UNIT

 1   UNIT  2   UNIT  3  
DESCRIBING   DESCRIBING   COMMENTING  
TRENDS   PROCESSES  AND   •  Sentences  
•  Sentences   DEVELOPMENTS   •  Paragraphs   VOCABULARY  
•  Paragraphs   •  Texts  
•  Sentences  
•  Section  
AND  SPEAKING  
•  Texts   •  Paragraphs  
•  Texts  

INTRODUCTION  
Sentences  connect  together  to  form  paragraphs  
And  paragraphs  to  form  articles  
 
In  paragraphs,  attention  is  required  for  link  words,  reference  words  
and  thematic  vocabulary,  and  most  of  all  the  clear  logical  structure  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 UNIT  ONE-­‐DESCRIBING  TRENDS  
Trends  of  increase  and  decrease  in  companies,  industries  and  national  
economies.  
Make  comparisons  and  try  to  predict  future  events  
 
A/  SENTENCES    
.  Introduction
Comparison   Describing  trends   Approximation  

•  %  higher  than  in  the  same   •  DOWNWARD   •  Nearly  %  

period  last  year   •  To  slump  from  %  to  %   •  More  than  N  
•  R  more  than   [strong  meaning]   •  About  %  half  the  number  of...  
•  Much  shallower  than  a  slump   •  To  fall  by  %   •  To  be  close  to  a  R  
•  Equally,     •  To  plummet   •  Is  likely  expected  to  be  
•  %  down  in  the  M  of  this  year   •  INCREASE   forecast  
against  the  same  period  in  Y   •  to  grow  by  %  a  year  
•  Compared  with   •  An  upswing  
•  Compartively  better  

 
 
.  Comparing  product  or  performance  with  another  and  making  
approximations  

Degree     DIFFERENCES   SIMILARITIES  

•  Slightly   •  At  a  much  faster  %  a   •  The  same  as  

•  Much   year  than  %  in  the   •  As  big  as  
•  Steeply   sentence  before  
•  lower  than  any  
•  To  grow  more  quickly  
than  
•  Better  than  most  
•  bigger  than  
•  more  expensive  than  
 •  A  great  deal  far  
Big  difference   •  By  far  much  

•  Considerably  
Important     •  Substantially  

Easily   •  Rather  
noticeable   •  Somewhat  

•  Slightly  
Noticeable   •  A  little  
•  A  bit  

Small   •  Marginally  
degree   •  Fractionally  

•  Practically  all  of  

+   •  Just  over,  Just  above  

•  Nearly  
•  Around  

+\-­‐   •  Approximately  
•  About  
•  More  or  less  
•  Roughly  

-­‐   •  Almost  
•  Nearly  
•  Just  under/below  
 .  Describe  trends  of  increase  and  decrease  [prices,  rates  of  inflation  and  
profits  go  up  or  down  from  year  to  year]  
INCREASE  

A/to  increase   A/To  decrease  

A/to  rise   A/to  fall  off  
A/to  jump   A/to  drop  
A  recovery.  To  recover   A/  to  slump  
A  peak/  to  reach  a  peak   A/  to  decline  
A  growth/  to  grow   A  low  point/  to  reach  a  low  
An  upward  movement/  to   point  
go  up  

DECREASE  
A/  to  surge  

.  
To  remain  stable,  constant  and  steady  
 
 

Subject  =  economic  
 
  growth,  
unemployment  
 
 
 
 
  Place  where  
Degree  of  change     Period  
  of  time   changes  take  
  place  
 
 
At  65%  its    
From  a  %   Over  the   the  
previous  
average  to  a   in     past  10   in  the   In  W   employed  
decade's    Fell  by  38%   1960=1973   1970's   Germany  
%  average   years   labour  force  
rate  
 .  Make  accurate  forecasts  and  predictions  about  the  future  
 
 
BIG  CHANGE  
•  marked  ly    
•  great  ly    
•  considerabl
e  ly   FAST  CHANGE  
Slow  change   •  Quick  ly  
Small  change   •  Gradual  ly   •  Sudden  ly  
•  Fractional  ly   •  Slow  ly   •  Rapid  ly  
•  Marginal  ly   •  Gentle  ly  
•  Slight  ly  

 
 
 
 

PROBABLE  
CERTAIN  100%   POSSIBLE  50%  
70%  
•  is  unlikely  to   •  To  be  about  to   •  May  
•  is  bound  to   •  Is  likely  to   •  Could  
•  will  certainly   •  Is  expected  to   •  Might  
•  It  is  certain   •  will  probably   •  Will  possibly  
that   •  It's  probable   •  It's  possible  
that   that  
 
 
 
 
 
 
  
 
 
 
   
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  
B/  PARAGRAPHS  
Link  words  indicate  a  direction  or  a  change  of  direction  in  the  
author’s  line  of  thought  

Contrast,  
comparison  
and  
similarity  
•  However,  
whereas,  but  

LINE  OF  
THOUGHT  
Cause  or  
Sequence  of   effect  
ideas  or  
•  Because,  due  
events  
to,  since,  
•  First   with  
•  Next   •  The  reason  
•  Then   for  this  is,  ...  
so  that...  
 
 
Reference  words  are  the  backbone  of  the  relationship  between  the  ideas  
Repetition  of  a  noun  [it,  they,  this,  that]  

 
 C/  PATTERN  OF  AN  ARTICLE  

Statement  of  the  subject  

The  man-­‐made  iibres  industry  

Summary  of  the  main  points  to  be  considered  

There  are  signs  of  improvements  

Example  to  illustrate  the  main  points  

9  companies  are  optimistic  as  their  production  increase  

Additional  information  about  one  of  the  main  points  

More  evidence  of  improvement   What  increased  specialisation  is  about  

Comparison/  contrast  between  different  points  

Cause/effects  =  Reasons  and  results  

Less  spare  capacity  =  improvement  1   More  specialisation  =improvement  2  

Prediction  =  developments  in  the  future    

Demand  and  price  levels  are  expected  to  improve  

Summary  

 
  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
   
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 UNIT  2  DESCRIBING  PROCESSES  AND  DEVELOPMENTS  
 
A. SENTENCE.    
Explore  the  language  in  connection  with  technical  and  scientific  subjects  
[application,purpose,  cause  and  effect,  composition]    
&  Write  more  concisely  
 [reference  words,  use  of  relatives,  word  groups]  
 

DESCRIBING  
APPLICATIONS  
PROCESS/ APPLICATION  
SUBSTANCE/DEVICE/ •  to  use  it  for  
EQUIPMENT   •  for  use  in   •  Cleaning  out  
•  Catalyst   •  are  being  used  to.   residues  
can  be  used  for   •  Drilling  oil  
•  Platform  
•  are  designed/ •  Control  operations  
•  Micro=processors  
suitable  for  
•  are  suited  to  
•  has  been  developed  
for  ing  

 
 
   
                                     
 
 
 
 .Describing  purpose  
It  is  an  additional  information  concerning  the  application
The  objective  
of  SUBSTANCE  
is  to  PURPOSE  

SIGNALS  
SUBSTANCE  
To  P,  S  &   USED  TO   can  be  APP  so  
App   SHOW   that  P  
PURPOSE  

S  App  in  order  to  P  

 
.  Giving  Cause  and  explaining  effects  
There  are  4  ways  to  introduce  them  
1. EFFECT  as  a  result  of,  because  of,  as  a  consequence  of,  due  to,  owing    to  
CAUSE  
2. CAUSE  Because,  as,  due  to  the  fact  that,  since,  EFFECT  
3. SUBSTANCE  should  lead  to,  produce,  bring  about,  result  in  EFFECT  
4. That  will  PURPOSE  and  so,  therefore,  consequently,  thus  EFFECT  
SUBSTANCE  OR  
  DEVICE  
.Composition                                                                                  of  substances  
  Consist  of   Comprise  
 
  Are  
  compose Contain  
d  of  
 
  Incorporating  
 
 
  2  components,  both/  
The  
  ingredients  -­‐eg.  1,2,3  and   Component  1,  2  and  3  ,  to   neither  of  which  are  
4  -­‐  needed  to  Purpose   Purpose   Adj  and  Action  
 .  
 
.  Avoiding  repetitions  with  reference  words  
[them,these,that  of  ,they,this,its,  he,she]  
which  refer  back  to  something  that  has  already  been  said  
 
That  comes  after  a  [verb+  noun]  whereas  which  introduces  a  [verb  in  a  clause]    
referring  back  to  the  whole  of  the  previous  sentence]  
 
And  that  means  =  which  means  
 
Sentences  are  shortened  by  leaving  out  relative  clauses  such  as  which  
is,  which  action  verb  
 
 
 
B.Paragraphs.  How  to  describe  a  sequence  and  a  stage  of  a  
process  
 
.  Describing  a  sequence  
 focusing  on  the  order  in  which  steps  take  place.  What  are  the  
signals  ?  

BEGINNING   MIDDLE   END  

• Initially   • The  next  step  is   • The  iinal  step  is    

• to  start  by/with   • Next   • Finally  
• to  begin  with  .  In   • Following  that   • Lastly  
the  beginning   • Then   • Eventually  
• The  iirst  stage  is   • After  that    
• In  turn  
  
UNIT  3  REPORTING  AND  COMMENTING  
 
A.Sentences  .    To  report  information  and  comment  on  event  
 
.Strength  of  opinion  [obviously,definitely]    
And  degrees  of  certainty  

 
 
.  How  the  author  feels  about  a  statistic  

POSITIVE   NEUTRAL   NEGATIVE  

•  A  lot  more   •  Rather  more   •  Only  about  %  

than  %   than  %   •  Hardly  %  
thought...   •  Almost  %   •  Barely  %  
•  No  less  than   •  Just  %  
%  
•  As  many  as  %  

 
 
 
.  How  adjectives  are  used  to  explain  attitudes  and  ideas  as  well  as  
objects  and  dimensions

 
A  shallow  analysis  [not exhibiting, requiring, or capable of serious
thought] / A deep reflexion
A low opinion.Unfavorable : he had a low opinion of himself.

.  How  adjectives  attract  the  reader’s  attention  

à  Alarming,  appalling  [awful; terrible]  ,incredible,  terryfing,  
astonishing  
àOr  when  preceded  by  a  degree  :  Extremely

 
 
 
.  How  degrees  of  verb    create  an  effect  
1.  Japan  cannot  hope  to  dominate  major  industries  

 
2.  But  borrowing  can  be  cost  effective  

 
3…  Only  if  Chinese  can  provide  an  adequate  return  on  investment  

 
  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
UNIT  4  VOCABULARY  

 
 
.  Idioms  

 
  
  
SPEAKING  

 
SUMMARY  OF  AN  ARTICLE