Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Bottomhole Pressures
G.J. Plisga, Sbhio Alaska Petroleum Co.*
Introduction
The practice of using bottomhole pressure (BHP) to im- are numerous mechanical self-contained pressure
prove oil production and to solve petroleum engineering devices available (Table 30.1) only the most commonly
problems started in about 1930. Pressures in oil wells used continuously recording BHP gauges are discussed
were first calculated from fluid levels and later by inject- fully. Regardless of the type of force summing device in-
ing gas into the tubing until the pressure became con- corporated into the BHP gauge, whether physical
stant. The earliest BHP measurements were made with displacement (piston elements) or deformation
pressure bombs and with maximum-indicating or (bellows/bourdon tubes), the generated force is coupled
maximum-recording pressure gauges that did not have to a recording device.
the accuracy, reliability, or durability now demanded. The Amerada pressure gauge has a helical bourdon
These early pressure measurements were occasional. or tube as a pressure element that is of sufficient length to
spot tests rather than systematic diagnostic engineering rotate the stylus the full inside circumference of the
measurements. cylindrical chart holder without multiplication of move-
ment. A clock moves the chart longitudinally. The gauge
BHP Instruments is made in both 1% - and l-in. diameters with a length of
The development of precision recording pressure gauges approximately 74 in. A vapor-pressure-type recording
small enough in diameter to be run through tubing made thermometer can be run in combination with this to ob-
it feasible to make BHP measurements in sufficient tain continuously recorded temperatures and allow cor-
number to develop the science that now makes them in- rection of pressure measurements. This will also ensure
dispensable to petroleum engineering. BHP now is deter- that thermal stabilization has occurred.
mined with continuously recording pressure gauges, The Humble gauge pressure element has a piston,
which are either self-contained or surface-recording. which moves through a stuffing box against a helical
spring in tension. Attached to the inner end of the piston
Self-Contained Gauges is a stylus that records longitudinally on a chart in a
Mechanical self-contained pressure gauges are used cylindrical holder, which is rotated by a clock. The in-
universally. The pressure element and recording section strument is made in two sizes, with 1 l/4- and 15/16-in.
are encased and sealed against external pressure except OD’s, and is approximately 60 in. long. Thermometer
for an opening to communicate the pressure to the ele- elements are available for both sizes.
ment. The entire instrument is run to the depth at which Other recording gauges have been described in the
the pressure is to be measured, allowed to stabilize ther- literature, two of which were continuously recording,
mally, and then returned to the surface and the pressure but they are no longer available on the market. The Gulf
determined from the chart. Modem pressure measure- BHP gauge has a pressure element consisting of a long
ment systems incorporate force summing devices that metallic bellows restrained by a double helical spring in
convert energy into physical displacement or deforma- tension. The recording mechanism is a cylindrical chart
tion. These force summing devices can take many forms, holder rotated by a clock. The USBM BHP gauge
three of which are shown in Fig. 30.1. Although there pressure element is a multiple-bellows type with a move-
ment of about 0.6 in., which is multiplied through a rack
and gears to about 5% in. of stylus movement. The
‘The ongmat chapter on the topic bn the 1962 edition was written by C.V. Mfllikan. stylus records longitudinally on a cylindrical chart that is
30-2 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
Amerada Kuster
- Johnston
RPG-3 RPG-4 RPG-5 KPG AK-1 K-2 K-3 Leutert J-200
OD, in. 1.25 1 1.5 1.25 2.25 1 1.25 1.42 2.88
Length, in. 77 76 20 73 36 41 43 139 54
Type pressure element* B B B B B B B RP P
Maxtmum pressure, psi” 25,000 25,000 20,000 30,000 30,000 20,000 20,000 10,000 20,000
Accuracy, %FS t +0.2 f 0.2 k 0.25 * 0.2 * 0.25 f 0.25 f 0.25 f 0.025 k 0.25
Resolution, %FSr +0.05 f 0.056 + 0.05 * 0.05 f0.025 +0.05 -f 0.04 f 0.005 NS
Maximum service temperature, OF 500 500 450 700 350 700 700 300 400
Maximum clock running time, hours 360 144 120 360 120 120 120 192
Input output
pressure - - - - _ _- - - - - - - - - - - - - t
konstanr~ TKlle Marlmum
t
Jl~,“d,ur,r - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Input
b
---
4 .--
\ Temperature , , ’ Fig. 30.3-Hysteresis.
T,mE?
outpur \ Error
\ /
/
\ /
\ /
\ /
\ , If it is more convenient, pressure readings may be
/
\ substituted for deflections in Eq. 2. Gauges with a steel
\
.II/’
pressure element usually have a temperature coefficient
of about 0.0002 in./“F.
When the pressure gauge is run to the depth of the
Fig. 30.2-Temperature effect on pressure gauges. pressure determination, it should remain long enough to
stabilize thermally, usually 15 to 20 minutes. If the in-
strument cannot remain long enough to reach
temperature equilibrium, a maximum-indicating ther-
must be considered in pressure measurements. The mometer run in a closed container as part of the gauge
preferred method is to calibrate the pressure element at will give a satisfactory reading for temperature
the temperature of the reservoir in which pressures are to correction.
be measured. The calibration curve for most pressure Many BHP gauge elements are made of an alloy with a
elements is practically a straight line; therefore, a very low temperature coefficient such as Ni-Span C@,
temperature-correction coefficient may be determined and a temperature correction may be neglected up to
for a given pressure element and used to correct for 200°F except where extra precautions are taken to obtain
temperatures other than the calibration temperature as very precise pressure measurements. For temperatuf?s
follows. For a given pressure, preferably about three- above 2OO”F, most elements require a varying correction
fourths of the maximum for the element, determine the that can be determined only by actual calibration.
pressure deflection and the temperature. For the same
pressure, determine the deflection at a higher Hysteresis
temperature, preferably 100°F higher.
Hysteresis is a characteristic of metals under strain that
Then ’
must be recognized in pressure gauges. Because of
hysteresis, the calibration of a gauge made with increas-
ing pressures will differ slightly from a calibration made
(11 with decreasing pressures (Fig. 30.3). If only static
pressures are to be determined, a calibration at increas-
ing pressure is satisfactory. When a flowing pressure
where
CT = temperature coefficient, starting from a static condition is to be determined,
hysteresis may be of sufficient magnitude to take into ac-
T, = lower temperature,
count. To determine the hysteresis effect, the pressure
T2 = higher temperature,
element should be pressurized somewhat higher than the
dl = deflection at T, for given pressure, and highest anticipated well pressure and released several
d2 = deflection at T2 for same pressure. times before running the calibration, first with increasing
pressures, then with decreasing pressures. Flexing the
The corrected deflection can be calculated as element several times will substantially reduce the
hysteretic effect and should be done each time just before
the gauge is run into a well.*
d,.= “’ , . .. .. (2)
1 +CT(To -T,) ’ Operating Equipment
The BHP gauge, a self-contained instrument, is run on a
where wireline and depth is measured by the line running in
d,.= deflection at calibration temperature, contact with a calibrated measuring wheel, which
d, = observed deflection, operates a counter. The most frequently used calibration
T, = calibration temperature, and of the measuring wheel is 2 ftirev. When the contact of
T, = observed temperature. the line is tangent to the measuring wheel, the wheel
30-4 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
diameter in inches is 241~. When the contact is an arc of pump. When the equipment is used for a continuous pro-
the wheel, the wheel diameter is D=(24/n)-d, where d gram it may be mounted in a pickup truck, with housing
is the diameter of the wireline. This applies if the to protect against the weather.
greatest distance of the chord of the contact arc from the
periphery of the wheel is greater than the diameter of the Pressure Bombs
wireline. The measuring wheel diameter should be
Pressure bombs were used to some extent before record-
checked at reasonable intervals to maintain accuracy of
ing pressure gauges small enough in diameter for oilwell
depth measurements. A decrease in the diameter of the
use became available. They were usually made from tub-
wireline caused by wear or by permanent stretch
ing approximately 1 L/2in. in diameter with a small nee-
resulting from a hard pull will also cause errors in depth
dle valve in the top and a ball and seat in the bottom to
measurements.
hold maximum pressure in the well. When the bomb was
The most common wirelines have diameters of 0.066,
recovered, the pressure was determined by attaching a
0.072, 0.082, or 0.092 in. In areas having noncorrosive
pressure gauge to the valve. The bomb had to be long
well fluids, plow steel lines are most satisfactory, but for
enough to leave a volume of gas (or air) in the top to
corrosive conditions, stainless steel and Monel@ lines are
reduce the error of filling the bourdon tube of the
used. Both plow steel and stainless steel are subject to
pressure gauge. There was also substantial correction for
hydrogen embrittlement, but are satisfactory for short
temperature unless the bomb was raised to BHT before
runs such as static-pressure tests, except under severe
the pressure was read. An ordinary commercial
conditions. For an operation that requires the line to be
maximum-indicating pressure gauge enclosed in a
in the hole under corrosive conditions for several hours,
pressure-tight container was used occasionally, and in
a Monel line should be used. Nominal tensile strengths
some cases a recording mechanism and clock were add-
of wire lines and their weights are given in Table 30.2.
ed. Such instruments were 3 in. or larger in diameter,
Equipment for operating a wireline varies greatly. The
most frequently used unit is a trailer-mounted reel driven which limited their use to wells without tubing.
by a 2- to 4-hp air-cooled gasoline engine. Power is
transmitted to the reel by V-belt, through a disk clutch, Surface Recording Gauges
or by hydraulic drive. On smaller equipment, an idler Surface recording pressure gauges can be used either
pulley permits the V-belt to serve as a clutch also. Brak- permanently installed or wircline retrievable. All surface
ing may be by friction disk, brakeband, or hydraulic recording pressure gauges must be run on a single-
BOTTOMHOLE PRESSURES 30-5
Capacitive AC-DC special high level (5V) 0.02 0.01 to 5,000 0 to>100 Oto +I85 @3X t0 QOod 0.05 > 10' cycles
frequency/bridge
with <0.05%
calibration shift
Differential transformer AC special htgh level (5V) 0.5 30 to 10,000 >I00 Oto +165 poor 0.5 > to6 cycles
phase life
demodlbridge
Force balance AC line power high level (5V) 0.01 1 to 5,000 oto <5 4Oto +165 poor O.OS%/month z 10’ cycles
with servo (O.Ol%I°F) with ~0.5%
calibration shift
Piezoelectric DC amp and medium level 1 0.1 to 40,080 1 to - 450 to + 400 excellent 1
self-generating with amp > 100.000 (O.Ol%/~Fj use effects
AC
Potentiometer AC-DC high level 1 5 to 10,000 oto >50 -85 to +300 poor 05
<IO@ cycles
regulated (O.Ol%l°F) life
Unbended IOV AC-DC low level 4 mVN 0.25 0.5 to 40,000 0 to >2,000 - 320 to + 800 good 0.5 < 0.5%
(0.005%/°F over calibration shift
limited after IO6 cycles
compensated
range)
Bonded foil 1 OV AC-DC low level 3 mVN 0.5 5 to 10,000 0 to >I,000 -65 to +250 very good 0.5
> lOa cycles
(O.O1%/°F over
limited
range)
Thm film IOV AC-DC 3 mVN 0.25 15 to 10,000 0 to > 1,000 - 320 to + 525 very good 0.05
> 106 cycles
(O.OOS%/~F over with ~0.25%
limited
calibration shift
compensated
range)
Diffused 10 to 28 V DC medium level 3 0.25 15 to 5.000 0 to > 1,000 - 65 to 250 0.05 < 0.25%
semiconductor mVN to 20 mVN (0.005%/°F over calibration shift
limited after 10 B cycles
compensated
range)
Bonded bar 1OV AC-DC medium level 3 0.25 5 to 10,090 0 to > 1,000 -65 to t250 “W QQQd 0.5 < 0.5%
semiconductor mVN to 20 mVN (O.Ol%l°F over calibration shift
limited after lo6 cycles
range)
Variable reluctance AC special 40 mVN 0.5 0.04 to 10,000 0 to > 1 ,OiJo -320 to +800 0.5 > lo6 cycles
(O.O2%/OF over life
limited
compensated
range)
Vibrating we and tube AC special high level and 0.02 1t0100 oto >I00 -85 to +200 0.01 > 106 cycles
frequency requires
life
temperature control
Vlbratlng quartz AC special high level and 0.01 1 to 10,000 0 to >I00 oto +I302 0.005
> lo6 cycles
frequency life
PRESSURE
SENSING
DIAPHRAGM
L&g5
BOURDON
TUBE :::: OUTPUT
..-.
q I
/
BASE CRYSTAL
TAUGHT M
MAGNETIC <
AC CARRIER
AND FREQUENCY
DETECTOR
ELECTRONICS
OUTPUT
MAGNETS
0
Arlr
F,=- ~,L, .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (3)
term stability characteristics, and ease of vibrational ex-
citement. Fig. 30.8 shows various modes of motion of
where quartz crystal. Advantages are excellent accuracy,
F, = gauge factor, resolution, and long-term stability. Disadvantages are
Ar = change in resistance, sensitivity to temperature and extremely high costs.
r = unstrained resistance, New technology is constantly evolving a new genera-
aL = change in length, and tion of surface recording pressure gauges that are more
L = unstrained length. and more advantageous to the petroleum engineer and
petroleum engineering problems.
There are four basic types of strain gauge transducers;
unbonded wire, bonded foil, thin film, and semiconduc- Calculated BHP
tor. A rule that applies to strain gauge transducers is the BHP calculated from surface pressure and fluid level,
larger the gauge factor, the higher the output of the although less accurate than measured pressure, is suffi-
device. For unbonded wire, the gauge factor is four. cient for many practical uses. In an open hole or open
Bonded foil and thin film (Fig. 30.7) have factors of tubing, the fluid level can be determined by a float run
two. For semiconductor transducers, the factor ranges on a measuring line.
from 80 to 150. In pumping wells, the fluid level can be determined by
sound reflection. There are four types of commercial in-
Vibrating Crystal Transducer struments available. These are the deptbograph,
In vibrating crystal transducers, a crystal is forced by ex- echometer, sonoloy, and acoustical well sounder. Each
ternal electronic circuits to oscillate at its resonate fre of these instruments records sound reflection initiated by
quency when external stress is applied to the crystal by firing a blank shotgun shell or pistol cartridge or venting
mechanical linkage to the diaphragm, bellows, or bour- pressure into a chamber attached to the casing head. A
don tube. The resonate frequency of the crystal shifts in sound reflection is received and recorded from each tub-
proportion to the stress. In at least one transducer of this ing collar. By counting the collar reflections and know-
type, the pressure is applied directly to the crystal itself. ing the tubing tally, the depth to the fluid can be
The vibrating crystal is usually manufactured out of calculated. In deep wells, attenuation of the collar reflec-
quartz because of its excellent elastic properties, long- tion makes accurate counting difficult. In some oil wells,
30-8 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
SEYKOG
where
.... ... (9)
pas = static BHP, psi,
m = slope of buildup curve, and
h = intercept of curve with time value of 1
minute. where
J = PI, B/D-psi,
Correct identification of the straight-line portion of the qO = rate of oil production, B/D,
buildup curve is necessary for the interpretation of PWS = static BHP, psi, and
pressure buildup data. The straight-line portion of the p,,f = flowing BHP, psi.
BOTTOMHOLE PRESSURES 30-l 1
Specific PI is defined as barrels of oil produced per and therefore the PI. Calculating a PI based on total fluid
day per pound decline in BHP per foot of effective reser- mass instead of liquid production has given more consis-
voir thickness, and is expressed as tent results in some pools.
Permeability
J,= (p, "-Pwf)h, . . .., . . . . . . .. .. .. . (10) Permeability of the reservoir rock can be calculated from
the PI. Wycoff et al. I3 used
HOURS
Miller et al. 8 calculated permeability from a BHP falls to the range 10 ~ r to 10 p2, the slope m is proper
buildup curve with the equation and the calculated value of k is valid. This tacitly
assumes that the values of the other factors are known
and that the conditions exist for which the equation was
162.5qo~oBo
hm ( .,,...._...........~.. derived. A valid calculation of permeability from
ko= (13)
buildup curves requires stabilized conditions of pressure
and rate of production at the time the well is closed in.
where These equations for calculating permeability are based
k, = effective oil permeability, md, on liquid single-phase flow. When a small amount of
k = permeability, md, free gas is produced with the liquid, adjustment by the
relative permeability will give an acceptable answer.
40 = oil production rate, B/D,
When gas only is produced from the reservoir, the equa-
= viscosity of reservoir oil, cp,
tions for permeability are as follows.
i” = formation volume factor of oil RB/STB,
i = effective reservoir thickness, f;, and Radial flow equation:
m = slope of buildup curve.
HOURS
Fig. 30.14-Flow-test data on a well having a long but finite transient period.
I ‘bl / II1 I
i 1 ‘hi I 1 /PRODUCTION I i tttl'
1w
I
IO
HOURS
4
Fp=k’
,.............................
. .(17) Fp= o.183(p, -pw~), . ..... . . . . . (19)
kb
30-l 4 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
>I
(Pr -Pwf> 93,
PS =m -log
[ 171 ( 10.4mhqbc,r,,.’
(Pr-Pwf) -162.5qopoBo
pS =mR m=
[ Mg kh ’
-log , (21)
Plhr = pressure on straight-line portion of semilog
plot one hour after beginning a transient
test, psi,
pi = initial reservoir pressure, psi,
where s = skin effect, and
Ps = pressure loss due to skin effect, psi, L = distance to a linear discontinuity, ft.
Pws = static BHP, psi,
Pwf = flowing BHP, psi, However, the simple occurrence of a doubling slope in a
Pt = well pressure 1 hour after shut-in, psi, transient test does not guarantee the existence of a linear
40 = production rate for oil, B/D, boundary near the well.
production rates for gas, Mcf/D at 14.7 psia To estimate the distance to a linear discontinuity, we
qg =
and 60”F, use the intersection time, t,, of the two straight line
segments of the drawdown curve. The following equa-
B, = formation volume factor of oil, RBISTB,
tion applies for drawdown testing. I7
z= compressibility factor (gas deviation factor),
h= effective reservoir thickness, ft,
TR = reservoir temperature, “F+460,
porosity reservoir rock, fraction, (23)
4=
co = compressibility of reservoir oil, psi -’ ,
rw = borehole radius, ft, where c, is compressibility of the total system, psi-’
m= slope, pt vs. log t, and The effects of reservoir heterogeneities and method of
mg = slope pt2 vs. log t, where pt is the well determining them are discussed in Chap. 26.
pressure at time t and t is time after well
shut-in, hours. Lifting Equipment
BHP measurements are valuable to the engineer for
Positive values of ps indicate damage and negative determining the size and type of artificial lift to install
values of pr indicate improvement of permeability adja- and to monitor the efficiency of such equipment.
cent to the wellbore in terms of pressure loss due to skin The efficiency of a gas lift depends, among other fac-
effect. tors, on the pressure at the depth of gas injection. From
BOTTOMHOLE PRESSURES 30-15
the flowing pressure or PI, the pressure can be calculated unseated, permits calculating the average weight of mud
for a given rate of production and after a gas lift is in in the hole and is used to verify mud weight as measured
operation. Knowing the PI, the producing efficiency can by routine tests.
be calculated from the rate of production. The change in
pressure gradient in a well being gas lifted will determine Nomenclature
the point at which gas is entering the flow string, which
b = intercept of curve with time value of 1
is of interest where multiple flow or unloading valves are
installed. minute
The PI is used to determine the amount of fluid E = formation volume factor for total fluid
available to be pumped from a well and therefore the size produced
of the pump that should be run and the depth at which it B, = formation volume factor of oil
should be set. After a well has been on the pump for CL = liquid compressibility
some time and declined in production, the question fre- CO = compressibility of reservoir oil
quently arises as to whether the productivity of the well ct = compressibility of the total system
has declined or the pumping equipment has decreased in C, = gas compressibility
efficiency. The correct condition can be determined by CT = temperature coefficient
measuring the static and producing pressures, either with d = diameter of flow pipe
a bottomhole gauge or from fluid-level calculation by
d,. = deflection of calibration temperature
sound reflections as described previously. If fluid-level
d, = observed deflection
determinations are known to be unreliable for a given
d, = deflection at Ti for given pressure
pool or are proved uncertain in a given well because of
fluctuating fluid-level by several determinations, a BHP d2 = deflection at T2 for same pressure
gauge should be run. Many operators have successfully D= depth of well
run a pressure gauge in the annulus between the tubing e= base, natural logarithms
and casing. During such runs the wireline will F, = gauge factor
sometimes wrap around the tubing or the gauge will FP = productivity ratio
wedge between the tubing and casing. It can usually be h= effective reservoir thickness
released by starting the pumping equipment, but J= PI
sometimes it is necessary to move in a pulling unit to lift J, = specific PI
the tubing to free the gauge. Many operators use an ec- k= permeability of reservoir
centric tubing head to position the tubing against one
kb = permeability calculated from buildup
side of the casing instead of its normal central position
pressure
and thus minimize chances of the gauge’s becoming
kj = permeability calculated from productivity
hung up in the annulus. The BHP gauge can be run on
the rods in most wells by attaching it, preferably rigidly, index
to the standing valve. A pressure gauge under these con- k, = effective permeability of oil
ditions is subject to severe vibrations resulting from both L= distance to a linear discontinuity and
the vibration of the pumping equipment and a “water- unstrained length
hammer” effect from the liquid at the pump level. AL= change in length
m= slope of buildup curve, pt vs. log I or
Drillstem Tests
slope of log(p,, -pwf) vs. I
The most common use of BHP gauges in a drilling well ml* = slope of pressure buildup curve, pm,’ vs.
is in evaluating DST’s. Pressure gauges were first used log t
to determine that the valve functioned properly and was
P= pressure at r+Ar
open during the test. Subsequently the pressure informa-
Ap = slope of plot of p vs. log t+ Al/At or
tion has become important. The detailed pressure infor-
mation obtained on a DST can be used to determine the AP=P~~-P~,
productivity of the formation by calculating the PI from Lcp = dimensionless factor from curves
the amount of fluid recovered during the test and the (see Fig. 30.9)
static and drawdown pressures. A more recent use has p* = last pressure on buildup curve
been to confirm indicated productivity from the buildup Pi = initial reservoir pressure
after the valve is closed. It is not unusual to have a very PA = pressure loss due to skin effect
poor recovery of fluid and obtain a good buildup curve P.sd = log e rd/r,,, for constant pressure at radius
such as can be obtained only when the producing capaci- of drainage or log c (rd/r,.)-0.75 when
ty is much better than indicated by the quantity of fluid no influx across external boundary
recovered. The permeability can be calculated from the
Pt = well pressure 1 hour after shut-in
buildup curve. While subject to a high probable error
PI,’ = BHP at t
because of the short time of the test and usually high
reservoir damage adjacent to the borehole, it is sufficient Pwf = flowing BHP
to indicate whether further testing may be warranted. pKh = wellhead pressure
pH.,, = static BHP
Mud Weight Plhr = pressure on straight-line portion of semilog
The pressure at the depth of a DST, before seating the plot one hour after beginning a transient
packer and also after the test is completed and the packer test
30-16 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
il
T, = higher temperature Pt-P4 log 142.817q,zTR
z= ps =mR .(21)
compressibility factor (gas deviation factor) $hm fic 8 r II,2j
m<s
specific gravity of gas (air=l)
viscosity of produced fluid
viscosity of reservoir gas
viscosity of reservoir oil
porosity reservoir rock
L=
J kt,
,,78,~c,~, , (23)
p ,, =p*+ (P v/ -MqbB
I,I 2ahk (7)
References
I. Millikan, C.V.: “Bottom-Hole Pressures,” Petroleum Produc-
tion Hundbook (1962) 2, 27-l-27-14.
2. Brownscombe. E.R. and Cordon, D.R.: “Precision in Bottom-
kz - . (II) Hole Pressure Measurement.” Trans., AIME (1946) 165,
2*4p,,, -P,,t.) 27l 159-74.
3. Bergman, J.C.. Guimard. A., and Hagernan, P.S.: “High Perfor-
mance Pressure Measurement Systems,” Johnston-Macco (1980)
10.
44.330 dtLB log 4. Pierce, H.R. and Rawlins. E.L.: “The Study of Fundamental
Basis for Controlling and Gauging Natural Gas Wells, Part I ,” RI
k= . . (12) 2929, USBM (1929).
hY 5. Buck-Pressure Data on Natural Gus Wells and Their Application
to Pmductiotz Pructices, USBM Monogrdph 7 (1935) 168.
6. Muskat, M.: “Use of Data in the Build-Up of Bottomhole
Pressures.” Trans., AIME (1937) 123, 44-48.
k,, = 4OtcOB~, 7. Arps, J.J. and Smith, A.E.: “Practical Use of Bottom-Hole
5,45751,n7 . (13) Pressure Build-Up Curves,” Drill. and Prod. Pruc., API (1949)
155.
BOTTOMHOLE PRESSURES 30-17
8. Miller. C.C.. Dyes. A.B.. and Hutchinson. C A. Jr.: “Estimation 13. Wycoff, R.D. er 01.1 “Measurement of Permeability of Porous
of Permeabihty and Reservoir Pressure from Bottomhole Preasurc Media.” Bull.. AAPG (1934) 18. 161.
Bmld-Up Charactenstics,” Trum., AIME (1950) 189. 91-104. 14. Muskat, M.: Physical P&r&s ofOil Production. McGraw-Hill
9. Earlougher, R.C. Jr., Kench, K.M., and Ramey, H.J. Jr.: Book Co. Inc., New York City (1949).
“Well&e Effects in Injection Well Testmg,“J. Pet..Tech. (Nov. 15. Tracy, G.W.: “Why Gas Wells Have Low Productivity,” Oil and
1973) 1244-50. Gas .I. (Aug. 6, 1955) 54, No. 66, 84.
10. Homer, D.R.: “Pressure Build-Up in Wells.” Proc.. Third 16. Dolan, J.P., Einarsen, C.A., and Hill, G.A.: “Special Applica-
World Pet. Gong. (1951). tions of Drill Stem Test Pressure Data,” J. Pet. Tech. (Nov. 1957)
11. Thomas, G.B.: “Analysis of Pressure Build-Up Data,” J. Pet. 318-24; Trans., AJME, 210.
Tech. (April 1953) 125-28; Trans., AIME, 198. 17. Gray, K.E.: “Approximating Well-to-Fault Distance fmm
12. Hurst, W.: “Establishment of the Skin Effect and Its Impediment Pressure Build-Up Tests,” J. Pet. Tech. (July 1965) 761-67.
to Fluid Flow into a Wellbore,” Pet. Eng. (1953) 25. No. 11,
B-6.