storage of Radioactive Waste Produced by Nuclear Power Stations
ENERGY SAVING DEVICES

1. Energy Saving Devices - Wind Up Chargers
2. Energy Saving Devices - Solar Chargers
3. The Magnetic Force Torch
4. The Magnetic Force Torch Technology - Alternative Applications
5. Quality Guaranteed Symbol and Eco-Friendly Products

LESSON MATERIAL
1. Energy Production - Lesson Starter 1
2. Energy Production and Environmental Damage
3. Conventional or Alternative Energy ?
4. The Generation of Electrical Power - Exercise
5. Energy Production - Rich Picture
6. History of Wind Power - Lesson Starter
7. Building a Wind Powered Generator
8. Making a Wind Powered Device
9. More on Wind Powered Devices
10. Working Drawing / Orthographic Drawing
11. Evaluation of Wind Powered Device (Individual)
12. Evaluation - Wind Powered Device - Summary
13. Class Evaluation - Wind Powered Device
14. Designing a Promotional Leaflet - Wind Power
15. Further Questions
16. Wind Power Project Wordsearch
THE ENVIRONMENTALLY FRIENDLY HOUSE

1. An Energy Inefficient and Environmentally Unfriendly House
2. Design Template for an Energy Efficient and Environmentally Friendly House
3. The Energy Efficient House - Exterior
4. The Energy Efficient House - Interior
DRINKING WATER
1. Drinking Water - Drilling Boreholes
2. Water Purification and Simple Technology
ENVIRONMENTALLY TRANSPORT OF THE FUTURE

1. Steam Power - Transport of the Future ?
2. The HyTrans Transit Van
3. Hydrogen Powered Cars - A Simple Explanation
4. Solar Powered Cars

STRUCTURES AND THE ENVIRONMENT
1. Are Structures Environmentally Friendly?
DESIGN AND THE ENVIRONMENT
1. Product Design and the Environment

Computer Control Index Page
V. Ryan © 2002 - 06
Computers control many aspects of our lives. They control the way products are
manufactured in factories around the world to the way we obtain money to buy the
same products in shops. In school it is likely that you will use computers to present
your work, to search the internet and to control devices such as robots and devices
you will build in Technology.
1. The Basic Parts of a Computer - The Hardware

2. The Motherboard and Memory - The Basics
3. The Motherboard - A Detailed Description
4. Input Devices
5. Output Devices
6. Basic Concepts of the Microprocessor
7. BITs and BYTEs
8. Flow Charts
12. A Typical Interface

13. A Computer Program
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Computer Control Index Page
14. Sensors, Digital Inputs and Outputs

15. More Programming
16. Programming Using Logicator Software
17. The Social Implications of Microprocessors and Computer Control
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Gears Index Page
V. Ryan © 2001-2004
The section is aimed at introducing pupils to basic concepts of gears and pulleys. Areas
covered include spur gears, compound gears, chain drive, rack / pinion systems and pulley
systems. Click on the aspect of gears/pulleys outlined below to view the information sheets.
1. Spur Gears and Simple Gear Trains.

2. More Detail Regarding Gears
3. Gear Trains, Idlers and drawing gears
4. Compound Gears
5. Rack and Pinion Gear Systems
6. Rack and Pinion Example
7. Bevel Gears
8. Gear Ratios (Velocity Ratio) - The Basics
9. Gear Wheels (Sprockets) and Chains
10. Worms and Wormwheels
11. Gears - A Practical Exercise
12. Gear Models - Simple Gear Trains
13. Gear Models - Rack and Pinion
PULLEY SYSTEMS
1. Pulley Systems - General Introduction

2. Pulley Systems - Velocity Ratio and RPM - 1
5. Pulley Systems - Reversing Direction of Rotation
6. Pulleys and Lifting - Important Formulas
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Gears Index Page
7. Pulleys and Lifting -1

8. Pulleys and Lifting - 2
12. Pulleys and Lifting - Exam Question
SAMPLE QUESTIONS
1. Working Out Gear Ratio (Velocity Ratio)

2. Working Out Revolutions Per Minute (RPM)
3. Working Out Ratio and RPM of Systems Composed of Three Gears
4. Working out the RPM of Compound Gears
5. Rack and Pinion Question
6. Gear Train (including compound gear)
7. Worm Gear Exam Question
8. Rack and Pinion Examination Question - Steering System
9. Sample Answer - Steering System
10. Rack and Pinion Examination Question - Fork Lift Truck
11. Sample Answer - Fork Lift Truck
12. Pulley /Gear Examination Question
13. Pulley / Circuit / Switches Examination Question
14. Gears Examination Questions - 1
15. Gears Examinations Questions - 2
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Gears Index Page

Health and Safety
EDS'S HEALTH AND SAFETY

V. Ryan © 2003-2007
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A. Click here for 'Health and Safety for the Consumer'.
B. Health and Safety in a workshop is very important. If a pupil/student uses

equipment, tools and machinery, he/she should have received safety training. This
should ensure that he/she feels confident in the use of machines and can operate them
without having an accident or causing an accident to other people. Below are a number
of exercises that introduce pupils/students to an understanding of working in a safe
environment.
This is 'Ed the Handyman', a cartoon

character who knows very little about
Health and Safety. He is a bad image for
health and safety in a workshop.
Ed says that Health and Safety is important

but ignores it himself. He uses a variety of
machines and equipment and thinks he will
never have an accident or cause an accident
to other people.
BUT HE IS WRONG !!!!
Look at the animations of Ed working and

you should find it easy to see why his
approach to health and safety is completely
wrong.
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Health and Safety
Do not be like Ed. Take health and safety

seriously so that you will be safe, work
more efficiently and improve the quality of
the items you manufacture.
Ed the HANDYMAN is a fictitious character
and does not reflect the way health and safety
should be approached.
CLICK BELOW TO SEE HOW ED THE HANDYMAN IGNORES

HEALTH AND SAFETY
Safety Starter
The Safety Rules that Ed the Handyman Ignores
What is Ed the Handyman doing wrong?
Ed the Handyman and drilling machines.
Ed the Handyman - further use of drilling machines
How Ed the Handyman leaves a workbench.
How Ed the Handyman uses a fretsaw.
How Ed the Handyman should use a fretsaw
Ed the Handyman - poor behaviour in the workshop.

Health and Safety
Ed the Handyman - why it is important to use machines safely

Ed the Handyman - today, is he fit for work?
Ed the Handyman uses a chisel and mallet
How Ed the Handyman should use a chisel
How Ed the Handyman should use a Polishing Machine
How Ed the Handyman uses a Hammer
How Ed the Handyman uses a Vertical Milling Machine
How Ed the Handyman uses a Brazing Hearth
Safety Poster Design

Safety Symbol Exercise
Safety Cube Design
Health and Safety Calendar Design

BLANK TEMPLATE - CALENDAR
SAMPLE JANUARY
SAMPLE FEBRUARY
SAMPLE MARCH
SAMPLE APRIL
SAMPLE MAY
SAMPLE JUNE
SAMPLE JULY
SAMPLE AUGUST
SAMPLE SEPTEMBER
SAMPLE OCTOBER
SAMPLE NOVEMBER
SAMPLE DECEMBER
Health and Safety - Lesson Starter Exercise

Health and Safety Test - 1

Health and Safety

V. Ryan © 2002-2005
PIC Microcontrollers are quickly replacing computers when it comes to programming

robotic devices. These microcontrollers are small and can be programmed to carry out a
number of tasks and are ideal for school and industrial projects. A simple program is written
using a computer, it is then downloaded to a microcontroller which in turn can control a
robotic device. Click on the sections below to view a detailed explanation
1. Lesson Starter - PIC-Micro-controller

2. Sample Answer
3. Inputs and Outputs- Identification Question
LOGICATOR
1. PIC Microcontrollers
2. The Project Board
3. Simple Project Board Operation
4. PCB Version of Project Board
5. Programming Questions - Basic Commands
6. Traffic Lights Problem - Using Logicator Software and PIC Microcontrollers
7. House Security Device
8. Adding a Powerful Motor or Solenoid
PICAXE
1. The PICAXE-08 Microcontroller Integrated Circuit
2. The PICAXE-08 Project Board
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3. Input, Process, Output - The PICAXE-08 Microcontroller

4. Using the Jumper Switch of the PICAXE-08 Microcontroller
5.Connecting the PICAXE-08 Microcontroller to other Components - 1
6. Connecting the PICAXE-08 microcontroller to other Components - 2
7. Programming a PICAXE-08 with Crocodile Technology®
8. Adding a Sensor to a PICAXE-08 Circuit
1. The PICAXE-18 Microcontroller and Pin Layout

2. The PICAXE-18 Microcontroller - Basic Operation
3. ThePICAXE-18 Microcontroller, Driver Chip and Sensors
4. The PICAXE-18 Microcontroller and Transducer Module
5. Alternative Layout to PICAXE -18
6. Programming the PICAXE Microcontroller with Crocodile Technology Software®
7. Basic PIC Micro-controller Projects with Smart Materials
8. Mechanisms / PIC-microcontroller Examination Question
SMART CARDS
1. What is a Smartcard ?
2. Smartcard Devices
3. The Smartcard Programmer
4. The Smartcard Reader
5. Using the Programming Module to Program
6. Samples Program Lines
7. Programming using Software and a Computer
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Robolab
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V.Ryan © 2005 - 06
This section is aimed at introducing the Lego Robolab system. This system is ideal for introducing
Primary School age pupils to the world of Control Technology, through the use of Pilot 1 to Pilot 4. It can
also be used for older pupils especially if the Inventor level is used.
1. COURSE DETAILS
2. THE ROBOLAB CONTROL SYSTEM
3. THE RCX BUGGY - BASIC INFORMATION
4. SYSTEMS DIAGRAM
5. THE RCX 'BRICK' - BASIC INFORMATION
6. SELECTING A COMMUNICATIONS PORT
7. DOWNLOADING FIRMWARE
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Robolab
PILOT 1
8. PILOT 1 - EXERCISE 1
9. LOADING PILOT 1 AND CONTROLLING THE MOTORS
10. CHANGING THE DIRECTION OF ROTATION USING PILOT 1
PILOT 2

12. HOW THE RCX BUGGY SHOULD WORK
13. CHANGING THE DIRECTION OF BUGGY
PILOT 3

15. HOW THE RCX BUGGY SHOULD OPERATE.
16. ADDING A LOOP
17. PILOT 3 - ADDING A LIGHT / DARK SENSOR - EXERCISE 2

18. THE STEPS REQUIRED TO COMPLETE THE EXERCISE 2
19. PILOT 3 - PRODUCING AN ARC OF MOVEMENT - EXERCISE 3
PILOT 4
20. THE LIGHT / DARK SENSOR

21. PILOT 4 EXERCISE 1
22. HOW THE RCX BUGGY OPERATES - PILOT 4 EXERCISE 1
23. EXPLANATION OF EACH STEP - EXERCISE 1

Robolab
24. FOLLOWING THE CIRCUMFERENCE OF A CIRCLE - EXERCISE 2

25. PROGRAMMING STEPS - EXERCISE 2
26. EXPLANATION OF PROGRAMMING STEPS - EXERCISE 2
27. IMPROVING THE LOOK OF ROBOLAB EXERCISES - 1

28. IMPROVING THE LOOK OF ROBOLAB EXERCISES - 2

Mechanisms Index Page
V. Ryan © 2002 - 2006
This section of the website is aimed at introducing pupils to

mechanisms and how they work. CAM profiles are discussed in
detail as well as the design of a CAM toy. Linkages are also
considered. Click on the titles below to view the section of your
choice.
Please note: due to complex animations some pages take time to

download.
Lesson Starter - Mechanisms

Lesson Starter - Mechanism, Forces and Movement
1. Cams - Definition, Profiles and Followers

2. Simple Example and Detailed Profiles
3. A Practical Example - Eccentric Cam
4. The Snail / Drop Cam
5. Swash Plate Cams
6. Box Cams
7. Flat Plate Cam
8. The Cylindrical Cam
9. Example cams and questions
10. More Cam Questions
MECHANICAL TOY PROJECT
11. Example Toys
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12. Cam Toy Exercise - Problem and Brief

13. Cam Toy Exercise
14. Cam Toy - Working Drawing
15. Cam Toy - Sequence Drawing
16. Cam Toy Mechanisms - Common Faults
17. Mechanical Toy - Evaluation Exercise 1
18. Evaluation - Sheet Layout
19. Toy Museum - Munich, Germany

20. A Mechanical Toy
21. Another Mechanical Toy
OTHER MECHANISMS
1. The Quick Return Mechanism

2. The Shaping Machine and it's Mechanism
3. The Crank and Slider Mechanism
4. Ratchet Mechanisms
5. Cranks and Crank Shafts
LINKAGES
1. Linkage Mechanisms
2. Bicycle Linkage Mechanism
3. Tool Box Linkage Mechanism
4. Linkage Questions
SPRINGS
1. Springs
2. Spring Question
SAMPLE EXAMINATION QUESTIONS
Mechanisms Exam Questions - 1

Mechanisms Exam Question - 2
Mechanisms Exam Question - 3
Mechanisms / PIC Microcontroller Exam Question - 4

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Forces and Moments Index Page
V. Ryan © 2002-05
This aspect of the website is concerned with the different types of forces that can be applied to any
structure. Moments of force and equilibrium are also discussed.
1. Different Types of Forces

2. Struts and Ties
3. Structural Forces
4. More Forces in Action
5. Even More Forces In Action
6. Classes of Lever
7. Moments of Force and Example Questions (Two Pages)
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Forces and Moments Index Page
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PCB Index Page
V. Ryan © 2002-2005
Modern electronics usually involves the use of printed circuit boards

known as PCBs. Below is information regarding the production of
PCBs and the accompanying soldering skills.
CONVERTING CIRCUITS TO PCBs
1. Printed Circuit Boards - Stage One

2. Crocodile Technology to Real PCB - Stage Two
3. Manufacture of Printed Circuit Boards - Stage Three
4. Manufacture of Printed Circuit Boards - Stage Four
5. Soldering Techniques
6. PCB Manufacture - Sequence Drawing
7. Manufacture of PCBs - CNC Machines
8. PCB Manufacture - A Summary
9. PCB Manufacture - Flow Chart Question
10. Safety and Soldering Work Sheet
11. PCB Examination Question
12. Examination Question - PCB Conversion
USING CONTROL STUDIO® TO PRODUCE CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS

4. Using Control Studio and Livewire® to Produce Working Circuit Diagrams.
5. Livewire® to PCB Layout.
MANUALLY CONVERTING CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS TO PCB LAYOUTS
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PCB Index Page
1. Circuit Diagram to a Printed Circuit Board Layout (1)

2. Circuit Diagram to Printed Circuit Board Layout (2).
3. Circuit Diagram to PCB Layout - Questions.
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Structures Index Page
V. Ryan © 2001-2006
1a. Lesson Starter - Famous Structures of the World

1b. Another Lesson Starter - Structures
1c. Introduction to Bridges.
2. History of Bridges - Wood Beam and Wood Frame Bridges
3. History of Bridges - The Stone Slab Bridge
4. History of Bridges - The Stone Arch Bridge
5. The History of Bridges - Iron and Steel Bridges
6. Typical Roman Stone Arch Construction

7. Roman Bridge and Aqueduct Construction
8. The Mostar Bridge (Stone Arch)
9. Switzerland - The Landwasser Viaduct
10. A Typical Box Girder Bridge

11. The Tay Bridge Disaster
12. Why the Tay Bridge Collapsed - One Theory
13. A Typical Cable Stay Bridge

14. The Normandy Bridge - Cable Stay Bridge
15. The Millau Bridge - Southern France (Cable Stay)
16. A Typical Suspension Bridge
17. The Bridges of Budapest - Hungary
18. Bridge Design Activity
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19. Bridge Location, Design and Leaflet - Activity

20. The Tacoma Suspension Bridge Disaster
21. The Akashi-Kaikyo Suspension Bridge - Page 1 - General Facts

22. The Akashi-Kaikyo Suspension Bridge - Page 2 - Foundations and Towers
23. The Akashi-Kaikyo Suspension Bridge - Page 3 - Cables and Decking
24. The Akashi-Kaikyo Suspension Bridge - Page 4 - Animated Stages of
Construction
25. Model Art Straw Bridge Practical Project - Page 1

28. Model Art Straw Bridge - Collecting and Presenting the Data
29. Examples of Triangulation

30. Triangulation Continued
31. A Triangulated Conventional Roof
32. Designing a Model Tower

33. Making a Model Tower
34. Frames
35. Beams and Sections
36. Struts and Ties
37. The Eiffel Tower
38. Your New Eiffel Tower ?
39. Structures and the Environment
40. The Empire State Building
41. Designing the New London Tower
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Drawing Index Page
V. Ryan © 2002 - 2008
BASIC DRAWING EQUIPMENT
1. Basic Drawing Equipment - 1

5. Exercise - 1
6. Exercise - 2
7. Exercise - 3
SIMPLE DRAWING EXERCISES
1. Setting up Paper on a Drawing Board

2. Printing in Block Capitals
3. Printing - Lower Case Letters
4. Drawing a Border and Title Block
5. Drawing Angles with Set Squares

6. 3D drawing using a 30/60Degree Set Square
7. T-Square and Set Square Exercise
COLOURED PENCILS
1. Simple Shading Techniques - Flat Surfaces - (Plastics and Metals)

2. Simple Shading Techniques - Curved Surfaces - (Plastics and Metals)
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Drawing Index Page
3. Examples of Simple Shading Techniques (Plastics)

4. Card Composite Drawings - (Plastics)
5. Shading Natural Woods
6. Drawing/Shading Exercise 1
7. Drawing/Shading Exercise 2
8. Shading Exercise 3
9. Shading Techniques Exam Question
FELT PENS
10. More Advance Felt Pen and Coloured Pencil Work - (Plastics and Metals)
11. Using Fine and Paint Brush Type Felt Pens - (Plastics)
12. Examples - Felt Pens - (Plastics)
SELECTING THE RIGHT COLOUR SCHEME

1. Primary, Secondary and Complementary Colours
2. Colours, Feelings, Emotions and Atmosphere
3. Colour - Moods and Emotions
4. Colours and Cultures (Buildings)
5. Colours and Cultures (Countries)
6. Colours and Selling Products
7. The Chinese New Year - Cultural Images
EXPLODED VIEWS
1. Exploded Views - 1
SINGLE POINT PERSPECTIVE
1. Single Point Perspective

2. Single Point Perspective - Vanishing Points 1
3. Name in Perspective - Exercise
4. The Chair (Steel Tube)- Single Point Perspective
5. Traditional Chair in Single Point Perspective
6. The Table - Single Point Perspective
7. Dressing Table - Single Point Perspective
8. Interior Room - Single Point Perspective

Drawing Index Page
9. Example - Room Interior in Single Point Perspective

10. More Examples - Single Point Perspective
11. Simple Examination Questions - Single Point Perspective
12. Examination Question - Complete a Room Interior
13. Examination Question - Design an Interior of a Room.
14. Examination Question - Logo and Packaging
TWO POINT PERSPECTIVE
1. Two Point Perspective(1)

2. Two Point Perspective (2)
3. Two Point Perspective - Question
4. House with Flat Roof - Two Point Perspective
5. House with Conventional Roof - Two Point Perspective
6. Example - External View of a Bungalow - 1
11. Estimated Perspective - 1

14. Examination Question - Two Point Perspective - 1

OBLIQUE PROJECTION
1. Oblique Drawing
2. Cylinders Drawn in Oblique Projection
3. Oblique - A Practical Example
ISOMETRIC PROJECTION
1. Isometric Projection - An Explanation

2. Isometric Projection - Summary
3. Isometric Circles and Cylinders
4. Isometric Cube Exercise 1

Drawing Index Page
5. Isometric Cube Exercise 2

6. Isometric Personal Stereo Exercise 2
7. Printing in Isometric Exercise 3
8. Isometric Diskette Exercise 4
9. Drawing a Mobile Phone in Isometric Projection - Page One

10. Drawing a Mobile Phone in Isometric Projection - Page Two
11. Simple Isometric Mobile Phone Question
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION
1. Third Angle Orthographic Drawing - an Example

2. Third Angle Orthographic Projection - Further Explanation
3. Wind Power Device - Orthographic Drawing
4. First Angle Orthographic Projection
5. Dimensions (Measurements)
6. Working Drawings
7. Orthographic Drawing - Mobile Phone Example
8. Stages of Drawing a Mobile Phone in Orthographic
9. Presentation of an Orthographic Drawing
10. Orthographic Drawing Exercise
ARCHITECTURAL DRAWINGS
1. House Analysis Exercise

2. House Front Design
3. Buildings - Plan Views/Architectural Drawings
4. Plan Views - Another Detailed Question
5. Location Maps and 'Zoom In' drawings
6. Topological Maps
7. Examination Question - 1
PRINTING PROCESSES AND PRINTING EFFECTS

1. The Letterpress (1)
2. The Letterpress (2)
3. The Rotary Letterpress
4. Screen Printing
5. Lithography
6. The Photocopier

Drawing Index Page
7. The Need for Printing Effects - Including Die Cutting

8. Printing Effects - Varnishing and UV Varnishing
9. Printing Effects - Laminating
10. Printing Effects - Embossing
11. Stamp Manufacture Through Direct Printing Technology - Mass Production
GRAPHIC STYLES OF WRITING

1. Graphic Styles of Writing
2. Examination Question - Writing Styles
3. Creating a Style of Writing that Suggests Movement/Energy
4a. Lettering Styles - Theme - TIME

4b. Sample Historical Clocks - 1
4c. Sample Historical Clocks - 2
4d. Making Model Sundials
CARD MECHANISMS
Below is a short pop-up card project. It includes basic
techniques for producing movement with card / paper
1. Pop-Up Card Rich Picture
2. Making Pop-Up Lettering and Characters
3. Pop-Up Card Problem and Brief
4. Example Layout for Problem and Brief
5. Pop-Up Card - Analysis
6. Example Presentation - Pop-Up Card Analysis
Further pop-up mechanisms

7. V-Fold Mechanisms and Internal Stands
8. Rotary Card and Mouth Mechanisms
9. Parallel Slide Mechanisms
Card Mechanism Project

10. Mobile Phone Design
11. How to Draw a Simple Mobile Phone Accurately.
12. Adding Colour and Shade with Felt Pens
13. Promotional Rotating Disk (Mobile Phone Sales)
LOGO DESIGN, SYMBOLS and COAT OF ARMS

1. Logo Design

Drawing Index Page
2. Logo Lesson Starter

3. Logo Exercise
4. Logo Exam Question
5. Logo / Writing Style Examination Question
6. Converting a Picture to a Logo/Symbol - 1
7.Converting a picture to a Logo/Symbol - 2
11. Nut Allergy /Vegetarian Symbol Design
12. Modern Recycling Information Labels
13. Symbols - Paint Containers
14. Holiday Symbols Exercise
15. Analysis of Symbols - Lesson Starter
16. Safety Symbols - Lessons Starter
17. More Symbols and Questions
18. Quality Guaranteed Symbol
19. Creating a Safety Symbol
20. Symbols - Car Maintenance - 1

21. Tyre Tread Symbol Design
22. Air Bag Symbol Design
23. Fog Light Symbol Design
24. Eco-Friendly Symbols

25. Eco-Friendly Symbol Design
26. Fire Resistant Symbol - 1

27. Fire Resistant Symbol - 2
28. Hawaii - Background Information

32. Symbols of Hawaii - Helicopter Flights
33. Coat of Arms Lesson Starter

34. The Coat of Arms
35. Layout of a Coat of Arms

Drawing Index Page
36. Coat of Arms - Your Choice

37. Design your own Coat of Arms
38. Presenting your Coat of Arms - 1
39. Presenting you Coat of arms - 2
40. The Ozone Layer - Background and Symbol Design
41. Grumpy Free Classroom Symbol Design
GLIDER PROJECT
1. Glider / Logo / Colour Scheme Project

2. Important Dates and Personalities - Planes and Gliders
3. Glider Project - Basic Construction
4. Glider Design - Sample 1
5. Further Glider Design Examples
6. Free Gift - Glider Manufacture
8. Making a Model Glider - By Hand
CALENDAR DESIGN PROJECT
Health and Safety Calendar Design

SAMPLE JANUARY
SAMPLE FEBRUARY
SAMPLE MARCH
SAMPLE APRIL
SAMPLE MAY
SAMPLE JUNE
SAMPLE JULY
SAMPLE AUGUST
SAMPLE SEPTEMBER
SAMPLE OCTOBER
SAMPLE NOVEMBER
SAMPLE DECEMBER
LOGO EXAM THEME - THE OLYMPIC GAMES

The aim of this sub-section is for pupils to research the historical

Drawing Index Page
context of the Olympic Games. They will look at the official emblems
and design an emblem for the London Bid. They will then apply their
emblem to merchandise, create a display and mark/evaluate each others work.
If you are outside the UK, why not design an Olympic emblem for a City
in your country?
1. Historical Background to the Olympic Games

2. Famous Symbols of the Olympic Games
3. Olympic Cities and the Olympic Emblem
4. Previous Olympic Emblems and Posters
5. The Olympics - Symbols of London and England
6. Olympic Symbols of England and London - Questions
7. Making the Emblem from Card
8. Design the Emblem for the Official Competitors Shirt
9. Design the Emblem for the Official Olympic Flag
10. Design the Emblem for the Official Training Olympic Shoes
11. Design the Emblem for the Official Olympic Hat
12. Design the Emblem for the Official Olympic Jacket
14. The Olympic Display - Your Designs
15.The Olympic Display- Evaluation / Mark Sheet
DEVELOPMENTS / NETS
1. What are Developments / Nets?

2. Developments - Pyramids, Cones and Cuboids.
3. Developments - Cylinders, Triangular Prisms, Point of Sale Question
DEVELOPMENT OF A MODEL CAR - PROJECT

4. Four Wheel Drive Car - Development Project - 1
5. Four Wheel Drive Car - The Number Plate
6. Stages - Designing a Pictorial License / Number Plate
7. Sample Individually Designed License /Number Plates
8. Four Wheel Drive Car - Alloy Wheels
9. Grills and Head Lights - Resources
10. How to Present your Research
11. Logo / Style of Writing - The Environmentally Friendly Car
12. Logo / Style of Writing - The Hydrogen Powered Car
13. Final Design - Four Wheel Drive Car
14. Car Development Rich Picture

Drawing Index Page
15. Example Hydrogen Car Designs - Card Models
16. Environmentally Friendly Sports Car Development - 1

17. Environmentally Friendly Sports Car Development - 2
DEVELOPMENTS OF PACKAGES
10. The Self Locking Package
11. Hexagonal Packages
12. Gift Box with Integral Handle
13. Gift Box - Small Scale
14. Development Exam Question
15. Development and Packaging Exam Question
16. Examination Question - Safety Symbols and Packaging
ERGONOMICS
1. What is Ergonomics / Anthropometrics?

2. Ergonomics - Example Drawings
3. Examination Question - Ergonomics
PACKAGING MATERIALS AND MANUFACTURE
1.The Functions of Packaging

2. How Paper and Card are Manufactured
3. Materials for Packaging - Paper and Card
4. More Materials for Packaging
5. Manufacturing Nets / Developments by Hand
6. Manufacturing Nets / Packaging in Industry - Small Scale Production
7. Manufacturing Nets /Packaging in Industry - Large Scale Production
8. Blow Moulding of Plastics
9. Packaging - Environmental Issues
10. Labelling of Food and Drink
13. Inks that change Colour with Temperature
14. Inks That Change After Contact With Water
15. Inks That Change Colour in Response to Sunlight and Temperature

Drawing Index Page
The aim of this sub-section is to set a design theme - Car Air Fresheners.
Pupils research the theme as they work through the questions below. They should draw on all
the skills and techniques developed through the graphics/product design course.
*PLEASE NOTE: You may need to use the search facility on the index page of this site to
find information when answering some of the questions*
1. Research Theme - Car Air Fresheners

2. Car Air Fresheners - Further Preparation
3. Examination Questions (Renewable / Recycling)- 1
4. Examination Questions (Nets / Developments) - 2
5. Examination Question (Isometric) - 3
6. Examination Questions (Orthographic) - 4
7. Examination Questions - Inks, Perspective and Functions
8. Car Air Freshener - Packaging Questions
9. Designing Car Air Fresheners

The aim of this sub-section is to set a design theme - Soft Drink Containers - Pupils research
the theme as they work through the questions below. They should draw on all the skills and techniques
developed through the graphics/product design course.
1. Soft Drinks - Rich Picture

3.Converting a picture to a Logo/Symbol - 2
4. Creating a Style of Writing that Suggests Movement/Energy
6. Labelling of Food and Drink
9. Information Found on Labels - Question
10. Symbols - Food and Drink - Questions
11. Drinks Container - Product Analysis Exercise
12. Additional Resources - Soft Drink Containers
13. Analysis of a Container for a Soft Drink

Drawing Index Page


The aim of this sub-section is to set a design theme - Commemorative Stamps and the Environment.
Pupils research the theme as they work through the questions below.
They should draw on all the skills and techniques
Rich Picture - Commemorative Stamps and the Environment
1. Analysis of a Postage Stamp

2. Modern Commemorative Stamps
3. Modern Stylised Designs
4. Modern Stylised Designs - Exercise 1
5. Modern Stylised Designs - Exercise 2
6. Commemorative Stamp Design Exercise - 1
7. Commemorative Stamp Exercise - 2
8. Reduction and Enlargement (Scaling) Exercise - 1
9. Enlargement and Reduction (Scaling) Exercise - 2
10. Enlargement and Reduction (Scaling) Exercise - 3
11. Using a Grid to Scale Stamps - 1
12. Using a Grid to Scale Stamps - 2
13. Styles of Writing to Reflect Alternative Energy - 1
14. Styles of Writing to Reflect Alternative Energy - 2
15. Commemorative Stamps - Packaging 1

18. Packaging Design - Isometric
19. Commemorative Stamp Package - Locking Mechanism
20. Commemorative Stamp Packaging - Question 1
21. Your Analysis of an Example Design
22. Stamp Manufacture Through Direct Printing Technology - Mass Production

Drawing Index Page
23. Steel Die Cutting of Stamps

24. Printing Effects - Embossing - The Visually Impaired
25. Special Inks - Inks that Change With temperature
26. Special Inks - Inks That Change After Contact With Water
27. Special Inks - Inks That Change with Natural and Artificial Light
28. Drawing Equipment - Exam Question
30 Examination Question - 2
31. Examination Questions - Graphs / Pictograms - 1
32. Examination Questions - Graphs / Pictograms - 2

The aim of this sub-section is to set a design theme - Packaging and Imagery
associated with Emergency Situations. Mobile Phones ?
Pupils research the theme as they work through the questions below.
They should draw on all the skills and techniques
1. Rich Picture - Packaging

2. Emergency Mobile Phone Packaging - 1
3. Emergency Mobile Phone Packaging - 2
4. Common Mobile Phone Packaging
5. Design Exercise - Mobile Phone Packaging
6. Writing Styles - Emergency Symbols - 1

7. Writing Styles - Emergency Symbols - 2
8. Emergency Symbols - Exercise 1

9. Emergency Symbols - Exercise - 2
13. Mobile Phone Packaging - Blister Packaging

14. Vacuum Forming - Blister Packaging
15. Renewable Energy and Mobile Phone Chargers

Drawing Index Page
16. Orthographic Drawing - Mobile Phone Example

17. Stages of Drawing a Mobile Phone in Orthographic
18. Presentation of an Orthographic Drawing
19. Orthographic Drawing Exercise
20. Packaging Question

21. Graphics Examination Questions - 1
27. Graphics Examination Question - 7
SUGGESTED FURTHER REVISION
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V. Ryan © 2001-2005
Below are the stages involved in producing a successful design project. You have only completed a
design project if you work through each of the sections. Usually the sections are attempted in order as this
will take you through the entire design process. Clicking on each of the section titles will take you to the
blank template page you could use as the basis to your project. It is recommended that you view the
website section 'Design Process' before viewing the sections below as it gives vital information on each
aspect of a design project. This can be found on the Site Index Page.
1. The Cover Sheet 19. Specification
2. Rich Picture 20. Ideas Sheet - Style One
3. Problem and Design Brief 21. Ideas Sheet - Style Two
4. Analysis and Synthesis 22. Circuit Ideas
5. Planning 23. Development - Main Sheet
6. Existing Products 24. Development - Aspects Sheet
7. Safety 25. Development - Mechanisms Sheet
8. Letter to Manufacturer 26. Development - CAD Sheet One
9. Ergonomics 27. Development - CAD Sheet Two
10. Joints and Fixings 28. Circuit Development Sheet
11. Colour Scheme 29. PIC Microcontroller Development
12. Woods and Metals Research 30. PIC Microcontollers - Further Development
13. Plastics and other materials - research 31. Costing a Project
14. Questionnaire 32. Mass Production and Quality Control
15. Systems Diagram 33. Time Chart of Production
16. Basic Pic Microcontroller Research 34. Sequence Drawing (Manufacture)
17. Individual Research 35. Safety and the Consumer
18.Circuit Research 36. Product Testing
37. Working Drawing
38. Evaluation
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Links to Design and Technology Sites
V. Ryan © 2003
The links page below will allow you to connect to other useful technology websites. These sites have
been recommended by the World Association of Technology Teachers (WATT). If you wish to
recommend a site please email your suggestion to : watt@teacher.com
WEBSITE / ADDRESS DESCRIPTION

The Robotics Clearing House can be regarded as the
educational arm of NASA. They select on-line educational
materials and carefully review them. Work that is approved by
NASA Robotics Education Project the independent reviewers committee can be viewed by the
public on the NASA RCC website which promotes robotics
and other technologies. Links to www.technologystudent.com
can be viewed on this site.
A detailed site for Technology teachers. Sample schemes of
The World Association of Technology work, lesson plans, OFSTED advice, departmental
documentation, international partnership, free membership,
Teachers
members articles, free advice from Advisor Members, links to
suppliers and much more.
An excellent site for technology, economics or business
The Times 100 studies pupils and teachers. Packed full of exceptional
resources.
Science, Technology and Engineering This site has been developed by teachers in Melbourne,
Site Australia as a resource for Systems and Materials students.
Design and Technology A host of ideas and information tips for pupils at Key Stage 3
on the Web and 4
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An excellent collection of resources for Design and

Design Technology Resource Page
Technology teachers and pupils
www.sda-uk.org
Excellent Sites promoting sustainable technology
www.stepin.org
www.PaperToys.com A site dedicated to making paper / card models. Appears to be
an interesting resource.
A site listing suppliers of components for making robots and

similar mechanisms. Lists of practical robot building books,
www.robot.org.uk
magazines and CD ROMs. Resources for teachers, pupils,
students and designers.
Has a range of information covering resistant materials to

DesignandTech.com
graphic products
www.school-electronics.co.uk Very detailed electronics website.
Historical Posters - covering areas such as film and adverts.
www.collect-online.com
Excellent resource for those studying poster design.
Electronic Resources for Technology Teachers - helping
Edutec teachers and lecturers in aspects of practical electronics.
Resources for KS2 to 'A' Level.
An extremely helpful site for professional technologists.
Tenlinks
Including engineers, architects, software engineers etc..
Design and Technology Has information and animations regarding a range of
technology including electronics, packaging, food and
Online
pneumatics.
Contains a range of information on electronics, food, graphics,
GCSE BITESIZE
resistant materials, systems and control and textile technology.
Deyes High School Technology An interesting and detailed website relating to many aspects of
Department. technology including detailed Upper and Lower School work.
A technology site for pupils with over 600 internal and
www.techitoutuk.com
external links to other useful sites.
An interesting and informative site covering a range of devices
How Stuff Works.com
and how they work.
ohmfree Electronics website Component bases electronics site. Anyone can submit articles.
Animatedworksheets.co.uk Learn a variety of graphics skills through animated worksheets.
A technology site covering many useful and interesting aspects
Technology at GCSE
of design and technology.

A number of people and organisations contribute to this

Design and Technology Virtual School
efficient technology site.
Technology schemes of work from the Department for
The Standards Site
Education.
Provide detailed schemes for KS3 and KS4 Design and
The Amethyst Consultancy Ltd
Technology
Bad Human Factors Designs A site that gives examples relating to poor designs.
Takes pupils through concise requirements for a Resistant
http://www.gglover.co.uk/
Materials GCSE project.
Takes pupils through concise requirements for a Graphic
http://www.gglover.co.uk/graphics/
Products GCSE project.
Takes pupils through concise requirements for a Electronics
http://www.gglover.co.uk/electronics/
Products GCSE project.
http://www.teaching ideas.co.uk/dt/ Primary School Design and Technology Site. The main site
contents.htm offers other subjects with a variety of work.
www.gcseinengineering.com Site that promotes GCSE Engineering.
Ergonomics for Schools Information relevant to ergonomics in the school environment.
CLICK HERE FOR SITE INDEX PAGE

Design Process Index Page
V. Ryan © 2001-2008
Below is the contents list of the 'Design Process' section of this website. This section gives detailed
information on each stage of designing and examples regarding many stages involved in the building of a
successful folder / project. Another section called 'Project Template' gives blank design templates for each
stage of a project / folder.
When working through a project you must use a range of drawing techniques and also Information
Technology must play an important part.
1. DRAWING TECHNIQUES
2. USING I.C.T.
In order to achieve higher grades it is essential that your project follows the full design process. For each
section listed below there are detailed information sheets and guidance sheets later in this information
pack. Below is a project check list:
PROJECT STAGE DESCRIPTION OF STAGE TICK

(CLICK BELOW) WHEN
COMPLETE
At the beginning of the project place the theme at the centre.
RICH PICTURE
Put words / themes that are connected to it, around it.
DESIGN
State the design problem clearly. Explain how you intend to
PROBLEM AND
solve it in general terms.
DESIGN BRIEF
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List as many questions as you can about the project you are
ANALYSIS attempting. E.g. What materials can I use ?
What safety considerations must I keep in mind ?
SYNTHESIS Answer the questions in the analysis.
Use a time chart and flow chart to plan your use of time. (See
PLANNING
additional sheet)
If you are to get a high grade you must put effort into this
section. Remember, all research must be relevant to your
project and constantly refer to the problem you are trying to
solve. Produce at least one sheet on each of the following:
Suitable materials for your project.
Investigate the ways in which materials can be joined together -
joints and fixings.
The ergonomic factors that apply to your project.
Safety factors related to your design problem.
Write letters to manufacturers / shops.
RESEARCH
Research using the library.
Research using the Internet / CD-ROMs/DVDs.
Interview people with the aim of helping you to solve the
design problem (record the interview).
Carry out a survey / questionnaire and present the results as a
pictogram/table of results.
Collect pictures of existing products - photographs/catalogue
pictures.
How are existing products manufactured?
Research other relevant areas such as electronic circuits.
Once you have completed your design you should specify in a
SPECIFICATION paragraph or two what exactly you are going to do to solve this
problem. Always refer to your research.
Draw at least six ideas, with notes. The ideas should be
IDEAS different and not just the same idea slightly changed. Include
environmental considerations (See additional sheet)

To get the higher grades you must take your best idea and
develop it further. One way of starting this section is to draw
your best idea again and point out areas that can be improved.
Areas may include, safety, colour scheme, cost, using a
spreadsheet, shape, materials, mechanisms, circuits, systems
diagram and the environment. You must show that you have
DEVELOPMENT considered Safety and the Consumer. You also need to develop
a circuit for your project. You may need to show how
mechanisms can be used as part of your design. How will all
the parts/components be joined together? What joints and
fixings will be needed? Stages of programming a
microcontroller circuit (flow chart).
Produce a working drawing of your solution with a parts list.
This must have measurements and constructional details.You
SOLUTION
may prefer to produce a Parts Sheet first. A three dimensional
drawing can also be attempted.
Produce planning sheets to show each stage of production - a
flowchart, time chart, sequence drawing.
MANUFACTURE
Make a model.
Make the solution.
Do not forget this important section. Evaluate your product.
State the good and bad points. Does the solution answer the
EVALUATION design brief ? Spend some time on this section. You should
include social issues, health and safety, ethical and
environmental issues.
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Lesson Starter - Electronics - Answers
LESSON STARTER - ELECTRONICS

ANSWERS
V. Ryan © 2005
IDENTIFYING ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS
Below are a number of common electronic components you are likely to use when making circuits. Underneath
each component write the correct name.
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Lesson starter - Equipment and Components - Answers
LESSON STARTER
EQUIPMENT AND TOOLS FOR CIRCUIT WORK
ANSWERS
V. Ryan © 2005
Some basic tools / equipment / components you may use when working with circuits are shown below. Name
each tool / piece of equipment / component and explain what they are for.

Lesson starter - Equipment and Components - Answers

HOW A CAPACITOR CAN BE USED

V. Ryan © 2002
Using a capacitor in conjunction with a Computer Interface:
The capacitor is placed in parallel and when the switch is pressed it is charged. When the switch
is released the capacitor discharges but as this happens it holds the relay closed for 3/4 seconds.
This allows the computer enough time to detect the closed relay and then it turns on a motor.
Using a capacitor as part of a 555 Timer Circuit:

The 555 circuit shown above is more sophisticated than the circuit above and is composed of
several components included the integrated circuit (NE555). When switched on the buzzer
sounds for a certain amount of time.
Some of the components are resistors and capacitors. It is often the combination of resistors and
capacitors that control the time delay - in this case the length the buzzer sounds for.
If the capacitor C1 is changed for a higher value capacitor then the buzzer sounds for a longer
period of time. The variable resistor VR1 can also determine the length of time.
What will happen if the value of the capacitor is reduced ?
CLICK HERE TO GO BACK TO CAPACITOR INTRODUCTION

RESISTORS IN PARALLEL - FURTHER QUESTIONS

V. Ryan © 2002
1. Calculate the total

resistance for the two
resistors in parallel

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QUESTIONS ABOUT THREE RESISTORS IN PARALLEL - CLICK HERE
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Sequence Drawing - Light / Dark Sensor - Answer
SEQUENCE DRAWING - LIGHT/DARK SENSOR

V. Ryan © 2006
Below is a possible answer to the Light/Dark Sensor sequence drawing.

Sequence Drawing - Light / Dark Sensor - Answer
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Electronics Index Page

CLICK HERE FOR INDEX PAGE

COMPONENT AND CIRCUIT DETAILS

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10. A Series / Parallel Circuit

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DIGITAL ELECTRONICS AND LOGIC GATES

12. AND Gate Sample Question

12. The Binary System

13. Integrated Circuits - 1

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15. Integrated Circuits - 3

THE 555 INTEGRATED CIRCUIT

8. Monostable Timer Examination Questions - 1

10. ASTABLE 555 Breadboard Project

THE 741 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER

THE 4017B DECADE COUNTER

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1. INDIVIDUAL RESEARCH THEME and EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

1. Systems Preparation Questions 2007 - 1

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A DESIGN AND TECHNOLOGY SITE

( CLICK HERE FOR THE WORLD ASSOCIATION OF TECHNOLOGY TEACHERS)

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TECHNOLOGYSTUDENT.COM - SITE SEARCH

Start Search Reset

CONTACT THE AUTHOR ? - techteacher@teacher.com

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JOIN W.A.T.T - CLICK ABOVE

COPYRIGHT AND DISCLAIMER

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CLICK HERE FOR INDEX PAGE

ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS AND SYMBOLS - 1

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CLICK HERE FOR MORE COMPONENTS AND SYMBOLS

CLICK HERE FOR ELECTRONICS INDEX PAGE

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CLICK HERE FOR INDEX PAGE

ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS AND SYMBOLS - 2

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CLICK HERE FOR MORE COMPONENTS AND SYMBOLS

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CLICK HERE FOR ELECTRONICS INDEX PAGE

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CLICK HERE FOR INDEX PAGE

ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS AND SYMBOLS - 3

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CLICK HERE FOR ELECTRONICS INDEX PAGE

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CLICK HERE FOR INDEX PAGE

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CLICK HERE FOR ELECTRONICS INDEX PAGE

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CLICK HERE FOR INDEX PAGE

LESSON STARTER - ELECTRONICS

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