The Health Benefits of

Citrus Fruits

Dr Katrine Baghurst
CSIRO Health Sciences &
Nutrition

Project Number: CT02057

CT02057

This report is published by Horticulture Australia Ltd to

pass on information concerning horticultural research
and development undertaken for the citrus industry.

The research contained in this report was funded by

Horticulture Australia Ltd with the financial support of
the citrus industry.

All expressions of opinion are not to be regarded as

expressing the opinion of Horticulture Australia Ltd or
any authority of the Australian Government.

The Company and the Australian Government accept

no responsibility for any of the opinions or the
accuracy of the information contained in this report
and readers should rely upon their own enquiries in
making decisions concerning their own interests.

ISBN 0 7341 0694 7

Published and distributed by:

Horticultural Australia Ltd
Level 1
50 Carrington Street
Sydney NSW 2000
Telephone: (02) 8295 2300
Fax: (02) 8295 2399
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© Copyright 2003
This report provides a comprehensive literature study on the health benefits of citrus
which describes and details how the various components of citrus fruits and
juices can affect major causes of illness in the Australian community as well as
approaches to increasing consumption in the community.

It includes:

• an outline of the major health problems in Australia, including the major

causes of sickness and death

• a summary of the effect of citrus fruits (eg oranges, lemons and mandarins)
and fruit juices (in particular, orange juice), on major diseases outcomes,
including an appendix detailing the relevant papers

• a description of the nutrient and non-nutrient components of orange, lemons

and mandarins and orange juice (amount and type of vitamins, fibre,
phytochemicals etc), together with a comparison of these components in other
fruits such as apples and bananas or drinks such as soft drinks and sports
drinks

• a description of the general theory of the mechanisms responsible for the

potential beneficial effects of the various components of citrus fruits and
juices

• a survey of overseas juice and orange industries to see how they are educating
people on the health benefits of citrus and

• recommendations on how Australians can be educated on the health benefits

of citrus fruit and juice consumption

Data from studies involving citrus fruits and juices were reviewed until March 03; for
related nutrients, data collection was completed in March 02.

Report prepared by:

Dr Katrine Baghurst
Consumer Science Program
CSIRO Health Sciences & Nutrition

ii
iii
Contents Page
Executive summary vii

Introduction 1

Part 1 Health patterns in Australia 2

1.1 Major causes of death in Australia 2

1.2 Trends in mortality in Australia 4
1.3 Major causes of illness in Australia 6
1.4 Summary 7

Part 2 How might citrus fruit and juice consumption 8

affect health in Australia?

2.1 General Mechanisms 8

2.2 Components and their mechanisms 9

Antioxidant activity 9
Vitamin C 10
Carotenoids 11
Folic acid 12
Potassium 13
Dietary fibre 14
The role of non-nutrient phytochemicals 14
Polyphenols 15
Categories of polyphenolic compounds 16
Flavonoids 17
Coumarins 19
Terpenes 20
Phytosterols 20
Other phytochemicals 20
2.3 Summary 21
Summary tables of nutrients found in citrus and health effects 22

Part 3 Composition of citrus fruits, other fruits, 27

fruit juices, soft and sports drinks

3.1 Citrus and other fruits 27

Energy and macronutrients 27
Minerals 29
Vitamins 31
3.2 Orange juice, other fruit juices, fruit drinks, 34
soft drinks and “sports” & “energy” drinks.
Energy and Macronutrients 34
Minerals 34
Vitamins 36
3.3 Phytochemicals in citrus fruits and juices 40

iv
Contents Page

Part 4 The relationship between fruit, particularly 48

citrus fruit and fruit juice and human health

4.1 Introduction 48
Methodological considerations 49
Types of studies used for assessing the possible 49
effects of dietary components on disease risk.

4.2 Cancer and citrus 53

Colorectal cancer 54
Stomach cancer 55
Lung cancer 55
Breast cancer 56
Prostate cancer 57
Bladder cancer 57
Oesophageal cancer 58
Oro-pharyngeal cancers, laryngeal, naso-pharyngeal 58
Pancreatic Cancer 59
Female reproductive tract cancers 59
Other cancers 60
Role of overweight and obesity in cancer 60
Summary of citrus and cancer 60
Summary table of cancer studies 61

4.3 Citrus–related nutrients and cancer risk. 65

4.4 Cardiac and vascular diseases 66

Coronary heart disease and acute myocardial infarction 66
Stroke 68
Hypertension 68
Role of overweight and obesity 68

4.5 Eye conditions 69

4.6 Chrohn’s Disease and Other Inflammatory Bowel Disease 70

4.7 Other chronic, infectious and immune disease 70

Infectious disease 71

4.8 Improved lung function 71

4.9 Health economic benefits of increased consumption of citrus fruits 72

4.10 Potential adverse effects 75

Allergenicity and asthma 75
Grapefruit juice and certain drugs 75

v
Contents Page

Part 5 What are overseas organisations doing 77

to promote the health benefits of citrus ?

5.1 Florida Citrus Organisations, US (UltimateCitrus) 77

5.2 Produce Marketing Association 77

5.3 Florida Department of Citrus 78

5.4 Florida Dept of Agriculture and Consumer Science 79

5.5 Texasweet Citrus Marketing 79

5.6 European Community (INTERCITRUS) 80

5.7 Sunkist 80

5.8 Tropicana 81

5.9 Capespan (South Africa) 81

5.10 The 5-a-Day for Better Health Program 82

Related Australian programs 84

5. 11 Summary 84

Part 6. What can the Australian Citrus industry do 86

to promote citrus fruit & juices ?

6.1 Why don’t Australians eat more fruit ? 86

6.2 Understanding the psychosocial determinants of intake 88

Different influences at different ages 90

The optimistic consumer- a key barrier 91
Lack of awareness as a barrier 92
Confusion over definitions 92
Time and skill barriers 93

6.3 Intervention initiatives, how successful have they been ? 93

6.4 What can the Australian Citrus Industry do ? 95

vi
Executive summary

Introduction

In the last two to three decades there has been a growing awareness of the role of diet in the
etiology of the chronic diseases that are major contributors to morbidity and mortality in
industrialised countries such as Australia, the United States and Europe. A great deal of
this work has been summarised in a major World Health Organisation study of “Diet,
Nutrition and the Prevention of Chronic Disease” (1).

A wide range of bioactive substances have already been identified in foods and drinks and
it is likely that many more exist. There are many biologically active substances in fruits
including both nutrients and non-nutrients for which protective health effects have been
postulated. These include vitamins C, folic acid, carotenoids, dietary fibre, potassium,
selenium and a range of phytochemicals.

In some instances the beneficial effect of high fruit and vegetable diets has been ascribed to
the concomitant reduction in high fat and energy-dense foods in the diet (ie a displacement
of foods that could be harmful both in terms of chronic disease and obesity). Fruits and
vegetables are relatively low in fat and dietary energy, as well as salt,. They also have a
relatively low glycaemic index which assists in controlling the effects of diabetes.

Citrus fruit and juices have long been considered a valuable part of a healthy and nutritious
diet and it is well established that some of the nutrients in citrus promote health and provide
protection against chronic disease.

More recently, the role of bioactive non-nutrient components called phytochemicals has
received increasing attention.

This report details the current health concerns in Australia; the health benefits of citrus, the
active components which are thought to produce these health benefits, their mechanisms of
action and the level at which they are found in citrus fruits and juices and their competitor
products.

It also details what overseas citrus groups are doing in relation to nutrition and health issues
and outlines what the Australian industry could do.

Reference
1. WHO, 2003 Diet, Nutrition and the Prevention of Chronic Disease. World Health
Organisation, Geneva.

vii
1. Australia’s Health Profile
Many of the major disease of concern in Australia have a dietary component. These include
cardiovascular conditions such as coronary heart disease and stroke (caused, in part by
hypertension); cancers of various types, obesity, dental caries, asthma, periodontal disease,
iron-deficiency anaemias, type 2 diabetes, cataracts (and macular degeneration),
diverticulitis, osteoporosis, gall bladder disease and depression. Some, but not all of these
have been shown to be associated with varying consumption of fruits and vegetables.

Table 1. Leading cases of death in Australia, 1998 ( * diet- related conditions)

Males Females
Cause of death Number Cause of death Number
Total cardiovascular 26 780 Total cardiovascular 22939
Total cancer 19,196 Total cancer 14893
Ischaemic heart disease* 15 021 Ischaemic Heart disease* 12 801
Lung cancer* 4 821 Cerebrovascular disease* 7 170
Cerebrovascular disease* 4 812 Dementia & related* 2 579
Chronic obstructive pulmonary dis. 3 325 Breast cancer* 2 542
Colorectal cancer* 2 579 Colorectal cancer* 2 165
Prostate cancer* 2 530 Lung cancer* 2 053
Suicide 2 150 Chronic obstructive PD 2 026
Lymphatic cancer 1 870 Lymphatic cancer 1 600
Diabetes* 1 424 Diabetes* 1 327
Dementia & related* 1 294 Pneumonia 937
Total deaths in Australia in 1998 were 127,194

The major causes of death in Australia are therefore cardiovascular diseases (40%) and
cancer (27%), making 67%, or two thirds, of all deaths.

Many of the major diseases of concern in Australia have a dietary component. These
include cardiovascular conditions such as coronary heart disease and stroke (caused, in part
by hypertension); cancers of various types, obesity, dental caries, asthma, periodontal
disease, iron-deficiency anaemias, type 2 diabetes, cataracts (and macular degeneration),
diverticulitis, osteoporosis, gall bladder disease and depression.

The World Health Organisation in their recent report on “Diet, Nutrition and the Prevention
of Chronic Diseases” found “convincing” evidence of a positive effect of fruit and
vegetables on cardiovascular diseases and obesity, and “probable” evidence for cancer and
type 2 diabetes. Some, but not all of the others mentioned above, have been shown to be
associated with varying consumption of fruits and vegetables.

2. Components of citrus that have health potential and mechanisms of action

Citrus fruits contain a range of key nutrients such as vitamin C, vitamin A, carotenes of
various kinds (*eg beta-carotene, lutein, zeaxanthin), folate and fibre as well as very many
non-nutrient phytochemicals including classes such as flavonoids, glucarates, coumarins,
monoterpenes, triterpenes and phenolic acids and individual components such as
hesperidin, naringin, tangeritin limonene, nomilin, perillylalcohol myrecetin, quercetin,
sinsensetin, tangeretin and nobiliten. A summary of the magnitude of these components in
citrus and the effect of these components on health is given in the following table.

viii
Element Description
Antioxidants Includes vitamin C, non-nutrient carotenoids,
polyphenols such as flavonoids, glutathione,
and various enzyme systems
Vitamin C Ascorbic acid
Carotenoids Beta-carotene, alpha carotene, lutein,
zeazanthine. Cryptoxanthin.
Folate Vitamin sometimes called folic acid or folacin
Potassium Mineral which with sodium, is responsible for
regulation of fluids in the body
Dietary Fibre Includes soluble and insoluble polysaccharides,
as well as resistant starch and some other
components Pectin in fruits is one component of
fibre
Non-nutrient Generic name for hundreds of different
phytochemicals components. (eg polyphenols, flavonoids,
coumarins, terpenes, phytoterols etc as listed
below. An orange has over 170 different
phytochemicals Liminoids, are a major
phytochemical class in citrus
Polyphenols Over 4000 different structures identified.
The term plant phenols encompasses a wide
variety of naturally occurring compounds which
are structurally related. Includes the simple
phenols; the hydroxycinnamic acid derivatives;
the flavonoids including catechins (flavanols),
anthocyanins, flavones and flavonols.The
anthocyanins found in citrus are responsible for
many of the skin colours of fruit and vegetables.
Prevalence in citrus
Fruit generally high. Citrus fruits generally
have the highest antioxidant activity of all fruit
classes.
High; One orange has 62 mg nearly twice
the recommended daily intake (RDI)
One glass orange juice has 104 mg, nearly
three times the RDI
Moderate to high levels over 60 present. Beta-
carotene gives oranges their colour
One orange 3 % RDI for vitamin A
One glass juice 4 % RDI
High levels
One orange 18 % RDI
One glass orange juice 18 % RDI
Fruits generally high
One orange 6% RDI
One glass orange juice 10 % RDI
Whole fruits good source; for juices it depends
on manufacturing process. Recommended
intake 30g per day
One orange contains 2.4g fibre; 8% RDI
1 glass orange juice contains 0.6g fibre, 2%
RDI
Rich source (see Tables 17a,b, 18,19,20 and
21). No set RDIs
Good source. Content of individual
polyphenols in citrus is shown in Table 5 and 6
above and Tables 17 a,b) No set RDIs
ix
Health effect
Boost immune system; may protect against cancer, heart disease,
cataracts, degeneration of the macular area of eyes and infection
Antioxidant Boosts immune system; may protect against cancer, heart
disease, cataracts and infection. Helps in absorbtion of iron and zinc in
other foods
Antioxidant Boosts immune system; may protect against cancer, heart
disease, cataracts and infection. Beta-carotene is also precursor of
vitamin A
Prevents neural tube defects in children, stabilises genetic material and may also
be protective for cancer and heart disease
High potassium and low sodium level may help in prevention of high blood
pressure. There is sufficient evidence from experimental studies about the role
that potassium plays in regulating blood pressure that the US allows a health
claim related to this.
Decreases transit time of food in the gut, improves gut microflora and certain
fibres help lower blood fats. May reduce risk of certain cancers and heart disease
and relieve gastric conditions such as constipation
Have anti-inflammatory and anti-tumour activity as well as inhibiting blood clots
and having strong antioxidant activity; may protect against some of the common
chronic diseases such as cancer and cardiovascular disease, degenerative eye and
cognitive conditions and general damage caused by ageing.
They have been shown to have a range of health related effects including anti-
oxidant, anti-viral, anti-allergic, anti-inflammatory anti-proliferative and anti-
carcinogenic . Most interest has centred on a possible role in cancer and heart
disease but recently their role in brain functions such as learning and memory
have received attention
Element Description
Flavonoids More than 60 individual flavonoids have been
identified Four types of flavonoids (flavanones,
flavones, flavanols and anthocyanins, the last in
blood oranges only) occur in citrus..
Coumarins Class of phytochemicals Citrus peels contain a
number of coumarins Auraptene the most
common coumarin in citrus and is found in sour
oranges Natsudaidai, grapefruit and trifoliate
orange. Citrus fruit products such as grapefruit
juice and marmalade retain some auraptene
activity.
Terpenes Citrus fruits contain both mono terpenes and
tripterpenes (liminoids). The most abundant
terpenes in citrus are the liminoids which
include limonene and perillyl alcohol.
Limonene is found in citrus oils.
Energy Is measure of dietary energy in food expressed
as kilojoules
Fat Saturated, fat, monounsaturated fat,
/cholesterol polyunsaturated fats, omega 3 and 6 fats and
cholesterol
Salt Short name for Sodium chloride
Prevalence in citrus
They are particularly abundant in citrus plants
(see Tables 17a,b) No set RDIs
Good source see Table 20. No set RDIs
Good source of some terpenes (see Table
18).
No set RDIs
Citrus are low in dietary energy and energy
density (energy/unit weight)
One orange = 187kj ( RDI 6500-13700 kj )
1 glass orange juice = 272 kj
Citrus contain minimal amounts of fats and
cholesterol
Total fat one orange 0.12g; one glass orange
juice 0.2g (limit about 50g/day)
Citrus contain minimal amounts. They are high
potassium/low salt foods
One orange 0 mg
1 glass orange juice 2mg
x
Health effect
These substance may help protect against cancer, viral infections and
inflammatory disease, allergies and fungal conditions as well as heart disease.
In animal studies, has been shown to inhibit tumour promotion, inhibit the growth
of colonic aberrant crypts and oral and large bowel cancer. Experimental studies
suggest that these substances might protect against human cancer but data is still
limited
Limonene is used in Japan to dissolve gallstones .In animal experiments, it has
shown powerful anticancer properties and has caused complete regression of
mammary and pancreatic tumours. Other terpenes have also been shown to
shrink tumours in animals, including pancreatic cancer.
With increasing levels of obesity in Australia, low energy foods with high
nutrient value are a valuable part of the diet.
Overweight and obesity increase risks of heart disease, certain cancers, diabetes,
blood pressure, stroke etc and add to symptoms of other conditions eg arthritis
All fats are energy dense and should be eaten in moderation High intakes of
saturated fat and cholesterol increase heart disease risk
With potassium, regulates fluid balance in body. High intakes can increase blood
pressure so higher potassium to salt ratio diets are encouraged
An orange has over 170 different phytochemicals and more than 60 flavonoids many of
which have been shown not only to have antioxidant effects but also, in cellular and animal
experiments, to have anti-inflammatory and anti-tumour activity, as well as blood clot
inhibiting activity. However, in this latter area, human data is sparse.

Deficiencies of these phytochemicals in the diet do not lead to the deficiency diseases seen
with low intakes of more traditional nutrients, such as vitamins, rather there is increasing
interest in the possibility that these substances contribute to optimal health and may protect
against some of the common chronic diseases such as cancer and cardiovascular disease,
degenerative eye and cognitive conditions and general damage caused by ageing

A number of mechanisms of action have been proposed for the protective effect of these
phytochemicals in fruits, against degenerative disease.
The antioxidant (free radical scavenging) ability of fruits such as citrus is generally high.
Protection against free radical damage to proteins, lipids and DNA is an integral part of the
body’s defence mechanism and it is possible that at least some of the antioxidants in fruit
such as citrus may contribute to enhancing these endogenous antioxidant defences.

Total antioxidant capacity of various foods

Black tea
Red wine
Banana
Apples
Pink grapefruit
Grapefruit
Orange juice
Oranges
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400

Total antioxidant activity (Trolox equivalents uM trolox/100g)

Other modes of action could include regulation of gap-junction communication between

cells, which is thought to control the growth of abnormal cells by surrounding normal cells.
Enhancement of the immune system by the pro-Vitamin A carotenoids and vitamin E has
also been demonstrated, which may inhibit the growth of cancers as well as increasing the
capacity of the body to ward off infection. In addition to their antioxidant effect, the pro-
vitamin A carotenoids such as β-carotene, α-carotene and cryptoxanthin contribute to the
supply of vitamin A, which may be associated with slowing the growth of cancer cells.
Other compounds in fruit, such as the flavonoids have been shown to inhibit the activity of
the enzyme topoisomerase II in cancer cells. Inhibition of this enzyme is associated with
tumour cells becoming more like their normal counterparts (ie more differentiated), a
slower growth and more normal behaviour.

xi
In the intestine it has been suggested that vitamin C and other phenolics (eg α-tocopherol
and other polyphenolics) may inhibit nitrosation, a reductive process leading to the
production of carcinogenic nitrosamines, and protect against gastric cancer.
Consumption of fruits has also been associated with inhibition of the growth of
Helicobacter pylorii (Correa et al, 1998), which has been associated with gastric ulcer and
possibly gastric cancer.

Fruits and vegetables also have a number of other nutrients which have been shown to
protect against certain chronic diseases, such as folate and potassium..

Folate is present in relatively high levels in citrus fruits and plays a role in prevention of
heart disease through an effect on homocysteine. Supplementation using folic acid with
and without vitamin B6 to reduce serum homocysteine levels has proved to be a successful
strategy in some initial studies – and hence dietary folate from fruits, vegetables, whole
grain foods and supplemented breakfast cereals may influence cardiovascular disease risk.
Folate is also thought to play a role in maintaining the integrity of the cognitive system and
the prevention of neural tube defects in children (spina bifida) and pregnant women have
been advised to keep up their folate intake.

Fruit, including citrus, is high in potassium and extremely low in sodium. Studies have
shown that the potassium to sodium ratio is important in the regulation of blood pressure
and there is sufficient evidence from experimental studies about the role that potassium
plays in regulating blood pressure that the US allows a health claim related to this.

Citrus fruits, as with most other fruits and vegetables, are also low in fat and in overall
dietary energy – a major consideration given the increasing rate of obesity in Australia in
both adults and children. Fruits and vegetables, including citrus also relatively low
glycaemic indices which helps in maintaining a more stable blood glucose level and
generally healthier carbohydrate metabolism.

Citrus is not a good source of iron and zinc but the high vitamin C content of citrus fruits
helps release iron and zinc from other foods and citrus and citrus juices can therefore play a
valuable role in maintaining iron status. Nutritionists therefore recommend consumption of
orange juice or citrus foods with iron containing foods such as breakfast cereals to optimise
iron absorption.

3. Does citrus and citrus juice have any health benefits?

There are many epidemiological and experimental studies in the literature linking
consumption of fruits and fruit juices to health outcomes. Some reports analyse at the very
general level (ie total fruit consumption), others by subcategories (ie citrus fruit, fruit juice)
and yet others may report data for individual items (eg oranges, orange juice).

There are also many studies which assess the role of the individual nutrients contained in
fruits and their juices such as vitamin C, carotenes, fibre, folate or potassium. Much interest
has also been expressed in the potential role of phytochemical classes such as flavonoids,
carotenes, terpenes (mono or triterpenes such as the liminoids), coumarins or individual
phytochemicals.

xii
Overall, the literature indicates a protective effect of fruits against a number of chronic
diseases and a specific role for citrus fruits in some of these conditions related, in part, to
their antioxidative capacity (from vitamin C, carotenoids, and certain phytochemicals) as
well as their content of nutrients such as folate and potassium. It is, however, of interest to
note that when human intervention studies have been undertaken using nutrient
supplements (eg beta-carotene) rather than whole foods (eg beta-carotene containing
foods), the results have not always been as expected and have sometimes even been in the
opposite direction with greater disease rates shown by the supplemented group.

Three major reviews have been carried out by the World Cancer Research Fund (WCRF) in
1997, the Committee on Medical Aspects of Food (COMA) in 1998 and the World Health
Organisation (WHO) in 2003. The WHO studies were classified the evidence into four
main categories (these were based on the WCRF categories but expanded to include the
results from controlled trials) as follows.

Convincing evidence:
Evidence based on epidemiological studies showing consistent associations between exposure and disease,
with little or no evidence to the contrary. The available evidence is based on a substantial number of studies
including prospective observational studies and, where relevant, randomised controlled trials of sufficient
size, duration and quality showing consistent effects. The association should be biologically plausible.

Possible evidence:
Evidence based on epidemiological studies showing fairly consistent associations between exposure and
disease, but where there are perceived shortcomings in available evidence or some evidence to the contrary,
which precludes a more definite judgement.

Possible evidence:
Evidence based mainly on findings from case-control and cross-sectional studies. Insufficient randomised
controlled trials, observational studies or non-randomised trials are available. Evidence based on non-
epidemiological studies such as clinical and laboratory investigations, is supportive. More trials are required
to support the tentative associations, which should also be biologically plausible.

Insufficient evidence:
Evidence based on findings of a few studies which are suggestive, but are insufficient to establish an
association between exposure and disease. Limited or no evidence is available from randomised control trials.
More well-designed research is required to support tentative associations.

The most recent WHO study (www.who.int/pub/en) concluded that “nutrition is coming to
the fore as a major modifiable determinant of chronic disease” and came to the following
conclusions regarding the effect of fruit and vegetables on chronic disease.

Obesity: Convincing evidence of positive effects of dietary fibre and energy-dilute

foods, such as fruit and vegetables on obesity.

Cardiovascular diseases: Convincing evidence of the positive effects of fruit and

vegetables on cardiovascular diseases.

Cancer: Probable evidence of the positive effects of fruit and vegetables on cancers
of the oral cavity, oesophagus, stomach and colon-rectum.

Cancer is the disease for which there is most human epidemiological evidence in relation to
fruit and citrus consumption, and the WCRF report had concluded that the evidence for a
protective effect of citrus on cancer was particularly abundant. The table below shows an
updated summary of studies of citrus and cancer. There were some 48 studies showing a

xiii
protective effect and additional studies show linkages to vitamin C, carotenes, folate or
fibre intake.

Summary of the effects of citrus fruits on cancers in studies to March ’03

(data in brackets shows number of additional studies from “null” category showing trends that were non-
significant)

Cancer Inverse Null Positive

(reduced risk) (increased risk)
Bladder 0 2 0

Breast 2 2 0
(+ 1 for benign breast disease) (including a 1 in males
metanalysis of 8 (1)
cohorts)
Colorectal 1 13 1 (men)
(5) (1)
Endometrial 1 3 0
(1)
Gallbladder 1 0 0
Kidney 1 2 0
(+ 1 protective from genetic
mutation that increases risk)
Lung 4 8 0
(2) (1)
Mesothelioma 0 1 0
Oesophageal 10 3 0
(1)
Oro-pharyneal/ 12 4 0
laryngeal (4)
Ovarian 0 1 0
Pancreatic 1 4 0
(1)
Prostate 1 1 2
(1)
Salivary (1) 0 0
Squamous skin 1 1 0
(citrus peel)
Stomach 11 9 0
(6)
Testicular 0 1 0
Thyroid 1 1 0
Urothelial 1 0 0
Vulva 0 1 0

TOTAL 48 # 57 4
(+21 ) (+4)
# . Excludes benign breast and genetic mutation studies

Note:
Some individual studies reported on more than one cancer separately in the same paper (eg colon and rectal)
or found different results by gender ( eg effect in women not in men) and may be represented more than once
in this summary table

xiv
This table shows that the greatest protection of increased citrus consumption appears to be
for oesophageal, larynx, pharynx, mouth and stomach cancers where the reduction in risk
was of the order of 40 – 50%.

The potential for antioxidants, specifically beta-carotene, vitamin C (and to a lesser extent
vitamin E), to prevent atherosclerotic lesions and hence ischaemic heart disease has so
dominated the epidemiologic research, that the health benefits of high intakes of fruit and
vegetables are often inferred from studies which only measured the serum concentrations of
these micronutrients.

The WHO study found that fruits and vegetables contributed to cardiovscular health
through the variety of phytonutrients, potassium and fibre they contained. They also
concluded that folate probably reduces cardiovascular risk and that an adequate intake of
potassium lowers blood pressure and is protective against stroke and cardiac arrythmias. .
The studies in the table below show that citrus fruits, per se may also confer these benefits.

Studies where there were positive findings linking citrus, citrus juice or related
nutrients to cardiovascular and circulatory diseases
Condition Evidence Refs in appendix
Coronary Heart • High vit C related to lower coronary artery disease in Indian study 377
Disease • Vit C rich fruits & veg protective in US health professionals study. 1
serving a day lowers risk 6% 489
• Lowered risk with high vit C in US Nurses study, India, NHANES I,
491,509, 228,494
Finland
• Carotenoids give sig reduction in four US studies, one Swiss and one 479, 492, 497, 498,
Dutch 540, 485
• Bioflavonoids protective in one Dutch study
483
Stroke • High citrus consumption including juice reduces risk to 0.81 554
compared to low consumers; citrus juice alone reduces risk to 0.75,
the effect being stronger in women. US study

One large cohort study reported in 1999 by Joshipura et al in 75 596 women and 38 683
(554) men showed that people with a high citrus fruit consumption gave a statistically
significant relative risk of 0.81 compared to low consumers (0.75 for juice). This indicates
that citrus fruits with a 19% reduced risk of stroke and citrus juices with a 25% reduced risk
were major contributors to an apparent protective effect against ischaemic stroke.

Overweight and obesity are major emerging health issues in most western countries and the
energy density of foods (the amount of energy per unit weight) is therefore of considerable
interest in terms of overall dietary energy density. Fruits and vegetables, including citrus
are high fibre, energy-dilute foods with a relatively low glycaemic index. The WHO report
concluded that there was convincing evidence that high intake of dietary fibre was
protective against obesity and overweight, whereas a high intake of energy-dense,
micronutrient poor foods was a risk. They also concluded that low glycaemic index foods
were probably protective. Obesity in itself was deemed to be a convincing risk factor for
cardiovascular disease and for Type 2 diabetes, itself a risk factor for heart disease.

xv
Some associations with citrus or components of citrus such as vitamin C or carotenes have
also been demonstrated in human epidemiology studies for cataracts, ulcerative colitis,
macular degeneration, Crohn’s disease, multiple sclerosis, gallstones, Altzheimer’s disease,
arthritis, diabetes, optimal lung function and cholera, as shown in the table below, but the
number of studies are very small and need to be confirmed.

Studies where there were positive findings linking citrus, citrus juice or related
nutrients to other chronic diseases (mostly nutrients)*.
Condition Evidence Refs in
appendix
Arthritis • One case-control study and one small cohort study are both indicative of lower serum 429-430
levels of vitamin C and beta-carotene, and hence possibly lower fruit and vegetable
intake, in people with arthritis
Asthma • One study of 18 000 children in Italy 6-7 yrs old; Citrus consumption (oranges, 431-432
tangerines, grapefruit) highly significantly protective for “wheeze” (observational
study). Linked to vitamin C by authors
Alzheimer’s • One case-control study of Alzheimer’s disease yielded inconsistent differences in fruit 512-514
disease and and vegetable intakes when comparing controls with moderate, severe and hospitalised
cognitive cases.
impairment • Of two prospective studies of cognitive impairment one recorded a decrease risk in the
highest third of vitamin C intakes and plasma levels; the other reporting a decreased
risk (0.87) associated with a Healthy Diet Indicator based on WHO guidelines.
• Reduced beta-carotene and lycopene have also been associated with increased
dementia.
• Low carotenoids associated with reduced abilities in trail-making test and digit-symbol
substitution
• Reduced beta-carotene associated with lower working memory, free-recall and WAIS-R
Parkinson’ • A case-control study in India found lower vitamin C and beta-carotene levels in 536
Disease sufferer’s from Parkinson’s Disease.
Macular • One US case-control study using donor eyes (Bone et al 2001) showed higher lutein 449, 450,
degeneration and zeaxanthin (carotenoids) in controls than cases. 451
• Another case-control study showed higher intakes of carotenoids in controls compared
to age-related macular degeneration sufferers (Seddon et al 1994). Again lutein and
zeaxanthin were thought to be the key carotenoids
Diabetes • A British study reported an inverse correlation (-0.19) between vitamin C intakes and 515-517
diabetes mortality
• One US cohort study showed that those consuming five serves a day fruit and
vegetables compared to non consumers had a reduced risk (RR 0.73; CI 0.54-0.98)
• Analytic studies: A case-control study in India reported significantly lower intakes of
vitamin C and beta-carotene in cases. A case-control study in New Guinea saw no
difference in fibre intakes
Gallstones • The Zutphen cohort study reported no relationship between gallstones and fruit intakes. 518-521
• Three of five case-control studies focussed on fibre intakes and reported no consistent
differences.
• A Spanish case-control study showed an association with low fruit intakes in female
but not male cases.
Mechanisms for a fruit vegetable/fibre effect are speculative.
Multiple • A single case-control study conducted in Montreal, Canada measured intakes of several 534
sclerosis categories of vegetables, fruits, and juice. Only high juice (and vitamin C) intakes
were associated with lower risk.
Cholera • One case-control study of cholera in Africa showed protection by consumption of limes 556, 557
in the main meal (OR 0.2: CI 0.1-0.3)
• Another case control by the same workers showed that lime juice used in a sauce with
rice was protective (OR 0.31: CI 0.17-0.56) Lime juice was stated to reduce growth of
the cholera organism
Gingivitis • A study in West Africa of gingivitis in 204 childen showed that the incidence was See ref 12
lowest when fruits were in season but this was not citrus specific above
Lung function • Improved lung function with a range of carotenoids in random ample of 1 616 men and See ref 13
women in US . Mainly lutein/zeaxanthin and vits C and E above

xvi
The immune system acts to protect the host from infectious agents that exist in the
environment (bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasites). Nutrient status is an important factor
contributing to immune competence. Nutrients that have been demonstrated in either
animal or human experiments to be required for the immune system to function efficiently
include essential amino acids and fatty acids, vitamin A, folate, vitamin B6, vitamin B12,
vitamn C, vitamin E, zinc, iron and selenium. Vitamin A, folate and vitamin C are all found
in citrus.

A US study of health professionals found that one extra serving of fruit and vegetables
would reduce the risk of strokes by 4% but that this increased by 5 to 6 times for an extra
serving of citrus fruits – that is, to a 19% reduced risk for one extra serving of citrus fruit
and a 25% reduced risk for orange juice. If the US data is applicable in Australia (ie a
20% risk reduction by consuming one extra serve of citrus a day), an extra serving of citrus
could potentially save about $150 million per year from the national health bill. However,
the health professionals who formed the basis of the US study, may not be representative of
the “average” Australian and this reduction in risk due to citrus consumption may not be
applicable to already high consumers of fruit. There is evidence that maximum benefits
come from raising the intakes of very low consumers (eg from 1 to 2 or 2 to 3 etc) and
improvements in those whose intakes are already relatively high (above 5-6 serves) are
difficult to demonstrate.

Citrus fruits have been linked to allergenic responses in sensitive adults although the
mechanisms are not clear. One study from China appears to indicate that orange seeds
contain potent allergens which can induce sensitivity and that the allergenicity is not in the
juice itself. Others have linked reactions to preservatives used in some juices. In general,
however, most people do not seem to have allergic reactions to citrus fruits or juice.
The fact that citrus can be allergenic had led to questions as to whether it might play a role
in asthma. Paradoxically, however, studies have shown that a diet low in vitamin C is a risk
factor for asthma.

4. What overseas industry initiatives are there in relation to health ?

Many of the overseas citrus industry organisations and individual companies, especially in
the US, are using nutrition and health as a key part of their marketing and promotion
strategy. This mainly centres on the key nutrients vitamin C, vitamin A, fibre and folate as
well as the low fat content, but some material is used in relation to phytochemicals.

Some of the groups are actively collaborating in the development of promotional programs
with high profile health authorities around specific health outcomes such as cancer, heart
disease or birth defects and other linking through to more general campaigns such as the 5-
a-day campaign. This collaboration gives credibility to the industry message and expanded
community reach for the health groups.

In Australia, a coalition of health and industry groups which includes Horticulture Australia
Ltd, has recently been formed under the auspices of the National Public Health Partnership
and its nutrition committee, SIGNAL, to progress promotion of fruits and vegetables in
Australia.

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Companies and organisations are targeting consumers directly through highly detailed but
approachable web sites, which detail the research between citrus consumption and health
and often also have special sections for children and/or teachers. Some of these web sites
are as follows.

http://www.ultimatecitrus.com
http://www.aboutproduce.com
http://floridajuice.com
http://floridajuice/floridacitrus.kids
http://texasweet.com
http://www.orangefruit.net
http://www.sunkist.com
http://www.tropicanahealthnews.com
http://www.capespan.com

5. What can the Australian Industry do ?

The health benefits of citrus consumption are clear. They are nutrient-dense foods with
abundant vitamins and minerals, fibre and phytochemicals without fat or salt and, are not
energy-dense. This latter consideration is of great importance in countries like Australia
where obesity (and as a result, Type 2 diabetes) is reaching epidemic proportions.

Key promotional messages could centre around citrus being:

• A “Weight control package”(energy dilute but nutrient dense, not fattening; low fat)
• Not only a source of vitamin C, but a range of antioxidants (tied to not using Vit C
pills as substitute as you only get part of the benefit; “not only but also…”)
• A good source of folate for mum’s to be (spina bifida) but also for the rest of the
family (re cancer/heart)
• A blood pressure control package (high potassium, low salt plus indirect through
body weight control)
• A cancer protective package (folate, fibre, phytochemicals, antioxidants, vits C, A)
• A heart disease protective package (folate, fibre, phytochemicals, antioxidants)
• An infection control package (antioxidants incuding vitamin C, antinflammatories)

It is likely that a broad approach to the issue will be required to get meaningful increases in
citrus consumption. Ideally, this would need to include:
• Identifying drivers constraints to increased consumption for various sectors of the
Australian and export communities
• Partnering with special medical interest groups such as the National Heart
Foundation, the AntiCancer Foundations in the States, Infant, Child and Adolescent
Health Groups, Children’s Hospitals; Diabetes Australia; the Asthma Foundation
etc around specific nutrient/health issues
• Partnering with government in promotion and policy areas National (eg EAT
WELL), State (Eat Well SA; Eat Well Tasmania etc),; Local Government in both

xviii
 promotion programs and policy development and dissemination (eg Dietary
Guideline promotions) etc
• Partnering with overseas initiatives such as the 5-a-day (eg through the fruit and
vegetable coalition) and linking websites with existing overseas specialist industry
sites
• Developing education initiatives for use in schools (curriculum materials/web sites);
mass-media, health networks, youth groups etc
• Developing new products (potential particularly for the juice area)

It is probably the first of these that is of critical importance in order to design materials and
interventions that target the real needs and concerns of the consumer not the perceptions of
nutritionists, the health sector or industry.

xix
Introduction

In the last two to three decades there has been a growing awareness of the role of diet in
the etiology of the chronic diseases that are major contributors to morbidity and
mortality in industrialised countries such as Australia, the United States and Europe. A
great deal of this work has recently been summarised in a major World Health
Organisation publication called “Diet, Nutrition and the Prevention of Chronic
Disease”.

A wide range of bioactive substances have already been identified in foods and drinks
and it is likely that many more exist. Beneficial effects substances are often used to
ascribe such effects to the foods containing them. However, each food is a complex
mixture of biologically active substances and its overall effect on the health of the
consumer will not only relate to the balance of these components within the food itself
but how they interact with or complement components from other foods, how overall
dietary intake interacts with other non-dietary risk factors for health and with the
individual genetic and biological profile of the individual.

This complexity is well illustrated with reference to fruits. In recent years, a growing
amount of attention has been given to fruits and the role they might have in preventing a
range of chronic disease conditions such as cancer, coronary heart disease, stroke,
diabetes, cataracts, arthritis, macular degeneration, Alzheimer’s disease and
inflammatory bowel disease. There are many biologically active substances in fruits
including both nutrients and non-nutrients for which protective health effects have been
postulated. These include vitamins C, folic acid, carotenoids, selenium, dietary fibre,
potassium and a range of phytochemicals. They are also relatively low in fat and dietary
energy, excess of which have been reported as risk factors for certain chronic diseases
or obesity.

Many of the reports in the literature linking consumption of fruits to health outcome are
non-specific in relation to the categories of fruits assessed, others identify effects related
to specific categories (eg citrus fruit, berries) and yet others report findings on
individual fruits or fruit products (eg oranges, apples, orange juice). One class of fruits
that have received attention in the epidemiology literature in relation to health outcome
are the citrus fruits. Citrus has long been considered a valuable part of a healthy and
nutritious diet and it is well established that some of the nutrients in citrus promote
health and provide protection against chronic disease. More recently, the role of non-
nutrient components, such as phytochemicals, has received increasing attention.

This report centres on the properties of citrus fruits, their components and their relation
to human health but because of the limited literature also includes some findings on
fruits in general. The major analysis of the effects of citrus on health has been done with
reference to the human epidemiological data but some findings from animal and cell-
based research has been included where human data is not available, particularly with
reference to mechanisms.

The report also outlines steps being taken by overseas industry groups to promote the
health benefits of citrus fruits and outlines approaches for their promotion, in a health
context, in Australia.

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Part 1 Health patterns in Australia

In order to assess the role that fruit consumption, and in particular citrus consumption,
could have on health in Australia, it is first necessary to consider the major causes of
illness and death in Australia. The data in the following section is sourced from
“Australia’s Health 2000” produced by the Australian Institute of Health & Welfare (1).

1.1 Major causes of death in Australia

In 1998, the latest year for which complete data is currently available, there were 127,
194 deaths recorded in Australia. Deaths of persons over 70 years and over accounted
for 70% of all deaths with 20% occurring between 50-69 years, 8% from 20-49 years
and 2% below aged 20 years.

Table 1 shows the leading causes of death in Australia, highlighting those which have
are thought to have a dietary component and Figure 1 shows the death rates for the
various individual cancer sites, many of which are thought to have a dietary component.
Cardiovascular disease accounted for 40% of all deaths (about half of this being
coronary heart disease and a quarter, stroke). Cancer accounted for about 30% of deaths
in men and a quarter of all deaths in women. Cardiovascular disease and cancer together
account for 67% of all deaths in Australia and are both considered to be influenced by
dietary factors.

Table 1. Leading cases of death in Australia, 1998 ( * diet- related conditions)

Males Females
Cause of death Number Cause of death Number
Total cardiovascular 26 780 Total cardiovascular 22939
Total cancer 19,196 Total cancer 14893
Ischaemic heart disease* 15 021 Ischaemic Heart disease* 12 801
Lung cancer* 4 821 Cerebrovascular disease* 7 170
Cerebrovascular disease* 4 812 Dementia & related* 2 579
Chronic obstructive pulmonary dis. 3 325 Breast cancer* 2 542
Colorectal cancer* 2 579 Colorectal cancer* 2 165
Prostate cancer* 2 530 Lung cancer* 2 053
Suicide 2 150 Chronic obstructive PD 2 026
Lymphatic cancer 1 870 Lymphatic cancer 1 600
Diabetes* 1 424 Diabetes* 1 327
Dementia & related* 1 294 Pneumonia 937

The major causes of death in 1998 for younger adults aged 15-24 years, were motor
vehicle accidents, suicide and drug dependence (ie excluding alcohol, not nutrition-
related ).

For 25-44 year olds, the most common causes also included suicide, motor vehicle
accidents and use of drugs of dependence but the diet-related conditions such ischaemic
heart disease and breast cancer (in females) begin to come to the fore.

In adults over 50 years, the most common causes are diet-related diseases namely,
ischaemic heart disease, cerebrovascular disease (stroke), lung cancer, bowel cancer and
cancer of the breast (females).

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Figure 1 Incidence of & deaths from cancers of various sites in men and women
(darker bars are incidence; lighter bars, deaths)

From:. Australian Institute of Health & Welfare. Australia’s Health 2000. AIHW; Canberra, 2000

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1.2 Trends in mortality in Australia

Since the middle of the 20th century, there have been some changes in the mortality
rates from these major diseases in Australia and these are shown in Figure 2. Ischaemic
heart disease (IHD) rates climbed steadily from 1940 to 1968. Since then rates have
declined steadily by 3.6% per year in men and 3.0% in women. The decline has been
steepest in the last five years with rates declining at greater than 5% a year. Reduction is
thought to be due to:

• Reduced smoking rates

• Control of blood pressure
• Dietary change including increase in the polyunsaturated fats in the diet
• Improved management of the disease

Death rates for strokes increased in the first half of the century but slowed down
between 1950 and 1970. The rate peaked in the 1950s in females and in the late 1960s
for males. Since 1970 rates have declined by over 4.6% per year in men and 4.9% in
women. Change in lifestyle, diet and improvement in management are thought to be
responsible

Death rates from cancer rose through most of the 20th century in men peaking in the
1980s and then declining (thought to be largely related to the major decline in cigarette
smoking in men over that period). For women rates rose early in the century but
declined from the 1940s to 1960s since when they have remained fairly stable although
a slight decline has been noted in the last five years or so. Changing rates for some
major cancers have, however shown marked differences from the overall trend.

For lung cancer, between 1940 and 1982 the death rate of males increased steadily The
rate has since declined at 1.7% annually with more rapid decline since 1993.

Death rates for women also increased from 1940 – 1967 but at lower rates than men.
However, overall death rate for females has continued to rise more steeply from 1967-
93. Since 1993 rates have gone down marginally at 0.3% per year. The main cause is
cigarette smoking (85%) and given the time lag, death rates generally mirror smoking
trends. However, diet is thought to play a role.

Colorectal cancer deaths have fluctuated over the decades. They increased slightly from
the 1920s to early 1940s. Deaths in males decreased from 1940 to mid 1960 and then
increased until the 1980s. Since 1993 death rates have been declining at 2.5% per year
in males and 1.8% in females Reducing risk is thought to relate to improved diet, more
timely diagnosis and improved management.

Death rates from breast cancer peaked in the early 1940s, between 1940s and 1950s
rates decreased and then remained stable until the mid 1980s. From 1985 until now, the
overall rate has declined at an average of 1% a year (3% a year since 1993). Since the
1920s prostate cancer has been increasing slowly. The early 1990s saw a high rise in the
incidence with some related to better diagnosis. However, in the 5 years to 1998 rates
began to decrease.

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Figure 2 Trends in mortality in Australia
From:. Australian Institute of Health & Welfare. Australia’s Health 2000. AIHW; Canberra,
2000

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1.3 Major causes of illness in Australia (1)

Table 2 below shows the most prevalent health conditions (existing illnesses at the time
of survey) in Australia in 1996

Table 2 Prevalence of health conditions in Australia 1996 (latest data available)

Condition Prevalence Prevalence
(nos. persons) (%)
1. Dental caries 19, 014, 000 -
2. Hearing loss 3,088,300 16.9
3. Edentulism 1,396,700 7.6
4. Asthma 1,206,100 6.6
5. Periodontal disease 1,027,200 5.6
6. Iron-deficiency anaemia 769,400 4.2
7. Alcohol dependence & harm 727,800 4.0
8. Osteoarthritis 625,000 3.4
9. Chronic back pain 585,800 3.2
10. Depression 538,000 2.9
11. Type 2 diabetes 469,400 2.6
12. Slipped disc 340,100 1.9
13. Urinary incontinence 307,200 1.7
14. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease 296,600 1.6
15. Social phobia 291,100 1.6
16. Anxiety disorders 285,600 1.6
17. Fires/burns/scalds 231,200 1.3
18. Benign prostatic hypertrophy 195,400 1.1
19. Peptic ulcers 174,100 1.0
20. Attention-deficit disorder 173,200 0.9
21 Cannabis dependence/abuse 171,000 0.9
22 Cataracts 168,800 0.9
23 Angina pectoris 168,100 0.9
24. Osteoporosis 155,200 0.8
25 Bipolar affective disorder 133,400 0.7
From:. Australian Institute of Health & Welfare. Australia’s Health 2000. AIHW; Canberra, 2000

Of the conditions listed in the table above, diet is thought to play a role of variable
importance in dental caries and periodontal disease, asthma, iron-deficiency anaemias,
depression, type 2 diabetes, cataracts, angina, ulcers and osteoporosis. Apart from those
listed above, amongst the most common, newly occurring conditions (ie new to the
individual in 1996), were diet related diseases such as diarrhoeal disease, (4th highest),
diverticulitis (17th), gall bladder disease (21st) and stroke (22nd ).

Obesity which itself has a large dietary component, is reaching epidemic proportions in
Australia, and is an underlying cause of many of these conditions (heart disease, type 2
diabetes and certain cancers).

Table 3 shows the 15 leading causes of burden of disease in Australia. The measure
used is called DALYs (Disability Adjusted Life Years). This is a measure made up from
estimates of years of healthy life lost through disability (YLD) or early death (YLL).
These two factors are combined to get an overall estimate of the burden to the
community of various diseases.

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Table 3. The 15 leading causes of burden of disease in Australia, 1996
(* thought to have a dietary component)
___________________________________

1. Ischaemic heart disease* 12.4

2. Stroke* 5.4
3. Chronic obstructive pulmonary 3.7
4. Depression* 3.7
5. Lung cancer* 3.6
6. Dementia* 3.5
7. Diabetes mellitus* 3.0
8. Colorectal cancer* 2.7
9. Asthma* 2.6
10. Osteoarthritis 2.2
11. Suicide & self-inflicted injury 2.2
12. Road traffic accidents 2.2
13. Breast cancer* 2.2
14. Hearing loss 1.9
15. Alcohol dependence & harmful use 1.8
________________________________________

1.4 Summary

Many of the major diseases of concern in Australia have a dietary component. These
include cardiovascular conditions such as coronary heart disease and stroke (caused, in
part by hypertension); cancers of various types, obesity, dental caries, asthma,
periodontal disease, iron-deficiency anaemias, type 2 diabetes, cataracts (and macular
degeneration), diverticulitis, osteoporosis, gall bladder disease and depression.

The World Health Organisation in their recent report “Diet, Nutrition and the
Prevention of Chronic Diseases” (2) found “convincing” evidence of a positive effect of
fruits and vegetables on cardiovascular disease and obesity and a “probable” effect on
certain cancers and Type 2 diabetes. Some, but not all, of the other major diet-related
conditions have been shown to be associated with varying consumption of fruits and
vegetables.

The association has been ascribed by various researchers to the nutrient profiles of fruits
and vegetables including their contribution to vitamin C, carotenes, fibre, folate or
potassium; to the fact that they are low in fat, notably saturated fat; that they are not
energy-dense foods and that they contain many bioactive non-nutrients
(phytochemicals) which have been shown to have a range of beneficial effects in
experimental animal and cellular experiments. In some instances the beneficial effect of
high fruit and vegetable diets has been ascribed to the concomitant reduction in high fat
and energy-dense foods in the diet (ie a displacement of foods that could be harmful).
The mechanisms of action of the purported beneficial components in fruits are discussed
in more detail in the next section.

Reference
1. Australian Institute of Health & Welfare. Australia’s Health 2000. AIHW; Canberra, 2000
2. World health organisation. Diet, Nutrition and the Prevention of Chronic Diseases. WHO Technical
series 916, Geneva, 2003

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Part 2 How might citrus fruit and juice consumption affect health in Australia?

It is well known that citrus fruits are a rich source of vitamin C and it was this
component that first raised the health profile of citrus. The history of the vitamin C
deficiency disease “scurvy” is well known as is the preventive capacity of citrus fruits.
Citrus was used for prevention of scurvy from the 17th century although the active
ingredient, vitamin C, was not isolated for another 200 years.

Nutrition science has come along way since then and it is now clear that citrus fruits and
juices contain hundreds of active ingredients that can affect human health in a number
of ways. Citrus fruits and juices contain a wide range of substances including
carbohydrates, fibre, vitamin C, potassium, folate, calcium, thiamine, niacin, vitamin
B6, vitamin A (through beta-carotene), phosphorus, magnesium, copper, riboflavin,
pantothenic acid and a variety of phytochemicals. These substances are necessary for
proper functioning of the body but some confer additional protection against chronic
disease over and above basic nutrition

Citrus fruit, as with most other fruits and vegetables, is also low in fat and in overall
dietary energy – a major consideration given the increasing rate of obesity in Australia
in both adults and children. It also has a relatively low glycaemic index which helps in
maintaining a more stable blood glucose level and generally healthier carbohydrate
metabolism. Because of their overall nutrition profile, the Dietary Guidelines for
Australia have always promoted consumption of plenty of fruit along with vegetables,
legumes and wholegrain cereals as the basis of a healthy diet.

Much of the current data derives from cell and animal based studies as well as human
epidemiological studies. Many active ingredients have been isolated and tested in the
laboratory setting but dosages used are often large and may bear no relationship to
effects that might be seen by consumption of whole fruits or juices in a population
setting.

The following section outlines some of the approaches used to try and understand the
linkages between citrus consumption and human health outcomes and the mechanisms
of action involved in the protective actions of the various components.

2.1 General mechanisms by which components of fruit and citrus fruit and fruit
juices in particular, may influence the risk of disease

Epidemiologic data relating health outcomes to dietary habits may be interpreted in

various ways, and many texts have warned of the dangers of attributing causal
relationships to associations which have been detected using observational, as opposed
to experimental, data.

A basic prerequisite for arguing that an association is causal is an appropriate

underlying mechanism. (For example, the credibility of the hypothesis relating brain
cancer to exposure to the electromagnetic radiation around mobile phones is a
contemporary example in which proponents of the hypothesis are having difficulty

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convincing the sceptics that the energy of the radiation is sufficient to cause the damage
deemed necessary to initiate carcinogenesis).

A wealth of plausible mechanisms relating dietary factors to modified risks of disease

has been established in the past thirty years. However it must be acknowledged that the
existence and details of these mechanisms have been established, of necessity, from
studies using laboratory animals and chemically induced cancers and animal models of
cardiovascular disease.

This immediately raises questions such as :

• Do these mechanisms operate in humans?

• Are chemically induced cancers or cardiovascular lesions true models of the
cancers or vascular conditions experienced by humans?

• Are the tissue concentrations of phytochemicals required to have effects in

laboratory animals the same as in humans?

• Are the tissue concentrations of phytochemicals required to have effects in

humans achievable by dietary means?

The most convincing answers to these questions are usually provided by randomised
clinical trials, but there are many situations when a randomised clinical trial is neither
feasible nor ethically sustainable.

Proposed mechanisms of action in relation to cancer and cardiovascular disease are

outlined below. Specific mechanisms relating to other conditions are discussed together
with the epidemiological evidence.

Some of the major groupings of dietary factors associated with reduced risks of chronic
disease are discussed below:-

2.2 Components and their mechanisms

A number of mechanisms of action have been proposed for the protective effect of fruits
against degenerative and other disease. Most human work has centred on cancer and
heart disease but a range of other health outcomes have also been assessed in animal
experiments.

Antioxidant activity

The antioxidant activity of fruits and their various components has received a great deal
of attention in relation to their purported health effects. Citrus fruits generally have the
highest antioxidant activity of all fruit classes but the antioxidant (free radical
scavenging) ability of fruits is generally high.

While ascorbic acid (vitamin C) accounts for a great proportion of the antioxidant
activity in some fruits, other dietary components such as non-nutrient carotenoids,

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polyphenols such as flavonoids, glutathione, and various enzyme systems (1) may also
contribute to the antioxidant activity.

Protection against free radical damage to proteins, lipids and DNA is an integral part of
the body’s defence mechanism and it is possible that at least some of the antioxidants in
fruit may contribute to enhancing these endogenous antioxidant defences.

In relation to cancer, other modes of action (2) that might be contributing to the
anticancer effects could include regulation of gap-junction communication between
cells, which is thought to control the growth of abnormal cells by surrounding normal
cells.

Enhancement of the immune system by carotenoids and vitamin E has also been
demonstrated, which may inhibit the growth of cancers as well as increasing the
capacity of the body to ward off infection.

In the intestine, it has been suggested that vitamin C and other phenolics (eg α-
tocopherol and other polyphenolics) may inhibit nitrosation, a reductive process leading
to the production of carcinogenic nitrosamines, and protect against gastric cancer.

Consumption of fruits has also been associated with inhibition of the growth of
Helicobacter pylorii (3), which has been associated with gastric ulcer and possibly
gastric cancer. In addition to their antioxidant effect, the pro-vitamin A carotenoids
such as β-carotene, α-carotene and cryptoxanthin contribute to the supply of vitamin A,
which may be associated with slowing the growth of cancer cells.

Other compounds in fruit, such as the flavonoids have been shown to inhibit the activity
of the enzyme topoisomerase II in cancer cells. Inhibition of this enzyme is associated
with tumour cells becoming more like their normal counterparts (ie more differentiated),
a slower growth and more normal behaviour (4, 5).

In relation to heart disease, a key event in the development of atherosclerotic lesions is

the oxidation of Low Density Lipoprotein (LDL). Any agent which can inhibit this
oxidative step has the potential to influence adverse cardiovascular events due to
accumulation of plaque.

Historically, attention was focussed first on the antioxidants beta-carotene and vitamin
C, but with an increasing understanding of the antioxidant properties of many other
dietary phytochemicals, the more recent studies have also looked for protective effects
of flavonoid compounds (present in a wide variety of vegetables, legumes, and in tea)
and other carotenoids, including lycopene, of which tomatoes are the richest dietary
source. The alpha-tocopherols (vitamin E) are also potent antioxidants, but they are
largely found only in nuts and seeds.

Vitamin C

Vitamin C is a major contributor to the antioxidant capacity of fruits. This water-soluble

antioxidant vitamin C is present in many fruits and vegetables, especially citrus and
peppers. Vitamin C plays an essential role in collagen formation, strengthening bones

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and blood vessels, anchoring teeth in gums, absorbing inorganic iron and zinc and
helping in repair of tissues. It has also been used in the treatment of anaemia and stress.
It is necessary for prevention of the deficiency disease scurvy but in recent years has
become of increasing interest in relation to its antioxidant capacity in relation to cancer
prevention and prevention of other degenerative diseases such as heart disease,
cataracts, asthma, and cognitive decline.

In relation to cancer, it can prevent the formation of carcinogenic nitrosamines from

nitrite and secondary amines in the stomach. It reduces the mutagenicity of gastric
juices, and plays a role in immune function.

It also regenerates the intracellular fat soluble antioxidant vitamin E (a collective term
for a number of tocopherols and tocotrienols). Vitamin E in turn may also keep
selenium, another antioxidant in a reduced state.

Whilst the recommended intake in most countries until recently has been about 30-
50mg/day (based on prevention of deficiency states), some 200-500mg appears to be the
level needed to optimise its antioxidant effect

Carotenoids

Responsible for the colouring, carotenoids are found in a variety of orange/yellow fruits
and vegetables as well as some dark green leafy vegetables (spinach, cabbage and
brussels sprouts). More than 600 carotenoids have been identified but only a few are
found in measurable quantities in the human body: alpha-carotene, beta-carotene,
lycopene, lutein, zeaxanthin and cryptoxanthin.

Beta-carotene

The most well known example is beta-carotene. Like many carotenoids, beta-carotene is
a powerful antioxidant (a striking example being the protection it offers the algae from
which it is commercially harvested against harmful ultraviolet radiation from the sun).
Beta-carotene may play a role in slowing the progression of cancers and in population
studies has been identified as having a protective role against a number of conditions
such as lung and oral cancer. It may play a role in immunity, cataracts and may slow
the build-up of plaque in arteries.

It is also a precursor of vitamin A (retinol) and retinoic acid which have been
demonstrated to have the ability to induce differentiation of neoplastic and preneoplastic
cells. However, intervention trials in populations at risk of skin, cervix, colon and lung
cancer have failed to demonstrate any health benefits.

Lycopene

The carotenoid lycopene is a very powerful antioxidant which has been associated with
reduced risk of prostate cancer. It has also been linked to breast cancer prevention but
studies are sparse.

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Lycopene is an open-chain unsaturated carotenoid that imparts red colour to tomatoes,
guava, rosehip, watermelon, the cara-cara navel orange and pink grapefruit. Lycopene
is a proven antioxidant.
.
In the body, lycopene is deposited in the liver, lungs, prostate gland, colon and skin. Its
concentration in body tissues tends to be higher than all other carotenoids.

Epidemiological studies have shown that high intake of lycopene-containing vegetables

is inversely associated with the incidence of certain types of cancer, notably prostate
cancer. Ongoing preliminary research suggests that lycopene is associated with reduced
risk of macular degenerative disease, serum lipid oxidation and cancers of the lung,
bladder, cervix and skin.

Lutein, zeazanthin and cryptozanthin

Lutein and zeaxanthin, which are present in citrus as well as certain other vegetables
and fruits, are carotenoids that have been shown to be linked to macular degeneration as
they are required for proper pigmentation of the macular region of the eye. The yellow
pigments they form are believed to filter out harmful blue light and protect against age-
related macular degeneration, the leading cause of blindness in those over 65 years.
Lutein and zeaxanthin have also been linked to reduced risk of lung cancer.

Cryptoxanthin has been associated with reduced risk of cervical cancer. It is abundant in
orange fruits especially mangoes, tangerines, oranges and papaya.

Folic acid

The vitamin folic acid, from oranges and orange juice, green leafy vegetables and the
outer layers of many seeds and grains, plays an important metabolic role in the synthesis
of DNA, and in situations requiring the transfer of a methyl group to a biological
acceptor molecule. It has thus been investigated in relation to cancer prevention.

Methylation of DNA itself appears to be an important mechanism for controlling the

expression of many genes, including those involved in cell proliferation – abnormal
methylation states of DNA (usually low methylation) have been associated with a
number of neoplastic and preneoplastic conditions.

Its effect on DNA methylation may also play a role in its effect on prevention of neural
tube defects such as spina bifida.

Folate also plays a role in prevention of heart disease through an effect on

homocysteine. Homocysteine is a sulphur-containing amino acid derived from enzymic
transformations of the essential dietary amino acid methionine.

Interest in this substance stemmed initially from the observation that sufferers from a
number of different rare genetic disorders which all manifested themselves in elevated
levels of circulating homocysteine also had in common a greatly accelerated rate of
atherosclerosis. This immediately begged the question of whether mild elevations of
serum homocysteine were also associated with increased cardiovascular disease -
increasingly it seems that the final answer is likely to be ‘yes’.

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Since 1976 more than 20 retrospective studies and three prospective studies have
demonstrated a relation between moderate homocysteinuria and premature vascular
disease in the coronary, cerebral and peripheral arteries. Infusion of homocysteine into
experimental animals leads to damage of the endothelial lining of blood vessels with
platelet activation.

Homocysteine is generated from methionine by three enzymically catalysed steps

during which a methyl group is transferred to an appropriate acceptor. It is estimated
that for the average Australian diet, around 50% of the homocysteine generated from
dietary methionine is converted via a vitamin B6 dependent process to cystathione and
then cysteine.

The other 50% is recycled back to methionine by a complex of folic acid molecules
(tetrahydrofolate or THF), in a process which requires not just folic acid, but vitamin
B12 as well.

Supplementation using folic acid with and without vitamin B6 to reduce serum
homocysteine levels has proved to be a successful strategy in some initial studies – and
hence dietary folate from fruits, vegetables, whole grain foods and supplemented
breakfast cereals may influence cardiovascular disease risk.

Folate is also thought to play a role in maintaining the integrity of the cognitive system,
again through its central role in DNA methylation and thus neurotransmission.
One of its key roles is in the prevention of neural tube defects in children (6,7) The
current recommendation for folate intake in Australia is 200mg/day (8) but in the US it
is 400mg (9) and this level has also be recommended for women in childbearing years
in Australia.

Potassium

Potassium is the major cation of the intracellular fluid. The movement of potassium out
of cells, and sodium in, changes electrical potentials in nerves and muscles to allow
them to function effectively.

Fruit is high in potassium (it currently provides about 10% of the dietary potassium in
Australia) but is extremely low in sodium.

Studies have shown that the potassium to sodium ratio is important in the regulation of
blood pressure. A recent large, controlled trial in humans - the DASH-Sodium trial (10)
fed two different diets to people over periods of 30 days each. One group had their
sodium intake held constant at the “typical” American level of about 130 mmol/day and
the other were given an 'ideal' diet that emphasized fruits, vegetables, low-fat dairy
foods, fish, legumes, nuts and lean meat and poultry but kept the sodium constant.

There was a highly significant fall in blood pressure with the 'ideal' diet, indicating the
benefits of a diet that increased dietary potassium, calcium, magnesium, fibre and
protein and decreased total and saturated fat and cholesterol in relation to the standard
American diet. A further study which additionally restricted sodium showed even
greater gains in blood pressure reduction.

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Long term health benefits of the DASH-Sodium diet remain to be demonstrated, and the
diet included not only a change in the potassium to sodium ratio but a number of other
changes. Nevertheless, it confirmed in a large intervention setting, previous findings of
a benefit in terms of hypertension of a high potassium to sodium ratio.

There is sufficient evidence from experimental studies about the role that potassium
plays in regulating blood pressure that the US allows a health claim related to this.

Dietary fibre

The term dietary fibre is a rubric for dietary components entering the large bowel
having survived the digestive processes in the stomach and small intestine. Non-starch
polysaccharides make up the major component of dietary fibre.

People who consume diets rich in fibre typically exhibit high stool weights and low
(rapid) transit times through the gut, which is the basis for hypotheses that fibre simply
reduces the extent to which epithelia in the gut are exposed to carcinogens such as the
secondary bile acids produced by the bacterial action on the primary bile acids required
for the dispersal of dietary fats.

Possibly more important, however, is the capacity of the bacterial flora in the large
bowel to ferment non-starch polysaccharides. The short-chain fatty acids (SCFA)
generated by fermentation include butyric acid, which, in addition to being a preferred
energy substrate for colonocytes, is also capable of inducing aberrant cells to
‘differentiate’ and resume a quiescent state most closely related, in functional terms, to
the mature colonocyte.

Fermentation may also release sequestered minerals (like calcium) and reduce bowel
pH; with both effects acting in concert to precipitate harmful bile acids.

In recent years it has been increasingly appreciated that significant amounts of dietary
starch may also resist digestion in the upper alimentary tract, and contribute to the
fermentable substrates in the large bowel. Unripe bananas and cold cooked potatoes are
rich sources of ‘resistant’ starch. Importantly, the SCFA mixture arising from the
fermentation of resistant starch appears to be particularly rich in butyric acid. Fruits,
other than banana, however, have very little starch

The role of non-nutrient phytochemicals

Whilst it is well known that fruit and vegetables are a good source of traditional
nutrients such as certain vitamins, minerals and fibre, nutritionists have more recently
focused on a range of substances called non-nutritive phytochemicals (“plant
chemicals”). An orange has over 170 different phytochemicals and more than 60
flavonoids which have been shown to have anti-inflammatory and anti-tumour activity
as well as inhibiting blood clots and having strong antioxidant activity. Liminoids, a
major phytochemical class in citrus, stimulate a detoxifying enzyme system and inhibit
tumour formation

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Deficiencies of these phytochemicals in the diet do not lead to the deficiency diseases
seen with low intakes of more traditional nutrients, such as vitamins, rather there is
increasing interest in the possibility that these substances contribute to optimal health
and may protect against some of the common chronic diseases such as cancer and
cardiovascular disease, degenerative eye and cognitive conditions and general damage
caused by ageing.
It is significant that in a recent position statement (11) the American Dietetic
Association stated that “It is the position of the ADA that specific substances in foods
(eg. phytochemicals as naturally occurring components) may have a beneficial role in
health as part of a varied diet. The Association supports research regarding the health
benefits and risks of these substances.”

Table 4 summarises some of the foods and phytochemicals that have been identified by
the National Cancer Institute in the USA as warranting research with regard to possible
cancer protection (12). They are also of interest with regard to other chronic diseases
such as cardiovascular disease.

It is evident from the table that the flavonoids and phenolic acids, both of which are
polyphenols are quite widely distributed in the various foods that are listed.

Whilst citrus is the only fruit included in the table, many fruits are good sources of
flavonoids and phenolic acids and therefore it would be expected that any contribution
of fruit to disease protection would be partly through their content of these
phytochemicals.

Table 4 Foods and phytochemicals with potential anticancer properties

Isothiocyanates
Mono-terpenes

Polyacetylenes
Phenolic acids
Tri-terpenes
Carotenoids
Flavonoids

Coumarins
Glucarates

Phthalides
Sulphides
Phytates

Lignans

Indoles

Garlic
Green tea
Soybeans
Cereal grains
Cruciferous
Umbelliferous
Citrus
Solanaceous
Cucurbitaceous
Licorice root
Flax seed

Polyphenols

Polyphenolics occur throughout foods of plant origin with over 4000 different structures
identified. They have been shown to have a range of health related effects including
anti-oxidant, anti-viral, anti-allergic, anti-inflammatory anti-proliferative and anti-

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carcinogenic . Most interest has centred on a possible role in cancer and heart disease
but recently their role in brain functions such as learning and memory have received
attention with a number of studies being undertaken with herbals such as ginko and
ginseng. Other polyphenolics such as s-allycysteine, s-allymercaptocysteine, allicin and
diallosulphides (from garlic and red bell pepper) as well as epicatechin and catechin
(found in tea) have all been shown to have some beneficial effects in animal models.

In broad terms these substances are important for:-

• Their antioxidant properties, ie their ability to scavenge naturally occurring free
radicals before they can damage macromolecules directly or indirectly involved in
either cell proliferation (relevant to carcinogenesis) or lipid metabolism (relevant to
cardiovascular disease).
• Blocking the formation of carcinogenic nitrosamines arising from the reaction of
dietary nitrates/nitrites with secondary amines and amides in the stomach.
• Their capacity to act as electrophile traps. In much the same manner in which they
can scavenge nucleophilic free radicals, many plant phenols can also absorb highly
reactive electrophiles thereby preventing damage to cellular components
• Inhibiting the generation of prostaglandins from arachidonic acid, and thereby
retarding a ‘promotional’ phase of carcinogenesis.

Categories of polyphenolic compounds found in foods

The term plant phenols encompasses a wide variety of naturally occurring compounds
which are structurally related to the extent that they all contain one or more benzene
rings each with one or more hydroxyl group substitutions. Under this general rubric are
included:
• the simple phenols
• the hydroxycinnamic acid derivatives
• the flavonoids including catechins (flavanols), anthocyanins, flavones and flavonols.
Polyphenols are thought to play a number of roles in plants. For example, they help
protect the plant from attack by pathogens and predators due to their anti-microbial and
astringent taste properties. The anthocyanins found in citrus are responsible for many of
the skin colours of fruit and vegetables. The content of polyphenols in a number of
foods is summarised in Table 5 and some common fruit phenolics are shown in Table 6.

Table 5 Polyphenol content of selected fruit, vegetables and beveragesa

Food Polyphenol content Food Polyphenol content

(mg/100 g fresh wt) (mg/100 g fresh wt)
Orange 84 Coffee drink 181
Apple (green) 46 Plum (red) 359
Apple (red) 38 Plum (yellow) 106
Banana 26 Rockmelon 31
Grape (green) 31 Strawberry 195
Grape (black) 40 Tea drink 131
a
Values from Record et al, 1998(13)

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Table 6 Major fruit phenolics *

Phenolic class Example Fruit

Simple phenols Cresol Apple
Phenolic acids
Hydroxybenzoic acids 4-hydroxybenzoic acid Strawberry
Hydroxycinnamic acids Chlorogenic acid Apple
Coumarins Scopolin Citrus
Flavonoids
• Anthocyanidins Tangeretin Citrus
• Flavones Naringenin Citrus
• Flavonols Epicatechin Apricot
• Flavanones Cyanidin Blackcurrant
• Flavanols Quercetin Apple

Stilbenes Resveratrol Grape

Chalcones Phloridzin Apple
Tannins Epigallocatechin gallate Persimmon
* for more details of levels found in citrus see Tables

Flavonoids

The polyphenol category of flavonoids are a widely distributed group of polyphenolics

characterized by a common benzo-y-pyrone structure, that have been reported to act as
antioxidants in various biological systems. They are particularly abundant in citrus
plants. Four types of flavonoids (flavanones, flavones, flavanols and anthocyanins, the
last in blood oranges only) occur in citrus and more than 60 individual flavonoids have
been identified.

Flavanone glycosides and the polymethoxylated flavones are two flavonoid compound
families. The common citrus glycosides include narirutin, naringin, hesperidin,
neohesperidin, didymin and poncirin and the common citrus polymethoxylated flavones
include sinessetin, hexamethoxyflavone, nobiletin, scutellarein, heptamethoxyflavone
and tangeretin.

Flavanones are the most abundant but the highly methoxylated flavones have higher
biological activity even if in lower concentrations.

The antioxidant properties of these substances give them anticancer, antiviral and anti-
inflammatory capabilities. They can also affect capillary fragility and platelet
aggregation.

The antioxidant activity can express itself as:

• Antiradical activity
• Antilipoperoxidant activity
• Antioxygen activity and/or
• Metal chelating activity

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The major flavonoids in citrus are shown in the Table 7 below. Most citrus species
accumulate substantial quantities of flavonoids during organ development.

The anticancer properties of flavonoids have been proposed to relate to:

• Antimutagenic effects
• Antiproliferative effects and/or
• Inhibition of cancer cell invasion

In relation to cardiovascular disease, they can have been shown to have effects on:
• Capillary fragility
• Platelet aggregation
• Oxidation of low-density lipoproteins

The anti-inflammatory, antiallergic and analgesic properties of flavonoids have also

been studied quite widely. Recent studies have shown anti-inflammatory dose-
dependent activity of hesperidin, diosmin and other flavonoids and an effect on the
metabolism of arachidonic acid and histamine release. Diosmin has been shown to
reduce oedema and inhibit the synthesis of prostaglandins and thromboxane in animal
studies. The effect was linked to its ability to scavenge active oxygen radicals.

Table 7 Principal flavonoids in Citrus (14)

Flavonoid Citrus species Type

naringin C. paradisi FLAVANONE
C. aurantium
neoeriocitrin C. aurantium FLAVANONE
hesperidin C. sinensis FLAVANONE
diosmin C. sinensis FLAVONE
C. limonia
rutin C. limonia FLAVONOL
naringenin C. paradisi FLAVANONE
eriodictyol C. aurentium FLAVANONE
hesperetin C. sinensis FLAVANONE
apigenin C. paradise FLAVONE
luteolin C. limnia FLAVONE
C. aurantium
diosmetin C. sinensis FLAVONE
kaempferol C. paradise FLAVONOL
quercetin C. limonia FLAVONOL
tangeretin C. aurantium FLAVONE
C. paradise
C. limonia

Quercetin (and to a lesser extent hesperidin, tangeretin and nobiletin) has also been
shown to exhibit a dose-dependent inhibitory effect to an allergen stimulation response.

One of the other properties of flavonoids relates to their antifungal and antiviral activity.
For example, quercetin and hesperetin have been shown to inhibit the infectivity and/or

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replication of herpes simplex viruses, polio viruses, parainfluenza type viruses and
syncitial viruses. Nariginin, a flavonoid of grapefruit did not exhibit this ability. It is
thought that the complexes formed by the flavonoids with the virus cause them to loose
the ability to induce infection. It is of interest to note that two studies in Africa in
human case-control studies have indicated a role for limes and lime juice in cholera
prevention.

Anthocyanins

Anthocyanins are flavonoids that impart color to fruit, vegetables, and plants. Close to
300 anthocyanins have been discovered. Each fruit and vegetable has its own
anthocyanin profile, providing a distinct "fingerprint." . Researchers are attempting to
identify the specific bioactivity of each anthocyanin in relation to human health.
Variation in pigment results from different degrees of acidity and alkalinity. Intense
light and low temperatures favour the development of anthocyanin pigments.
All plant materials contain various pigments, some of which change colour as the pH of
the plant tissue is changed (for example, by the addition of vinegar or other acids while
cooking or processing). An average anthocyanin is red in acid, violet in neutral, and
blue in alkaline solution. Many factors influence the stability of anthocyanins. Heat- and
light-sensitive, anthocyanin pigments can easily be destroyed during the processing of
fruits and vegetables. In particular, in the presence of a high sugar concentration,
anthocyanins are rapidly destroyed, thus processed foods containing large amounts of
sugar or syrup would not have the same amount of anthocyanins as their unprocessed
counterparts.

Anthocyanins are currently under investigation for their ability to inhibit LDL (the
"bad") cholesterol, prevent blood clotting, and defend cells against dangerous
carcinogens; they may prove to be significant compounds in human health.

Coumarins

Coumarins are another class of phytochemicals that have been investigated for their
health properties. Citrus peels contain a number of coumarins that possess mevalonate-
derived side chains with various oxidation levels.

No human studies investigating the effects of coumarins have been undertaken but in a
limited number of experimental studies they have been shown to inhibit chemically-
induced cancer of the forestomach and breast. Human studies with citrus fruit and the
experimental studies suggest that these substances might protect against human cancer
but data is still limited.

Auraptene the most common coumarin in citrus, has been shown to inhibit tumour
promotion in mouse skin, inhibit the growth of colonic aberrant crypts in rats and oral
and large bowel cancer in rats.

The effect is thought to relate to suppression of superoxide generation and lipid

peroxidation as well as induction of phase II drug-metabolising enzymes.

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Auraptene is found in sour oranges (C. aurantium), Natsudaidai (C. natsudaidai) ,
grapefruit (C. paradisi) and trifoliate orange( Poncirus trifoliata). The juice oil of
Hussaku is also a rich source. Citrus fruit products such as grapefruit juice and
marmalade retain some auraptene activity (15).

Terpenes

Citrus fruits contain both mono terpenes and tripterpenes (liminoids). The most
abundant terpenes in citrus are the liminoids which include limonene and perillyl
alcohol. Limonene is found in citrus oils as well as garlic and oils of other plants and is
used in Japan to dissolve gallstones. It has shown powerful anticancer properties in
animal experiments and has caused complete regression of mammary and pancreatic
tumours in rat experiments. Perillyl alcohol has also been shown to shrink tumours in
animals, including pancreatic cancer. As a result, these compounds are under
evaluation in Phase 1 clinical trials. However amounts used are much higher than
normally found in whole fruits or juices.

Terpenes such as limonene, nomilin and perillylalcohol can inhibit the biochemical
modifications required to incorporate proteins into cell membranes. Many proteins
whose functionality depends on their location within membranes play important
regulatory roles – and it has been demonstrated that some terpenes can prevent the
incorporation into membranes of the growth signalling ras proteins which become
damaged and lose control early in the carcinogenesis process.

The terpenes may stimulate enzymes that may detoxify other chemicals as well as
suppressing growth of tumour cells in vivo and in vitro (16). These compounds appear
relatively stable and may act synergistically with other potential anti-cancer agents in
model systems (17).

Phytosterols

Vegetarians who experience lower rates of cancer of many sites have been shown to
have higher levels of the plant sterol beta-sitosterol in their faeces. One study in rats
showed that inclusion of beta-sitosterol in the diet decreased the occurrence of
chemically-induced cancers in the colon. One human study has also shown a positive
association between stigmasterol intake and risk of prostate cancer.

Most of the focus on phytosterols however has centred on cholesterol reduction. The
mechanism of action is thought to be through displacement of cholesterol from micelles
leading to less dietary absorption. The required dosage appears to be 1-3 g/day. Nuts
and beans are the best food sources but there is some activity in citrus (see Table 19).

Other phytochemicals

Citrus also contain some other phytochemicals including phytoestrogens such as

enterolactone (27ug/100g for orange) and enterodiol (12ug/100g) as well as lignins such
as secoisolariciresinol (76.8ug/100g orange and 61.3ug/100g for lemon);
phenylpropanoids such as caffeic acid (84 ppm for orange) and p-coumaric acid (25-

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60ppm for grapefruit and 21-182ppm for orange). However, levels are low compared to
other fruits and drinks like tea.

Summary

As well as being low in fat, salt and energy, citrus fruits contain a wide range of
vitamins, minerals and non-nutrient phytochemicals that have been shown to have
beneficial effects either in human epidemiological studies or in cellular and animal
experiments. Notable amongst these nutrients are vitamin C, beta-carotene and through
this vitamin A, other carotenes such as lutein and zeaxanthin, folate, fibre, potassium,
polyphenols, coumarins and monoterpenes and, to a lesser extent, phytosterols. The
tables in the next section detail the level of these and other nutrients in citrus fruits,
other fruits, orange juices and other fruit juices, fruit drinks, soft drinks, energy drinks
and sports drinks.

A summary of these components and their health effects is given in the tables below.
Details of studies referred to are given in subsequent sections of the report

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Summary tables of nutrients found in citrus and health effects
Element Description Prevalence in citrus Health effect Major studies
Antioxidants Includes vitamin C, Fruit generally high. Citrus fruits generally Boost immune system; may protect See Appendix A
non-nutrient carotenoids, polyphenols have the highest antioxidant activity of all against cancer, heart disease, cataracts, p22-35 cancer;
such as flavonoids, glutathione, and fruit classes. degeneration of the macular area of pg 60 arthritis, asthma,
various enzyme systems eyes and infection cataracts and macular
degeneration
p64-70 heart disease
p70 diabetes;
p71 blood pressure
p72;multiple sclerosis
p72-74Parkinsons &
stroke
Vitamin C Ascorbic acid High; Antioxidant Boosts immune system; See Appendix A:
One orange has 62 mg nearly twice the may protect against cancer, heart p22-35 cancer;
recommended daily intake (RDI) disease, cataracts and infection. Helps p60 arthritis, asthma;
One glass orange juice has 104 mg, in absorbtion of iron and zinc in other cataracts and macular
nearly three times the RDI foods degeneration;
p64-70 heart disease;
p70 diabetes;
p71 blood pressure;
p72;multiple sclerosis;
p72-74 Parkinsons &
stroke
Carotenoids Beta-carotene, alpha carotene, lutein, Moderate to high levels over 60 present. Beta- Antioxidant Boosts immune system; See Appendix A
zeaxanthine. Cryptoxanthin. carotene gives oranges their colour may protect against cancer, heart p36-52 cancer ;
One orange 3 % RDI for vitamin A disease, cataracts and infection. Beta- p60 arthritis, asthma,
One glass juice 4 % RDI carotene is also precursor of vitamin A cataracts and macular
degeneration
p60, heart disease;
p64-70 diabetes,
p 70; for blood pressure
p71 multiple sclerosis
p72-74; Parkinson’s &
stroke

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Element Description Prevalence in citrus Health effect Studies reviewed in this
document
Folate Vitamin sometimes called folic acid or High levels Prevents neural tube defects in children, See Appendix A p56 cancer.
folacin One orange 18 % RDI stabilises genetic material and may also be There is also a large
One glass orange juice 18 % RDI protective for cancer and heart disease literature not reviewed here
on folate and spina bifida
and heart disease.
Potassium Mineral which with sodium, is Fruits generally high High potassium and low sodium level may There is a large literature
responsible for regulation of fluids in the One orange 6% RDI help in prevention of high blood pressure. available not reviewed here.
body One glass orange juice 10 % RDI There is sufficient evidence from See relevant chapter of
experimental studies about the role that Dietary Guidelines for
potassium plays in regulating blood Australians (18) for
pressure that the US allows a health claim summaries
related to this.

Dietary Fibre Includes soluble and insoluble
polysaccharides, as well as resistant
starch and some other components Pectin
in fruits is one component of fibre
Non-nutrient Generic name for hundreds of different
phytochemicals components. (eg polyphenols, flavonoids,
coumarins, terpenes, phytosterols etc as
listed below. An orange has over 170
different phytochemicals Liminoids, are a
major phytochemical class in citrus
Whole fruits good source; for juices it depends Decreases transit time of food in the gut, See Appendix A
on manufacturing process. Recommended improves gut microflora and certain fibres p53-55 cancer;
intake 30g per day help lower blood fats. May reduce risk of p64 Crohn’s disease;
One orange contains 2.4g fibre; 8% RDI certain cancers and heart disease and relieve p65,66,68 heart disease;
1 glass orange juice contains 0.6g fibre, 2% gastric conditions such as constipation p70 diabetes;
RDI p71 gallstones and blood
pressure
p72 multiple sclerosis
p74 stroke
Rich source (see Tables 17a,b, 18,19,20 and Have anti-inflammatory and anti-tumour See Appendix A
21). No set RDIs activity as well as inhibiting blood clots and p57-58cancer;
having strong antioxidant activity; may p66,68,69 heart disease
protect against some of the common chronic p73 stroke
diseases such as cancer and cardiovascular
disease, degenerative eye and cognitive
conditions and general damage caused by
ageing.

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Element Description
Polyphenols Over 4000 different structures identified.
The term plant phenols encompasses a
wide variety of naturally occurring
compounds which are structurally related.
Includes the simple phenols; the
hydroxycinnamic acid derivatives; the
flavonoids including catechins
(flavanols), anthocyanins, flavones and
flavonols.The anthocyanins found in
citrus are responsible for many of the
skin colours of fruit and vegetables.
Flavonoids More than 60 individual flavonoids have
been identified Four types of flavonoids
(flavanones, flavones, flavanols and
anthocyanins, the last in blood oranges
only) occur in citrus. Individual
components in citrus include narirutin,
naringin, hesperidin, neohesperidin,
didymin and poncirin sinessetin,
hexamethoxyflavone, nobiletin,
scutellarein, hepta- methoxyflavone,
tangeretin and quercetin.
Coumarins Class of phytochemicals Citrus peels
contain a number of coumarins
Auraptene the most common coumarin in
citrus and is found in sour oranges
Natsudaidai, grapefruit and trifoliate
orange. Citrus fruit products such as
grapefruit juice and marmalade retain
some auraptene activity.
Prevalence in citrus Health effect Studies reviewed in this
document
Good source. Content of individual They have been shown to have a range of See Appendix A
polyphenols in citrus is shown in Table 5 and health related effects including anti-oxidant, p57-58 cancer
6 above and Tables 17 a,b) No set RDIs anti-viral, anti-allergic, anti-inflammatory p66,68,69 heart disease;
anti-proliferative and anti-carcinogenic . p73 stroke
Most interest has centred on a possible role
in cancer and heart disease but recently their
role in brain functions such as learning and
memory have received attention
They are particularly abundant in citrus plants These substance may help protect against See Appendix A
(see Tables 17a,b) No set RDIs cancer, viral infections and inflammatory p57-58 cancer
disease, allergies and fungal conditions as p66,68,69 heart disease,
well as heart disease. p73 stroke
Good source see Table 20. No set RDIs In animal studies, has been shown to inhibit No human studies
tumour promotion, inhibit the growth of investigating the effects of
colonic aberrant crypts and oral and large coumarins have been
bowel cancer. Experimental studies suggest undertaken
that these substances might protect against
human cancer but data is still limited
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Element Description
Terpenes Citrus fruits contain both mono terpenes
and tripterpenes (liminoids). The most
abundant terpenes in citrus are the
liminoids which include limonene and
perillyl alcohol. Limonene is found in
citrus oils.
Energy Is measure of dietary energy in food
expressed as kilojoules
Fat Saturated, fat, monounsaturated fat,
/cholesterol polyunsaturated fats, omega 3 and 6 fats
and cholesterol
Salt Short name for Sodium chloride
Prevalence in citrus
Good source of some terpenes (see Table 18).
No set RDIs
Citrus are low in dietary energy and energy
density (energy/unit weight)
One orange = 187kj ( RDI 6500-13700 kj )
1 glass orange juice = 272 kj
Citrus contain minimal amounts of fats and
cholesterol
Total fat one orange 0.12g; one glass orange
juice 0.2g (limit about 50g/day)
Citrus contain minimal amounts. They are
high potassium/low salt foods
One orange 0 mg
1 glass orange juice 2mg
25 of 100
Health effect Studies reviewed in this
document
Limonene is used in Japan to dissolve Limited human data – some
gallstones .In animal experiments, it has in Phase 1 clinical trials
shown powerful anticancer properties and
has caused complete regression of
mammary and pancreatic tumours. Other
terpenes have also been shown to shrink
tumours in animals, including pancreatic
cancer. As a result, these compounds are
under evaluation in Phase 1 human clinical
trials.but amounts used are much higher
than normally found in foods
With increasing levels of obesity in Vast literature on health
Australia, low energy foods with high problems associated with
nutrient value are a valuable part of the diet. overweight and obesity and
Overweight and obesity increase risks of the link with energy dense
heart disease, certain cancers, diabetes, diets. Value of balanced diet
blood pressure, stroke etc and add to with plenty of fruit
symptoms of other conditions eg arthritis summarised in Dietary
Guidelines for Australians.
All fats are energy dense and should be Vast literature – for
eaten in moderation High intakes of summary see relevant
saturated fat and cholesterol increase heart chapter in Dietary
disease risk Guidelines for Australians
With potassium, regulates fluid balance in Vast literature; see relevant
body. High intakes can increase blood chapter in Dietary
pressure so higher potassium to salt ratio Guidelines for Australians
diets are encouraged review
References

1. Ames, BN. Dietary carcinogens and anticarcinogens. Oxygen radicals and degenerative diseases.
Science 1983:221, 1256-64.
2. Lampe, JW. Health effects of vegetables and fruit: assessing mechanisms of action in human
experimental studies. Am J Clin Nutr 1999: 70. 475S-90S.
3. Correa P, Malcolm G, Schmidt B, Fontham E, Ruiz B, Bravo JC, Bravo LE, Zarama Realpe JL
Antioxidant micronutrients and gastric cancer. Pharmacol Ther 1998: 12 Suppl 1:73-82.
4. Record, IR., Jannes, M., Dreosti, IE., King, RA. Induction of micronucleus formation in mouse
splenocytes by the soy isoflavone genistein in vivo but not In vitro. Fd Chem Tox.1995: 33, 919-922.
5. Record, IR., Broadbent, JL., King, RA. et al. Genistein inhibits the growth of B16 melanoma cells in
vivo and in vitro and promotes differentiation in vitro. Int J Cancer 1997: 72, 860-864.
6. Berry RJ, Zhu L, Erickson JD et al Prevention of neural tube defect with folic acid in China New Eng
J Med 1999:341; 1485
7. Werler MM, Hayes C, Louik C et al. Multivitamin supplementation and risk of birth defects Am J
Epidemiol1999: 150: 675
8. NHMRC Recommended Dietary Intakes for use in Australia AGPS : Canberra, 1991
9. Institute of Medicine. Dietary reference intakes for thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, vitamin B6, folate,
vitamin B12, pantothenic acid, biotin and choline. National Academy Press Washington DC. 1998,
pp306-356
10. Appel LJ, Moore TJ, Obarzanek E, Vollmer WM, Svetkey LP, Sacks FM et al, for the DASH
Collaborative Research Group. A clinical trial of the effects of dietary patterns on blood pressure. N
Engl J Med 1997;336:1117-24.
11. Bloch A, Thomson CA. Position of the American Dietetic Association: Phytochemicals and functional
foods. J Am Diet Assoc 1995: 95, 493-496.
12. Caragay AB. Cancer-preventive foods and ingredients. Food Tech 1992: 65-68.
13. Record, IR., McInerney, JK., Record, SJ. Antioxidants and polyphenols in Australian Foods. Proc
Nutr Soc. Aust. 1998: 22, 282.
14. Benavente-Garcia O, Castillo J, Marin FR et al Uses and properties of citrus flavonoids J Agri Food
Chem 1997: 45; 4505-4515
15. Ogawa, K, Kawasaki A, Yoshida T et al Evaluation of auraptene content in citrus fruits and their
products J Agri Food Chem 2000: 48; 1763-1769
16. Crowell, PL. Prevention and therapy of cancer by dietary monoterpenes. J Nutr 1999: 129, 775S-
778S.
17. Guthrie, N., Carroll, KK. Inhibition of mammary cancer by citrus flavonoids. Adv Exp Med Biol
1998: 439, 227-36
18. 18 NHMRC. Dietary Guidelines for Australian Adults. Canberra: NHMRC, 2003

26 of 100
Part 3 Composition of citrus fruits, other fruits, fruit juices, soft and sports
drinks

Citrus foods and juices contain a wide range of nutrient and non-nutrients. The tables
below detail the composition of oranges, lemons, mandarins and grapefruit in relation to
other common fruits and the composition of orange juice in comparison to soft drinks
and sports drinks.

Unless otherwise noted, the data given below comes from the Australian Food Data
base. Analyses for this data base were done on composite samples selected from a
number of outlets in Australia. Whilst the nutrient data is shown, for comparison, as
nutrient content per 100g in the tables, the mean weight of individual edible portions of
each fruit category is also shown in Table 8.

For items such as fresh fruit there may be wide variation for some nutrients according to
factors such as cultivar, time of year produced and methods of production so these
figures give only an approximate guide for comparative purposes.

3.1 Citrus and other fruits

Energy and macronutrients (Tables 8a and 8b)

Like most fruits, citrus fruits are predominantly composed of water and are very low in
energy density.

They contain between 90 and 160 kilojoules per 100g, somewhat less than other fruits
such as apples, pears, cherries, mangoes and grapes with lower water content and higher
solids. Bananas are the most energy-dense of the common fruits and melons and
strawberries (and lemons), the least.

Protein content of all fruits is low ranging from 0.3-1.7 g /100g for the fruits assessed.
Citrus ranged from 0.6g/100g for lemon to about 1g/100g for other citrus.

Fruits are also generally very low in fat, ranging from 0.1-0.3g/100g for all fruits
assessed.

Dietary fibre for the citrus fruits assessed, ranged from 0.6 g/100g (grapefruit) to
2.5g/100g (lemons). Other fruits range from 0.6g/100g for watermelon to about 1g/100g
for other melons and grapes; approximately 1.5g/100g for cherry, peach and mango;
about 2g/100g for apple, strawberry, banana, pineapple, plum and apricot and 4g/100g
for kiwifruit.

The carbohydrate content of citrus fruits (which is predominantly sugars) ranges from
1.8g/100g for lemons to 4.8g/100g for grapefruit and about 8g/100g for oranges and
mandarin. Other fruits range from 2.7g/100g for strawberries (again mostly sugars) to
5-8g/100g for melons, pineapple, plum, apricot and peach to 10-15g/100g for apples,
pears, kiwifruit, cherries, grapes, mango and about 20g/100g for bananas. The
carbohydrate in citrus and many other fruits are such that these foods have a low
glycaemic index.

27 of 100
Table 8a Fresh fruit – energy content and major nutrients - content per 100g

KJ Water Protein Dietary Total Carbo- Sugars

(g) (g) fibre fat (g) hydrate (g)
(g) (g)
RDI (recommended 6500- - 45-55 30 - - -
dietary intake for 13 700
adults)
Orange, unspec. Type 156 87 1.0 2.0 0.1 7.9 7.9
Lemon 95 89 0.6 2.5 0.2 1.8 1.8
Mandarin 162 88 0.9 2.0 0.2 8.0 8.0
Grapefruit 111 90 0.9 0.6 0.2 4.8 4.8
Lime 89 88 0.8 2.0 0.2 1.2 1.2
Apple, unpeeled 207 84 0.3 2.0 0.1 12.3 11.7
Pear, NS type, unpeeled 224 82 0.3 2.5 0.1 13.5 9.9
Kiwifruit 204 82 1.5 4.0 0.2 9.8 9.7
Cherry 224 83 1.0 1.7 0.2 11.9 10.4
Strawberry 81 92 1.7 2.2 0.1 2.7 2.7
Grape, unspec. Type 260 80 0.8 0.9 0.1 14.9 14.9
Melons, honeydew 132 91 0.7 1.0 0.3 6.5 6.5
Melons, rockmelon 91 92 0.5 1.0 0.1 4.7 4.7
Watermelon 96 93 0.3 0.6 0.2 5.0 5.0
Banana, common 358 75 1.7 2.2 0.1 19.9 16.9
Mango 236 83 1.0 1.5 0.2 12.6 12.1
Pineapple 158 86 1.0 2.1 0.1 8.0 8.0
Plum 146 88 0.6 2.1 0.1 7.1 6.5
Apricot 159 86 0.8 2.1 0.2 7.7 7.1
Peach, unpeeled 132 89 0.9 1.4 0.1 6.4 6.2

Table 8b Fresh fruit – energy content and major nutrients - content per serve

Serve KJ Water Protein Dietar Total Carbo- Sugars

size (g) (g) (g) y fibre fat (g) hydrate (g)
(g) (g)
Orange, unspec. Type 120 187 104 1.2 2.4 0.12 9.5 9.5
Lemon 100 95 89 0.6 2.5 0.2 1.8 1.8
Mandarin 60 97 53 0.5 1.2 0.12 4.8 4.8
Grapefruit - half 100 111 90 0.9 0.6 0.2 4.8 4.8
Lime 50 44 44 0.4 1.0 0.1 0.6 0.6
Apple, unpeeled 160 331 134 0.5 3.2 0.16 20.0 18.7
Pear, unpeeled 180 403 148 0.54 4.5 0.18 24.3 17.8
Kiwifruit 80 163 66 1.2 3.2 0.16 7.8 7.8
Cherry (20 cherries ) 80 179 66 0.8 1.4 0.16 9.5 8.3
Strawberry (8 120 97 110 2.0 2.64 0.12 3.2 3.2
strawberries)
Grapes (20 grapes) 80 208 64 0.6 0.7 0.08 11.9 11.9
Honeydew melon (slice) 150 198 135 1.0 1.5 0.45 9.8 9.8
Rockmelon (slice ) 150 137 138 0.75 1.5 0.15 7.0 7.0
Watermelon (slice) 150 144 140 0.45 0.9 0.3 7.5 7.5
Banana 140 501 105 2.4 3.1 0.14 27.9 23.7
Mango (whole) 150 354 125 1.5 2.25 0.3 18.9 18.2
Pineapple (quarter) 150 237 129 1.5 3.2 0.15 12.0 12.0
Plum (2 plums) 120 175 106 0.72 2.5 0.12 8.5 7.8
Apricot (2 apricots) 120 191 103 0.96 2.5 0.24 9.2 8.5
Peach, unpeeled 140 185 125 1.3 2.0 0.14 9.0 8.7
1
Data source: AUSTNUT 1999 (ANZFA)
2
Data source: USDA Database for Standard Reference, Release 14 (2001)

28 of 100
Minerals (Tables 9a and 9b)

Citrus fruits contain between 20-30 mg calcium / 100g . Other fruits range from about
5mg/100g for apples, pears, watermelon, rock melon, peach, plum, mango and banana,
to 10-16g/100g for strawberry, grapes and apricot and 20-30mg/100g for kiwifruit,
cherry and pineapple and nearly 40mg/100g for honeydew melon.
The iron content of citrus ranges from 0.2 to 0.4mg/100g. In itself, citrus is not a good
source of iron but the high vitamin C content of citrus fruits helps release iron from
other foods and citrus and citrus juices can therefore play a valuable role in maintaining
iron status. Nutritionists therefore recommend consumption of orange juice or citrus
foods with iron containing foods such as breakfast cereals to optimise iron absorption.
Low iron status is one of the major deficiency states in Australia, particularly for
adolescent girls and young women.
The magnesium content of citrus ranges from 8-11mg/100g. Other fruits contain from
5-8mg /100g for apples, pear, strawberry, rockmelon, watermelon, mango, plum, and
peach; from 10-14mg/100g for apricot, pineapple, grape, honeydew melon and cherry to
about 20mg/100g for banana and kiwifruit.
For phosphorus, the content of citrus fruits ranged from16-24mg/100g. Other fruits
ranged from 8-30mg/100g with the highest contents in other fruits being in rockmelon
and bananas and the lowest in apples, honeydew, water melons and pineapple.

Fruits are a key source of potassium in the Australian diet (they currently provide some
10% of the total daily intake of potassium). Citrus fruits contain from 120-145mg/100g
with other fruits ranging from about 90-300mg/100g. The highest contents are found in
kiwifruit, cherry , banana, mango and apricot and the lowest in pear and watermelon.

The sodium content of citrus (and most fruits) is very low and ranges from 0-2mg/100g.
Honeydew and rockmelons are higher than other fruits but still have a very low content.

The zinc content of fruits is also very low ranging from 0.1-0.2g/100g in citrus and 0.1-
0.4g/100g in other fruits. As with iron, the value of citrus fruits relates to their ability to
increase absorption of zinc from other foods, because of the high vitamin C content.
Like iron, zinc is a nutrient which is borderline in many people in the Australian
community.

The copper content of citrus ranges from 0.03-0.05mg/100g and other fruits from 0.03
(watermelon ) to 0.16 (kiwifruit). For manganese, citrus contains 0.01-0,03 mg/100g
and other fruits contain from 0.02mg/100g (honeydew) to 1.65 mg/100g (pineapple).

Selenium, an antioxidant, ranges from 0.4mg -1.4mg/100g in citrus and 0.3 (apple)-1.1
ug/00g (banana) in other fruits. As with many other nutrients, selenium content of foods
can vary widely depending on soil conditions.

29 of 100
 Table 9a Fresh fruit – mineral content per 100g
Ca1 Fe1 Mg1 P1 K1 Na2 Zn1 Cu2 Mn2 Se2
(mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mcg)
RDI (recommended dietary 800- 5-16 270- 1000 1950- 920- 12 - - 70-85
intake for adults) 1000 320 5460 2300
Orange, unspec. type 29 0.40 11.0 24 145 0 0.20 0.05 0.03 0.50
Lemon 20 0.30 9.0 20 120 2 0.10 0.04 0.03 0.40
Mandarin 26 0.30 11.0 18 141 1 0.10 0.03 0.03 0.50
Grapefruit 21 0.20 8.0 16 120 0 0.10 0.05 0.01 1.40
Lime 22 0.30 11.0 18 150 3 0.10 0.26 0.02 1.50
Apple, unpeeled 5 0.20 4.0 8 107 0 0.10 0.04 0.05 0.30
Pear, NS type, unpeeled 5 0.20 6.6 10 92 0 0.10 0.11 0.08 1.00
Kiwifruit 29 0.59 21.3 25 294 5 0.20 0.16 0.60
Cherry 26 0.30 10.0 17 250 0 0.10 0.10 0.09 0.60
Strawberry 13 0.60 8.0 23 130 1 0.20 0.05 0.29 0.70
Grape, unspec. type 11 0.20 12.3 20 196 2 0.10 0.09 0.06 0.20
Melons, honeydew 39 0.30 14.0 9 158 10 0.20 0.04 0.02 0.40
Melons, rockmelon 7 0.30 4.0 30 190 9 0.10 0.04 0.05 0.40
Watermelon 6 0.40 4.0 8 87 2 0.40 0.03 0.04 0.10
Banana, common 5 0.50 19.0 26 345 1 0.20 0.10 0.15 1.10
Mango 7 0.50 7.0 13 250 2 0.30 0.11 0.03 0.60
Pineapple 27 0.30 11.0 8 180 1 0.20 0.11 1.65 0.60
Plum 7 0.20 6.0 20 153 0 0.10 0.04 0.05 0.50
Apricot 16 0.32 9.0 21 316 1 0.20 0.09 0.08 0.40
Peach, unpeeled 6 0.20 6.0 19 186 0 0.10 0.07 0.05 0.40

Table 9b Fresh fruit – mineral content per serve

Serve Ca1 Fe1 Mg1 P1 K1 Na2 Zn1 Cu2 Mn2 Se2
size (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mcg)
(g)
Orange, unspec. type 120 35 0.5 13 29 174 0 0.2 0.06 0.04 0.6
Lemon 100 20 0.3 9 20 120 2 0.1 0.04 0.03 0.4
Mandarin 60 16 0.2 7 11 85 1 0.1 0.02 0.02 0.3
Grapefruit 100 21 0.2 8 16 120 0 0.1 0.05 0.01 1.4
Lime 50 11 0.2 5 9 75 2 0.05 0.1 0.01 0.8
Apple, unpeeled 160 8 0.3 6 13 171 0 0.2 0.06 0.08 0.5
Pear, NS type, unpeeled 180 9 0.4 12 18 166 0 0.2 0.20 0.14 1.8
Kiwifruit 80 23 0.5 17 20 235 4 0.2 0.13 0.00 0.5
Cherry (20 cherries) 80 21 0.2 8 14 200 0 0.1 0.08 0.07 0.5
Strawberry (8 strawberries) 120 16 0.7 10 28 156 1 0.2 0.06 0.35 0.8
Grapes (20 grapes) 80 9 0.2 10 16 157 2 0.1 0.07 0.05 0.2
Honeydew melon (slice) 150 59 0.5 21 14 237 15 0.3 0.06 0.03 0.6
Rockmelon (slice) 150 11 0.5 6 45 285 14 0.2 0.06 0.08 0.6
Watermelon (slice) 150 9 0.6 6 12 131 3 0.6 0.05 0.06 0.2
Banana 140 7 0.7 27 36 483 1 0.3 0.14 0.21 1.5
Mango (whole) 150 11 0.8 11 20 375 3 0.5 0.17 0.05 0.9
Pineapple (quarter) 150 41 0.5 17 12 270 2 0.3 0.17 2.48 0.9
Plum (2 plums) 120 8 0.2 7 24 184 0 0.1 0.05 0.06 0.6
Apricot (2 apricots) 120 19 0.4 11 25 379 1 0.2 0.11 0.10 0.5
Peach, unpeeled 140 8 0.3 8 27 260 0 0.1 0.10 0.07 0.6

1
Data source: AUSTNUT 1999 (ANZFA)
2
Data source: USDA Database for Standard Reference, Release 14 (2001)

30 of 100
Vitamins (Tables 10a and 10b & 11a and 11b)

The content of vitamin A, beta-carotene, vitamin C and vitamin E for citrus and other
fruits is shown in Table 10. More details about the content of other carotenes is shown
later in Table 16. .

Vitamin A (retinol equivalents) is a measure of total vitamin A in foods including

contributions from preformed vitamin A (retinol) and its precursor (beta-carotene). 6
units of beta-carotene equate to one retinol equivalent (ie Total Vitamin A = Retinol
content +1/6 beta-carotene content).

Citrus fruits contain from 2-20ug of vitamin A retinol equivalents (10-130ug beta-
carotene). Other fruits range from 2- 400ug/100g (10-2370ug beta-carotene) . The
vitamin A activity is due almost entirely to the beta-carotene. The fruits with the highest
content of vitamin A and beta-carotene are rockmelon, apricot and mango from 150-
400ug respectively and the lowest include apple, pear, strawberry, honeydew and
pineapple (as well as the lemon and grapefruit).

Vitamin C content ranges from 36-52 mg/100g for citrus fruit and 5-87 mg/100g for
other fruits with kiwifruit being the highest and apple, pear, grape, watermelon and
plum having the lowest content. Thus 100g of citrus fruit provides about the daily
recommended intake for this nutrient. As noted above, the vitamin C has the added
benefit of assisting in absorption of other key nutrients such as iron and zinc from other
food sources.

Vitamin E is a fat-soluble vitamin and fruits are generally not a rich source. The
Australian data base does not have figures for vitamin E but according to the US data
base, the vitamin E content of citrus is about 0.25mg/100g with other fruits ranging
from 0.1 - 1.02 mg/100g. Kiwifruit and mango have the highest content.

Fruits are generally not a major contributor to the B vitamins, other than folate. The B
vitamin content is shown in Table 11. Citrus fruits contain from 0.03-0.11mg
thiamin/100g with other fruits ranging from 0.01-0.05mg/100g. Riboflavin in citrus
averages about 0.02-0.03mg/100g, with other fruits ranging from 0.01 to 0.11mg
(bananas).

For niacin, citrus ranges from 0.3-0.6mg and other fruits from 0.1-1.4mg (apricot) and
for vitamin B6 values for citrus range from 0.04-0.08mg whilst other fruits range from
0.02 -0.58 mg (banana).

For folate, citrus are a rich source with the content ranging from 11mg/100g in lemons
to 30mg/100g in oranges. Other fruits range from 1mg-14mg (banana, strawberry) with
most being between 1-5mg/100g.

Folate has been implicated as a protective factor in a number of conditions including

cancer, heart disease and spinal tube defects. It is also thought to play a role in
maintaining cognitive capacity (mental function).

31 of 100
Table 10a Fresh fruit – vitamins A, carotenes, C and E content per 100g
Vitamin A beta- Vitamin Vitamin
retinol carotene1 C1 (mg) E2 (mg)
equivalents1 (ug)
(ug)
RDI (recommended dietary 750 - 30-40 7-10
intake for adults)
Orange, unspec. type 21 130 52 0.24
Lemon 2 10 48 0.24
Mandarin 15 87 47 0.24
Grapefruit 4 25 36 0.25
Lime 5 31 47 0.00
Apple, unpeeled 2 10 5 0.32
Pear, NS type, unpeeled 3 16 5 0.50
Kiwifruit 12 73 87 1.12
Cherry 13 75 18 0.13
Strawberry 4 25 45 0.14
Grape, unspec. type 15 93 5 0.70
Melons, honeydew 6 36 18 0.15
Melons, rockmelon 140 830 34 0.15
Watermelon 33 200 7 0.15
Banana, common 13 75 12 0.27
Mango 400 2370 28 1.12
Pineapple 4 25 21 0.10
Plum 25 150 5 0.60
Apricot 200 1202 11 0.89
Peach, unpeeled 17 100 10 0.70

Table 10b Fresh fruit – vitamins A, carotenes, C and E content per serve
Serve size Vitamin A beta- Vitamin Vitamin
(g) retinol carotene1 C1 (mg) E2 (mg)
equivalents1 (ug)
(ug)
Orange, unspec. type 120 25 156 62 0.29
Lemon 100 2 10 48 0.24
Mandarin 60 9 52 28 0.14
Grapefruit 100 4 25 36 0.25
Lime 50 3 15 24 0.00
Apple, unpeeled 160 3 16 8 0.51
Pear, NS type, unpeeled 180 5 29 9 0.90
Kiwifruit 80 10 58 70 0.90
Cherry (20 cherries) 80 10 60 14 0.10
Strawberry (8 strawberries) 120 5 30 54 0.17
Grapes (20 grapes) 80 12 74 4 0.56
Honeydew melon (slice) 150 9 54 27 0.23
Rockmelon (slice) 150 210 1245 51 0.23
Watermelon (slice) 150 50 300 11 0.23
Banana 140 18 105 17 0.38
Mango (whole) 150 600 3555 42 1.68
Pineapple (quarter) 150 6 38 32 0.15
Plum (2 plums) 120 30 180 6 0.72
Apricot (2 apricots) 120 240 1442 13 1.07
Peach, unpeeled 140 24 140 14 1.0
1
Data source: AUSTNUT 1999 (ANZFA)
2
Data source: USDA Database for Standard Reference, Release 14 (2001)

32 of 100
Table 11a Fresh fruit – B vitamin content per 100g
Thiamin1 Rboflavin1 Niacin1 Panto- Vitamin Folate1
(mg) (mg) (mg) thenate2 B62 (mg) (mg)
(mg)
RDI (recommended 0.7-1.1 1.0-1.7 11-19 5-10 0.8-1.9 200
dietary intake for adults)
Orange, unspec. Type 0.11 0.03 0.5 0.25 0.06 30
Lemon 0.04 0.02 0.3 0.19 0.08 11
Mandarin 0.06 0.03 0.3 0.20 0.07 19
Grapefruit 0.03 0.03 0.6 0.28 0.04 25
Lime 0.03 0.02 0.2 0.23 0.11 0
Apple, unpeeled 0.02 0.01 0.1 0.06 0.05 1
Pear, NS type, unpeeled 0.02 0.03 0.1 0.07 0.02 2
Kiwifruit 0.01 0.04 0.8 0.09 1
Cherry 0.03 0.03 0.7 0.13 0.04 5
Strawberry 0.01 0.03 0.8 0.34 0.06 14
Grape, unspec. Type 0.01 0.03 0.5 0.02 0.11 2
Melons, honeydew 0.02 0.02 0.3 0.21 0.06 2
Melons, rockmelon 0.02 0.02 0.3 0.13 0.12 5
Watermelon 0.01 0.01 0.2 0.21 0.14 2
Banana, common 0.05 0.11 0.9 0.26 0.58 14
Mango 0.02 0.04 0.9 0.16 0.13 3
Pineapple 0.04 0.03 0.3 0.16 0.09 5
Plum 0.04 0.05 0.7 0.18 0.08 2
Apricot 0.03 0.05 1.4 0.24 0.05 6
Peach, unpeeled 0.01 0.04 1.2 0.17 0.02 3

Table 11b Fresh fruit – B vitamin content per serve

Serve Thiamin Rboflavi Niacin1 Panto- Vitamin Folate1
1
size (g) (mg) n1 (mg) (mg) thenate2 B62 (mg) (mg)
(mg)
Orange, unspec. Type 120 0.13 0.04 0.6 0.30 0.07 36
Lemon 100 0.04 0.02 0.3 0.19 0.08 11
Mandarin 60 0.04 0.02 0.2 0.12 0.04 11
Grapefruit 100 0.03 0.03 0.6 0.28 0.04 25
Lime 50 0.02 0.01 0.1 0.11 0.05 0
Apple, unpeeled 160 0.03 0.02 0.2 0.10 0.08 2
Pear, NS type, unpeeled 180 0.04 0.05 0.2 0.13 0.04 4
Kiwifruit 80 0.01 0.03 0.6 0.00 0.07 1
Cherry (20 cherries) 80 0.02 0.02 0.6 0.10 0.03 4
Strawberry (8 strawb ) 120 0.01 0.04 1.0 0.41 0.07 17
Grapes (20 grapes) 80 0.01 0.02 0.4 0.02 0.09 2
Honeydew melon (slice) 150 0.03 0.03 0.5 0.32 0.09 3
Rockmelon (slice) 150 0.03 0.03 0.5 0.20 0.18 8
Watermelon (slice) 150 0.02 0.02 0.3 0.32 0.21 3
Banana 140 0.07 0.15 1.3 0.36 0.81 20
Mango (whole) 150 0.03 0.06 1.4 0.24 0.20 5
Pineapple (quarter) 150 0.06 0.05 0.5 0.24 0.14 8
Plum (2 plums) 120 0.05 0.06 0.8 0.22 0.10 2
Apricot (2 apricots) 120 0.04 0.06 1.7 0.29 0.06 7
Peach, unpeeled 140 0.01 0.06 1.7 0.24 0.03 4
1 2
Data source: AUSTNUT 1999 (ANZFA) Data source: USDA Database for Standard Reference,
Release 14 (2001)

33 of 100
3.2 Orange juice, other fruit juices, fruit drinks, soft drinks, “sports” & “energy”
drinks.

There are a wide range of non-alcoholic drinks available to the public with varying
nutrient profiles. The Table below shows the energy content and content of major
nutrients for fruit juices, fruit drinks (which can have varying content of fruit juice), soft
drinks and the more recently popular “sports” and “energy” drinks. There is also a new
category of vitamised water products available. The figures shown in the table are per
200mls, a medium size glass

Most of the data is from the Australian Nutrient Data Base but some additional
manufacturers’ data has been included for specific brands of sports, energy and
vitamised water drinks as these categories are evolving rapidly and content can be
variable. The figures in the data base are derived from analyses of several pooled
samples purchased from different areas and outlets and are thus an “average” figure for
the category.

Energy and Macronutrients (Table 12)

Fruit juices generally contain about 200-400kilojoules/200ml with unsweetened orange

juice averaging about 280 kilojoules. The fruit drinks and soft drinks gave a similar
range. Sports drinks ranged from 160-300 kj. The average figure given in the
Australian tables for energy drinks was 514kj with the manufacturers’ figures ranging
from 360kj-526kj/200ml

Protein, fibre and fat contents are very low in all drinks except the "Fruitrients" drink, a
fruit juice/puree mix with added whey concentrate.

Carbohydrate in the form of sugars averages about 14g/200ml for orange juice and
range from 2-20g/200mls in other fruit juices, about 18g/200ml in fruit juice drinks; 16-
24g/200ml in soft drinks and cordials; 4-16g in sports drinks and 20-30g/200ml in
energy drinks.

Minerals (Table 13)

Orange juice contains a range of minerals but most are at relatively low concentrations
relative to daily recommended dietary intakes. Potassium is an exception with orange
juice and other fruit juices being good sources.

A high potassium/low sodium intake is accepted to be of benefit in controlling high

blood pressure or hypertension which can lead to stroke. Except for the “Fruitrients”
drinks, no other category had a notable content of potassium. Orange and other fruit
juices also contain a higher magnesium content than most other drinks assessed
(particularly high in blackcurrant).

Sodium content was relatively higher in the sports drinks compared to other drinks.

As noted earlier in relation to citrus fruit, although orange juice and other citrus fruit
juices do not contain high amounts of iron and zinc, the vitamin C content does help

34 of 100
Table 12 Drinks – energy content and major nutrient content per 200ml
KJ Water Protein Fibre Total Carbo- Sugars
(g) (g) (g) fat (g) hydrate (g)
(g)
Recommended Dietary Intake (RDI) 6500- - 45-55 30 - - -
13 700
FRUIT JUICE
Orange, commercial, unsweetened 272 180 1.2 0.6 0.2 14.2 14.2
Grapefruit, unsweetened 238 182 1.0 0.0 0.2 12.0 12.0
Lemon, home squeezed 218 180 1.4 0.2 0.4 5.2 5.2
Lime 178 178 1.6 0.6 0.2 2.4 2.4
Apple, with added vit C 334 178 0.0 0.0 0.0 20.2 20.2
Apple, no added vit C 334 178 0.0 0.0 0.0 20.2 20.2
Pineapple, unsweetened 366 176 0.6 0.0 0.2 20.6 20.6
Blackcurrant 386 178 2.8 0.2 0.8 16.0 16.0

FRUIT DRINKS
Fruit drink, orange, ready-to-drink 312 178 0.2 0.2 0.0 18.2 18.6
Fruit drink, apple 324 180 0.0 0.0 0.0 19.6 19.6
Fruit drink, tropical 296 178 0.0 0.2 0.0 18.0 18.0
Mineral water, fruit flavours, regular 334 180 0.0 0.0 0.0 18.6 18.6

SOFT , ENERGY & SPORTS DRINKS

Soft drink, cola type 336 178 0.0 0.0 0.0 21.9 21.0
Soft drink, fruit flavours, regular 400 176 0.0 0.0 0.0 24.8 24.8
Soft drink, ginger ale, creamy soda/other 314 180 0.0 0.0 0.0 19.6 19.6
non-fruit flavours
Soft drink, lemonade, regular 336 178 0.0 0.0 0.0 20.8 20.8
Tonic water, regular 282 182 0.0 0.0 0.0 17.6 17.6
Soft drink, tea flavour 360 178 0.0 0.0 0.0 22.2 22.2
Energy drinks 514 164 0.2 0.0 0.0 31.8 28.4
Sports drink, ready-to-drink, all flavours 250 182 0.0 0.0 0.0 13.4 13.4
Cordial, blackcurrant, recommended dilution 300 180 0.0 0.0 0.0 18.4 18.4
Cordial, citrus fruit juice, recommended 340 178 0.0 0.0 0.0 21.0 21.0
dilution

BRANDED DRINKS
(manufacturers data)*
Fruitrients range**
- protein pick up (added whey protein) 864 12 3.0 4.0 32 19.0
- super energy (with herbs) 524 2.2 3.0 <.02 30.4 28.0
Vitamised waters
Water + ( Sanitarium) 4 0 0 <0.2 0
Plunge 174 0 0 10 10
Sports drinks
Staminade 172 0 10 10
Iso:sprint 310 0.2 <0.2 12.4 12.4
Powerade 268 0 0 16.0 16.0
Gatorade 210 0 0 12.0 12.0
Mizone (sports water) 170 0 0 5.0 5.0
“Energy” drinks
Red Eye 526 <0.2 0 30 30
Adrenalin 390 0.06 0 22 22
Black Stallion 360 0 0 21.6 21.6
Ikon 400 0 0 23.6 23.6
V 380 0 0 22.4 22.4
Upper E 408 0.2 0 24 23
Data source: AUSTNUT 1999 (ANZFA)
* data from manufacturers labels for individual branded sports and energy drinks: blank = not available
** a fruit juice plus fruit puree range with added herbal extracts or whey concentrate and herbs

35 of 100
release these micronutrients from other foods and thus they can make a useful
contribution to overall iron and zinc status.

The “Fruitrients” whey drink had 3ug selenium/100g from added herbs and both
versions of “Fruitrients” also had some iron and zinc from the same herbal sources.

Vitamins (Tables 14 & 15)

Table 14 shows content figures for the antioxidant vitamins, vitamin A, beta-carotene,
vitamin C and vitamin E.

Orange juice had about 32ug/200ml vitamin A from beta-carotene. Orange fruit drink
had a similar amount and blackcurrant juice and tropical fruit juice drink, slightly less.
Other fruit juices and fruit juice drinks had very little vitamin A or beta-carotene.

Soft drinks and cordials generally had no vitamin A, neither did sports drinks. The data
base gave a figure of 278ug/200ml for energy drinks but none of the branded energy
drinks claimed vitamin A content either on the nutrient label or as an ingredient. One of
the vitamised waters claimed 250ug/200ml and the “Frutrients” drinks which contain
fruit juice and puree had beta-carotene from 172-780ug (about 28-130ug vitamin A) .

For vitamin C, orange juice contained 104mg/200ml and most other fruit juices ranged
from 45-120. Apple juice was low at 1mg and blackcurrant was particularly high at
342mg/200ml with blackcurrant cordial just under 100mg/200ml. The fruit drinks
generally contained under 10mg/200ml. There was no vitamin C in soft drinks but a
variable amount in sports and energy drinks (from 0 –70mg/200ml). Levels in the
vitamised waters were low .

Vitamin E levels were very low in all fruit juices and were absent in soft drinks. The
“Frutrients” drinks claimed from 3-6.4 mg/200ml, the vitamised waters 0.8 or
3.4mg/200ml and one sports drink reported a figure of 6.8mg/200mls.

One sports drink listed vitamin A, vitamin C and vitamin E in its contents but did not
give figures

Table 15 shows the figures for the B-vitamins. Fruit juices were low for most B
vitamins except folate for which orange juice had a content of 36mg/200mls compared
to 26mg in lime and 8-16mg in other fruit juices. Fruit drinks had between 2-8mg
folate/200ml but there was very little in any other drinks.

One energy drink (Adrenalin) also had a significant amount of thiamine, as well as
niacin, pantothenate and B6. Another energy drink (Red Bull) had significant amounts
of niacin, pantothenate and B6. Nearly all energy drinks were high in niacin. Three
sports drinks had no B vitamins; one contained thiamine, riboflavin and B6 (Iso:sport)
and the other niacin, pantothenate and B6 (Mi-Zone).

36 of 100
 Table 13 Drinks – mineral content per 200ml
Ca1 Fe1 Mg1 P1 K1 Na2 Zn1 Cu2 Mn2 Se2
(mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mcg)
Recommended Dietary Intake 800- 5-16 270- 1000 1950- 920- 12 70-85
1000 320 5460 2300
FRUIT JUICE
Orange, commercial, unsweetened 18 0.12 16.0 30 300 2 0.12 0.08 0.02 0.20
Grapefruit, unsweetened 18 0.20 14.0 26 200 2 0.12 0.08 0.04 0.20
Lemon, home squeezed 110 0.80 24.0 42 254 2 0.20 0.06 0.02 0.20
Lime 44 0.60 22.0 36 300 2 0.20 0.06 0.02 0.20
Apple, with added vit C 8 0.20 8.0 10 168 6 0.12 0.04 0.22 0.20
Apple, no added vit C 8 0.20 8.0 10 168 6 0.12 0.04 0.22 0.20
Pineapple, unsweetened 12 0.40 18.0 18 300 2 0.12 0.18 2.0 0.20
Blackcurrant 110 3.00 48.0 118 640 0.60

FRUIT DRINKS
Fruit drink, orange, ready-to-drink 8 0.12 6.0 8 70 0.00
Fruit drink, apple 6 0.12 4.0 2 44 0.00
Fruit drink, tropical 88 0.00 6.0 4 64 0.00
Mineral water, fruit flavours, regular 10 0.12 8.0 2 10 0.00

SOFT, ENERGY, SPORT DRINKS

Soft drink, cola type 2 0.00 1.2 30 2 8 0.00 0.02 0.08 0.20
Soft drink, fruit flavours, regular 4 0.00 1.6 2 4 24 0.00 0.04 0.02 0.00
Soft drink, ginger ale, creamy soda/other 10 0.24 2.0 0 2 14 0.12 0.04 0.02 0.20
non-fruit flavours
Soft drink, lemonade, regular 2 0.00 1.2 0 2 22 0.00 0.02 0.02 0.00
Tonic water, regular 2 0.02 0.0 0 0 8 0.20 0.02 0.00 0.00
Soft drink, tea flavour 6 0.02 0.4 2 4 0.00
Soft drink, energy 14 0.12 14.0 4 54 0.12
Sports drink, ready-to-drink, all flavours 14 0.00 4.0 0 30 0.00
Cordial, blackcurrant, recommended 8 0.12 4.4 2 22 0.12
dilution
Cordial, citrus fruit juice, recommended 4 0.04 11.6 2 8 0.02
dilution

BRANDED DRINKS (water or fruit

based energy/sports drinks)3
Fruitrients range
- protein pick up(with whey) 144 33.6 524 17.6 5.0
- energy (with herbs 4.8 352 38 3.4 6.0
Vitamised water drinks
Water + ( Sanitarium) 28 5 24 24 0.4
Plunge 0.8 0.6 10
Sports drinks
Staminade 4.8 39 46
Iso:sprint 24 96 116 40
Mizone (mandarin) – no info.
Powerade 0 28 50
Gatorade 0 23.4 82
“Energy” drinks
Red Eye <0.2 <0.2
Adrenalin 20
Black Stallion 20 8 8 92
Ikon - no info
V - no info
Upper E <10 <10
1 2
Data source: AUSTNUT 1999 (ANZFA) Data source: USDA Database for Standard Reference, Release 14 (2001)
3
manufacturer’s labels

37 of 100
Table 14 Drinks – vitamins A,C and E content per 200ml
Vitamin A beta- Vitamin C1 Vitamin E2
retinol equiv1 carotene1 (mg) (mg)
(mcg) (mcg)
Recommended dietary intake 750 - 30-40 7-10
FRUIT JUICE
Orange, commercial, unsweetened 32 188 104 0.18
Grapefruit, unsweetened 2 10 122 0.10
Lemon, home squeezed 6 34 116 0.18
Lime 10 58 90 0.18
Apple, with added vit C 2 10 90 0.02
Apple, no added vit C 2 10 2 0.02
Pineapple, unsweetened 2 28 26 0.04
Blackcurrant 24 140 342

FRUIT DRINKS
Fruit drink, orange, ready-to-drink 34 202 10 0
Fruit drink, apple 2 10 2
Fruit drink, tropical 18 104 10
Mineral water, fruit flavours, 0 0 0
regular

SOFT, ENERGY, SPORTS

DRINKS
Soft drink, cola type 0 0 0 0
Soft drink, fruit flavours, regular 0 0 0 0
Soft drink, ginger ale, creamy 0 0 0 0
soda/other non-fruit flavours
Soft drink, lemonade, regular 0 0 0 0
Tonic water, regular 0 0 0 0
Soft drink, tea flavour 0 0 0
Soft drink, energy 278 1670 8
Sports drink, ready-to-drink, all 0 0 0
flavours
Cordial, blackcurrant, 0 2 96
recommended dilution
Cordial, citrus fruit juice, 0 4 2
recommended dilution

BRANDED DRINKS (water or

fruit based energy/sports drinks)*
Fruitrients range
- protein pick up (added whey)
- energy (with herbs) 172-780 3.0-6.4
Vitamised water drinks
Water + ( Sanitarium) 4 0.8
Plunge 250 14 3.4
Sports drinks
Staminade
Iso:sprint 50 6.8
Mizone (mandarin) 70
Powerade
Gatorade
“Energy” drinks
Red Eye 48
Adrenalin
Black Stallion
Ikon listed listed listed
V
Upper E
Red Bull
1
Data source: AUSTNUT 1999 (ANZFA) 2 Data source: USDA Database for Standard Reference, Release 14
(2001) *For branded items, data from manufacturer’s label – where no data given nutrient not mentioned on label
either in nutrient label itself or in ingredient list (if latter only given as “listed”)

38 of 100
Table 15 Drinks – vitamin B content per 200ml
Thiamin1 Riboflavin1 Niacin1 Panto- Vitamin Folate1
(mg) (mg) (mg) thenate2 B62 (mg) (mg)
(mg)
Recommended dietary intake for adults 0.7-1.1 1.0-1.7 11-19 5-10 0.8-1.9 200
FRUIT JUICE
Orange, commercial, unsweetened 0.10 0.00 1.4 0.38 0.08 36
Grapefruit, unsweetened 0.08 0.08 1.4 0.26 0.04 10
Lemon, home squeezed 0.10 0.04 0.6 0.20 0.10 26
Lime 0.06 0.04 0.6 0.28 0.08 8
Apple, with added vit C 0.00 0.00 1.4 0.06 8
Apple, no added vit C 0.00 0.00 1.4 0.12 0.06 8
Pineapple, unsweetened 0.08 0.00 1.8 0.20 0.20 16
Blackcurrant 0.10 0.10 1.0 8

FRUIT DRINKS
Fruit drink, orange, ready-to-drink 0.00 0.00 0.8 0.04 0.02 8
Fruit drink, apple 0.00 0.00 0.4 2
Fruit drink, tropical 0.00 0.00 0.4 6
Mineral water, fruit flavours, regular 0.00 0.00 0.0 2

SOFT DRINK, CORDIAL, SPORTS

DRINK
Soft drink, cola type 0.00 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.00 0
Soft drink, fruit flavours, regular 0.00 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.00 0
Soft drink, ginger ale, creamy soda/other 0.00 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.00 0
non-fruit flavours
Soft drink, lemonade, regular 0.00 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.00 0
Tonic water, regular 0.00 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.00 0
Soft drink, tea flavour 0.00 0.00 0.0 2
Soft drink, energy 0.04 0.08 0.4 2
Sports drink, ready-to-drink, all flavours 0.00 0.00 0.0 0
Cordial, blackcurrant, recommended dilution 0.00 0.00 0.2 0
Cordial, citrus fruit juice, recommended 0.00 0.00 0.0 2
dilution
BRANDED DRINKS (water or fruit
based energy/sports drinks)*
Fruitrients range (various)
- protein pick up (added whey protein)
- energy (with herbs)
Vitamised waters
Water + ( Sanitarium) 0.10 0.8 0.4 0.14
Plunge 0.36 1.0 0.54
Sports drinks
Staminade
Iso:sprint 0.80 0.60 0.98 0.08
Mizone (mandarin) 2.0 1.0 0.32
Powerade
Gatorade
“Energy” drinks
Red Eye 12.0 2.2 2.0
Adrenalin 2.0 7.0 2.0 2.0
Black Stallion 10.0 10.0 10.0
Ikon listed
Red Bull 16.0 4.0 4.0
V 0.92 5.8 1.4 0.92
1
Data source: AUSTNUT 1999 (ANZFA) 2 Data source: USDA Database for Standard Reference, Release 14
(2001) * branded data from manufacturer’s labels (many also contain vitamin B12)

39 of 100
3.3 Phytochemicals in citrus fruits and juices

The following tables give data for phytochemicals in citrus fruits. The data come from a
variety of sources (see reference list)

The data on phytochemicals is sparse compared to that for traditional nutrients and is
largely reliant on overseas data and published literature

The data bases are therefore not always complete and if a figure is not given for a
particular product that does not mean it does not contain the phytochemical of interest,
merely that there is no published data we were able to find in the time available. Thus
throughout, blank cells indicate no data found

Because of the huge range of polyphenols present in foods, their measurement is a

challenging task as there are often many different substances within each class. In this
regard more than 4,000 flavonoids have been identified in nature. This large diversity
leads to a number of technical difficulties when attempting to measure their
concentrations in food.

Studies in which flavonoids have been measured in fruit have tended to focus on a
limited number of substances (often flavonols and flavones). In addition, the levels of
phytochemicals in a crop may be greatly influenced by the nature of the cultivar, the
environmental conditions under which the crop is grown as well as the stage of fruit
maturity.

Citrus fruits contain a number of flavonoids such as hesperidin, naringin, tangeritin.

Whilst the juice contains appreciable amounts, it is the oil in the skin which has the
highest concentrations.

The last one or two lines of each table give “benchmarks” for each nutrient – this is the
highest value we found in the literature for a fruit /fruit drink for the various items and,
for key items, the highest figure found in vegetables.

Blank indicates that no values other than for citrus fruit were found. “*” indicates that
the highest value found for fruit was for a citrus item, shown in the body of the table

40 of 100
Table 16 Carotene (other than beta-carotene)
Comments:

• Carotenes have been purported to have a protective role in a number of diseases including cancer and cardiovascular disease (see page 11) .
• Beat-carotene is the most widely studies carotene in relation to health but a number of other studies have assessed the role of other carotenes
• Compared to other fruits, oranges, mandarins and tangerines were substantial sources of alpha-carotene, beta-cryptoxanthin (citrus highest fruit source) , lutein and
zeaxanthin (the latter both implicated in protection from macular degeneration in the eye).
• Alpha-carotene levels are however much lower than those found in carrots and lutein levels substantially below savoy cabbage. At least 10 vegetables have lutein content
above 5400 ug/100g (mostly dark-green leafy vegetables).
• Substantial amounts of lycopene can be found in pink grapefruit and Cara-cara navel oranges

product Auro- α- Cis β- γ- cryptoxa α- β- lutein luteoxan lycopene phytoene phytoflu Zeaxant lutein+ze
xanthin carotene carotene carotene nthin cryptoxa cryptoxa thin ene hin anthin
nthin nthin
ug/100g ug/100g ug/100g ug/100g detected/ ug/100g ug/100g ug/100g ug/100g ug/100g
not
detected
grapefruit (unspec) tr nd 3.3 9.5 0-350
orange (unspec) detected 19-21 detected nd detected 149 27 detected nd detected detected 14
grapefruit, pink nd detected 3361 detected detected nd
grapefruit, white 1 nd nd 10
lemon nd nd nd nd 12 nd 12
mandarin 12-20 11 nd nd 70-1774 20-50 nd 142
orange, valencia nd nd 83 64 50
orange juice 0-14 nd 10-105 27 nd 74
orange marmalade tr nd 6.2 5.6 nd
tangerine 20 106 nd 20
tangerine, tangelo juice 5
BENCHMARKS
Highest fruit/juice 70 308 1640 16 * 440 5400 384 76
(guava) (apricot) (mango) (papaya) (black- (guava) (mango) (raspberr
currant) y)
Highest vegetable 4700 118 14 000 3700 640
(carrot) (red (savoy (cherry (carrot)
capsicum) cabbage) tomato)

41 of 100
Table 17a Flavonoids ( flavones, flavonols & flavanols or catechins)

Comments: (see also page 17)

• Flavonoids are polyphenolic compounds that occur throughout plant-based foods. Over 4000 have been identified. they can be monomeric, dimeric or oligomeric.
• Flavonoids are usually present as glycosides. They have many biologic activities but much of the recent research interest has focussed on their antioxidanrt properties,
prevention of heart disease and inhibition of tumour development.
• A recent Dutch study estimated intakes in the western diet to be about 25-30mg/day for total flavonols and flavones. Other studies have reported intakes from 2.6 mg/day
in West Finland to 60mg/day in Japan
• Citrus items were the richest fruit sources found for total polymethoxylated flavones (mandarin and orange peel oils), sinsensetin (peel oils and juice) and tangeretin
• Lime juice has been reported to contain both luteolin and tangeretin and has been shown to be associated with lower rates of cholera in human case-control studies

product acacetin apigenin hexametho polymeth- kaempferol luteolin myricetin quercetin sinsensetin tangeretin vioalxanthi
xyflavone oxylated n
flavones
mg/100g ug/100g mg/100g g/100ml mg/100g mg/100g mg/100g mg/100g mg/100ml mg/100ml ug/100g
grapefruit juice nd nd nd nd nd 0.49 nd 0-120
grapefruit juice, fresh <.05 0.17-0.49
lemon juice nd nd nd 0.08 <.05 0-0.74 nd nd
lime juice nd nd nd 0.61 nd nd 0-180
mandarin peel oil 0.60-0. 65 20-70 250-280
orange (unspec) detected
orange juice 0-0.03 nd nd nd 0-0.05 nd-0.57 0-370 10-70
orange juice 0.3
concentrate
orange peel oil 0.2 30 70
tangerine, tangelo nd nd nd nd 0.135 nd 0-18 190
juice
BENCHMARKS
Highest fruit * 21 23 26.3 (apple * * 178
(quince (cranberry) peel) (mango)
skin)
Highest vegetable 10.8 20 3.6 2.6 34
(celery) (kale) (tabasco Broad beans (onion)
peppers)

42 of 100
Table 17b Flavonoids ( flavones, flavonols & flavanols or catechins) contd

hesper- hesperitin isor- narin- narirutin naringin natsu- neo- neo- nobiletin poncirin rhoifolin rutin taxifolin
idin hoifolin genin daidain hesperidi poncirin
n
mg/kg mg/100g mg/100g mg/100g mg/kg mg/kg mg/100g mg/kg mg/100g g/L mg/100g mg/100g mg/100g mg/100g
grapefruit (unspec) 4-16 23-124 73-419 4-10
grapefruit pulp 1.5
grapefruit juice 2.5-6 nd nd 25-159 132-428 nd 8-16 nd 1.2-1.7 1.5-21.4 0-0.28 nd 0-0.16
lemon juice 38 nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd
lemon pulp 17
lime pulp 43
lime juice 15-20 nd nd nd nd 0-0.12 nd nd 0-5.2 nd nd nd 0-0.04
mandarin peel oil 0.6-2.0
orange, bitter <3 <3 133-262 97-209
orange, sweet 122-254 nd
orange juice 35-80 9.0 0-0.07 nd 25 nd nd nd nd 0.4-1.2 0.5-1.6 0-0.05 0-0.03
orange juice concentrate 0.018
orange peel 21
orange peel oil 0.5
tangerine juice 8.1 nd nd 2.3 nd nd nd 0.06 3.5 nd nd nd Tr

BENCHMARK * * * * * * 6600
(strawberr
y)

43 of 100
Table 18 Volatiles (g/100g oil)

Comments
• Terpenes such as limonene (found in the essential oils of citrus fruits) can inhibit the biochemical modifications required to incorporate
proteins into cell membrane (see also page 19)

Oils from: γ-cadinene 3-carene cadinene caryophylie trans- citral citronellal α-copaene decanal dodecanal β-elemene
ne caryophylle
ne
grapefruit peel 0.11-0.12 0.04-0.27 0.16-0.18 0.03-0.06 0.08-0.10 0.47-0.51 0.07-0.11
tangerina peel 8.28 0.91 0.75 7.12 10.16

eugenol δ-guaiene α-humulene limonene linalool cis-linalool trans- cis-ρ- menthol α- myrcene
oxide linalool mentha-2,8- multijungen
oxide dien-1-ol ol
grapefruit peel 0.02-0.03 89.1-92.9 0.04-0.10 0.01-0.05 0.07-0.33 .02-0.24 1.89-1.94
tangerina peel 1.18 0.84 1.16 20.16 2.45 1.14 0.93

neral nerol nerolidol nonanal nootkatone ocimene β-ocimene octanal octanol α- β-

phellandren phellandren
e e
grapefruit peel 0.03-0.05 0.09-0.14 0.28-0.64 0.18-0.38 0.51-0.77 0.01-0.05 0.057-0.19
tangerina peel 5.16 0.81 1.91 2.64

α-pinene β-pinene sabinene α-terpenol α-terpinene γ-terpinene

grapefruit peel 0.60-0.62 0.061-0.093 0.54-0.85 0.01-0.05 0.06-0.17
tangerina peel 0.85 2.65 2.35 6.19 6.19

44 of 100
Table 19 Phytosterols
Comment (see also page 19)
• These may have a role in cancer prevention and cholesterol reduction

product campe- didy- diosmin eeodiosmin erio- neo- β-sitosterol stigmasterol

sterol min citrin eriocitrin
mg/100g mg/100g mg/100g mg/100g mg/100g mg/100g mg/100g mg/100g
grapefruit juice 8.3 nd nd nd 0.30-0.33
lemon juice 0.51 nd 1.67 nd
lime juice 0-0.08 nd 0-0.29 0-0.01
oranges, 14 17 2
tangerines
orange juice nd 0-0.09 0-0.08 nd 0-0.59 1 nd
tangerine juice nd nd 0.09 0.04

BENCHMARK * 223 (tea 3 (peach)

infusion)

Table 20 Coumarins (see also page 18)

auraptene coumarin meranzin meranzin HG
Mg/g dry wt g/100g g/100g g/100g
grapefruit (unspec) 0.25 0.16-0.25 0.04-0.17
orange, bitter 0.71 0.25 0.31
Citrus peel nd - 1.453
(high trifoliate and Naruto)
Citrus juice nd - 6.563
( high trifoliate orange)
Grapefruit juice 0.11-0.14
(in fresh product)
Orange juice nd
marmalade 0.35-0.38
BENCHMARK * *

45 of 100
Table 21 Total phenolics, antioxidant capacity
Comment (see also page 15 )

• The overall antioxidant capacity for citrus fruits is very high ranging from
100 umol/100g TE for grapefruit to 700umol for some oranges.

• Total phenolics are also high in citrus with oranges totalling 84mg GA equivs/100mg

antioxidant cap. phenolics

umol/100g trollox equiv. mg GA equiv/100g
grapefruit (unspec) 108
orange (unspec) 229-700 84.1
grapefruit, pink 500
grapefruit juice
orange juice 267

BENCHMARK 933 (black tea) 359 (plum)

Figure 3 Total antioxidant capacity of various foods

Black tea
Red wine
Banana
Apples
Pink grapefruit
Grapefruit
Orange juice
Oranges
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400

Total antioxidant activity (Trolox equivalents uM trolox/100g)

References used to compile all phytonutrients tables

1. Anderson DL, Cunningham WC, Lindstrom TR, Concentrations and intakes of H, B, S, K, Na, CI, and
NaCI in foods: J Food Comp Anal, 1994: 7; 59-82.
2. Ben-Amotz A, Fishler R. Analysis of carotenoids with emphasis on 9-cis beta-carotene in vegetables
and fruits commonly consumed in Israel: Food Chemistry, 2000: 62; 515-520.
3. Benavente-Garcia O, Castillo,J, Marin,FR, Ortuno,A, del Rio,JA, Uses and Porperties of Citrus
Flavonoids. J Agric Food Chem 1997: 45 ; 4505-4515
4. Booth SL, Sadowski JA, Pennington JAT. Phylloquinone (Vitamin K1) content of foods in the U.S.
Food and Drug Administration's total diet study: J Agric Food Chem, 1995: 43; 1574-1579.
5. Booth SL, Sadowski JA, L Weihrauch L et al Vitamin K1 (Phylloquinone) content of foods: a
provisional table: J Food Comp Anal 1993: 6; 109-120.
6. Bravo L, Polyphenols: chemistry, dietary sources, metabolism, and nutritional significance: Nutr Rev
1998: 56; 317-333.
7. Bushway RJ, Determination of  and carotene in some raw fruits and vegetables by high-
performance liquid chromatography: J Agric Food Chem, 1986: 34; 409-412.
8. Clinton SK, Lycopene: chemistry, biology, and implications for human health and disease: Nutrition
Reviews, 1998: 56; 35-51.
9. Gerster H. The potential role of lycopene for human health: J Am Coll Nutr, 1997: 16; 109-126.
10. Gormican A, Inorganic elements in foods used in hospital menus: J Am Diet Assoc 1970: 56; 397-403.
11. Granado F, Olmedilla B, Blanco I et al. Variability in the intercomparison of food carotenoid content
data: a user's point of view: Crit.Rev.Food Sci.Nutr., 1997: 37; 621-633.
12. Guo C, Cao G, Sofic E, et al, 1997, High-performance liquid chromatography coupled with
coulometric array detection of electroactive components in fruits and vegetables: relationship to
oxygen radical absorbance capacity: Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, v. 45, p. 1787-
1796.
13. Hart DJ, Scott KJ. Development and evaluation of an HPLC method for the analysis of carotenoids in
foods, and the measurement of the carotenoid content of vegetables and fruits commonly consumed in
the UK: Food Chemistry 1995: 54; 101-111.
14. Heinonen MI, Ollilainen V, Linkola EK et al , 1989, Carotenoids in Finnish foods: vegetables, fruits,
and berries: J Agric Food Chem 1989: 37; 655-659.
15. Herrmann K. Flavonols and flavones in food plants: a review: J Food Technol, 1976:1; 433-448.
16. Hertog MG, Hollman PC , van de Putte B. Content of potentially anticarcinogenic flavonoids of tea
infusions, wines, and fruit juices: J Agric Food Chem 1993: 41; 1242-1246.
17. Hunt CD, Shuler TR, Mullen LM. Concentration of boron and other elements in human foods and
personal-care products: Journal of the American Dietetic Association 1991:91;558-568.
18. Justesen U, Knuthsen P, Leth T. Quantitative analysis of flavonols, flavones, and flavanones in fruits,
vegetables and beverages by high-performance liquid chromatography with photo-diode array and
mass spectrometric detection: J Chromatogr.A, 1998:799; 101-110.
19. Kawai S, Tomono,Y, Katase,E, Ogawa,K, Yano,M, 1999, HL-60 Differentiating Activity and
FlavonoidContent of the Readily Extractable Fraction Prepared from Citrus Juices. J Agric Food
Chem 1999: 47; 128-135.
20. Kawai S, Tomono,Y, Katase,E, Ogawa,K, Yano,M. Quantitation of Flavonoid Constituents in Citrus
Juices. J Agric Food Chem 1999: 47; 3565-3571.
21. Khachik F, Beecher GR, Goli MB. Separation, identification, and quantification of carotenoids in
fruits, vegetables and human plasma by high performance liquid chromotography: Pure & Appl Chem
1991: 63; 71-80.
22. King A, Young G. Characteristics and occurrence of phenolic phytochemicals: J Am Diet Assoc, 1999:
99; 213-218.
23. King RA. The role of polyphenols in human health. In Brooker, J. D (ed) Aciar Proceedings 1999 No
92. 31-5-0099.
24. Mackerras D. Antioxidants and health - Fruits and vegetables or supplements?: Food Australia 1995:
47; S3-S23 .
25. Mangels AR, Holden JM, Beecher GR, Forman MR, Lanza E. Carotenoid content of fruits and
vegetables: an evaluation of analytic data: J Am Diet Assoc 1993: 93; 284-296.
26. Mazur W. Phytoestrogen content in foods: Baillieres Clin Endocrinol Metab 1998: 12; 729-742.
27. Ogawa K, Kawasaki,A, Yoshida,T, Nesumi,H, Nakano,M, Ikoma,Y, Yano,M. Evalulation of Auraptene
Content of Citrus Fruits and Their Products. J Agric Food Chem 2000: 48; 1763-1769
28. Paganga G, Miller N, Rice-Evans CA. The polyphenolic content of fruit and vegetables and their
antioxidant activities. What does a serving constitute?: Free Radic Res 1999: 30; 153-162.
29. Pillow PC, Duphorne CM, Chang S, Contois JH, et al . Development of a database for assessing
dietary phytoestrogen intake: Nutr Cancer 1999: 33; 3-19.
30. Rao AV, Agarwal S. Role of lycopene as antioxidant carotenoid in the prevention of chronic diseases:
A review: Nutr Res, 1999:19; 305-323.
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Comp Anal. 1999.
32. Robards K, Prenzler PD, Tucker G, Swatsitang P, Glover W. Phenolic compounds and their role in
oxidative processes in fruits: Food Chemistry 1999: 66;401-436.
33. Shahidi F,Naczk M. Phenolic compounds in fruits and vegetables, Food phenolics: sources,
chemistry, effects, applications: Pennsylvania, USA, Technomic,1995: p. 75-107.
34. Shaw PE, Moshonas MG, Hearn CJ, Goodner KL Volatile Constituents in Fresh and Processes Juices
from Grapefruit and New Grapefruit Hybrids. J Agric Food Chem 2000:48; 2425-2429.
35. Shearer MJ, Bach A, Kohlmeier M. Chemistry, nutritional sources, tissue distribution and metabolism
of vitamin K with special reference to bone health: J Nutr 1996: 126; 1181S-1186S.
36. Stahl W, Sies H. Lycopene: a biologically important carotenoid for humans?: Arch Biochem Biophys
1996: 336; 1-9.
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Temperature and Storage Time. J Agric Food Chem 1999:47; 2067-2069.
38. Thompson LU, Robb P, Serraino M, Cheung F. Mammalian lignan production from various foods:
Nutr Cancer 1991: 16; 43-52.
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foods: Acta Agric Scand 1980: 22 (Suppl); 89-113.

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Part 4 The relationship between fruit, particularly citrus fruit and fruit juice and
human health

Introduction

There are many epidemiological and experimental studies in the literature linking
consumption of fruits and fruit juices to health outcomes. Some reports analyse at the very
general level (ie total fruit consumption), others by subcategories (ie citrus fruit, fruit
juice) and yet others may report data for individual items (eg oranges, orange juice).

There are also many studies which assess the role of the individual nutrients contained in
fruits and their juices such as vitamin C, carotenes, fibre, folate or potassium. Much
interest has also been expressed in the potential role of phytochemical classes such as
flavonoids, carotenes, terpenes (mono or triterpenes such as the liminoids), coumarins or
individual phytochemicals such as limonene, limonin, nomilin, naringin, hesperidin,
tangeretin, nobiletin, sinesetin, and heptamethoxyflavone.

However, few human epidemiological studies have expressly looked at phytochemical

intake either by class or individually. Most of the evidence related to these components,
particularly in relation to cancer, comes from animal or cell studies.

In general, but not universally, higher intakes of fruit (and in some cases fruit juice) are
associated in the epidemiological literature with a reduction in the risk of developing a
number of the major chronic diseases such as coronary heart disease, stroke, certain
cancers, eye conditions and a range of other chronic conditions including certain
infections. They may also play a role in helping maintain the immune system..

There are significantly more studies for cancer than any other disease condition and a
moderate amount for cardiovascular disease. There is some indicative data for fruits in
general for stroke, hypertension, cataracts, macular degeneration, diabetes and other
diseases such as arthritis, Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, inflammatory bowel disease, asthma,
ulcers, gallstones, multiple sclerosis, cholera, urinary tract infection and osteoporosis. The
human epidemiological data for these latter conditions is too sparse to provide any
meaningful assessment of the influence of either fruits in general or citrus fruit in
particular but some of these linkages are supported by theoretical, cellular or animal
studies.
Overall, the literature indicates a protective effect of fruits against a number of chronic
diseases and a specific role for citrus fruits in some of these conditions related, in part, to
their antioxidative capacity (from vitamin C, carotenoids, and certain phytochemicals) as
well as their content of nutrients such as folate and potassium.

In some cases, the data suggests that the incidence, severity and mortality from such
diseases might be ameliorated by the consumption of additional fruit and/or juices but the
estimates of amounts required for benefit are imprecise and the relative importance of the
individual components of the fruit or fruit juice is not clear.

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4.1 Methodological considerations

To assess the role that consumption of fruits, particularly citrus fruits and fruit juice and
their components, might play in the etiology of chronic diseases of importance in the
Australian setting, an analysis was undertaken of over 550 original human
epidemiological papers and a number of key reviews, particularly of cancer, which
occurred in the mid to late 1990s.

Five electronic databases were searched including Medline, PubMed, the Science Citation
Index (web-based version – Web of Science), Cambridge abstracts (CABI) and current
contents. All indexes were searched for material indexed and published until Jan 002 and
updated in April 2003 for citrus fruits and juices specifically.

The following specific heading and text word term strategies were used: for the diet (both
foods and nutrients) components - fruit, fruit juice, citrus, oranges, mandarins, lemons,
grapefruit, and for disease states - cancer, gallstone, cataract, arthritis, diabetes,
osteoporosis, heart, cardiovascular, stroke, macular degeneration, dementia and ulcers
(additional conditions were identified during the search process).

The two search strategies were then combined to locate matches between the food
categories and each disease state. Major review articles were also examined and suitable
references obtained together with any relevant citations from the studies themselves.

Searches were also done for nutrients and non-nutrient components of citrus fruit
including a range of phytochemicals, vitamin C, carotenes, folate, potassium and fibre.
Most studies reported dietary intake of nutrients, however some used serum or plasma
concentrations of marker nutrients and risk of disease and this was always stated in the
tabulation of results.

Relative risk of each quantile of intake versus the referent quantile was the measure of
association most often used when reporting effect of fruit, fruit classes or individual fruits
on disease conditions. However, many other measures of effect were used including
correlations, regression coefficients and mean changes in intake between cases and
controls.

Types of studies used for assessing the possible effects of dietary components on disease
risk.

The major study types used to assess links between food intake patterns and/or specific
nutrients and disease risk in humans are:

Ecologic studies in which national per capita food intakes are correlated with national
health statistics relating to the incidence, prevalence and mortality of diseases

Case-control studies in which food intake patterns in individuals who have contracted a
disease under study are gathered retrospectively, and compared with the food intakes of
appropriately chosen individuals who do not have the disease

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Cohort studies in which food intake patterns in many study subjects are recorded while
they are all free of the disease(s) of interest – and after an appropriate efflux of time
(usually many years) the dietary patterns of those who develop disease(s) are compared
with those who are still disease free.

Intervention studies, in which subjects at (high) risk of the disease under study are
randomly allocated to either a modified dietary regime or a control regime – and the two
study groups are compared with respect to their subsequent disease incidence or
progression.

Ecologic studies provide the weakest kind of evidence, since a range of other explanations
may account for any observed association. A case-control study is the most popular
analytic tool for investigating chronic disease aetiology, but it is extremely vulnerable to
biases arising from either inappropriate selection of control subjects, or from selective
recall by cases of the foods or drinks they ate prior to the diagnosis of their condition.

While cohort studies are far less vulnerable to the problems of the case-control study, the
huge numbers of study subjects required to ensure the future accrual of a sufficient
number of ‘cases’ and the time required for the disease to develop has meant that very few
cohort studies have ever been conducted. Finally in a few instances, there has been
sufficient confidence in the disease preventive capacity of a specific food component or
micronutrient to initiate an intervention trial. An intervention study provides the most
reliable information for confirming a direct causal relationship between a dietary
components and a disease outcome. Long term intervention are, however, very expensive
and few have been undertaken.

There are a very thus a large number of case-control studies in the literature, a very much
smaller number of cohort studies and very few, selected intervention studies. The latter
two types of studies also tend to be of more recent origin so earlier reviews depended
heavily on case-control data.

For reasons outlined briefly above, evidence obtained from cohort studies can usually be
regarded as more reliable than evidence collected using case-control studies. In general
case-control studies have tended to show stronger linkages between dietary components
and health outcome than cohort or intervention studies, particularly in relation to cancer.

Many of the epidemiology studies use relative risk estimates (or the closely related odds
ratios) to describe associations between dietary variables and disease risk. A Relative Risk
(RR) of “1” implies no difference in risk between various categories of dietary
consumption. A risk above “1” implies increased risk and below “1”, decreased risk,
however it must be noted that many estimates of relative risk in the literature, while below
or above unity, are nevertheless not statistically significantly different from unity, ie there
is a reasonable chance that many of these estimates of reduced or increased risk were
obtained in the complete absence of a relationship between fruit and vegetable intake and
health risk.

In some papers the authors give estimates of statistical significance of the consumption
trend in cases versus controls, in others they simply report the confidence limits (CI)
around the Relative Risk. Where confidence limits do not encompass unity or “1” this is a

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statistically significant finding for that comparison. Some researchers use an estimate
called “Odds Ratio” (OR) which in practice is very similar to Relative Risk.

Definitions of evidence categories used in the WCRF, COMA and WHO reports

In the next part of the report, reference is made to conclusions drawn from three recent
major reviews, that of the World Cancer Research Fund (WCRF; Ref 2) , that from the
Committee on Medical Aspects of the Food Supply (COMA; Ref 3) and that from the
World Health Organisation (WHO; Ref 7). Each of these organisations used descriptors
for their assessment of the strength of evidence relating to a particulr diet/disease
relationship and these are described below:

World Cancer Research Fund: :

Convincing evidence:
Evidence of causal relationships is conclusive and sufficient for making dietary recommendations:
Epidemiological studies had to show consistent associations with little or no evidence to the
contrary. There should be a substantial number of acceptable studies (more than 20) preferably
including prospective designs, conducted in different population groups, controlled for possible
confounding factors.
Dietary intake data should refer to the period preceding occurrence of cancer
Any dose-response relationships should be supportive of a causal relationship.
Associations should be biologically plausible.
Laboratory evidence is usually supportive or strongly supportive

Probable evidence:
Evidence is strong enough to conclude that a causal relationship is likely – usually also enough for dietary
recommendations to be made.
Epidemiological studies showing associations are either not so consistent, with a number and/or
proportion of studies not supporting the association or else the number and type of study is not so
extensive enough to make definite judgement
Mechanistic and laboratory evidence are usually supportive or strongly supportive

Possible evidence:
Causal relationship may exist but evidence is not strong enough to generate recommendations
Epidemiological studies are generally supportive but are limited in quantity, quality or consistency.
There may or may not be supporting mechanistic and laboratory evidence.
Alternatively, there are few or no epidemiological data, but strongly supportive from other
disciplines

Insufficient evidence:
Suggestive evidence but too scanty or unbalanced to make judgement.
There are only a few studies., which are generally consistent but really do no more than hint at
a possible relationship
Often more well-designed research is needed

COMA review methodologies

The procedure was based on criteria developed by International Agency for Research in Cancer.The factors
guiding deliberations were:
• Type of epidemiological study
• Consistency of results between studies
• Quality of studies reviewed
• A general tendency for results to be in the same direction

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 • Size of relative risk
• A graded response
• Evidence of effect from randomised controlled trials
• Exposure preceding effect
• Evidence for plausible mechanism

A scoring system was developed to assess studies

• Separate scoring systems were used for case-control and cohort studies as it was felt
that results from cohort studies are a priori less prone to bias than case-control studies
• Scoring focussed on study design, method of assessing dietary exposure, analysis and, for
cohort studies, the definition of the cohort
• Scoring was intended to reflect amount and reliability of information on diet
and cancer risk.
• The repeatability of the scoring system was found to be robust
• On the basis of the score, studies were classified as low, intermediate or high.

As part of the process, the evidence was broken down into broad viz:

Epidemiology data
None / few / some /many
Insufficient
Inconsistent
Weakly consistent
Moderately consistent
Strongly consistent
Extent of evidence for mechanism
No / little / some / substantial
Evidence exists in animals / in vitro
Evidence that operates in humans exists
Strength of evidence for mechanism
The Working Group was convinced
Evidence is equivocal
Evidence is unconvincing
Evidence is lacking/no evidence
Overall evidence for link
Not enough evidence
Evidence is weak
Evidence is moderate
Evidence is strong

WHO: Diet, nutrition and the prevention of chronic disease report

WHO used an adaptation of the WCRF definitions modified to include results from controlled trials where
relevantand available

Convincing evidence:
Evidence based on epidemiological studies showing consistent associations between exposure and disease,
with little or no evidence to the contrary. The available evidence is based on a substantial number of studies
including prospective observational studies and, where relevant, randomised controlled trials of sufficient
size, duration and quality showing consistent effects. The association should be biologically plausible.

Possible evidence:
Evidence based on epidemiological studies showing fairly consistent associations between exposure and
disease, but where there are perceived shortcomings in available evidence or some evidence to the contrary,
which precludes a more definite judgement. Shortcomings in evidence may be any of the following:
insufficient duration of trials (or studies): insufficient trials (or studies) available; inadequate sample sizes;
incomplete follow-up. Laboratory evidence is usually supportive. Again, the association should be
biologically plausible.

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Possible evidence:
Evidence based mainly on findings from case-control and cross-sectional studies. Insufficient randomised
controlled trials, observational studies or non-randomised trials are available. Evidence based on non-
epidemiological studies such as clinical and laboratory investigations, is supportive. More trials are required
to support the tentative associations, which should also be biologically plausible.

Insufficient evidence:
Evidence based on findings of a few studies which are suggestive, but are insufficient to establish an
association between exposure and disease. Limited or no evidence is available from randomised control
trials. More well-designed research is required to support tentative associations.

4.2 Cancer and citrus (see refs 1-102 in appendix)

Cancer has received by far the most attention in the epidemiological literature in relation
to the potential effect of fruits. Six major reviews of the area have been undertaken in
recent years and our summary of the literature has been undertaken with reference to the
findings of these reviews with the addition of research undertaken since their publication..

The earlier reviews included one by Steinmetz and Potter in 1996 (1); a World Cancer
Research Fund/American Institute of Cancer Research review in 1997 (2); a review
undertaken by the working group on Diet and Cancer of the Committee on Medical
Aspects of the Food Supply (COMA) in the UK completed in 1998 (3); a reviews by
researchers from Wageningen University in Holland (4), updated by Klerk et al (5) and a
CSIRO review undertaken in 1999 (6) of the links between fruits and vegetables and
health for the Commonwealth Department of Health. In 2003, WHO also produced a
report reviewing the literature on chronic disease and prevention through diet (7)

Table 22 below shows a summary table of the results from case-control studies from the
review by Steinmetz and Potter which was included unchanged in the 1997 WCRF review
(committee chaired by Potter).

Table 22 An earlier summary of case-control cancer studies in relation to citrus fruit

consumption (Steinmetz & Potter, 1996)

Number of case-control studies % of total studies

Cancer site Inverse* No effect Positive** Inverse* No effect Positive**

Stomach 11 1 0 92 8 0
Colon 2 1 3 33 17 50
Rectal 4 1 0 80 20 0
Oesophagus 4 0 0 100 0 0
Oral cavity 4 1 0 80 20 0
Breast 1 0 2 33 0 67
Pancreas 1 2 0 33 67 0
Total cancer case- 27 6 5 71 16 13
control studies
* higher intakes are protective against cancer ** higher intakes are a risk for increased cancer.
Note: for this analysis the numbers for “inverse” and “positive” included data which was both statistically
significant and those which appeared to show a trend but where this was not statistically significant

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The studies were considered to show an “inverse” relationship if the relative risk was
below about 0.8 (ie 80% or less of the risk), for higher consumers vs lower even if not
statistically significant, or a “positive” relationship if the relative risk was above about 1.2
(ie 20% higher risk), in higher consumers versus lower. These differences were not,
however, necessarily statistically significantly .

As can be seen, at the time of the review, the most widely studied cancer in relation to
citrus fruits was stomach cancer with most studies indicating a significant or apparent
protective effect. For oesophageal, oral and rectal cancer there were only 4-5 studies most
showing an apparent benefit but for colon, breast and pancreas there were very limited
studies and the results were equivocal. The WCRF report concluded that there was
“convincing” evidence for citrus fruits as protective for stomach cancer and a “possible”
protective role in oral and oesophageal cancer. The COMA report from the UK did not
comment specifically on citrus fruit, neither did the very recent WHO report.

Some additional studies of various cancer sites have been undertaken since these earlier
reviews and the following sections detail all the studies we could find in the literature
until January 2002 for nutrients related to citrus fruits (vitamin C, vitamin A, carotenes,
fibre, folate and other phytochemicals) and until April 2003 for citrus fruits and juices
(including oranges, mandarins, lemons etc).
The recent WHO report using the same definition system as the WCRF but including
some intervention studies concluded that overweight and obesity were “convincing” risks
for cancer; that fruit and vegetables were “probably” protective for cancer in relation to
oral, oesophagus, stomach and colorectal cancer and that carotenoids, fibre, vitamin C,
folate and some phytochemicals were possibly protective but that there was insufficient
evidence.

Colorectal cancer (see refs 1-12 in appendix)

Just over 60 case-control studies and 12 cohort studies of fruit and vegetable consumption
and colorectal cancer were reviewed. The case-control studies often report relative risk
estimates below one in the higher consumption category of a wide variety of individual
fruits, ie high consumption was associated with lower risk of colorectal cancer. However,
these differences are often not statistically significant and the more robust cohort studies
often find no association.

The earlier WCRF and COMA reviews concluded that the data on fruit were limited and
inconsistent. Recent studies have not changed the picture. The WHO concluded that fruits
and vegetables were “probably” protective for this cancer. The number of colon cancer
studies which specifically assessed the role of citrus fruits (or specific citrus fruits) is very
limited. The details of these studies are given in the appendix on page 5.

We identified twelve studies that looked at citrus fruit, oranges of high

vitaminC/carotenoid fruits and colorectal cancer. Some of these reported separately for
colon and rectal cancer, others did not. Only one of the studies, from Switzerland showed
a significant protective effect for citrus fruit but an additional five studies showed a non-
significant trend to protection.

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One study showed citrus to be a risk factor for promoting colon cancer in men and in
another there was a trend to higher risk with orange consumption. Most studies, including
a cohort study from the Netherlands, showed no effect.

Stomach Cancer (see refs 13-21 in appendix)

Some 53 case-control studies and 12 cohort studies of fruit and vegetable consumption
and stomach cancer were assessed.. The WCRF Report had concluded that the evidence
for citrus fruits was particularly abundant and consistent for a protective effect while the
COMA Report concluded that there was moderately consistent evidence at that time that
higher intakes of fruit (including citrus) were associated with lower risk of gastric cancer.
The WHO concluded that fruits and vegetables were “probably” protective for this cancer

We found 20 studies related specifically to citrus fruit intake and stomach cancer and
these are detailed in the appendix. Three studies showed no effect with citrus or oranges.
One showed no effect for cardia gastric cancer but protection for non-cardia gastric
cancer. Most studies show a protective effect (markedly lower relative risk -RR or Odds
Ratio - OR) although this is not always statistically significant. Details of the studies are
in the appendix on page 7.

Lung cancer (see refs 32 – 39 in appendix)

Despite the dominant role of a specific preventible behaviour, viz tobacco smoking, in the
aetiology of lung cancer, there has been considerable interest in whether fruit and
vegetables can at least partially mitigate against the dangers of smoking. As smoking is
such a dominant factor this is taken account of in selecting subjects and/or in the analysis.

Summary findings from 25 case-control studies and 12 cohort studies relating to fruit and
vegetable consumption were assessed and the relevant studies are detailed in the
appendix. Most of the cohort studies identified one or more fruit and/or vegetable items
that were associated with decreased risks after adjustment for smoking status, with a
number of risk estimates for the high consumption category in the range 0.3 to 0.6. The
findings from case-control studies report decreased risks for a variety of fruit and
vegetables.

Intervention trials designed to test whether beta-carotene is the active component of

vegetables responsible for a reduced risk of lung cancer have either found no effect or
increased risk.

The WCRF Report concluded that the evidence was almost entirely consistent with a
protective effect of vegetables and fruit against lung cancer and that the evidence was
convincing. The COMA report felt that there was a stronger case for fruits rather than
vegetables stating that there was moderately consistent evidence that higher consumption
of fruit was associated with a lower risk of lung cancer.

Our review showed that there were 11 studies which reported on citrus consumption
specifically. Three case-control studies showed no effect of citrus, one case-control study

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of oranges showed a lower risk but this was not significant and one showed an apparent
increase in risk with citrus but this, again, was not significant. One case-control study of
oranges showed a significant protection.

One cohort study showed protection of citrus in men but not women, one showed an
apparent protection of citrus but it was not statistically significant; one showed no effect
of citrus but another cohort showed protection from all fruits measured. One Japanese
cohort study showed that oranges decreased lung cancer deaths. Some of these studies
also showed a significant protective effect for other or total fruit, carotene, cryptoxanthin
and vitamin C. The details of these studies are in the appendix on page 9.

Breast Cancer (see refs 40-47 in appendix)

A total of just under 41 case-control studies and 8 cohort studies of fruits and vegetables
and breast cancer were assessed. One male breast cancer case-control study was also
included. Studies of the dietary determinants of breast cancer risk have been very closely
scrutinised in recent years. The results obtained from case-control studies for fruit and
vegetables in general are not consistent with those obtained from the prospective studies.

The WCRF/AICR Report which relied heavily on case-control studies concluded that
almost all of the data from epidemiological studies of fruits and vegetables at that time
showed either decreased risk with higher intakes of fruits and vegetables or no
relationship and that diets high in vegetables and, to a lesser extent, fruit probably
decrease the risk of breast cancer.

The British COMA Report concluded that the evidence from case-control studies was
weakly consistent that higher intakes of fruits were associated with a lower risk of breast
cancer and noted that, at that time, there were few cohort studies available. They
concluded that such evidence as there was, was weakly consistent that higher intakes of
fruits were associated with a lower risk of breast cancer.

Our review of the case control and cohort studies now available indicates that there are 7
case-control studies that specifically looked at citrus fruits plus one of male breast cancer.
There was also one case-control study which looked at benign breast disease. There was
one cross-sectional tumour growth study and eight large breast cancer cohort studies
which were assessed in one meta-analysis for effects of citrus.

Of the female case-control studies, one showed significant protection; five showed no
effect of citrus and one showed a strong tendency to increased risk for both citrus and
high beta-carotene fruits although these associations were non-significant. In one of these
studies whilst individual fruits showed no effect frequent consumption vs rare
consumption of total fruits increased risk. The study of benign breast disease showed a
protective effect of citrus. The one male study showed a significantly increased risk with
citrus fruit.

The meta-analysis of eight major cohorts showed no effect of citrus.

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Two case-control studies showed a protective role for beta-carotene, one did not. The
cross-sectional study of tumour growth and differentiation showed no effect or orange-
yellow fruits. Details of the studies are in the appendix on page 10.

Prostate cancer (see refs 48-53 in appendix)

About 20 case-control studies and 5 cohort studies of fruit and vegetable intake were
assessed. It is immediately apparent that the results from case-control studies for fruit and
vegetables in general are remarkably discrepant.

The summary statement from the WCRF Report is conservative stating that the pattern of
association that emerges is not clear. They conclude that most studies found no
association or even increased risk with some fruit categories. The COMA Report
concluded that the evidence for an association between consumption of fruit and risk of
prostate cancer was inconsistent.

We found three case-control and three cohort studies that reported on citrus fruit. One
case-control study showed an apparent but non-significant increased risk with citrus, one
showed a significant increased risk with citrus and the third showed no effect.

One cohort study from Holland also showed a significantly increased risk with citrus, one
US Seventh Day Adventist study showed significant protection and the third in Health
Professionals in the USA showed no effect of orange consumption. Details of the studies
are in the appendix on page 11.

Bladder cancer (see refs 54 and 55 in appendix)

It is generally agreed that smoking and exposures to chemicals required in occupational

settings are major risk factors for this disease.

The WCRF Report concluded that almost all studies of fruits and vegetables reported
either a decreased risk or no relationship with higher consumption for a variety of fruit
categories and the COMA report concluded that the limited evidence available at that time
was moderately consistent that consumption of fruit was inversely associated with risk of
bladder cancer.

We assessed about 15 case-control studies that reported on fruits and vegetables. Several
reported decreased risks in ‘high’ consumers of fruit and vegetables, with fruits and
vegetables assuming equal importance in some studies and inconsistently opposite
importance in others. None specifically addressed citrus fruits.

We found three US-based cohort studies of bladder cancer reporting on citrus; in one
study, citrus had no effect but “fruit juice” was significantly protective; in the other, two
no effect was seen for citrus.

One cohort study found an essentially null association with flavonoid intake and one
reported decreased risk in high fruit eaters. The details of these studies are given in the
appendix on page 12.

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Oesophageal cancer (see refs 56-69 in appendix)

Tobacco and alcohol are well established risk factors for oesophageal cancer so many
studies taker account of this in choosing subjects or in controlling for these factors in the
analysis. A total of just under 30 case-control studies of the association of fruit and
vegetable intakes with the risk of oesophageal cancer were assessed. It is apparent that a
substantial proportion of these found decreased risks associated with increased intakes.

The WCRF Report states that the evidence that diets high in vegetables and fruits
decrease the risk of oesophageal cancer is convincing but the COMA Report concluded
that overall there was not enough evidence to conclude that consumption of fruits and
vegetables influences risk of oesophageal cancer in western countries. The WHO
concluded that fruits and vegetables were “probably” protective for this cancer

We found 14 case-control studies that assessed citrus fruits and no cohort studies. Nine
studies showed a statistically significant protective effect for citrus as a group (one in
“never” smokers), another one specifically for oranges in men and one for dried lemon
and oranges. Three studies showed no effect.

Vitamin C was found to be protective in four studies but not protective in two studies,
carotene was significantly protective in three studies but in one of these for men only
(women no effect). It was not significantly protective in three other studies. Details of
these studies are given in the appendix on page 13.

Oro-pharyngeal cancers, laryngeal, naso-pharyngeal ( mouth and pharynx, larynx)

(see refs 70-82 in appendix)

Cancers of the mouth and pharynx are usually studied together as a group. However
cancers of the larynx and/or oesophagus are sometimes included in the same studies.
Naso-pharyngeal is also sometimes included in this category. We assessed some 29 case-
control studies and 2 cohort studies which looked at fruits and vegetables and these
categories of cancer. Two cohort studies included other sites and observed only 130 cases,
which complicates interpretation of their results. As for cancers of the oesophagus,
tobacco and alcohol are well established risk factors.

The WCRF report concluded that the evidence that diets high in vegetables and fruits
decrease the risk of cancers of the mouth and pharynx was convincing, However, the
COMA report was much more conservative concluding that the evidence from case-
control studies was only weakly consistent that high fruit consumption was associated
with reduced risk of oropharyngeal cancer, The cohort studies were not published at that
time. The WHO concluded that fruits and vegetables were “probably” protective for oral
cancer.

We found 16 case control studies and one small cohort that assessed citrus consumption.
Of these, citrus was significantly protective in eight case controls for oro-pharyngeal and
one for naso-pharyngeal cancer; oranges were in a cohort for upper aero-gastric cancer.
Oranges and mandarins or tangerines were also protective in two studies in China. In a
further three studies, citrus or oranges appeared protective but the effect was not
statistically significant. Carotene and vitamin C were protective in some studies but not in

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others. One case-control of laryngeal cancer showed protection by oranges and one nasal
cancer study showed protection from oranges and tangerines. Details of the studies can be
found in the appendix on page 16.

Pancreatic Cancer ( see refs 83-87 in appendix)

Twenty case-control studies and five cohort studies of fruits and vegetables and pancreatic
cancer were assessed. The two methodologies do not yield consistent findings. The
Seventh Day Adventist Study (ref 87 in appendix) was the only cohort study to find
significant reduction of risk associated with any food items but almost all the case-control
studies identified some fruit or vegetable items with significantly reduced risks associated
with high intakes.

The WCRF report concluded that there was substantial evidence that diets high in
vegetables and fruits “probably decreased the risk of pancreatic cancer” but the COMA
report stated that overall they felt that the data was too limited to make a final conclusion.

We found 4 case-controls and 1 cohort study that reported data on citrus. Of these, one
case control study showed statistically significant protection in men and a non-significant
trend in women, and one other case-control showed a non-significant trend to protection.
Two case-control studies and the cohort study showed no effect of citrus. Details of the
studies can be found in the appendix on page 18.

Female reproductive tract cancers (cervical, endometrial, vulvar, ovarian)

(see refs 88-92 in appendix)

10 case-control studies of cervical cancer (and 2 for pre-malignant conditions), 13 for

endometrial cancer, I for vulvar and 4 for ovarian cancer which related fruits and
vegetables to cancer risk were assessed. A single prospective study of ovarian cancer in
the US was also identified.

The WCRF review concluded that overall the evidence on vegetables and fruit and the
risk of cervical cancer is generally consistent and that diets high in certain vegetables and
fruit possibly decrease the risk of cervix cancer and its precursor lesions. The COMA
Report considered that the data were reasonably consistent but felt that they were too
limited to draw firm conclusions.

Most of the 13 endometrial cancer studies identified some fruit and vegetable items for
which high consumers had reduced risks. The WCRF concluded that diets high in
vegetables and fruit possibly decrease the risk of endometrial cancer but the COMA
report concluded there was insufficient data. For ovarian cancer it is generally agreed that
there are too few studies of fruit and vegetable consumption to draw any conclusions.

For citrus we could find no studies that looked at cervical cancer. For ovarian cancer, one
cohort study from the US study showed no effect of citrus. For vulvar cancer we found
one case-control study which showed no effect of citrus fruit or juice and for endometrial
4 case control studies. In one, oranges were protective as well as lutein; in another there
was a trend for citrus to be protective but it was not statistically significant and in the last

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two studies, citrus showed no association. Details of the studies can be found in the
appendix on page 19.

Other cancers (see refs 93-102 in appendix)

There were a number of other papers in the literature relating to cancers and fruits. In
relation to citrus fruits and juices, for renal cancer, there were three case-control studies
one of which showed a statistically significant protective effect (the others did not).
Another case-control study showed that citrus was strongly protective against genetic
mutations that increased risk of kidney cancer.

There were also a number of case-control studies including:

• one of testicular cancer, which included assessment of oranges, showing no effect;
• two of thyroid cancer one of which showed a protective effect of citrus, the other
which did not;
• one of mesothelioma showing no effect of orange juice;
• one of squamous cell skin cancer showing no effect of citrus but a significant
effect of citrus peel
• one of urothelial cancer showing mandarins to be protective and
• one of salivary gland cancer showing a non-significant trend to protection for
oranges/mandarins.
• one of gallbladder showing a protective effect of citrus

Details of the studies can be found in the appendix on page 20.

The role of overweight and obesity in relation to cancer

As mentioned earlier in this report, overweight and obesity are major emerging health
issues in most western countries. Energy density of foods (the amount of energy per unit
weight) is therefore of considerable interest in terms of overall dietary energy density.
Fruits and vegetables, including citrus are high fibre, low energy density foods with a
relatively low glycaemic index. The WHO report concluded that there was convincing
evidence that high intake of dietary fibre was protective against obesity and overweight
whereas a high intake of energy-dense, micronutrient poor foods were a risk. They also
concluded that low glycaemic index foods were probably protective. Obesity in itself was
deemed to be a convincing risk factor for cancers of the oesophagus, colorectum, breast
(in postmenopausal women), endometrium and kidney. There have been no specific
studies of citrus and over weight

Summary of cancer and citrus

The tables overleaf show an overall summary of the effects of citrus fruits and juices on
cancer risk at various sites and summary details of studies In total, there were 48 studies
showing a statistically significant protective effect against cancer of citrus foods with an
additional 21 studies showing a non-significant trend to protection.

Forty one studies showed absolutely no effect (or 57) if non-significant trend studies are
added to this total) and 4 showed that citrus or citrus foods significantly increased cancer
risk, with another three showing a similar but non-significant trend.

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The greatest protection for increased citrus consumption appears to be for oesophageal,
oro-phayngeal/laryngeal (mouth, larynx and pharynx) and stomach cancer. For these
cancers, those studies showing a protective effect of citrus fruits showed risk reductions of
40-50% These cancers were responsible for about 2,500 deaths in Australia in 2001; 7%
of all cancer deaths that year.

Table 23 Summary of the effects of citrus fruits on cancers in studies to March ’03

Cancer * Inverse Null Positive

(reduced risk) (no effect) (increased risk)
Bladder 0 2 0

Breast 2 2 0
(+ 1 for benign breast disease) (including a 1 in males
meta-analysis of (1)
8 cohorts)
Colorectal 1 13 1 (men)
(5) (1)
Endometrial 1 3 0
(1)
Gallbladder 1 0 0
Kidney 1 2 0
(+ 1 protective from genetic
mutation that increases risk)
Lung 4 8 0
(2) (1)
Mesothelioma 0 1 0
Oesophageal 10 3 0
(1)
Oro-pharyneal/ 12 4 0
laryngeal (4)
Ovarian 0 1 0
Pancreatic 1 4 0
(1)
Prostate 1 1 2
(1)
Salivary (1) 0 0
Squamous skin 1 1 0
(citrus peel)
Stomach 11 9 0
(6)
Testicular 0 1 0
Thyroid 1 1 0
Urothelial 1 0 0
Vulva 0 1 0

TOTAL 48 # 57 4
(+21 ) (+4)
# excludes benign breast and genetic mutation studies
Figures show studies where statistically significant differences were found (data in brackets shows number
of additional studies from “null” category, showing trends that were non-significant)
Some individual studies reported on more than one cancer separately in the same paper (eg colon and rectal)
or found different results by gender ( eg effect in women not in men) and may be represented more than
once in this summary table

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Table. 24 Summary of some cancer studies showing trends to protection or positive
effect of citrus and related nutrients on cancer

Condition Evidence Ref

Colon Cancer Milan, Italy: hospital case-control with history in first-degree relatives; 112 cases. Trend with citrus, but 3
not significant Significant trend with Vitamin C & betacarotene
Milan, Italy: hospital case-control. Colorectal cancer 575 cases (330 colon, N=236 rectal) 5
Risk appears lower with citrus for both colon and rectal but non-significant
California, USA: case-control; 488 adenomatous polyps 9
High Carotenoid and High vit C fruit appear protective but significance not reported
USA: cohort (Cancer Prevention Study II) colon cancer 1150 cases 10
Citrus appears protective (limited statistical analysis)
Swiss study; case-control; 223 patients, 491 hospital-based controls Citrus appears protective 11
Gastric Cancer Italy: population case-control. Gastric cancer cases 1016. Significant protection citrus 14
Marseille, France: hospital case-control. 92 gastric adenocarcinoma Lower relative risk with citrus 15
but not significant
Louisiana, USA: hospital case-control; 391 Primary stomach cancer cases 16
Lower relative risk with oranges, fruit juice, fruits, vitamin C & carotenoids but ns
Ankara, Turkey: hospital case-control. 100 Stomach adenocarcinoma cases 17
Lower relative risk but no statistics
Sweden: population case-control ; 338 gastric cancer cases Citrus and fruit juice significant 19
protection
New York, USA: hospital case-control; 134 Gastric adenocarcinoma case Lower odds ratio (RR) for 20
citrus and many other related nutrients but ns
Kyushu, Japan: hospital and community case-control; 139 Gastric cancer cases Significant protection
for mandarins with hospital controls; trend with population controls but ns 21
Milan, Italy: hospital case-control; 206 gastric cancer cases Citrus significantly protective also vit C 22
and betacarotene and total fresh fruit
Milan, Italy: hospital case-control of family history of gastric cancer; 88 Gastric cancer cases Fruit, 23
citrus, betacarotene and vitamin C significantly protective
Barcelona, Spain: population case-control; 117 Gastric adenocarcinoma cases Citrus significantly 24
protective
Canada: population case-control; 246 Gastric cancer cases 25
Odds ratio (RR) much lower for citrus, vit C, betacarotene and carotenes but ns
Piraeus, Greece: hospital case-control; 110 Gastric cancer cases Oranges and lemons significant 26
protection
Sweden case-control . Population based; 567 cases 1165 controls 28
Citrus protective for noncardia cancer not for cardis
Uraguay case-control; 160 cases 320 hospital controls. Significant protection from citrus 29
United States. Prospective cohort of I million, 14yr follow up; 439 stomach cancers in women and 910 in 30
men With vegetables and wholegrain significant protection in men
Netherlands: Cohort study (Netherlands Cohort Study) 310 Stomach cancer cases Significant 31
protective effect citrus
Korea Case-control with 136 patients; 136 hospital controls Intake of citrus showed protective 31a
trend but ns
Florida, USA: population case-control of never smokers Lung cancer (ICD-O: 162.2-162.9) 124 female 33
Lung Cancer cases Citrus no effect. Fruit, Carotene, cryptoxanthin, vitamin C significantly protective
Yunnan, China: population case-control. Lung cancer cases 428 Risk down with oranges but ns 35
California, USA: cohort study (Adventist Health Study 1977-1982 ; primary lung cancers (ICD-O: 162) 36
61 incident cases Risk down with citrus but ns. Sig protection for total fruit
United States cohort ; Nurses & Health professionals studies 37
77 283 women; 47 778 men. Significantly lower risk in women with high citrus not men
Oahu, Hawaii, USA: population case-control, survival analysis primary lung cancer cases - 675 39
Oranges significant protection in men & women. Vit C & all fruit protective in women
Japan Cohort of 42940 males 55308 females. 446 cases males; 126 females Oranges decreased risk 39a
of lung cancer

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Condition Evidence Ref
Oesophageal South Carolina, USA: hospital case-control (two components: incidence series and mortality series) 56
cancer Incidence: N=74 Mortality: N=133 Citrus significantly reduces risk Fruits and vitamin C reduce risk
Hong Kong: hospital/general practice case-control 400 cases of whom 68 were never smokers, 53 58
never drinkers out of 400 cases Significant protection of citrus in never smokers, no protection in
never drinkers
Hong Kong: hospital/general practice case-control 85% squamous cell carcinoma, 11% 59
adenocarcinoma, 4% other) 400 cases total Significant protection by citrus
Northern Iran: population case-control 344 oesophageal cancer (54%), N=181 other cancers (37%) 60
Significant protection by citrus and dried lemons (in men)
Shanghai, China: population case-control Oesophageal cancer cases 902 Oranges, carotene and 61
vitamin C statistically protective in men – association weaker in women
Various centres in France: hospital case control Oesophageal cancer (squamous cell carcinoma) 208 62
males Citrus, vitamin C and carotene significantly protective
Calvados, France: population case-control Oesophageal cancer 63
Cases 743 Citrus fruit, vitamin C and carotene significantly protective
Switzerand; case-control 101 cases 327 controls Citrus protective 65
Sweden; case-control; 608 cases, 815 population controls Citrus & juice with apple & pear trend to 66
protection but ns
Italy; case-control; 304 cases. 743 controls Citrus protective 67
USA Nebraska; whites; population based controls; case-control; 124 subjects 449 controls Citrus fruit 68
and juices significantly protective
Oro-Pharyngeal, Oropharyngeal North east Italy: hospital case-control ; oral cavity and pharynx (not naso-pharynx) 70
naso & laryngeal N=302 Citrus significantly protective as were apples and total fruit
Cancer Brazil: hospital case-control; oral cancer: tongue, gum, floor of mouth, other pats of oral cavity 71
(excluding lip or salivary gland cancers) 232 cases Citrus looks protective but no statistics given
Vaud, Switzerland: hospital case-control; oral cavity and pharynx (excluding lip, salivary gland, and 72
nasopharynx) 156 cases Citrus significantly protective as was other fruit and fruit diversity
USA: population-based case-control; oral and pharyngel cancers; 871 cases Citrus was significantly 73
protective in men and women as were dark yellow fruits (in men) and other fruits
Beijing, China: hospital case-control Oral cancer cases, 404. Apparent effect of oranges , vitamin c, 74
fruit carotene & fruit fibre but not significant. No effect orange juice or fruit juice
Multi-centre, USA: population case-control oral and pharyngeal cancers: tongue, pharynx and other oral 75
cancers (excluding lip, salivary gland or nasopharynx)190 cases Citrus appeared to be protective but
this was not significant. Fruits, other fruits, carotene and vitamin C were statistically protective
in men but not ion women
Shanghai, China: population case-control Oral and pharyngeal cancer - 204 cases Citrus was 76
statistically protective in both men and women No effect seem for vit C or carotene
Italy; case-control; 132 cases ; controls 148 hospital-based; oro-pharyngeal; Trend to protection but 77
ns
Cuba; case-control; 200 cases; Oropharyngeal; hospital controls Trend to protection but ns 78
Uraguay; laryngeal cancer case-control; 148 cases 444 hospital controls Oranges protective 79

China; naso-pharyngeal case-control; 935 patients. 1032 community controls Significant protection of 80
oranges /mandarins
Shanghai, China: population case-control ; nasal cavity, paranasal sinuses and the middle ear 60 cases 81
Oranges and tangerines protective
Norway: cohort study; upper aerogastric tract cancers: mouth – (excluding salivary glands), tongue, 82
pharynx (excluding epipharynx), larynx and oesophagus ; cases =71 Orange consumption was
statistically protective in this cohort study for all sites (numbers of cases very small)
Italy & Switzerland 527 cases 1297 clinical controls Citrus fruit reduces risk of laryngeal cancer 82a
Poland oral & pharyngeal cancer; 122 cases aged 28-80 yrs; 124 controls Citrus reduces risk of oro- 82b
pharyngeal cancer
India 591 cases oral; 582 hospital controls Citrus reduces risk oral cancer 82c
Spain 375 patients 375 hospital controls Citrus significantly lowered risk; fruit juice did not 82d

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Condition Evidence Ref
Breast cancer Italy: Multi-centre hospital case-control Breast cancer cases 2569 No effect of citrus Beta-carotene 40
protective
La Plata, Argentina: hospital and population case-control 41
Breast cancer 150 cases. Citrus and other fruit significantly protective. Vitamin C looks protective
but ns
Italy & Switzerland: hospital case-control Breast cancercases 107 Citrus no effect Beta-carotene 42
protective
Mexico Benign breast disease; 121 subjects and 121 clinical controls Citrus fruit significantly reduced 47a
benign breast disease risk
China – Shanghai 1459 cases; 1556 controls Citrus reduces breast cancer risk 47b

California, USA: Cohort (California Seventh Day Adventist study) Prostate cancer cases 180 Significant 50
decreased risk with citrus and dried fruit
Pancreatic The Netherlands: population case-control Pancreatic cancer 164 cases Citrus not significantly 83
cancer protective
Washington, USA: population case-control of married men Pancreatic cancer cases 148 No effect c itrus 84
or vit C
Shanghai, China: population case-control Pancreatic cancer cases=451 Citrus statistically protective (in 85
men) as was vit C (in men) and carotene (both men and women). Citrus trend in women but ns
Sweden: population and hospital case-control pancreatic cancer cases =99 Citrus and fruit juices looked 86
protective; no statistics given
California, USA: Cohort study (California Seventh-Day Adventists Study) Pancreatic cancercvases =40 87
Citrus not protective
Endometrial Oahu, Hawaii, USA: population case-control Endometrial cancer cases =322 Oranges statistically 88
cancer protective as well as lutein; trend for betacarotene but ns
Switzerland & Italy: hospital case-control Endometrial cancer cvases =274 Citrus no effect 89
Betacarotene protective
Shanghai, China: population case-control Endometrial cancer cases=268 Trend for citrus but ns 90
USA: multi-centre population case-control Endometrial cancer cases =399 No effect citrus 91
Vulvar cancer Chicago, New York, USA: population case-control Vulvar cancer cases=201 No effect citrus or 92
fruit/juices
Ovarian cancer USA Nurses Health Study cohort 80 326 301 cases in 16 yr follow up No effect of citrus on ovarian 92a
cancer risk
Kidney cancer Sweden: population case-control Renal cell cancer cases=379 No effect citrus 93
Multi-centre : population case-control Renal cell cancer cases 1185 No effect citrus 94
Los Angeles, USA: population case-control Renal cell cancer cases=1204 Citrus statistically 95
protective as was carotenes and crytoxanthin and lutein
Sweden case control 102 patients Citrus protects against gene mutation that is a risk for kidney 95a
cancer
Testicular East Anglia, UK: population and cancer case-control Testicular cancer cases =129 Oranges not 96
cancer protective
Thyroid cancer Italy and Switzerland: hospital case-control Thyroid cancer cases =385 Citrus statistically protective 97

Sweden and Norway: population case-control Thyroid cancer cases =221 No effect citrus 98

Mesothelioma New York, USA: hospital case-control Malignant mesothelioma cases =94 No effect orange juice 99

Skin Squamous USA; case-control; Southwestern population – Arizona 34.7% use citrus peel No effect citrus; 100a, b
cell significant effect citrus peel

Urothelial Netherlands cohort; 120 852 55-69yrs; 6.3 yr follow up; 569 cases, Mandarins protective significantly 101
Salivary gland Shanghai, China: population case-control Salivary gland cancer cases =41 Oranges/tangerine appear 102
cancer protective – no statistics

Gallbladder India 64 cases cancer Reduction in gallbladder cancer risk with oranges 102a

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4.3 Citrus–related nutrients and cancer risk (vitamin C, vitamin A, carotenes,
fibre, folate and other phytochemicals ).

Much of the original interest in fruits and vegetables and their potential role in cancer
arose from experimental observations in animal models of the effects of a number of
nutrients or non-nutritive substances on cancer risk.

Vitamin C intake and some carotenes appear to be protective for a number of cancer
sites but the evidence is limited despite a large number of studies.

The earlier WCRF report concluded that vitamin C was probably protective for
stomach cancer and possibly for mouth and pharynx, oesophagus, lung, pancreas and
cervix. For carotenoids they felt the evidence showed that they were probably
protective for lung and possibly protective for oesophagus, stomach, colorectal, breast
and cervix. For fibre/non-starch polysaccharides they felt that there was evidence of a
possible preventive role in pancreatic cancer, breast and colorectal

In contrast, the COMA report concluded that overall there was not enough evidence
that A, C and E or beta-carotene protected against the development of various
cancers. They stated that higher intakes of these components had been variously
associated with lower risk of breast, colorectal, lung, gastric and cervical cancer in
case-control and cohort studies but that most intervention trials with supplements of
these vitamins had failed to confirm a protective effect. Whilst this may be due to
methodological problems with timing of supplementation they also felt that the
observational findings might relate to intake of other substances for which these
antioxidant vitamins were dietary markers (ie substances like the polyphenols).

For dietary fibre/non-starch polysaccharides, the COMA panel felt that overall there
was not enough evidence to draw conclusions about their relationship to breast
cancer, but moderate evidence for reducing risk of colorectal cancer, They concluded
there was insufficient evidence to draw conclusions for other except pancreatic where
there was moderately consistent evidence that higher intakes would lower risks
cancers.

Recent studies have added to the body of evidence but it is still not extensive or
conclusive. There was very little data at the time for folate or individual carotenes
other than beta-carotene. The WHO report said there was “possible or insufficient”
evidence for a protective effect of fibre, carotenoids, folate, vitamin C or other
phytochemicals against cancer..

Some of the data for these nutrients and non-nutrients has been shown above in the
summary tables where they accompanied studies on citrus fruit but there are a number
of additional studies which did not look at citrus fruits as well and these are detailed
in the appendix.
• For vitamin C and cancer, see appendix refs 103-228 and pages 22-35 for study details
• For carotenes and vitamin A and cancer, see appendix refs 229-379 and pages 36-52 for
study details
• For fibre and cancer, see appendix refs 380-401 and pages 53-55 for study details
• For folate and cancer, see appendix refs 402-413 and page 56 for study details
• For phytochemicals see appendix refs 414-424 and page 57 and 58 for study details
• For vitamin E see appendix refs 425-428 and page 59 for study details

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4.4. Cardiac and vascular diseases (see refs 461-511 in the appendix)

The potential for antioxidants, specifically beta-carotene, vitamin C (and to a lesser

extent vitamin E), to prevent atherosclerotic lesions and hence ischaemic heart disease
has so dominated the epidemiologic research, that the health benefits of high intakes
of fruit and vegetables are often inferred from studies which only measured the serum
concentrations of these micronutrients.

Since vitamins C, E and beta-carotene are found in negligible quantities in foods of

animal origin, the use of serum levels as a marker for fruit and vegetable intake would
appear to be entirely reasonable – but there are difficulties. Firstly serum levels are
not always linearly related to dietary intakes, and secondly smokers generally exhibit
lower levels of these micronutrients, and it is not clearly understood whether this is a
direct effect of smoking, or arises because smokers are less concerned about their
personal nutrition.

Recognition of the antioxidant properties of other dietary components, especially

flavonoids occurred sufficiently recently that flavonoid intake has not been
specifically addressed in most studies available to this time. There have been two
recent major reviews of fruit and vegetables in relation to cardiovascular disease -
Ness and Powles reporting in 1997 (8) and the Wageningen group (4,5) and the recent
WHO report (7) also assessed dietary risk in relation to cardiovascular diseases.

Coronary heart disease (CHD) and acute myocardial infarction

12 case-control studies and 31 cohort study reports were assessed. Only 3 of the case-
control studies reported results in terms of individual foods. A Dutch study (ref 464 in
appendix) observed a significant decrease in risk of AMI in high onion consumers but
little effect with other fruits and vegetables; an Italian study (465) recorded
significantly reduced risks with green vegetables, fruit and carrots, but an Indian study
(470) saw no differences for total fruit and vegetable intake (g/day) or fibre from fruit
and vegetables.

The studies which measured beta-carotene intake or tissue levels reported relative
risks in as low as 0.4 to 0.5 for ‘high’ vs ‘low’ consumers, in several instances,
although there was minimal associations in two Scottish studies looking at CHD and
angina respectively ( 463, 469).

High vitamin C was associated with lower risk of coronary artery disease (CAD) in
India (377) but not in a case-control study in Greece (285). The Scottish Heart Health
Study reported a non-significant increase in risk in men and a no effect in women
(463). In the other Scottish studies (469) there was a slight non-significant decrease in
risk of angina.

Inconsistent findings were reported from the impressive number of cohort studies
which have examined the association between dietary factors and CHD or IHD
(ischaemic heart disease). Most studies again relate to nutrients but a few have
examined fruits and vegetable categories (none specifically citrus).

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In a British cohort of 14000 men and 1900 women frequent consumption of fresh fruit
was significantly protective of cardiovascular disease in women (OR 0.84: p<.004)
but not in men. They did not assess individual fruits. In the large Harvard US cohorts
of male doctors (Health Professionals study) and female nurses (Nurses study),
vitamin C-rich fruits and vegetables were found to be protective RR with
1serving/day increase 0.94(CI 0.88-0.99), but again no citrus specific data was
reported (489).

No reduction in risk was associated with high vitamin C intakes in the Iowa Women’s
Health Study (488), or in a UK study (513) but significant reductions were reported in
the US Nurses Health Study (491), India (509), NHANES I (228) and in Finland (494),
and non-significant decreases were observed in Chicago (227), the Caerphilly Study in
South Wales,(477), and Switzerland (481).

For carotenoids no associations were found with heart disease risk in Finnish men
(486) or Iowa women (488); non-significant reductions were observed in Chicago (227)
and Finnish women (494); but significant reductions were reported from
Massachusetts, US (479), the Lipid Research Clinics Coronary Primary prevention
Trial (492), the Health Professional Follow-up Study (497), Switzerland (540) and the
Netherlands (485) and Madison US (498).

No associations with bioflavonoid intakes were found in the Health Professionals

follow-up Study in the US (496), but significant risk reductions were found in the
Zutphen study in Holland (483).

A secondary prevention trial in Lyon (511) reported significantly reduced mortality

from AMI following an intervention to increase inter alia fruit and vegetable
consumption to mimic a more Mediterranean diet, although the numbers of deaths
observed were rather small.

Experimental studies in humans have shown benefits to lipid peroxidation with both
vitamin C and betacarotene, some studies using orange juice or carrot juice as the
medium. Improved lipid peroxidation may be related to lower cardiovascular risk.

Ness and Powles (8) made no attempt to arrive at summary measures of the
associations between fruit and vegetable consumption and cardiovascular risk as the
studies varied so much in type, quality and exposure measures assessed. Nevertheless,
they concluded that fruits and vegetables were weakly protective. Studies concluded
since their review also show this trend. Details of the relevant studies can be found in
the appendix on page 64.

The WHO report concluded that there was convincing evidence of reduced risk with
increased vegetables and fruit (including berries) consumption and with potassium
intake. They also concluded that non-starch polysaccharides were probably protective
as well as folate and that flavonoids were possibly protective. There was insufficient
evidence for vitamin C.

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Stroke (see refs appendix 536-554)

Only a limited number of studies have been conducted on dietary associations with
the risk of cerebrovascular disease. In their review of the area in 1997 Ness and
Powles (8), had concluded that fruit and vegetables were strongly protective, but gave
no quantitative estimate.

With the exception of a cohort study in Shanghai (545) which found no association
with serum levels of vitamin C or beta-carotene, there is reasonable consistency
across the 14 studies summarised in the Appendix in terms of a reduced risk of stroke
for various measures, direct or indirect (ie serum micronutrient levels) of high fruit or
vegetable intake.

One large cohort study reported in 1999 by Joshipura et al in 75 596 women and 38
683 (554) men showed that persons in the highest quintile of fruit and vegetable intake
had a relative risk of 0.69 compared to those in the lowest quintile. It also showed that
high citrus fruit consumption (including juice) gave a statistically significant relative
risk of 0.81 compared to low consumers with citrus fruit juice alone showing a
significant protection ( relative risk of 0.75), the effect being stronger in women.

The only other study which specifically mentioned citrus fruit was a smaller cohort
study of 500 Dutch men by Keli et al reported in 1996 (542). This study showed a
trend to lower risk with citrus consumption but this was not significant. This latter
study did show a highly significant effect of dietary flavonoids.

Details of the relevant studies can be found in the appendix on page 73.

Hypertension (see appendix refs 522-533)

Fruits have been promoted as possibly protective for hypertension in part because of
their high potassium to sodium ratio and a health claim is permitted in the US relating
potassium to protection from blood pressure Beneficial effects have been shown in
some experimental human studies but fruit has been part of an overall diet change
(high fruit and vegetable diet vs “average” US diet as in the DASH study). Several
studies have examined the association between surrogate markers of fruit and
vegetable consumption, (viz, plasma and serum levels of vitamin C and beta-carotene
and hypertension) - and most have found an inverse relationship (see Appendix).

Some studies of vegetarian communities have shown reduced risk of hypertension

but the mechanism of reduced risk is unclear. No studies have looked at citrus fruits
per se.

Details of the relevant studies can be found in the appendix on page 71.

The role of overweight and obesity

As mentioned earlier in this report, overweight and obesity are major emerging health
issues in most western countries. Energy density of foods (the amount of energy per
unit weight) is therefore of considerable interest in terms of overall dietary energy

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density. Fruits and vegetables, including citrus are high fibre, low energy density
foods with a relatively low glycaemic index. The WHO report concluded that there
was convincing evidence that high intake of dietary fibre was protective against
obesity and overweight whereas a high intake of energy-dense, micronutrient poor
foods were a risk. They also concluded that low glycaemic index foods were probably
protective. Obesity in itself was deemed to be a convincing risk factor for
cardiovascular disease and for type 2 diabetes itself a risk factor for heart disease.
There have been no specific studies of citrus and over weight.

Table 25 Studies where there were positive findings linking citrus, citrus
juice or related nutrients to cardiovascular and circulatory
diseases
Condition Evidence Refs in appendix
Coronary Heart • High vit C related to lower coronary artery disease in Indian study 377
Disease • Vit C rich fruits & veg protective in US health professionals study. 1
serving a day lowers risk 6% 489
• Lowered risk with high vit C in US Nurses study, India, NHANES I,
491,509, 228,494
Finland
• Carotenoids give sig reduction in four US studies, one Swiss and one 479, 492, 497, 498,
Dutch 540, 485
• Bioflavonoids protective in one Dutch study
483
Stroke • High citrus consumption including juice reduces risk to 0.81 554
compared to low consumers; citrus juice alone reduces risk to 0.75,
the effect being stronger in women. US study

Summary of cardiovascular, hypertensive and obesity studies.

The WHO study found that fruits and vegetables contributed to cardiovascular health
through the variety of phytonutrients, potassium and fibre they contained. They also
concluded that folate probably reduces cardiovascular risk and that an adequate intake
of potassium lowers blood pressure and is protective against stroke and cardiac
arrythmias. The studies summarised above indicate that citrus fruits per se may
contribute to this protective role.

4.5 Eye conditions (see appendix refs 433-451)

Cataracts An accumulation of photo-oxidised proteins in the lens of the eye is a major

cause of blindness throughout the world and a number of studies have been
undertaken to assess whether dietary antioxidants are capable of delaying the
development of this condition. While other foods (including meat) contain
antioxidants, these studies have focussed mainly on fruits and vegetables, or nutrients
such as vitamin C and beta-carotene which are, in effect, surrogate markers of plant
foods.

Results from 9 case-control studies and 7 cohort studies were assessed. Apart from an
Indian study, which showed an increased risk with high vitamin C intake (436), and a
sparsely documented Italian study (439), which showed no associations, the other 7
reported risk estimates, which, if not always statistically significant, were indicative
of lower risks among high consumers of fruits and vegetables.

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Results from the prospective (cohort) studies were qualitatively similar, although the
Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging (447) found little suggestion of a ‘protective’
effect.

It is perhaps worth noting that even in the presence of apparent benefits from other
carotenoids, both types of study consistently reported little or no reduction in risk
associated with the carotenoid lycopene (derived mainly from tomatoes and tomato
products).

The Linxian trial of antioxidant supplementation in China (448) found a 43% reduction
in risk among study subjects in the age range 65-74yrs but not in younger age groups.

One case-control study from Italy showed a significant reduction in risk associated
with citrus fruit (RR 0.5; p<0.01).

Macular degeneration. Recent research has shown a role for two carotenes lutein and
zeaxanthin in protection from macular degeneration, a major cause of blindness with
ageing. A case-control study comparing the lutein and zeaxanthin content in donor
eyes from people with and without macular degeneration (449)showed that the levels
of these carotenes were less in those with the disease, although it is unclear whether
this is, in part, due to the disease itself. A risk reduction of about 20% was seen from
the lowest to highest quartile of L+Z.

Details of the relevant studies can be found in the appendix on page 60

4.6 Crohn’s disease and other inflammatory bowel diseases (see appendix refs 459-
460)

For IBD there is evidence of a weak causal link to diet. Examination of dietary habits
in patients presenting with active IBD suggests that low intakes of fruit may precede
development of Crohn’s disease and, perhaps, ulcerative colitis.

Citrus fruit consumption also appears protective for both inflammatory conditions
(460), however, caution should be exercised once again due to the limited number of
scientific reports.

The simplest explanation for any beneficial effects of total fruit or individual types of
fruit on the large bowel is that fibre is the protective agent, however, other
components, such as micronutrients, antioxidants and other phytochemicals also may
modulate mechanisms involved in chronic bowel disease. A number of
phytochemicals have been shown to have anti-inflammatory properties

Details of the relevant studies can be found in the appendix on page 64.

4.7 Other chronic, infectious or immune diseases

There are a number of papers relating fruit, vitamin C, carotene or fibre consumption
to other disease outcomes. The papers are sparse and there is very little for citrus per

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se. High fruit juice intake has been shown in one study to afford protection from
Multiple sclerosis (as well as vitamin C). Other studies related mainly to vitamin C or
carotene intake.

Infectious disease

The immune system acts to protect the host from infectious agents that exiast in the
environment (bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasites). Nutrient status is an important factor
contributing to immune competence. Nutrients that have been demonstrated in either
animal or human experiments to be required for the immune system to function
efficiently include essential amino acids and fatty acids, vitamin A, folate, vitamin
B6, vitamin B12, vitamn C, vitamin E, zinc, iron and selenium. Vitamin A, folate and
vitamin C are all found in citrus.

In laboratory experiments, the infectious agent for cholera has also been shown to be
killed by lime juice (9,10); orange juice has been shown to have an effect on
attenuated rubella virus infection (11) and the fruit of Citrus aurantium had a very
potent inhibitory activity against rotavirus infection, a common infection of young
chidren in both developing and developed countries (12). This latter effect was
thought by the authors to be due to neohesperidin and hesperidin.

However, there is limited data in humans on the relationship between infectious

disease and citrus consumption

Limes and lime juice has been shown to be protective against cholera in two African
studies (556,557). There is also interest in the role citrus juices can play as an AIDS
preventative for developing countries where vaginal use of citrus fruit has been linked
to a lower transmission rate of the HIV virus. A number of studies are currently
underway in Australia to assess whether citrus juice may have any unforseen
detrimental effects used in this way and to see if it can indeed inactivate the HIV virus
in controlled trials. There is also interest in assessing whether the low pH caused by
the juices could exert a similar microbicidal effect on other bacteria.

A study in West Africa of gingivitis in 204 childen showed that the incidence was
lowest when fruits were in season but this was not citrus specific (13)

Vitamin C has also for some time been linked to amelioration of infectious disease
and there is a large literature in relation to its effects on the common cold which are
not reviewed here.

4.8 Improved lung function

Accumulating evidence suggests that dietary antioxidant vitamins are positively

associated with lung function. No evidence exists regarding whether dietary
carotenoids other than beta-carotene are related to pulmonary function. In 1995--1998
Schunemann et al (14) studied the association of forced expiratory volume in 1
second and forced vital capacity as the percentage of the predicted value (FEV(1)%
and FVC%, respectively) after adjustment for height, age, gender, and race with the
intakes of several carotenoids (alpha-carotene, beta-carotene, beta-cryptoxanthin,
lutein/zeaxanthin, and lycopene) in a random sample of 1,616 men and women who

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were residents of western New York State, aged 35--79 years, and free from
respiratory disease. They observed significant associations of lutein/zeaxanthin and
vitamins C and E with FEV(1)% and FVC% using multiple linear regression after
adjustment for total energy intake, smoking, and other covariates. When they analysed
all of these antioxidant vitamins simultaneously, they observed the strongest
association of vitamin E with FEV(1)% and of lutein/zeaxanthin with FVC%. The
differences in forced expiratory volume in 1 second and forced vital capacity
associated with a decrease of 1 standard deviation of dietary vitamin E or
lutein/zeaxanthin were equivalent to the influence of approximately 1--2 years of
aging. Their findings support the hypothesis that carotenoids, vitamin C, and vitamin
E may play a role in respiratory health and that carotenoids other than beta-carotene
may be involved.

4.9 Health economic benefits of increased consumption of citrus fruits

Using the epidemiological data, a number of researchers have attempted to estimate

the benefits of increased consumption of fruits and vegetables in various communities
in terms of both potential reduction in disease rates and economic benefits that might
arise from this reduced disease incidence.

The first to attempt this were Van’t Veer et al. in Holland (15) who attempted to
estimate the public health benefits of increasing intakes of fruits and vegetables in
their country from 250g/day (current level) to 400g/day (excluding potato). They
concluded that the Dutch incidence of cancer could be reduced by an average of 19%
(range 6-28%) and that cardiovascular deaths could be reduced by 16% (range 6-
22%) but they did not attempt to look at the effects of fruits and vegetables separately.

Marks et al (16) assessing costs for colorectal, breast, lung and prostate cancer in
Australia estimated that 21% of the cost of lung cancer and 4% of the cost of breast
cancer was attributable to low fruit intake (less than 3 serves per day) and that the
total health care costs associated with low consumption of fruit for breast and lung
cancers was $29.4 million per year ($ 22.7 million of which was related to lung
cancer). They estimated that increasing average fruit consumption by one extra
serving a day could save $8.6 million per year from the costs of breast and lung
cancer, again mostly related to reduction in lung cancer ($6.3 million). They did
however stress that there estimates had a wide potential variance depending on the
dose-response pattern used for estimates. The Australian estimates did not attempt to
look at individual fruits and vegetables and their effect

Based on the Van’t Veer estimates of risk reduction, it was estimated that the cost
attributable to intakes less than 400g/day fruits and vegetables in Australia for various
cardiovascular and circulatory conditions would approximate $54 million for
ischaemic heart disease, $50 million for hypertension, $38million for stroke,
$13million for cardiac dysrythmias, $12 million for high blood cholesterol and
$67million for other cardiovascular conditions (total $235million). Based on a US-
derived risk reduction figure of 4% for one additional serve of fruit or vegetable,
potential cost savings in Australia associated with eating one additional serve of fruit
or vegetable were estimated to be $36 million for ischaemic heart disease, $33million
for hypertension, $25million for stroke, $9million for cardiac dysrhythmias, $8million

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for high blood cholesterol and $46million for other cardiovascular conditions; total $
157million (17).

In the US study of health professionals from which the 4% risk reduction figure was
derived for fruits and vegetables for heart disease (18) , the savings attributable to
vitamin C rich fruits and vegetables, which includes citrus, was 6% so it is arguable
that if the increased consumption related specifically to vitamin C rich fruits and
vegetables, savings would potentially be some 50% higher again (about $235million).

In another publication, Joshipura et al (19) working with the same cohort of healthy
professionals in the US, claimed that citrus (relative risk 0.81 for an increase of 1
serve – 19% reduced risk) and citrus juices (relative risk 0.75 for an increase in 1
serve- 25% reduced risk) were major contributors to the apparent protective effect of
fruits and vegetables against ischaemic stroke, along with cruciferous vegetables and
green leafy vegetables.

If these citrus figures are applied to the Australian cost estimates, it could be argued
that, for stroke, if a 4% reduction in risk from one additional serve of fruit and
vegetables led to cost savings for stroke of some $25million, then an increase of one
serving of citrus a day could result in five to six times this saving for stroke (ie some
$150 million/yr) as the risk reduction figure would be in the range of 19-25%,
according to Joshipura’s data.

One note of caution needs to be added and was addressed by the raised by the authors
themselves in their paper. The US cohort is an unusual one in that it is composed of
health professionals who may not be generally representative. In addition, in their
earlier study they found that increasing intake beyond 6 serves a day of fruits and
vegetables had no additional benefits over 5-6 servings of total fruit and vegetables a
day which may be of relevance to countries such as Australia where intakes are
already relatively high. A number of studies have shown that maximal benefits come
from raising the intakes of very low consumers (eg from 1 to 2 or 2 to3 etc) and that
improvements in those whose intakes are already relatively high (above 5-6 serves)
are difficult to demonstrate. In reality, the effect of increasing intake of citrrus fruits
will also vary depending on how they are introduced into the diet, whether they are
eaten in addition to the usual diet or instead of other foods and in the latter case on
which foods they replace.

Table 26 summarises the positive findings with citrus and relevant nutrients in
relation to diseases other than those detailed above. Further details of these studies are
given in the appendix.

See also appendix refs 429-430 for arthritis; 431-432 for asthma; 452-458 for general health; 512-514
for dementia and Altzheimer’s; 515-521 for diabetes; 534 for multiple sclerosis; 535 for osteoporosis;
555 for ulcers and 558-564 for studies related to blood profile effects

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Table 26 Studies where there were positive findings linking citrus, citrus
juice or related nutrients to other chronic diseases (mostly nutrients)*.
Condition Evidence Refs in
appendix
Arthritis • One case-control study and one small cohort study are both indicative of 429-430
lower serum levels of vitamin C and beta-carotene, and hence possibly
lower fruit and vegetable intake, in people with arthritis
Asthma • One study of 18 000 children in Italy 6-7 yrs old; Citrus consumption 431-432
(oranges, tangerines, grapefruit) highly significantly protective for
“wheeze” (observational study). Linked to vitamin C by authors
Alzheimer’s disease • One case-control study of Alzheimer’s disease yielded inconsistent 512-514
and cognitive differences in fruit and vegetable intakes when comparing controls with
impairment moderate, severe and hospitalised cases.
• Of two prospective studies of cognitive impairment one recorded a decrease
risk in the highest third of vitamin C intakes and plasma levels; the other
reporting a decreased risk (0.87) associated with a Healthy Diet Indicator
based on WHO guidelines.
• Reduced beta-carotene and lycopene have also been associated with
increased dementia.
• Low carotenoids associated with reduced abilities in trail-making test and
digit-symbol substitution
• Reduced beta-carotene associated with lower working memory, free-recall
and WAIS-R
Parkinson’ Disease • A case-control study in India found lower vitamin C and beta-carotene 536
levels in sufferer’s from Parkinson’s Disease.
Macular degeneration • One US case-control study using donor eyes (Bone et al 2001) showed higher 449, 450,
lutein and zeaxanthin (carotenoids) in controls than cases. 451
• Another case-control study showed higher intakes of carotenoids in controls
compared to age-related macular degeneration sufferers (Seddon et al 1994).
Again lutein and zeaxanthin were thought to be the key carotenoids
Diabetes • A British study reported an inverse correlation (-0.19) between vitamin C 515-517
intakes and diabetes mortality
• One US cohort study showed that those consuming five serves a day fruit and
vegetables compared to non consumers had a reduced risk (RR 0.73; CI 0.54-
0.98)
• Analytic studies: A case-control study in India reported significantly lower
intakes of vitamin C and beta-carotene in cases. A case-control study in
New Guinea saw no difference in fibre intakes
Gallstones • The Zutphen cohort study reported no relationship between gallstones and 518-521
fruit intakes.
• Three of five case-control studies focussed on fibre intakes and reported no
consistent differences.
• A Spanish case-control study showed an association with low fruit intakes in
female but not male cases.
Mechanisms for a fruit vegetable/fibre effect are speculative.
Multiple sclerosis • A single case-control study conducted in Montreal, Canada measured intakes 534
of several categories of vegetables, fruits, and juice. Only high juice (and
vitamin C) intakes were associated with lower risk.
Cholera • One case-control study of cholera in Africa showed protection by 556, 557
consumption of limes in the main meal (OR 0.2: CI 0.1-0.3)
• Another case control by the same workers showed that lime juice used in a
sauce with rice was protective (OR 0.31: CI 0.17-0.56) Lime juice was stated
to reduce growth of the cholera organism
Gingivitis • A study in West Africa of gingivitis in 204 childen showed that the incidence See ref 12
was lowest when fruits were in season but this was not citrus specific above
Lung function • Improved lung function with a range of carotenoids in random ample of 1 See ref 13
616 men and women in US . Mainly lutein/zeaxanthin and vits C and E above

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4.10 Potential adverse reactions to citrus

a. Allergenicity and asthma

Citrus fruits have been linked to allergenic responses in sensitive adults although the
mechanisms are not clear. In the UK, one survy showed that of 490 patients who
suffered migraines, 11% were precipitated by citrus (20) and it is generaly considered
to be amongst the 10 most common food allergies. In one Norwegian study, it was
claimed that some 20% of 2 yr olds in a birth cohort of 3, 600 children had reactions
to fruits, including citrus (6.4%), but also strawberries and tomatoes (21) One study
from China appears to indicate that orange seeds do contain potent allergens which
can induce sensitivity and that the allergenicity is not in the juice itself (22). However,
others have linked reactions to preservatives used in some juices (23) and citrus peel
has also be found to cause an allergic reaction in some people (24). In citrus industry
workers, oxidised d-limonene has been shown to cause contact dermatitis (25). In
general, however, most people do not seem to have allergic reactions to citrus fruits or
juice.

The fact that citrus can be allergenic had led to questions as to whether it might play a
role in asthma. Paradoxically, however, studies have shown that a diet low in vitamin
C is a risk factor for asthma (26). Vitamin C is the major antioxidant substance
present in the airway surface liquid of the lung, where it could be impoortant in
protecting against oxidants. More research is needed to understand whether vitanmin
C and citrus conumption is protective in the causation and progression of asthma.

b. Grapefruit juice

Some adverse reactions to grapefruit have been reported in people taking some classes
of prescribed drugs. The first indication of this was the discovery that grapefruit juice
interferes with the metabolism of felodipine, a calcium blocking anti-hypertensive. . It
has since been found that it enhances the bioavailabilty of a considerable list of
modern drugs. These drugs belong to the calcium channel-blocker class used for
hypertension, some (but not all) statins used to lower blood cholesterol, cyclosporin
and tacrolimus used to reduce transplant graft rejection, anti-HIV agent saquinavar,
the anti-convulsant carbamazepine, short-acting benzodiazepine, sedatives midazolam
and triazolan and cispapride and buspirone.. It has been difficult to establish the
mechanism and the responsuible substances but people taking these classes of drugs
need to be aware of the interraction. A recent summary of the area has been published
in the Nutrition and Dietetics Journal of Australia. (27)

REFERENCES (excluding those in appendix)

1. Steinmetz K, Potter JD. Vegetables, fruit and cancer prevention: a review. J Am Diet Assoc 1996;
96: 1027-1039
2. World Cancer Research Fund & American Institute for Cancer Research. Food Nutrition and the
prevention of cancer: a global perspective. AICR; Washington, DC: 1997. pp670
3. United Kingdom Department of Health. Nutritional aspects of the development of cancer. Report of
the Working group on diet and cancer of the Committee on Medical Aspects of the Food Supply. The
Stationary Office, Norwich UK 1998, pp274
4. Jansen MCJF, van’t Veer P, Fok FJ. Fruit and vegetable in chronic disease prevention, 1995.
Wageneingen Agricultural University, Netherlands 1995, pp 86

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5. Klerk M, Jansen MCJF, van’t Veer P, Kok FJ. Fruit and vegetables in chronic disease prevention
1995. Wageningen Agricultural University, Netherlands 1998, pp70
6. Baghurst PA, Beaumont-Smith N, Baghurst K, Cox D. The relationship between the consumption of
fruits and vegetables and health status. Report to Department of Health & Aged Care. CSIRO,
Adelaide, 1999
7. WHO Diet, nutrition and the prevention of chronic disease Report of a joint WHO/FAO Expert
Consultation WHO, Geneva, 2003
8. Ness AR and Powles JW The role of diet, fruit and vegetables and antioxidants in the aetiology of stroke. J
Cardiovasc Risk. 1999 Aug;6(4):229-34
9. Mata L, Vives M, Vicente G Extinction of Vibrio cholerae in acidic substrate: contaminated fish
marinated with lime juice (cerviche). Rev Biol Trop 1994 42(3): 479-85
10. Extinction of Vibrio Cholerae in acidic substrata: contaminated cabbage and lettuce treated with
lime juice. Rev Biol Trop 1994 42(3): 487-9298. Ganguly R, Waldman RH Effect of orange juice on
attenuated rubella virus infection Indian J Med Res 1977; 66(3): 359-63
11 Ganguly R, Waldman RH. Effect of orange juice on attenuated rubella virus infection. Indian J Med Res.
1977 Sep;66(3):359-63.
12. Kim DH, Song MJ, Bae EA, Han MJ. Inhibitory effect of herbal medicines on rotavirus infectivity.
Biol Pharm Bull 2000; 23: 356-58
13. Lamb WH, Prentice AM A prospective survey of gingivitis in Keneba, a rural West African
community. Ann Trop Paediatr 1983 3(3): 137-42
14.. Schunemann HJ, McCann S, Grant BJ, Trevisan M, Muii P,Freudenheim JL Lung function in
relation to intake of carotenoids and other antioxidants vitamins in a population based study Am J
epidemiol 2002 155: 463-71
15Van’t VeerP, Jansen MCJF, Klerk M, Kok FJ. Fruits and vegatables in the prevention of cancer and
cardiovascular disease. Pub Hlth Nutr2000: 3(1); 103-107
16 Marks g, Pang, G, Coyne T, Picton P. Cancer costs in Australia – the potential impact of dietary
change. Australian food and Nutrition Monitoring Unit. CDHAC, Canberra. 2001.
www.sph.uq.edyu.au/nutrition/monitoring/pdf/p13cancer.pdf
17 National Vegetable and Fruit Coalition. Eat more vegetables and fruit. Business case for a five
year campaign to increase vegetable and fruit consumption in Australia. 2002
18Joshipura KJ, Hu FB, Manson JAE, Stampfer MJ et al. The effect of fruit and vegetable intake on
risk of coronary heart disease Annuls Int Med 2001; 134; 1106-1114
19Joshipura KJ, Ascherio a, Manson JE, Stampfer MJ, Rimm EB, Speizer FE, Hennekens CH,
Spiegelman D, Willett WC. Fruit and vegetable intake in relation to risk of ischemic stroke JAMA
1999: 282;1233-1239
20. Peatfield RC, Glover V, Littlewood JT, Sandler M, Clifford Rose F. The prevalence of diet-induced
migraine Cepalalgia 1984: 4; 1799
21. Eggesbo M, Halvorsen R, Tanbs K, Botten G. Prevelance of parentally perceived adverse
reactions to food in young children. Pediatr Allergy Immunol 1999: 10: 122-132
22 Zhu SL, Ye ST, Yu Y Allergenicity of orange juice and orange seeds: a clinical study. Asia Pac J
allergy Immunol 1989; 7: 5-8
23. Freedman BjmAsthma induced by sulphur dioxide, benzoate and tartrazine contained in orange
drinks. Clin Allergy 1977: 7 407-415
24 Cardullo AC, Ruszkowski AM, DeLeo VA Allergic contact dermatitis resulting from sensitivity to
citrus peel, geraniol and citral. J Am Acad Dermatol 1989; 21: 395-12
25. Karlberg AT, Dooms-Goosens A. Contact dermatitis to oxidised d-limonine among dermatitis
patients Contact Dermatitis 1997: 36; 201-206
26.. Hatch G Asthma, inhaled oxidants and dietary antioxidants. Am J Clin Nutr1995 61: 625S-630S
27 Truswell S. Editorial. The power of grapefruit. Nutrition & Dietetics 2003: 60; 6-8

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Part 5
What are overseas organisations doing to promote the health benefits of citrus ?

A number of overseas citrus organisations are using health aspects of citrus and citrus
juices in their promotional activities. This is most apparent in the United States. Some
organisations are doing this through stand-alone promotions, others, in conjunction
with health authorities such as the national Heart Foundation, the Anti-cancer
foundation or the March of Dimes an organisation particularly interested in childhood
nutrition. Some of the major US organisations have also aligned themselves to the 5-
a-day program which began in the US but which now has international alliances.

Examples of nutrition-based promotions are given below.

5.1 Florida Citrus Organisations, US (UltimateCitrus)

The Florida Citrus organisations are involved in a number of promotional activities

that use health aspects of citrus as a key part of their message. They maintain a web
site called UltimateCitrus.com (http://www.ultimatecitrus.com) which contains
information for consumers or health professionals in a number of nutrition/health
areas. This web site has a “Citrus for your health” page with some information on
health aspects and additional linkages to:

• original scientific papers outlining health benefits of citrus orange juice for
various conditions to further information about the joint campaigns of the
Florida Department of Citrus with the American Cancer Society (campaign
around role of orange juice as part of a healthy diet to prevent cancer including
links to further information on vitamin C and phytochemicals) ; the American
Heart Association ( particularly centreing on grapefruit and grapefruit juice
and its high fibre/no fat, no cholesterol content) and the March of Dimes (an
organisation concerned with the health of babies and the issue of folate);
• to other health sites such as that of Dr Sears (a popular “media” paediatrician
interested in folate)
• to the 5-a-day campaign and
• to other fruit and citrus web sites and organisations, both local and
international.

5.2 Produce Marketing Association

The Produce marketing association is also using health strategies in its marketing.

It produces materials for consumers around the nutrient composition of various

individual citrus fruits which can be accessed directly from their “aboutproduce” web
site http://www.aboutproduce.com).

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The site was developed for members but also for the public to educate consumers
about nutrition, increase product sales, provide recipes and help create healthier
lifestyles.

The PMA felt that a web site was the best way to reach consumers and one that would
serve as a credible and comprehensive resource

The site details the nutritional profile of individual citrus produce as well as listing
nutritional benefits such as low fat, saturated fat, cholesterol free, high in antioxidant
vitamin C, good source of fibre and has links through to the FDA approved health
claims which include claims related to potassium and fibre, fat, saturated fat and
cholesterol and sodium all of which have relevance to citrus. The information was
developed jointly with the Produce for Better Health Foundation which runs the 5-a-
day program in the US.

It also provides recipes, storage and handling tips, a nutrition dictionary, answers to
common questions and links to other sites.

5.3 Florida Department of Citrus

As well as its involvement in the UltimateCitrus.com initiative the Florida department

of Citrus has worked with Meredith Integrated Marketing in developing the health
image for Florida Citrus. This initiative involved the work with the American Cancer
Society, American Heart Foundation and March of Dimes mentioned above as well as
development and testing of recipes and production and dissemination of cookbooks
(450 000 copies).

Their marketing program with the Cancer, Heart and March of Dimes Foundations
has been referred to as the “Triple Crown” program. The program included not only
print advertisements but television and radio commercials with these latter two media
accounting for most of the $30 million (US) budget. They also produced Public
Service Announcements using celebrities such as Lauren Bacall, Chris Evert and Pete
Sampras linking proper diet (including fruit and vegetables) to prevention of certain
disease. The theme of these was “eat, drink and enjoy citrus products”.

The cookbook (Florida Cuisine) promotion reached 70 million consumers in 6 months

with over 70% of those claiming to use more citrus as a result. It provided alternative,
but healthy, ways to prepare citrus and have now been promoted through US
embassies in Japan, France, Austria, Germany, Belgium and UK.

After the campaign surveys showed that health perceptions of citrus were improved
and that domestic “out-of-stock” figures were down. Increased consumption was
recorded for many months following the campaign

The Florida Department of Citrus also runs the “Floridajuice” web site which has a
great deal of consumer information (http://floridajuice.com). This site has recipes,
news and information, health sections, contacts, information about partners, links and
book offers. There are special sections for children hosted by “Orangeman”

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(www.floridajuice/floridacitrus/kids) which have a range of activities for children but
also address healthy eating.

The adult pages also address issues such as cancer, heart disease and birth defects and
give details of the nutrient content of various citrus products especially in relation to
vitamin C, folic acid, fibre and potassium. It gives some information on specific items
such as grapefruit (re iron deficiency, heart disease, cholesterol, antioxidant activity,
weight control, potassium, colds, skin and gum effects etc as well as specific recipes
and meal plans for the new “Heart Healthy Florida Grapefruit Diet”

The site also gives some information about other promotions including the National
Minority Cancer Awareness Week campaign using the world’s largest refrigerated
orange juice glass to heighten awareness of the cancer preventive potential of citrus
This was an eight foot-tall glass filled with 730 gallons of Florida orange juice
symbolising a simple preventive measure against cancer.

5.4 Florida Dept of Agriculture and Consumer Science

The Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Science has a program called
Florida Ag in the Classroom which produces on-line materials for teachers. As part of
this they have produced Florida Citrus a curriculum document which outlines the
developments of oranges and their history in Florida and which includes nutritional
information and activities

5.5 Texasweet Citrus Marketing

This group was founded in 1962 by growers and shippers of Texas oranges and
grapefruits for domestic marketing and promotion.

Their overall objective was to create a demand for fresh Texas oranges and grapefruit
by influencing the trade to conduct promotional activities to encourage greater sales.
There was media publicity to strengthen demand and influence attitudes Target
audiences were receiving trade, retailers and consumers The overall program included
merchandising, advertising and public relations. They were particularly interested in
promoting the Texas red grapefruit varieties.

Many of the promotions have no specific health message but are run on colour appeal,
attractive displays, new recipes, appeals to taste, sampling etc and fun promotions for
children eg paint a grapefruit were employed. However there were some
nutrition/health messages used. These included “fat free”, “sodium-free”,
“cholesterol-free” and “good source of fibre”.

They did employ nutrition messages for special promotions such as National Nutrition
Month when red grapefruits and oranges were promoted in relation to their low
energy content, vitamin C, fibre and vitamin A.

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Their web site (http://texasweet.com) has a Kid’s Club which has a nutrition section
and which also links through to the 5-a-day site. This also mentions lycopene in
addition to the low energy, fat, sodium, cholesterol and gives some nutrient
breakdowns.

5.6 European Community (INTERCITRUS)

The European Community funded a promotion campaign for citrus fruit in September
2000. The promotion campaign also was to involve advertising in the media,
promotion at point of sale, information campaigns at school, public relations with
distributors and opinion leaders as well as trade fairs etc. Spain was funded through
INTERCITRUS to the tune of EUR 4, 609, 042 for the 2000/2001 year. The key
citrus being promoted were citrus and clemantinas.

It also involved the development of a web-site called Orangefruit.net to promote

citrus fruit in Europe (http://www.orangefruit.net). The target audience was
consumers. But intermediate targets were also involved. These included supermarkets,
doctors, nutritionists, teachers and processors. The web site was set up and received
23 000 hits in the first week but has since run into problems with issues around bad
language translations and cannot presently be accessed. The site contains games,
gastronomy and health information with presentations and 3D effects.

As well as the initiatives put in by government departments and producer

organisations some of the larger companies in the US and overseas have put their own
initiatives in place.

5.7 Sunkist

The Sunkist company has a number of marketing and promotion initiatives that
include a nutrition or health component. Sunkist’s new healthy lifestyle positioning
campaign emphasises
• Health
• Wellness
• Family
• Fun themes and
• Kids

There is a special web site for kids which addresses the kids themselves but also the
educators and which outlines a variety of activities and exercises that can be used to
involve children and educate them. Good nutrition is a key element

There is also information on this website about the nutrition profile of various
products and some linkage to health benefits although not in great detail
(http://www.sunkist.com)

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5.8 Tropicana

Tropicana has developed a special campaign around the potassium health claim that is
permitted in the USA.

The campaign relates to the role of potassium and a high potassium/sodium ratio in
control of blood pressure. There is information on their web site
(http://www.tropicanahealthnews.com) for both the public and health professionals
including information on issues such as blood pressure, stroke and heart disease and
how they interrelate; sources of potassium and how it helps and the benefits of orange
juice rather than supplements etc. There are attractive postcards that can be
customised and forwarded to friends with messages about potassium and blood
pressure.

For professionals, there are research summaries and references to follow up and there
are downloadable pamphlets on folate, the role of oranges in the diet in general and
kid’s diets (vitamin C, calcium, potassium, folate)

5.9 Capespan (South Africa)

Capespan which incorporates the citrus specialist group Outspan, has a number of
activities and promotions around nutrition and health.

It produces information for the consumer as well as for teachers. It provides a wide
range of information for the public including information ion the industry itself,
recipe materials and nutrition information on products .

Its nutrition information covers areas such as

• fructose and energy,
• fibre and heart disease, haemorrhoids, obesity, dental disease and hernia,
calcium and osteoporosis,
• iron and anaemia,
• magnesium and energy metabolism,
• vitamin A, carotenes and cancer and heart disease,
• potassium and strokes and
• vitamin C, cancer, heart disease and iron absorption

There is additional information on their web site http://www.capespan about the work
from the World Cancer Research Fund assessing diet and cancer and information
about how fruit consumption fits in with a healthy diet.

There is a great deal of information about individual fruits and a detailed nutrient
analysis of a range of citrus fruit and juices including a wide range of vitamins,
minerals, major nutrients and linkages to the 5-a-day materials

The children’s section “Kidding about with fruit” includes a health section which
gives teachers ideas and information for lessons and activities

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5. 10 The ‘5 A Day’ for Better Health Program

The “5 A Day” for Better Health Program was initiated by the National Cancer
Institute in the USA to reduce cancer risk in America. The program was and continues
to be a public/private partnership between the National Institutes of Health’s largest
institute and the vegetable and fruit industry. The program was designed to assess
whether a close partnership with private industry could be used to leverage limited
government resources to effect dietary change. Its goal is to increase the average
consumption of vegetables and fruit in the United States to five or more servings a
day. Other countries have since initiated programs aligned with the “5-a-day”
concept. The US program recently completed its first decade of operation and a major
conference was held in January 2003 to review its history and set future directions. A
background report for the meeting can be found at:

www.5aday.gov/pdf/masimaxmonograph.pdf

In the past decade, the program has used a number of strategies including the use of
media, social marketing, community-based interventions, coalition-building, and the
provision of support for local programs in addition to sponsoring research and
evaluation. Research undertaken by the program showed that the percentage of the US
population aware of the need to eat 5 serves of vegetable and fruit a day had risen
amongst women from 11% in 1991 to 50% by 1998. Studies of intake showed an
increase from 3.75 serves a day in 1991 to 3.98 serves by 1997, a modest overall
increase.

The program had developed a service-marked logo with Program guidelines and
criteria to provide a common framework in which “5 a day” is conducted. The
service-marked logo was seen as essential in keeping industry efforts in line with the
public health communities’ program focus. At the local level, programs are carried
out through community coalitions in a number of ways including through media,
through schools, through food assistance programs, through worksites and through
supermarkets and foodservice. The community coalitions are supported by state
health agencies and industry who in turn are supported by the National Cancer
Institute and the Produce for Better Health Foundation, an industry body working
together through a coordinating committee. There are over 100 State Health agencies
in the US who are now licenced with the program.

The Produce for Better Health Foundation was set up in 1991 through the efforts of
the Produce Marketing Association one of the trade organisations of the vegetable and
fruit industry. They worked with the Dole Food Company and Sun World
International to redirect funds that those companies provided to PMA for commodity
nutrient analysis. These funds provided seeding money for PBH. By 1999 PBH had a
total revenue of US $2.3 million and over 13 employees.

After 10 years the program was formally evaluated and recommendations were made
for its expansion and improvement. An executive summary of the evaluation report is
available at www.cancercontrol.cancer.gov/5ad_exec.html.

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The overall recommendations made for the program were:

• That the NCI continue the program as a multifaceted program to support

research and programs to promote increased vegetable and fruit consumption
• That NCI continue to lead the program and ensure that it has a director with
high scientific credibility and appropriate expertise
• That NCI partner more closely with USDA (US Dept Agriculture) to better
focus dietary guidelines and to promote research that will encourage
vegetable and fruit consumption
• That NCI partner with CDC (Centre for Disease Control) to develop and
manage state-level 5-a-day programs.
• That NCI partner with other NIH institutes to:
– promote research on the role of specific vegetable and fruit
components in lowering disease risk
- promote methodologies and applied behaviour research
- expand awareness of other benefits of vegetables and fruit and
- develop a surveillance plan to monitor vegetable and fruit consumption

Specific Recommendations were also made re

• Media and message delivery
• Industry and the States
• Minorities and the underserved
• Evaluation
• Research
• Surveillance

The unique structural feature of “5-a-day” is the ongoing working relationship

between NCI and PBH with a strong commitment to strategic planning and open
communication between public and private partners at all levels.

At the recent “5-a-day” symposium, some nine other countries outlined programs that
they are either currently running or trying to establish along the lines of the US ‘5-a-
day” program. Amongst these were Australia, Canada, Denmark, Germany, Hungary,
Holland, New Zealand, Norway and Sweden. All these countries are planning or
undertaking their programs as public/private partnerships, at least on a regional basis;
messages vary including 3-a-day (Hungary), 5-a-day (Germany), 5+ a day (New
Zealand) 6 a day (Denmark) 7-a-day (Australia), 5-10 a day (Canada), everyday 2+2
(Denmark) or “fruit and vegetables every time you eat (Sweden). Some programs are
population wide, some focus on children, youth and young mothers or those making
food purchase decisions; others focus on worksites or the food service industry. All
have planning and evaluation components.

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Related Australian programs

In Australia, there are a number of state based programs such as thew WA “2 fruit ‘n
5 veg every day” which are consistent with the 5-a-day approach and another
program developed by the Dietician’s Association with Coles Supermarkets (7-a-day)
is already in existence. In 2002 the Strategic Intergovernment Nutrition Alliance
(SIGNAL) which is a committee of the National Public Health Partnership and which
is comprised of nutrition representatives from all state governments and the
Commonwealth as well as NHMRC, FSANZ and nutrition experts, began a process of
consultation with industry to look at the feasibility of developing a national program
in Australia to promote vegetables and fruit. The National Vegetable and Fruit
Coalition was formed with membership from SIGNAL, Horticulture Australia Ltd,
Central Market Association of Australia, NSW Agriculture, Australian Food and
Grocery Council, Australian Retailers Association. Dietitians association of Australia,
National Heart Foundation Australia and Cancer Council Australia

A Business Case was developed in 2002 for a five year campaign to increase
vegetable and fruit consumption in Australia.

The Business Case outlined a common vision for increased fruit and vegetable
consumption that would allow consumers to enjoy better health; reduce costs of ill
health to Government; bring increased profits to the horticultural and allied industries
and enhance development in rural areas through the social and economic benefits of
prosperous industries. The cost of the program was estimated at $ 15.3 million over 5
years. If at the end of five years the program had increased consumption by an
average of one additional serve/day of vegetables and fruit, the returns were estimated
as being an increase in wholesale market value of $434 million to $1.33 billion a year
(depending on mix of product); reduced health care costs of colorectal, breast, lung
and prostate cancer of $8.6milion to $24.4 million (depending on mix of product);
reduced cardiovascular health care costs of $157 million /yr.

5.11 Summary

Many of the overseas citrus industry organisations and individual companies,

especially in the US, are using nutrition and health as a key part of their marketing
and promotion strategy. Some of the groups are actively collaborating in the
development of promotional programs with high profile health authorities around
specific health outcomes such as cancer, heart disease or birth defects and other
linking through to more general campaigns such as the 5-a-day campaign. This
collaboration gives credibility to the industry message and expanded community
reach for the health groups.

Companies and organisations are targeting consumers directly through highly detailed
but approachable web sites, which often also have special sections for children and/or
teachers where both information and activities, as well as curriculum ideas, are
presented in user-friendly formats.

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Consolidated listing of web sites for overseas citrus organisations

http://www.ultimatecitrus.com
http://www.aboutproduce.com
http://floridajuice.com
http://floridajuice/floridacitrus.kids
http://texasweet.com
http://www.orangefruit.net
http://www.sunkist.com
http://www.tropicanahealthnews.com
http://www.capespan

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Part 6. What can the Australian citrus industry do to promote Australian citrus
and citrus juice?

6.1 Why don’t people eat more fruit including citrus ?

Despite the availability of a wide variety of homegrown or low cost, high quality
commercial fruits and vegetables, intakes in Australia, as in most developed western
societies do not reach recommended levels and despite efforts to promote them, there
has been relatively little improvement over the last few decades. Indeed an analysis
of dietary change across Australia's last two National Dietary Surveys undertaken in
1983 and 1995/6 showed a drop in intake of fruits and fruit products of some 20% in
urban adults (1). There are some indications from apparent consumption data that this
trend may have reversed a little since the mid 1990s, but this needs to be confirmed.

The only group in Australia whose mean intake is almost in line with
recommendations are the 4-7 year olds with intakes of fruit some 95% of
recommended. For older children and adolescents and younger adults intakes average
some 30-40% of recommended rising again to 60% of recommended in older adults.
If juice is included as part of the category, the intake of most age categories averages
some 60-75% of recommended intake with 4-5 year olds having average intakes some
50% higher than recommended.

Table 27 Intakes of fruits in Australia in relation to

Australian recommendations

Ages Fruit intakes

Intakes % recommended Recommended
(g/day)
Including Excluding
juice juice
M F M F
4-7 165 154 98 92 150
8-11 62 57 37 33 300-450
12-15 57 63 34 36 300-450
16-18 49 65 26 29 300-450
19-24 65 62 31 31 300
25-44 67 67 42 44 300
45-64 76 74 53 57 300
65+ 74 75 60 59 300

* serve of fruit equals 150 g; where recommendations are a range, the mid point has been used for
calculations

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Figure 3 . Intake of fruits and fruit juices from the Australian
National Nutrition Survey 1995/6

*Age categories used 2-3yrs, 4-7 yrs, 8-11 yrs, 12-15 yrs 16-18 yrs 19-24yrs 25-44
yrs, 45-64 yrs and 65 +

300

250
Males- fruit only
200 Females - fruit only
g/day

Males- fruit & juice

150
Females - fruit & juice
100

50
2 4 8 12 16 19 25 45 65
Age ( youngest age for category in yrs)

Figure 3 shows the intake of fruit and fruit juice by age from the latest National
Nutrition Survey undertaken in Australia in 1995/6.

In Australia, a range of intervention initiatives have been undertaken by individual

research or state-based health promotion groups in recent years although very little
structured evaluation has been undertaken and there is little published in the scientific
literature. Recently, a new national portfolio approach to increasing fruit and
vegetable consumption has been proposed (2,3) which includes social marketing, food
supply approaches, health sector, community and school interventions but the precise
nature of the interventions have not yet been defined. This national portfolio is being
developed by SIGNAL (the Strategic Intergovernment Nutrition Alliance) under the
auspices of the National Public Health Partnership.

Surveys have shown that consumers recognise the health value of fruits (and
vegetables); why then does intake in countries like Australia and other industrialised
nations remain below recommended intakes despite a number of initiatives to promote
their consumption? What are the barriers to increasing consumption and to effective
intervention?

Barriers to increasing community consumption can range from those related to limited
understanding amongst health professionals, educators and industry marketers of the
drivers of food choice in various sectors of the community and how to influence
these, through to barriers which consumers themselves can articulate such as
consistency of quality, cost, problems with shelf life and storage, taste and
availability .

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6.2 Understanding the psychosocial determinants of intake

Lack of understanding of the relationship of psychosocial mediating factors to

behavioural outcomes limits the effectiveness of nutrition interventions. Baranowski
et al (4) have suggested that, to be effective, interventions need to be developed
around behaviour models that predict the targets well.

A number of social and psychological models used to study health behaviours have
been applied increasingly in the food choice area. Certain aspects of these models
overlap and there are a number of similarities in variables constituting the models (5-
7). Some researchers have attempted to combine theories or extend and refine models
in the light of experimental findings (8).

Dietary or food choice behaviour is extremely complex when compared to most other
health behaviours and is therefore unlikely to be determined by one all-encompassing
model. For example, there may well be one set of variables (or one model) which
includes the key determinants of avoidance behaviour in relation to food (ie trying to
avoid fatty foods or foods with high energy content), another set determining uptake
of novel or modified foods (eg novel fruit juice mixtures, new varieties of fruits) and,
yet another which determines increased consumption of specific foods (eg citrus
fruits).

Sensory aspects, price and convenience may be more salient determinants of food
choice for some categories, with factors such as health concerns coming into play
only for selected types of food. For example, the key factors influencing people to
restrict their chocolate consumption, may not be the same as those influencing people
to change to low fat milk or high fibre-cereals or to increase their intake of citrus
fruits.

If people are to eat more fruits, including citrus fruits, or increase their use of fruit
juices, they must also be persuaded to eat or drink less of some other food or drink
category.

Baranowski et al (4) assessed these various behavioural models in relation to fruit

intake, and concluded that, the models provided some valuable insights but no single
model of behaviour accounted for more than 30% of the variance in intake.

In the early 1990s, CSIRO undertook two exploratory studies of psychosocial drivers
of food choice in random samples of Australian adults (9-11). In the first study, we
looked at Health Locus of Control and the Eysenck Personality factors. In the second,
we looked at a number of factors from various health belief models.

Both these studies showed that psychological traits were more potent determinants of
food choice than demographics such as age, education and social status.

In the first study, for fruit consumption in both men and women, those who felt in
charge of their life (high internal locus of control) consumed some 30% more than
those who believed their life to be more controlled by outside forces (eg fate). This
study also showed that, in general, those who felt more in control of their situation
consumed diets more in line with dietary recommendations.

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Other psychological factors which were associated with markedly increased fruit
consumption, but in men only, were extraversion (being outgoing and confident in
nature) and a low level of "neuroticism" (ie men with higher self esteem, a greater
ability to control cravings and more emotionally stable).

It is difficult to change these personality characteristics through a traditional

"intervention" program. However, by tailoring specific messages to these
psychological traits, it may be possible to more effectively influence the groups who
appear to have lower intakes. In the same population where psychological factors
were associated with 30% or more differences in consumption, socioeconomic factors
explained little of the variance in consumption.

In our second study, the psychosocial factors assessed included cognitive control,
morale, social support, rigidity, self esteem, self efficacy, locus of control, motivation
to comply, normative beliefs, cues to action, concerns for health, barriers to change
and perceived susceptibility, benefits and severity of outcome.

Factors from the health belief model formed the basis of the study (12) but elements
of other models were included. This health belief model proposes that a health-related
behaviour is more likely to be taken up if respondents believe themselves to be
personally susceptible to a specific disease condition ("susceptibility"), that the
disease is serious ("perceived severity"), that undertaking the behaviour will reduce
risk ("benefits") and that barriers to the change in behaviour are not unreasonable
("barriers to change").Overall "concern for health", and "cues to action" are also part
of this model.

In addition to these factors, other models (13) suggest that people's perception of the
expectations of others ("normative beliefs") and their own "motivation to comply"
will influence behaviour. Other factors that were included in this study on the basis
of the literature at the time, were "self-efficacy", "perceived social support", "morale",
"self-esteem", "flexibility" and a factor called "nutrition importance".

The social cognitive theory holds that people are neither driven by inner forces alone
nor shaped entirely by external stimuli but that there is a variable interaction between
the persona and the environment which will influence behaviour. The concept of
"self-efficacy" (a belief in one's ability to achieve desired outcomes) arose from this
theory.

Matheson et al (14) also hypothesised that "flexibility" or degree of "rigidity", which

aligns with the construct of neophobia, as well as a belief in the "importance of
nutrition", "perceived social support" and "morale" could all influence self-efficacy in
relation to food choice behaviour.

In testing their model in elderly people, the "nutrition is important" factor was the
strongest predictor of past, self-reported dietary change but self-efficacy per se was
not a significant predictor. However, these factors were included in this study
because previous dietary change in an elderly population may be a limited assessment
of the factors potential predictive power in the general population. "Health locus of
control" is another construct that has been assessed in relation to a range of health

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behaviours and in the earlier Australian study it was shown to correlate with nutrition-
based behaviours ( 9,10).

An initial analysis showed few interrelationships between the demographics and the
attitudinal/psychological traits which seemed to cut across gender, age, education and
social status categories.

Table 28 shows the significant relationships between some of these traits and
consumption of fruit (and two kinds of vegetables) in men and women. There were a
number of factors that were highly correlated with fruit consumption but
predictiveness was much greater in men than women and generally greater for fruit
than green-leafy or red-yellow vegetables. Benefits, perceived barriers, overall health
concern, a view that nutrition was important and rigidity/flexibility were the greatest
predictors of consumption.

Different influences at different ages

There have been a number of other studies of influences on fruit and vegetable
consumption in children, adolescents and adults using various models of behaviour.
Most, but not all have been undertaken on populations in the United States. These
have been summarised in the recent review by Baranowski et al (4).

In younger children, preferences appear to be the primary driver. Situational factors,

availability and persuasion by others have also been identified as salient factors. In

Table 28 The relationship between psychosocial factors and fruit consumption

FACTOR Fruit Green-leafy Red-yellow

vegetables vegetables
m f m f m f
Perceived benefits *** *** * * *
Perceived barriers *** *** ** *** ** **
Overall health concern *** ** * **
Nutrition importance *** * * *
Rigidity/flexibility *** ** * ** **
Cues to action ***
Normative beliefs *** *
Motivation to comply ***
External locus of control ***
Cognitive control ** ***
Morale * *
Perceived social support ** *
Self esteem **
Self efficacy (eating scale) *
Self efficacy (general scale) * * * *
Perceived susceptibility
Perceived severity *
Significance as determined by linear regression ***p<0.001; ** p< 0.01; * p< 0.05.

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studies of adolescents, availability of fruits, peers, involvement in food preparation
and family food purchases have all been shown to predict intake.

Liking the food, and perception of parent's and/or friends' consumption have also been
identified as key influences. Another study showed that low fruit (and vegetable)
intake was part of a larger set of health issues including extreme weight concerns,
substance abuse and insecure home life.

For adults, studies indicate that there may be different influences operating at
different meals or days of the week; and that sensory aspects may be more salient
determinants of consumption than health concerns.

However, knowledge about recommended intakes, diet-disease relationships and

health consciousness can moderately influence intake of fruit and/or vegetables. In
addition, cost, taste, texture, appearance, quality, storage difficulties, lack of
availability in stores, convenience, safety and childhood habits may be key influences
( 4 ).

The optimistic consumer- a key barrier

One of the major barriers to dietary change in the community appears to be the
unrealistic optimism of many individuals about their current eating practices. In
relation to fruit and vegetable consumption, data from Australia collected from
subjects over the period of 1989 to 1992, compared dietary intake as assessed by
quantified food frequency questionnaires over the period, with their perceptions of
changes in intakes over the same period (15).

The researchers found that 44% of women who thought they had increased their
intakes of fruit did not show such an increase over time according to their food
frequency questionnaires. Self-assessed increased intakes did not correspond with
food frequency data for fruit and vegetable intake for men or for vegetable intake for
women.

High percentages of people consuming less than two servings of fruit and three
servings of vegetables thought their intakes “about right” despite “widely promoted
messages” recommending two fruit and five vegetables servings-a-day.

In another Australian study (16), qualitative data suggested that only half the
respondents felt they should increase their fruit and vegetable intake and the authors
asserted that “recommendations” may be loosely interpreted. However, in a third
study, data collected prior to a mass-media campaigns (17) found that almost 75% of
adults surveyed thought they should eat two or more pieces of fruit a day.

In the last National Dietary survey in Australia in 1995/6, respondents were asked
whether they wanted to change the amount of fruits (and vegetables) they ate. Only
28% of those aged 19 and over replied “yes” to that question. The figure was highest
for those aged 19-24yrs (46%), averaged 34% in 16-18yr olds, 37% in 25-44 yr olds,
2% in 45-64 yr olds and only 10% in those over 60years of age.

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They were asked to identify which of a number of barriers prevented them consuming
more but few gave specific reasons with only 2% of those aged 19yrs and over, citing
cost; 6% time constraints; 1% storage problems; 4% availability 1% quality 5% liking
and 14% “other” reasons. As the question related to “fruits & vegetables” it is
difficult to assess which of these items respondents were referring to.

A nationwide quantitative study of 741 adults in the United Kingdom (18, 19)
indicated that one third of consumers with low intakes considered themselves to have
“higher than average” fruit intakes. Dutch workers (20) have also undertaken
telephone surveys that took self-reported and quantified-food frequency data and
compared it to subjects’ estimates of intakes. Subjects rated their own intakes much
higher than the food frequency estimates. Comments were made by the authors about
the over-optimistic "stage of change" in which these subjects placed themselves.
Further work by the same authors (21, 22) confirmed that respondents were over
optimistic about their behaviour and intakes.

Lack of awareness as a barrier

A correlate of unrealistic optimism that provides yet another barrier is lack of

awareness of recommendations or targets for consumption.

In Australia, the target for most fruit and vegetable interventions has been set at "7-a-
day" (2 fruit and 5 vegetables), compared to the "5 a day" in the USA and UK. (It
should be noted however, that the Australian recommendations include potato as a
vegetable). In the UK, the 5-portions exclude potatoes which form a large part of the
Anglo-Saxon diet that is still also the basis of many Australians' eating patterns. In
the Netherlands, a lower target of 200g of fruit (and 200g of vegetables have been
set). However, in most countries an increase of some 30-50% in fruit over current
consumption has been set as the initial target.

In the US, considerable literature from US 5-a-day baseline surveys has recorded poor
awareness of intake targets (23). This literature reported only 8% (of a representative
sample of 2811) of the US population thought that 5-a-day was the recommended
intakes and that the number of servings consumers thought they should have was the
most important predictor of intakes.

In Australia, Miller et al (17) reported lack of knowledge of the target (2 fruit and 5
vegetable servings) as a barrier in two mainland states prior to a promotion.

Confusion over definitions

Problems with semantics can also provide a barrier to increased consumption, in some
cases around the definition of what constitutes a "serving" but this seems to apply
more to vegetables than fruit..

One Australian study (24) asked students who had completed a dietary diary to
identify the number of vegetable servings they consumed. There was poor agreement,
with the number of servings falling below the recorded intakes. The authors
concluded that consumers might not use the same definitions of servings as
professionals do.

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This was confirmed by a smaller study (16), which found that respondents reported
less vegetable servings per day without “explanation of a serving definition” than the
number of servings per day after “explanation”.

Further qualitative data from this Australian study found that subjects were sometimes
confused over the target message (“2 fruit ‘n’ 5 veg a day”).

Whilst many respondents interpreted the recommendations as allowing the target to

be flexible to their own perceived needs, the authors concluded that for people who
were not “health conscious”, flexible recommendations allowed these people to
exempt themselves.

More recent work (25) compared the interpretations of the term “daily” and found two
thirds of respondents interpreted “daily” as “averaged over time” and not “every day”.
Such an interpretation is however, consistent with Australian recommendation (26)
which also treat “daily” intakes as “averages over time”, in keeping with the
conventions used in dietary intake measures.

Time and skill barriers

Lack of cooking skills and limited time for shopping and food preparation are three
commonly cited barriers to increased fruit and vegetable consumption. Cooking skills
concerns undoubtedly relate more to vegetables than fruit. However, there is not a
great deal of systematic research about how important these barriers truly are, whether
they are real or perceived barriers and how the reality or perception can be overcome.

In Australia, unpublished reviews of state-based fruit and vegetable promotions report

great demand for recipes but there are suggestions that consumers with existing high
fruit and vegetable consumption may be those who acquire these additional resources.
The actual use and effect of recipes, as opposed to their purchase, popularity or
collection, is unknown in any community so far as we are aware.

In studies in both the UK (31) and US (32) the need for more frequent shopping for
perishable goods was cited as a barrier to increasing fruit (and vegetable)
consumption.

6.3 Intervention initiatives, how successful have they been ?

In recent years there have been a number of initiatives undertaken in the US and in
other industrialised countries to promote consumption of fruit (and vegetables). By far
the greatest number of published studies eminate from the US related to the 5-a-day
program coordinated by the Produce for Better Health Foundation. Most programs
promote a range of both fruits and vegetables but some are more specific. As noted
earlier, the US citrus industry has been active in a number of programs under the “5-a-
day” banner as they have with initiatives of health bodies such as Anticancer and
Heart Foundations.

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There have, in general, been six modes of delivery or settings used; schools,
community, supermarkets, worksites or mass media with school and community
settings being the most popular.

A review undertaken in 1998 as part of a nutrition policy development in Australia

(33) identified fourteen published studies at that time based in a school setting, twelve
of which were undertaken in the United States. The US studies either showed no
effect on intake or modest increases of between one fifth and three quarters of a
serving per day. The two studies undertaken in the UK were not controlled trials, and
did not report on increased levels of intake although one did show marked increased
in acceptance of previously rejected fruits and vegetables using a peer modelling and
reward system (34).

For community studies, again, most studies were from the US and showed either a
modest increase in consumption of half a serving a day or less, or no reported effect.

One study in African-American church congregations (35) using computer tailored

information either using a scientific or spiritual approach did show an improvement of
just over one serving a day but there was a reasonably high attrition rate.

Overseas studies include one good randomised controlled trial from Holland in mostly
well-educated women (36). This trial involved a two level, computerised, tailored
package plus personal feedback giving information about diet. It was not specific to
fruits and vegetables but it still achieved an increase in consumption of about one
third of a serving a day along with improved attitudes and intentions.

Another study by Cox et al in the UK (37) used a randomised control trial approach
with people (mostly women) who were already "contemplating" improving their
intakes.

An intensive, small group educational, motivational and behavioural strategy was

employed plus periodic monitoring over 8 weeks. There was a mean increase in
consumption of some 233g (1-2 servings) mostly from fruit consumed within
conventional eating patterns. This study of all those reported at the time appeared to
be the most effective but it did recruit people who were already thinking about
increasing their intakes.

One study in Australia, in a remote Aboriginal community (38), employed a food

supply approach that involved changing the food supply to the main store with a
control community for comparison. It showed an increase of about 100g/capita per
day and other positive health and dietary changes were reported. However, there are
relatively few communities where the entire food supply can be manipulated.

At the time of the review by Cox et al (33), only three supermarket studies had been
reported. One study in the USA using point of sale promotions and cookery
demonstrations showed no effect on fruit and vegetable intake and poor awareness of
the campaign (39) and a similar result observed in an Australian point of sale
promotion (40).

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However, for another US supermarket program using multimedia computerised
information with feedback and a coupon system, increases of one third of a serving
per 1000 kilocalories consumed were claimed (41).

Two studies, one undertaken from the US (42) in a university staff cafeteria with
manipulation of prices and availability of salads and a fruit "point of sale" promotion
and another in an urban hospital in Australia (43) where patient menu changes and
point of sale promotions were used, had minimal effects at the individual level.
However, the staff cafeteria study resulted in a threefold increase in sales of selected
items.

For worksite settings, a US study in female workers at health centres (44) showed that
when combined with a home intervention, improvements averaging half a serve a day
were attained. However, a study from Holland with male employees of a large
multinational company (45) using a computerised feedback intervention for fat and
fruit and vegetables showed only slight improvement, mostly in the higher risk
groups. There was a larger effect on fat reduction than on increased fruit and
vegetables.

One mass media US study of the California 5 A Day for Better Health campaign
reported no overall effect on fruit and vegetable intake although there was about a
one-fifth a serving a day increase in salad/vegetable consumption in whites (46). One
Australian study of a "2 fruit 'n 5 veg" campaign using multimedia with point of sale
back up showed modest increases in fruit consumption (less than one-fifth a serving)
but slightly better impacts on vegetables of about half a serving a day (47).

There is contrary evidence, however from the US to suggest that fruit consumption
might be easier to increase than vegetable consumption using the general 5-a-day
message (48).

6.4 What can the Australian Citrus Industry do?

The health benefits of citrus consumption are clear. They are nutrient-dense foods
with abundant vitamins and minerals, fibre and phytochemicals without fat or salt
and, are not energy-dense. This latter consideration is of great importance in countries
like Australia where obesity (and as a result, Type 2 diabetes) is reaching epidemic
proportions.

Key promotional messages could centre around citrus being:

• A “Weight control package”(nutrient rich whilst not fattening; low fat, low
energy)
• not only a source of vitamin C, but a range of antioxidants (tied to not using
Vit C pills as substitute as you only get part of the benefit; “not only but
also…”)
• A good source of folate for mum’s to be (spina bifida) but also for the rest of
the family (re cancer/heart)
• A blood pressure control package (high potassium, low salt plus indirect
through body weight control)

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 • A cancer protective package (folate, fibre, phytochemicals, antioxidants, vits
C, A)
• A heart disease protective package (folate, fibre, phytochemicals,
antioxidants)
• An infection control package (antioxidants incuding vitamin C,
antiinflammatories)

plus being tasty

Health professionals in Australia and many other western countries are putting an
increasing effort into the promotion of fruits and vegetables as a central part of a
healthy diet and there is great potential for the citrus fruits and juice industry to
capitalise on this effort. In the US, the industry is already collaborating with major
health authorities in the promotion of their product and a similar opportunity is arising
in Australia with the Eat Well Australia initiative which has increasing fruit and
vegetables as one of its core initiatives.

In Australia, the message is not “5-a-day” but “7-a-day” in line with the Core Food
Groups analysis of the NHMRC that was the basis of development of the National
Food Guide. In both instances, however, the recommendation for fruit is for 2 or more
serves a day (they differ in the vegetable recommendations).

Achieving change in the community will not be easy. Overall, most of the
intervention programs attempted to date have had, at best, modest effects on
consumption of fruits and vegetables in target groups.

If the research data from Australia and those discussed earlier, mostly from the US, do
reflect influences operating in the wider community, the data would suggest that
programs which target psychosocial factors in their marketing approach might provide
a more effective way of increasing consumption and improving nutrition profile in the
community than those with a primarily demographic approach.

Commercial marketers are familiar with a lifestyle or psychological market

segmentation approach to promoting products. However, so far most fruit (and
vegetable) interventions have been targeted to what could be called "convenience"
groups which can be accessed through specific locations (eg schools; community
centres; churches; fitness clubs etc) rather than psychosocial segments.

Few programs appear to involve prior research on the psychosocial drivers in their
target group although some do recognise aspects of health behaviour models in their
design.

In their review of psychosocial correlates of dietary intake, Baranowski et al (4)

conclude that interventions should be developed only when predicated on models of
behaviour with substantial predictiveness of the target behaviours.

Unfortunately, today's literature on psychosocial determinants of fruit (and vegetable)

intake in various sectors of the community, is sparse. This might explain, in part, why
intervention strategies which provide major and sustainable improvements have
proved elusive.

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Promotions of specific fruits such as citrus and fruit juices, such as orange juice, are
most likely to succeed if they are based on a thorough understanding of why people
do and do not choose to eat or drink them.

• What do consumers currently know about the health value of citrus products?
• Do they recognise a special or unique role for citrus?
• How much fruit do they think they should consume, and how much citrus?
• Do they recognise that juices can be as nutritious as fresh fruit if prepared
properly?
• Do they already accept their “healthiness” and is further emphasis on
“healthiness” likely to bring additional market gain?
• If healthiness is an issue, what aspects will appeal to which segments of the
community?
• What do consumers need to know in terms of being able to add variety to their
diet (new varieties, different products, ways of presenting etc)?
• What are the competitor products and how do we best position citrus in
relation to these?
• Are consumers really interested in novel products based on citrus but with
added health benefits (eg like the “Frutrients” range) or would they rather
“pop a pill” for a health advantage?
• Which consumer targets are likely to be most receptive to the health/citrus
message?.
In the next five to ten years, promotion of increased consumption of fruits and
vegetables will be a cornerstone of National Nutrition Policy in Australia.
Horticulture Australia Ltd has already joined a coalition of government and industry
groups committed to increasing consumption of fruits and vegetables and working on
the premise that by working together promotions will be more efficient and effective.
Partnering with existing and emerging programs in both Australia and the
international markets is likely to bring benefits of scale to the citrus industry but there
is still room to position citrus fruits and drinks as a special category with particular
health benefits within this framework.
Promotions could centre on individual nutrients such as vitamin C, potassium or
folate for specific groups such as women in child bearing years and mothers,
adolescents or older adults with increasing health concerns, or could centre on the
antioxidant “package” provided by citrus – not only the well known vitamin C content
but various carotenes and a range of phytochemicals that cannot be easily mimicked
in a “pill” or manufactured “health” drink.
For citrus fruits themselves, a key challenge might relate to the convenience factor. -
the need to peel the fruit and the need to keep the “juice” where it belongs – in the
mouth not on the hands and clothes. Easy peel varieties and novel packaging and
coating approaches can provide some advances in this area but the latter may need to
be weighed against consumers’ perception of the “freshness” and “untouched” nature
of fruit and the cost factor. If “healthiness” and “freshness” is seen to be affected by
novel coatings and packaging, and if they are unduely costly, then little advantage
may accrue.

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It is likely that a broad approach to the issue will be required to get meaningful
increases in citrus consumption. Ideally, this would need to include:
• Identifying drivers of, and constraints to, increased consumption for various
sectors of the Australian community
• Partnering with special medical interest groups such as the National Heart
Foundation, the AntiCancer Foundations in the States, Infant, Child and
Adolescent Health Groups, Children’s Hospitals; Diabetes Australia; the
Asthma Foundation etc around specific nutrient/health issues
• Partnering with government in promotion and policy areas: National (eg EAT
WELL), State (Eat Well SA; Eat Well Tasmania etc),; Local Government in
both promotion programs and policy development and dissemination (eg
Dietary Guideline promotions) etc
• Partnering with overseas initiatives such as the 5-a-day and linking websites
with existing overseas specialist industry sites
• Developing education initiatives for use in schools (curriculum materials/web
sites); mass-media, health networks, youth groups etc
• Developing new products (potential particularly for the juice area)

As noted above, it is probably the first of these that is of critical importance in order
to design materials and interventions that target the real needs and concerns of the
consumer not the perceptions of nutritionists, the health sector or industry.

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24. Mackerras D, Caffin NA, Fenn A. Comparison of fruit and vegetable questionnaires used in three
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43. Morris HM, Davies M, Byrnes TJ, Orr PN, Goodwin S, Dyson LR. An approach to increasing the
frequency of better food choices in a South Australian public hospital. Australian Journal of
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44. Sorensen G, Hunt MK, Cohen N, Stoddard A. Education for dietary change: The Treatwell 5 A Day
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The Health Benefits of Citrus Fruits

Report to Horticulture Australia Ltd

Project No: CT02057

Consumer Science Program

CSIRO Health Sciences & Nutrition

June 2003

APPENDIX A

Details of individual epidemiological studies linking

citrus fruits and juices and related nutrients to health

outcome
Contents Page
Introduction 4
Cancer and citrus intake 5
Colorectal 5
Stomach 7
Lung 9
Breast 10
Prostate 11
Bladder 12
Oesophageal 13
Oropharyngeal, nasopharyngeal, nasal, laryngeal 16
Pancreatic 18
Female reproductive 19
Other cancers (kidney, testicular, thyroid, 20
mesothelioma, skin, urothelial, salivary, gallbladder)
Nutrients and cancer risk 22
Vitamin C 22
Bladder 22
Brain 22
Breast (includes benign) 22
Lung 24
Stomach 25
Colorectal 27
Female reproductive 29
Gallbladder 30
Kidney 30
Laryngeal 31
Leukaemia 31
Pancreatic 32
Prostate 33
Salivary gland 33
Oropharyngeal 34
Cancer general 35
Vitamin A, carotenes 36
Bladder 36
Bowel 36
Brain 38
Breast 38
Female reproductive 40
Gallbladder 42
Kidney 42
Laryngeal 43
Leukaemia 44
Lung 44
Melanoma 46
Mesothelioma 46
Oesophageal 47

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 Oropharyngeal 48
Pancreatic 49
Prostate 49
Salivary gland 50
Stomach 51
Cancer general 52
Fibre 53
Colorectal 53
Breast 54
Oral 54
Oesophageal 55
Salivary 55
Endometrial 55
Folate 56
Breast 56
Lung 56
Colorectal 56
Phytochemicals 57
Urinary 57
Colorectal 57
Breast 57
Lung 57
Prostate 58
Pancreatic 58
Gastric 58
All causes 58

Vitamin E, pectin & sterols 59

Diseases other than cancer 60
Arthritis 60
Asthma 60
Cataracts & macular degeneration 60
General 63
Crohn’s disease 64
Cardiovascular 64
Dementia & Altzheimers 70
Diabetes 70
Gallstones 71
Hypertension 71
Multiple sclerosis 72
Osteoporosis 73
Parkinson’s 73
Stroke 73
Ulcers 74
Blood profiles 75
Lipid peroxidation 75

References 77

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Introduction

The following pages give details of the human epidemiological studies from the literature that show
links between citrus or citrus fruit consumption and health outcomes.

Many of the epidemiology studies use relative risk estimates (or the closely related odds ratios) to
describe associations between dietary variables and disease risk. A Relative Risk (RR) of “1”
implies no difference in risk between various categories of dietary consumption. A risk above “1”
implies increased risk and below “1”, decreased risk, however it must be noted that many estimates
of relative risk in the literature, while below or above unity, are nevertheless not statistically
significantly different from unity, ie there is a reasonable chance that many of these estimates of
reduced or increased risk were obtained in the complete absence of a relationship between fruit
and vegetable intake and health risk.

In some papers the authors give estimates of statistical significance of the consumption trend in
cases versus controls, in others they simply report the confidence limits (CI) around the Relative
Risk. Where confidence limits do not encompass unity or “1” this is a statistically significant finding
for that comparison. Some researchers use an estimate called “Odds Ratio” (OR) which in practice
is very similar to Relative Risk.

Where RR or OR data are given and where the CI did not encompass “1” the RR or OR has been
bolded.

For each study, the country of study has been documented along with the type of sudy (case-
control; cohort etc); the numbers of subjects; the dates of data collection (where given); the dietary
methodology – generally food frequency questionnaires - FFQ of various lengths) and an indication
of whether controls were hospital or population-based.

The RR or OR data are also given for the various tertiles, quartiles or quintiles of consumption of
citrus product or nutrient of relevance

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1. CANCER

1.1 COLORECTAL CANCER

Table 1.1 Summary of studies which assessed citrus fruit, juice and colorectal cancer.
(Data for total or other fruit, fruit juice and relevant nutrients from these studies included if significant)

Study Results Associations

Pordenone, Italy: hospital case-control Colon I II III
(1) Fruit - 1.0 1.0
Colon cancer and Rectal cancer Citrus - 1.4 0.9 No
N=123 colon, N=125 rectal Rectum: association
Jan 1986 - Fruit - 1.2 0.7 with citrus
FFF Citrus - 0.7 1.0
Montevideo, Uruguay: hospital case I II III IV
control (2) Fruit** - 0.66 0.51 0.46 No
Colon and rectal cancer Veg + fruit*** - 0.93 0.32 0.38 association
N=160 Oranges - 1.06 0.76 with oranges
1992 - 1994 Apples*** - 0.77 0.40
61 item FFQ Bananas*** - 0.68 0.28
Milan, Italy: hospital case-control with I II III Trend with
history in first-degree relatives (3) Citrus - 0.7 0.4 citrus, but not
colorectal cancer β-carotene* - 0.5 0.5 significant
N=112 Vitamin C* - 0.8 0.4 Significant
Jan 1985 - June 1992 Total fruit was not significantly associated with colorectal cancer trend with
29 item FFQ (values not given) Vitamin C &
betacarotene
Italy (multi-centre): hospital case-control I II III IV V
(4) Citrus - 0.93 0.84 0.89 1.02 No
colorectal cancer Other fruit** - 0.87 0.70 0.74 0.72 association
N=1225, colon; N=728, rectum with citrus
1992 - 1996 Significant
79 item FFQ trend with
other fruit
Milan, Italy: hospital case-control (5) I II III
Colorectal cancer Colon : Risk appears
N=575 Fruit - 0.80 0.85 lower with
(N=330 colon, N=236 rectal) Citrus - 0.80 0.82 citrus for both
Jan 1985 - April 1987 Apples - 0.96 1.24 colon and
29 item FFQ rectal but
Rectal: non-
Fruit - 1.27 1.18 significant
Citrus - 0.69 0.78
Apples* - 1.63 1.59
NB CIs were not given
Toronto and Calgary, Canada: Males Females
population and hospital case-control (6) II III II III
colorectal cancer Colon : High Citrus
N=348 colon, N=194 rectal Citrus 1.4 1.4* 1.0 0.9 significant
Jan 1976 - April 1978 Non-citrus 0.8 0.7 1.1 1.0 increased risk
150 item FFQ Fruit juices 1.1 1.0 1.3 0.9 for colon
Rectal: cancer in
Citrus 1.2 0.9 0.7 0.9 men
Non-citrus 1.4 1.4 0.8 0.7
Fruit juices 1.4 1.4 0.7 0.9
NB: Referent is lowest tertile

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Nagoya, japan: hospital case-control (7) I II III Oranges
colorectal cancer Colon: increased risk
N=42 colon, N=51 rectal Orange - 2.14 1.35 of colon but
April 1981 - March 1984 Other fruit - 1.15 1.07 not
39 item FFQ Rectal: statistically
Orange - 0.66 0.81 significant
Other fruit - 1.14 0.82 Appeared to
NB: CIs were not given protect from
rectal but not
significant
Belgium: population case-control (8) Colon Rectal
colon and rectal cancer II III IV II III IV No effect
N=818 Fresh fruit 1.09 0.77 0.91 1.06 0.87 0.87 citrus
1978 - 1982 Citrus 1.08 1.08 1.00 0.88
diet history NB: Lowest intake quartile is referent
California, USA: case-control (9) I II III IV V
adenomatous polyps Fruit - 0.70 0.68 0.61 0.65 High
N=488 Carotenoid fruit - 0.80 0.55 0.59 0.75 Carotenoid
Jan 1991 - Aug 1993 Vitamin C fruit - 0.92 0.73 0.62 0.59 and High vitC
126 item FFQ fruit appear
protective but
significance
not reported
USA: cohort (Cancer Prevention Study I II III IV V
II) (10) Veg+citrus-M - 1.01 0.93 0.84 0.86
colon cancer Veg+citrus-F - 0.78 0.85 0.62 0.61 Citrus
N=1150 NB: CIs and trend statistics were not given appears
1982 - Aug 1988 When controlling for BMI, family history, aspirin use, exercise and protective
32 food item FFQ total fat, a group of vegetables, citrus and high-fibre grains had a (limited
significant trend of decreasing risk with increasing consumption statistical
(p=0.031) but all CIs contained unity analysis)
Swiss study; case-control; (11) Citrus; Odds ratio 0.86 * Citrus
n= 223 patients, 491 hospital-based Other fruit: Odds ratio 0.85* appears
controls; 1992-1997 collection protective

Netherlands cohort study (12) I II III IV V No effect

1986-1992 Citrus Men - 0.95 0.95 1.08 1.09 citrus
150 item FFQ p trend 0.44
over 1 000 cases Women - 0.74 1.00 0.81 0.77
Men and women P trend 0.33
* p<0.05 **p<0.01 ***p< 0.001
as reported by authors (statistical analysis not always given)
Bolded figures: confidence interval does not contain unity

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1.2 STOMACH CANCER

Table 1.2 Summary of studies which assessed citrus fruit and stomach cancer.
(Data for total or other fruit, fruit juice and relevant nutrients from these studies included if significant)

Study Results Associations

England: hospital case-control (13) Percentages I II III IV V
Stomach cancer No effect oranges
N=100 Oranges-A 10 24 17 31 18
not stated Oranges-B 16 16 21 30 16
48 item FFQ A: Cases; B: Controls
Italy: population case-control (14) I II III
Gastric cancer Citrus*** - 0.7 0.6 Significant protection
N=1016 (83%) Fresh fruit*** - 0.6 0.4 citrus
June 1985 - Dec 1987 Dried fruit+ - 0.8 1.0
146 item FFQ Note that CIs were not given
Marseille, France: hospital case-control Note tertiles used rather than quartiles
(15) I II III Lower relative risk with
Gastric adenocarcinoma Fruit* - 0.63 0.50 citrus but ns
N=92 Citrus - 0.78 0.57
March 1985 - Dec 1988 Non-citrus* - 0.54 0.63
dietary history F&V fibre* - 0.83 0.53
Vitamin C - 0.67 0.47
Louisiana, USA: hospital case-control Whites Blacks
(16) I II I II
Primary stomach cancer Lower relative risk with
N=391 Orange - 0.69 - 0.89 oranges, fruit juice,
Jan 1979 - March 1983 Fruit juice - 0.74 - 0.47 fruits, vitamin C &
not stated Fruits - 0.66 - 0.65 carotenoids but ns
Vitamin C - 0.62 - 0.63
Carotenoids - 0.68 - 1.08
Ankara, Turkey: hospital case-control I II
(17) Citrus - 0.06 Lower relative risk but
Stomach adenocarcinoma no statistics
N=100
Dec 1987 - March 1988
not stated
Spain: hospital case-control (18) I II III IV Citrus no effect
Gastric adenocarcinoma
N=354 Citrus - 1.08 0.99 0.99
Nov 1987 - Dec 1989 Other fruit** - 0.96 0.6 0.6
diet history Dried fruit - 0.5
- 2.1
No CIs given
Sweden: population case-control (19) I II III IV V
gastric cancer Apples+* - 1.09 0.81 0.63 Citrus and fruit juice
N=338 (74%) Citrus* - 1.23 1.01 0.74 0.72 significant protection
Feb 1989 - Jan 1992 Fruit juice*** - 0.76 0.40 0.49
45 item FFQ 20 years prior to interview
New York, USA: hospital case-control OR OR
(20) Intestinal Diffuse
Gastric adenocarcinoma Fruits 0.5# 0.5# Lower odds ratio (RR)
N=134 Citrus/juices 0.7 0.5 for citrus and many
Nov 1992 - Nov 1994 Citrus 0.7 0.8 other related nutrients
FFQ - NCI HHHQ (seasonally adjusted) Non-citrus 0.5# 0.6 but ns
β-carotene(µg) 0.7 0.5
α-carotene(µg) 1.0 0.6
Lutein(µg) 0.5 0.8
Lycopene(µg) 0.6 0.8
Vitamin C(mg) 0.6 0.4#
# CI did not contain unity when adjusting for usual variables plus
race, education, pack years of smoking, alcohol, BMI

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Kyushu, Japan: hospital and community I II III
case-control (21) hospital controls Significant protection
Gastric cancer Mandarins* - 0.7 0.6 for mandarins with
N=139 Fruits - 1.0 0.6 hospital controls; trend
1979 - 1982 population controls: with population
25 item FFQ Mandarins - 0.9 0.7 controls but ns
Fruits* - 1.1 0.5
Milan, Italy: hospital case-control (22) I II III
Gastric cancer Fresh fruit** - 0.63 0.53
N=206 Citrus* - 0.57 0.58 Citrus significantly
Jan 1985 - June 1986 Beta carotene***- 0.55 0.39 protective also vit C
29 item FFQ Vitamin C*** - 0.68 0.46 and betacarotene and
Note CIs were not given total fresh fruit
Milan, Italy: hospital case-control of I II III
family history of gastric cancer (23) Fruit* - 0.94 0.47 Fruit, citrus,
Gastric cancer Citrus* - 0.43 0.38 betacarotene and
N=88 cases with family history β-carotene* - 0.46 0.27 vitamin C significantly
Jan 1985 - Dec 1992; 36 item FFQ Vitamin C* - 0.62 0.20 protective
Barcelona, Spain: population case- I II III IV
control (24) Males Citrus significantly
Gastric adenocarcinoma Citrus** - 0.90 0.65 protective
N=117 (71%) Fruits* - 1.02 0.92 0.74
Sept 1986 - March 1989 Females
89 item FFQ Citrus - 0.98 0.47
All fruits - 1.08 0.97 0.85
Canada: population case-control (25) OR Unit
Gastric cancer Vitamin C 0.43 1g/day Odds ratio (RR) much
N=246 Citrus 0.75 100g/day lower for citrus, vit C,
1979-1982 Beta-carotene 0.33 10000IU/day betacarotene and
large FFQ Other carotenes 0.39 10000IU/day carotenes but ns
Piraeus, Greece: hospital case-control Chi-squared
(26) Fruits 0.3
Gastric cancer Oranges* 8.7 Decreased risk Oranges and lemons
N=110 Lemons* 6.3 Decreased risk significant protection
May 1981 - June 1984 Note chi-squared values calculated across quartile (or quintile)
80 item FFQ groups
Belgium: population case-control (27) I II III IV
Gastric cancer Fresh fruit*** - 0.90 0.58 0.56
N=449 (41%) Stewed fruit** - 1.07 1.25 1.58 No effect citrus
1979-1982 Citrus - 1.10 0.82
diet history Apples*** - 0.26 0.26
Sweden case-control (28) Cardia 1 11 111 1V V Citrus protective for
Population based; 567 cases 1165 Citrus - 1.5 0.9 0.8 0.8 noncardia cancer not
controls Vit C * - 0.4 0,6 0.4 for cardis
b-carotene - 0.7 0.4 0.6
Non-cardia
Citrus * - 1.1 1.0 0.7 0.8
Vit C*** - 0.6 0.6 0.5
b-carotene - 0.8 0.7 0.6
Uraguay case-control (29) I II III Significant protection
N=160 cases 320 hospital controls. Citrus fuits* - 0.89 0.52 from citrus
64 item FFQ OR p value trend 0.02
United States. Prospective cohort (30) Vegetable + citrus+ wholegrains With vegetables and
I million, 14yr follow up; 439 stomach RR 0.79, 95% CI 0.67-0.93 (men) wholegrain significant
cancers in women and 910 in men Trend ** highest vs lowest tertile in men protection in men
1982-1999 NS in women
Netherlands: Cohort study (Netherlands I II III IV V
Cohort Study) (31) Fruit-A - 0.92 0.88 0.74 0.83 Significant protective
Stomach cancer Fruit-B - 0.98 0.94 0.80 0.97 effect citrus
N=310 Citrus-A* - 0.87 0.84 0.60 0.75
Sept 1986 - Dec 1992 Citrus-B - 0.95 0.92 0.70 0.86
150 item FFQ (seasonally adjusted)
Korea (31a) Intake of citrus showed protective trend but ns Non-significant trend to
Case-control 136 patients; 136 hospital protection by citrus
controls

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1.3 LUNG CANCER
Table 1. 3 Summary of studies which assessed citrus fruit and lung cancer.
(Data for total or other fruit, fruit juice and relevant nutrients from these studies included if significant)
Study Results Association
Western Sweden: population case- I II III
control (32)
Lung cancer (ICD-7: 162.1) Citrus - 0.81 0.90 Citrus no effect
N=304 males (confirmed diagnosis) Other fruit/berries** 0.72 0.58
not stated 80+ item FFQ Fruit index* - 0.83 0.73
Florida, USA: population case-control of I II III IV
never smokers (33) Fruits* - 0.9 0.4 0.6
Lung cancer (ICD-O: 162.2-162.9) Citrus - 1.2 0.8 0.6 Citrus no effect
N=124 women Carotene*** - 0.5 0.4 0.3 Fruit, Carotene,
April, 1987 Lutein - 1.1 0.6 0.9 cryptoxanthin,
60 item FFQ with portion sizes Cryptoxanthin* - 0.6 0.7 0.4 vitamin C
Lycopene - 1.1 1.2 0.6 significantly
Vitamin C** - 0.8 0.6 0.5 protective
Stockholm, Sweden: population case- I II III IV V
control (34) Citrus - 1.34 1.52 Citrus appears to
Lung cancer (WHO histologically typed Other fruit* - 0.58 0.49 increase risk but
using classification) Fruit index - 0.44 0.67 ns
N=124 never smokers β-carotene - 0.88 0.44 0.59 0.57 Other Fruit , total
1989-1995 Total carot.* - 0.73 0.40 0.59 0.43 carotene,
19 item or food group FFQ, Vitamin C - 0.50 0.99 0.93 1.14 protective
Yunnan, China: population case-control I II III IV
(35) Fresh fruit - 0.72 1.49 0.94 RR down with
Lung cancer Bananas** - 0.75 0.63 0.59 oranges but ns
N=428 (92%) Oranges - 0.80 0.82 0.69
1984 - 1988 Apples/ pears*- 1.46 0.68 0.69
31 item FFQ Note that CIs were not given
California, USA: cohort study (Adventist I II III RR down with
Health Study (36) 1977-1982 Fruit** - 0.30 0.26 citrus but ns
primary lung cancers (ICD-O: 162) Canned fruit+ - 0.77 Sig protection for
N=61 incident cases; 51 item FFQ Citrus - 0.64 total fruit
United States cohort (37) I II III IV V Significantly
Nurses & Health professionals studies Citrus fruit lower risk in
77 283 women; 47 778 men 15 fruit, 23 Women - 1.03 0.85 0.98 0.72 women with high
vegetable FFGQ Men - 0.97 0.87 0.79 1.12 citrus not men
Netherlands cohort; (38) Inverse associations for all fruits measured Significant
1074 cases I II III IV V inverse relations
6 yr follow up 150 item FFQ Total fruit*** - 0.7 0.6 0.6 0.8 with all fruits
Oahu, Hawaii, USA: population case- (Proportional hazard ratios)
control, survival analysis (39) I II III IV
primary lung cancer Men: Oranges
N=675 β-carotene 1.0 1.4 1.2 - significant
Sept 1979 - Sept 1985 Vitamin C 0.9 1.1 1.4 - protection in men
130 item FFQ including portion size Oranges** 1.8 1.5 1.5 - & women
estimates All fruit 0.8 0.9 1.1 -
Women: Vit C & all fruit
β-carotene 1.5 1.2 1.3 - protective in
Vitamin C* 1.2 1.6 1.7 - - women
Oranges** 1.5 1.2 1.7 - -
All fruit* 2.0 1.6 2.0 -
NB: Highest intake quartile is the referent
Japan (39a) Oranges decreased risk Oranges
Cohort 42940 males 55308 females decreased risk of
446 cases males; 126 females lung cancer
FFQ at baseline 9 yr follow up
Spain (39b) No protective effect of any fruits Fruit once a day or more vs less Citrus did not
Case-control population-based than once a week increased risk OR 2.16 95% CI 1.02-4.58 protect
USA (39c) Cohort CARET intervention Citrus had no effect on risk across quintilkes of intake p for trend Citrus did not
trial placebo/treatment arms 0.22 in intervention arm and 0.15 in placebo arm protect
14120 participants 8 yr follow up 742
cases, male and female

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1.4 BREAST CANCER (also includes one benign disease study)

Table 1.4 Summary of studies which assessed citrus fruit and breast cancer.
(Data for total or other fruit, fruit juice and relevant nutrients from these studies included if significant)

Study Results Associations

Italy: Multi-centre hospital case-control I II III IV V
(40) No effect of citrus
Breast cancer β-carotene* - 1.11 1.00 0.90 0.84 Beta-carotene
N=2569 Cooked vegetables, citrus, other fruits and vitamin C were not protective
June 1991 – Feb 1994 significantly associated with breast cancer risk (data not given)
78 item FFQ
La Plata, Argentina: hospital and I II III IV
population case-control (41) Citrus* - 0.43 0.27 0.58 Citrus and other
Breast cancer Other fruits* - 0.75 0.31 0.41 fruit significantly
N=150 (98%) RR protective
1984 - 1985 β-carotene (per 100mg) 0.90
147 item FFQ Vitamin C (per 100mg) 0.58 Vitamin C looks
Note that all RR values represent a comparison with the protective but ns
population controls
Italy & Switzerland: hospital case- I II III Citrus no effect
control (42) Fruit - 0.5 0.8 Beta-carotene
Breast cancer Pears* - 0.6 0.5 protective
N=107 Citrus - 1.0 1.1
Jan 1990 – Aug 1992 β-carotene** - 0.5 0.4
50 item FFQ Vitamin C - 0.9 0.7
Note that CIs were not given
Montpellier, France: hospital case- I II III Trend to increased
control (43) Citrus - 1.0 1.4 risk with citrus and
Breast cancer β-carotene-fruit- 1.0 1.4 beta-carotene fruit
N=409 β-carotene - 1.0 1.0 but ns
Feb 1983 – April 1987 All trends were non-significant and all CIs contained unity
Diet history
Perth, Australia: cross sectional study Tumour differentiation: Well Mod. Poor p
of tumour growth (44) Fruit (g/day) 69 57 42 .011 No effect yellow-
Breast cancer Yellow/orange (g/day) 28 21 16 ns orange fruit
N=91 Other fruit (g/day) 41 37 26 0.032
Not stated Vascular invasion: Absent Present p
179 item FFQ Fruit (g/day) 51 48 ns
Yellow/orange (g/day) 17 20 ns
Other fruit (g/day) 34 28 ns
United States; Male breast cancer; (45) Significantly
220 cases, 291 population-based increased risk with
controls; 1980s citrus fruit
Meta-analysis of 8 cohorts with at least Weak ns associations with total fruits RR 0.93 No effect of citrus
200 cases (46) . No association with any specific fruit groups
7377 cases in 351 825 women
United States case-control (`47) I II III IV No effect fruit& fruit
568 cases and 1 451 population Fruit & fruit juices - 1.04 0.76 1.08 juices; vitamin C-
controls; 100 item FFQ Vitamin C-rich - 0.98 0.85 1.1 rich foods or
20-44 yr olds; 1990-1992 Carotenoid rich - 1.00 0.90 1.02 carotene-rich foods
Mexico (47a) Citrus fruit I to III OR 0.43; 95% CI 0.21-0.88 Citrus fruit
Benign breast disease significantly reduced
121 subjects and 121 clinical controls benign breast
1994-1996 Semi-quantitative FFQ disease risk
China – Shanghai (47b) Intake all fruits inversely assoc with risk; p value trend test < 0.05 Citrus reduces
1459 cases; 1556 controls; FFQ breast cancer risk
USA (47c) No association Citrus had no
441 cases; 370 controls; FFQ association
US case control (47d) 441 cases, 370 Quintile 1 2 3 4 No effect citrus
population controls 1.00 1.42 1.20 1.21 p 0.59
1 1.39 1.15 1.16 p 0.77 (adjusted)
* p<0.05 **p<0.01 ***p< 0.001 as reported by authors (statistical analysis not always given)
Bolded figures: confidence interval does not contain unity

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1.5 PROSTATE CANCER

Table 1.5 Summary of studies which assessed citrus fruit and prostate cancer.
(Data for total or other fruit, fruit juice and relevant nutrients from these studies included if significant)

Study Results Associations

UK: Multi-centre population case- I II III IV Apparent increased
control (48) Carotene - 0.69 0.83 risk with citrus but ns
Prostate cancer Lycopene - 0.90 0.99
N=328 (77%) Vitamin C - 1.19 1.23
Dec 1989 – June 1992 Citrus - 1.11 1.41 1.45
83 item FFQ Non-citrus - 1.18 1.15 0.99
Note that all trend statistics were non-significant
Netherlands: Cohort (Netherlands I II III IV V Significant increased
Cohort Study) (49) Fruit & veg - 1.08 1.07 1.16 1.05 risk with citrus and
Prostate cancer Fruit* - 1.06 0.92 1.16 1.31 total fruit
N=642 Citrus** - 0.86 0.96 1.11 1.27
Sept 1986 -
150 item FFQ
California, USA: Cohort (California I II III Significant decreased
Seventh Day Adventist study) (50) Citrus** - 0.76 0.53 risk with citrus and
Prostate cancer Other fruit - 0.79 0.78 dried fruit
N=180 Dried fruit** - 0.96 0.51
1976 – Dec 1982 FFQ

USA: Cohort study (Health I II III IV V No effect of oranges

Professionals Follow-up Study) (51) α-carotene - 1.05 1.09 1.07 1.09
Prostate cancer β-carotene - 1.24 0.96 0.99 1.05
N=812 β-cryptoxanthin- 0.97 1.14 0.99 0.94
Feb 1986 – Jan 1992 Lycopene* - 0.90 0.94 0.89 0.79
131 item FFQ Lutein - 1.01 1.01 0.96 1.10
Oranges - 0.91 0.97 0.99 0.94
Ontario, Canada; case-control; (52) Higher fruit, higher OR 1.51 in 4th quartile CI 1.14 –2.01 Higher risk with citrus
617 cases, 636 population controls
diet history interview
USA case-control; (53) OR I II III No effect citrus
628 cases, 602 controls Citrus - 0.96 1.09 p trend 0.79
FFQ No assoc fruit
Lutein + zeazanthin at 2000ug vs less 800ug 0.68 CI 0.45-1.00

* p<0.05 **p<0.01 ***p< 0.001

as reported by authors (statistical analysis not always given)
Bolded figures: confidence interval does not contain unity

11 of 128
1.6 BLADDER CANCER

Table 1.6 Summary of studies which assessed citrus fruit and bladder cancer.
(Data for total or other fruit, fruit juice and relevant nutrients from these studies included if significant)

Study Result Associations

USA Health professionals (54); No association with citrus fruits No association
cohort; 252 cases Multivariate RR = 1.02 95% CI 0.65-1.6 citrus
1986-1996 47 909 men. For top & bottom categories
131item FFQ
California, USA: cohort (California I II III No effect of citrus
Seventh Day Adventists Study) (55) Fruit juice* - 0.55 0.31
Bladder cancer
N=52 Note that all CIs contained unity
1976 – Dec 1982 Beans/ lentils/ peas, salads, tomatoes, nuts and citrus were all
51 item FFQ non-significant (RRs around 1 – specific values not given)
USA (55a) No associations for fruit as whole or groups of fruits or specific No effect citrus
Male smokers fruits
Prospective cohort
N= 344
11 yr follow up
276 item FFQ
* p<0.05 **p<0.01 ***p< 0.001
as reported by authors (statistical analysis not always given)
Bolded figures: confidence interval does not contain unity

12 of 128
1.7 OESOPHAGEAL CANCER

Table 1.7 Summary of studies which assessed citrus fruit and oesophageal cancer.
(Data for total or other fruit, fruit juice and relevant nutrients from these studies included if significant)

Study Results Associations

South Carolina, USA: hospital case- I II III
control (two components: incidence Citrus significantly
series and mortality series) (56) Fruits** - 0.5 0.5 reduces risk
Incidence series: primary oesophageal Citrus fruits** - 0.5 0.5
cancer β-carotene fruits - 0.7 0.8 Fruits and vitamin C
Mortality series: males who had died of Other fruits - 0.9 0.6 reduce risk
primary oesophageal cancer Carotene - 0.9 0.8
Incidence: N=74 (85%) Vitamin C* - 0.8 0.5
Mortality: N=133 (93%)
Overall N=207 men
Incidence: 1982-1984
Mortality: died during 1977-1981
65 item FFQ
Georgia, Detroit and New Jersey, USA: I II III IV No effect of citrus,
population case-control (57) Fruits - 1.0 1.0 0.7 citrus juices, high vit
Oesophageal cancer (ICD-O: 150, Citrus/juices - 1.7 1.3 1.1 C fruit or vit C
151.0). Adenocarcinoma (ICD-O: 8140 - Citrus - 0.6 0.6 0.7
8573) Noncitrus - 0.7 0.4 0.6
N=174 (74%) white males Fruit Vit A - 1.5 1.0 0.9
Aug, 1986 - April, 1989 Veg Vit A - 0.6 0.7 0.7
60 item FFQ Vitamin C - 1.4 1.0 0.9
Fruit Vit C - 1.9 1.3 1.2
Veg Vit C - 0.5 0.6 0.5
Hong Kong: hospital/general practice I II III IV Significant
case-control (58) protection of citrus
oesophageal cancer Citrus-A** - 0.39 0.39 in never smokers,
N=121 (68 never smokers, 53 never Citrus-B - 0.63 0.59 no protection in
drinkers) out of 400 cases never drinkers
March 1989, Dec 1990 A: Never smokers; B: never drinkers
22 item FFQ
Hong Kong: hospital/general practice I II III IV V VI Significant
case-control (59) protection by citrus
oesophageal cancer (85% squamous Citrus*** - 0.4 0.33 0.15 0.067 0.096
cell carcinoma, 11% adenocarcinoma, Other fruits*** - 1.07 0.38 0.21 0.13 0.15
4% other)
N=400 (87%)
March 1989, Dec 1990
22 item FFQ
Northern Iran: population case-control Males Females Significant
(60) I II I II protection by citrus
oesophageal and dried lemons (in
N=344 oesophageal cancer (54%), Oranges - 0.59 - 0.46 men)
N=181 other cancers (37%) Dried lemons - 0.52 - 1.16
Dec 1974 - Feb 1976
not stated

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Shanghai, China: population case- Men I II III IV Oranges, carotene
control (61) Fruit*** - 0.6 0.6 0.6 and vitamin C
Oesophageal cancer Apples*** - 0.6 0.5 0.5 statistically
N=902 (89%) Pears** - 0.6 0.6 0.6 protective in men –
Oct 1990 - Jan 1993 Oranges*** - 0.6 0.5 0.5 association weaker
81 FFQ (seasonally adjusted) Bananas*** - 0.6 0.6 0.5 in women
Carotene*** - 0.7 0.6 0.5
Vitamin C*** - 0.8 0.6 0.5

Women:
Fruit - 0.8 1.0 0.6
Apples - 0.9 1.1 0.8
Pears - 1.0 1.0
Oranges - 0.7 0.6 0.6
Bananas* - 0.7 0.7 0.6
Carotene - 0.9 0.8 0.6
Vitamin C*** - 0.9 1.1 0.6
Various centres in France: hospital I II III IV Citrus, vitamin C
case control (62) Citrus fruits* - 0.66 0.86 0.54 and carotene
Oesophageal cancer (squamous cell Other fruits* - 0.83 0.49 0.59 significantly
carcinoma) Vitamin C** - 0.76 0.44 0.40 protective
N=208 (93%) males Carotene* - 0.90 0.81 0.61
1991-1994
quantified food history
Calvados, France: population case- I II III IV Citrus fruit, vitamin
control (63) Citrus fruit** - 1.14 0.76 0.33 C and carotene
Oesophageal cancer Other fresh fruit* 0.63 0.50 0.72 significantly
N=743 Vitamin C* - 0.80 0.65 0.53 protective
1972-1978 Carotene* - 0.85 1.00 0.53
Diet history, 40 foods (frequency and Note: CI’s not given
weight)
New York, USA: hospital case-control I II III IV No effect citrus or
(64) Total fruits-A - 0.8 0.7 0.5 citrus + juices
Oesophageal cancer and gastric cardia Total fruits-B - 1.0 1.1 0.7
N=95 (N=90 for diet analyses) Citrus/juices-A - 1.8 0.9 1.7 (A and B refer to
Nov 1992 - Nov 1994 Citrus/juices-B - 2.0 1.2 2.4 different variables
NCI’s HHHQ (seasonally adjusted) Citrus-A - 0.9 1.0 0.6 being controlled in
Citrus-B - 0.9 1.2 0.7 analysis)
Raw fruits-A* - 0.6 0.6 0.4
Raw fruits-B - 0.4 0.9 0.4
β-carotene-A - 0.6 0.3 0.5
β-carotene-B - 0.6 0.3 0.6
lycopene-A - 0.8 1.4 0.8
lycopene-B - 0.9 1.5 1.0
Vitamin C-A - 1.0 1.3 0.9
Vitamin C-B - 1.2 1.6 1.0
Switzerand; case-control (65) OR I II III Citrus protective
1992-9 Citrus ** - 0.29 0.22
101 cases 327 controls
Sweden; case-control; (66) Citrus, juice, apple & pear together Citrus & juice with
608 cases, 815 population controls OR I II III IV apple & pear trend
1995-97 - 0.8 0.7 0.7 To protection but ns
63 item FFQ p trend 0.08
Italy; case-control; (67) I II III IV V Citrus protective
304 cases. 743 controls Citrus fruit** - 0.58 0.48 0.62 0.42
1992-7 78 question FFQ

USA Nebraska; whites; (68) 1 11 111 1V Citrus fruit and

population based controls; case-control; Citrus fruit & juices * - .0 75 0.47 0.48 juices significantly
124 subjects 449 controls. 1988-93 protective

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Washington DC, USA: I II III No effect citrus/
proxy case-control (69) juices, protection
Oesophageal cancer Citrus/juices 1.2 1.6 - from other fruits,
N=120, black males who had died Bananas* 1.7 1.8 - total fruits and
died during 1975-1977 Other fruits** 2.5 1.4 - vitamin C
31 item FFQ Fruits-A* 2.0 2.4 -
Carotene-A 1.3 1.3 -
Vitamin C-A* 1.8 1.2 -
NB: Highest tertile of intake is the referent
Note: CI’s not given
* p<0.05 **p<0.01 ***p< 0.001
as reported by authors (statistical analysis not always given)
Bolded figures: confidence interval does not contain unity

15 of 128
1. 8 ORO-PHARYNGEAL, NASO-PHARYNGEAL, NASAL & LARYNGEAL CANCERS

Table 1.8 Summary of studies which assessed citrus fruit and oro-pharyngeal and naso-
pharyngea, nasal and laryngeal (mouth, nose, larynx & pharynx) cancer.
(Data for total or other fruit, fruit juice and relevant nutrients from these studies included if significant)

Study Result Association

North east Italy: hospital case-control I II III Citrus significantly
(70) protective as were
oral cavity and pharynx (not naso- Fruit tot-A** - 0.7 0.6 apples and total fruit
pharynx) Apples-A** - 1.0 0.4
N=302 Citrus* - 0.6 0.7
From June 1985 NB all results significant controlling for both sets of adjustment
40 food items FFQ variables unless otherwise indicated
Brazil: hospital case-control (71) I II III Citrus looks
oral cancer: tongue, gum, floor of Carotene rich - 0.7 0.4 protective but no
mouth, other pats of oral cavity Citrus - 0.4 0.4 statistics given
(excluding lip or salivary gland cancers) Citrus-A - 0.5 0.5
N=232 Feb 1986 - June 1988
20 food items FFQ
Vaud, Switzerland: hospital case- I II III Citrus significantly
control (72) protective as was
oral cavity and pharynx (excluding lip, Citrus* - 0.34 0.38 other fruit and fruit
salivary gland, and nasopharynx) Other fruit* - 0.42 0.22 diversity
N=156 Jan 1992 - June 1997 Diversity of
79 food item FFQ fruit intake** - 0.58 0.34
USA: population-based case-control Men: I II III IV Citrus was
(73) All Fruits** - 0.6 0.4 0.4 significantly
oral and pharyngel cancers Citrus** - 0.7 0.5 0.5 protective in men
N=871 Dark yellow** - 0.8 0.6 0.5 and women as were
Jan 1984 - March 1985 Other fruits** - 0.7 0.5 0.4 dark yellow fruits (in
61 item FFQ men) and other
Women: fruits
Fruits* - 0.9 0.8 0.5
Citrus* - 0.9 0.8 0.5
Dark yellow - 0.8 0.5 0.6
Other fruits* - 0.6 0.7 0.4

Fruit intake and cancer site:

Men:
Tongue** - 0.7 0.5 0.5
Other Oral** - 0.6 0.5 0.4
Pharynx** - 0.6 0.4 0.5
Women:
Tongue - 0.9 1.1 0.4
Other Oral - 0.9 0.8 0.6
Pharynx** - 0.8 0.5 0.2
Beijing, China: hospital case-control I II III IV Apparent effect of
(74) oranges , vitamin c,
Oral cancer carotene (Fruit) - 0.66 0.50 0.58 fruit carotene &fruit
N=404 Vitamin C (Fruit)- 0.59 0.60 0.55 fibre but not
May 1989 - Dec 1989 Fibre (Fruit) - 0.65 0.47 0.50 significant
63 FFQ, seasonal variation requested Fruit juice - 0.66
Orange juice - 0.97 0.82 No effect orange
Oranges - 0.51 0.34 0.25 0.36 juice or fruit juice

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Multi-centre, USA: population case- Men: I II III IV Citrus appeared to
control (75) Fruits** - 0.8 0.9 0.2 be protective but
oral and pharyngeal cancers: tongue, Citrus - 0.7 0.7 0.6 this was not
pharynx and other oral cancers Dark yellow fruit- 1.0 0.9 0.7 significant.
(excluding lip, salivary gland or Other fruits** - 1.4 0.4 0.4 Fruits, other fruits,
nasopharynx) Carotene*** - 0.6 0.6 0.2 carotene and
N=190 (77%) Vitamin C** - 0.6 0.5 0.3 vitamin C were
Jan 1984 - March 1985 statistically
61 item FFQ Women: protective in men
Fruits - 0.6 0.5 0.6 but not ion women
Citrus - 1.9 2.3 0.7
Dark yellow fruit- 0.6 0.5 0.6
Other fruits - 0.7 1.1 0.4
Carotene - 1.6 1.4 1.2
Vitamin C - 0.6 0.9 0.6
Shanghai, China: population case- Men I II III IV Citrus was
control (76) Citrus* - 0.40 0.40 statistically
Oral and pharyngeal cancer Carotene - 1.17 1.31 protective in both
N=204 (78%) Vitamin C - 1.02 1.43 men and women.
Jan 1988 – Feb 1990
41 item FFQ Women: No effect seem for
Citrus* - 0.33 0.42 vit C or carotene
Carotene - 0.62 1.37
Vitamin C - 0.43 1.19
Note no CI values given
Italy; case-control; (77) OR I II III Trend to protection
132 cases ; controls 148 hospital- Citrus fruit - 0.83 0.72 but ns
based; oro-pharyngeal;
Cuba; case-control; 200 cases; (78) OR I II III Trend to protection
Oropharyngeal; hospital controls Citrus - 0.85 0.78 but ns
Fruit juices - 0.71 0.77
Uraguay; laryngeal cancer (79) Oranges protective Oranges protective
case-control; 148 cases 444 hospital
controls FFQ 62 items;
China; naso-pharyngeal (80) OR I II III IV Significant
case-control; Oranges/tangerines*** - 0.71 0.55 0.55 protection of
935 patients. 1032 community controls oranges/mandarins
Shanghai, China: population case- I II III Oranges and
control (81) Orange/tanger - 0.5 0.5 tangerines
nasal cavity, paranasal sinuses and the Other fruit - 0.6 1.3 protective
middle ear (ICD-9: 160) Orange/tangerine (A) 0.6
N=60 (95%) Jan 1988 - Feb 1990
41 item FFQ
Norway: cohort study (82) I II III Orange
upper aerogastric tract cancers: mouth Oranges* - 0.7 0.5 consumption was
– (excluding salivary glands), tongue, statistically
pharynx (excluding epipharynx), larynx protective in this
and oesophagus cohort study for all
N=71 Jan, 1968 - Dec 1992 sites (numbers of
Frequency of consumption of 32 food cases very small)
items
Italy & Switzerland (82a) Citrus fruit OR 0.6 significant Citrus fruit reduces
527 cases 1297 clinical controls risk of laryngeal
FFQ 78 items cancer
1992-2000 collection
Poland (82b); High fruit OR 0.4; strongest inverse for fruit juices & citrus < 0.01 Citrus reduces risk
oral & pharyngeal cancer of oro-pharyngeal
122 cases aged 28-80 yrs; 124 controls cancer
India (82c) 1996-99 Frequent consumption of citrus fruit decreased oral cancer risk Citrus reduces risk
591 cases oral; 582 hospital controls p < 0.001 oral cancer
Spain (82d) I II III Citrus significantly
1996-99 375 patients 375 hospital Citrus - 0.60 0.42 p < 0.001 lowered risk; fruit
controls FFQ 25 item Fruit juice - 1.12 0.72 p<0.18 juice did not
* p<0.05 **p<0.01 ***p< 0.001 as reported by authors (statistical analysis not always given)
Bolded figures: confidence interval does not contain unity

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1.9 PANCREATIC CANCER

Table 1.9 Summary of studies which assessed citrus fruit and pancreas cancer
(Data for total or other fruit, fruit juice and relevant nutrients from these studies included if significant)

Study Result Association

The Netherlands: population case- I II III IV V Citrus not significantly
control (83) protective
Pancreatic cancer Fruit - 0.99 0.89 0.59 1.09
N=164 Low-fibre fruit - 0.78 1.00 0.81 0.86
Jan 1984 – March 1987 High-fibre fruit - 1.12 0.93 0.81 0.89
116 item FFQ Fresh fruit - 1.04 0.90 0.81 0.97
Citrus - 0.50 0.73 0.70 0.95
Fruit juices - 0.76 0.95 0.83 0.77
β-carotene - 0.61
Vitamin C - 0.75
Washington, USA: population case- Vitamin C was not associated with pancreatic cancer risk (after No effect c itrus or vit
control of married men (84) age, smoking, education and energy intake were controlled for) C
Pancreatic cancer Cases and controls did not differ in their intakes of fruit, citrus
N=148 (68%) fruit, vegetables or raw vegetables (data not given)
July 1982 – June 1986
135 item FFQ
Shanghai, China: population case- Men: I II III IV Citrus statistically
control (85) Fruit* - 0.99 0.68 0.66 protective (in men) as
Pancreatic cancer Citrus** - 1.08 0.68 0.65 was vit C (in men) and
N=451 (78%) Bananas** - 0.70 0.65 0.58 carotene (both men
Oct 1990 – June 1993 Vitamin C*** - 1.20 0.62 0.53 and women)
86 item FFQ Carotene** - 0.91 0.80 0.53
Citrus trend in women
Women: but ns
Fruit - 0.68 0.77 0.58
Citrus - 0.80 0.89 0.58
Bananas** - 0.61 0.66 0.45
Vitamin C - 1.10 0.79 0.66
Carotene** - 0.70 0.86 0.38
Sweden: population and hospital case- I II III Citrus and fruit juices
control (86) Hospital controls: looked protective; no
pancreatic cancer Fruit, juices - 0.9 0.6 statistics given
N=99 Citrus - 0.6 0.3
1982 – 1984
Diet method not stated Population controls:
Fruit, juices - 0.6 0.6
Citrus - 1.0 0.5
Note that CIs were 90%, trend statistics were not given
California, USA: Cohort study I II III Citrus not protective
(California Seventh-Day Adventists Dried fruit** - 0.47 0.35
Study) (87) Canned/frozen fruit, fresh fruit, cooked green veg, green salad,
Pancreatic cancer tomatoes, citrus, winter fruit were all not significantly associated
N=40 1976 - 1983 with risk for pancreatic cancer (data not given)
Diet method not stated
* p<0.05 **p<0.01 ***p< 0.001
as reported by authors (statistical analysis not always given)
Bolded figures: confidence interval does not contain unity

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1.10 FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE TRACT CANCERS
(ovarian, endometrial, cervical, vulval)

Table 1.10 Summary of studies which assessed citrus fruit and endometrial, ovarian,
cervical and vulval cancer
(Data for total or other fruit, fruit juice and relevant nutrients from these studies included if significant)

Study Result Association

Endometrial
Oahu, Hawaii, USA: population case- I II III IV Oranges
control (88) Vit C - 0.58 0.73 0.59 statistically
Endometrial cancer Fruits - 0.62 0.57 0.48 protective as
N=322 β-carotene - 0.5 0.5 0.6 well as lutein;
Jan 1985 – June 1993 Lycopene - 0.7 0.9 1.16 trend for
250 item FFQ Lutein* - 0.5 0.6 0.5 betacarotene
Oranges** - 0.7 0.8 0.4 but ns
Cantaloupe** - 0.7 0.5 0.6

Switzerland & Italy: hospital case- I II III Citrus no

control (89) Fruit* - 0.89 0.62 effect
Endometrial cancer Pears* - 0.89 0.63
N=274 Citrus - 1.19 0.93 Betacarotene
From Jan 1988 Melons** - 0.77 0.63 protective
50 item FFQ β-carotene-A**- 0.85 0.49
Note that CIs were not given
Shanghai, China: population case- I II III IV Trend for
control (90) Carotene - 1.4 1.1 1.3 citrus but ns
Endometrial cancer Vitamin C - 1.2 1.2 1.1
N=268 Fruit - 0.4 0.6 0.7
April, 1988 – Jan 1990 Citrus - 0.7 0.6 0.8
63 item FFQ Other fruit - 0.6 0.6 0.8
All trend statistics were non-significant
USA: multi-centre population case- I II III IV No effect
control (91) Vitamin C - 1.6 1.1 1.3 citrus
Endometrial cancer Fruit - 1.2 1.1 1.1
N=399 Citrus - 1.6 0.8 1.1
June 1987 – May 1990
60 item FFQ Note that trend statistics were not given; all CIs contained unity

Vulvar cancer
Chicago, New York, USA: population I II III IV No effect
case-control (92) citrus or
Vulvar cancer Fruit/juices 1.01 0.54 0.79 - fruit/juices
N=201 (61%) Citrus 1.20 0.78 1.11 -
1985 - 1987 Vitamin C 1.15 0.71 0.86 -
61 item FFQ Carotenoids 1.20 0.69 0.73 -
α-carotene 1.74 1.56 1.60 -
β-carotene 1.26 1.23 0.88 -
Lutein 0.98 0.87 1.02 -
Lycopene 0.79 1.23 0.81 -
Cryptoxanthin 0.97 0.94 0.79 -
Comparison is highest quartile

Ovarian cancer
USA (92a) No effect of specific fruits or fruit & veg groups but those No effect of
Nurses Health Study cohort 80 326 consuming at least 2.5 total servings as adolescents had 46% citrus on
301 cases in 16 yr follow up 1980 - risk reduction RR 0.54 95% CI 0.29-1.03 p for trend 0.04 ovarian cancer
1996 risk

* p<0.05 **p<0.01 ***p< 0.001

as reported by authors (statistical analysis not always given)
Bolded figures: confidence interval does not contain unity

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1.11 OTHER CANCERS
(kidney, testicular, thyroid, mesothelioma, skin (squamous), non-Hodgkins lymphoma,
urothelial, salivary, gallbladder)

Table 1.11 Summary of studies which assessed citrus fruit and other cancers
(Data for total or other fruit, fruit juice and relevant nutrients from these studies included if significant)

Kidney cancer
Sweden: population case-control (93) I II III IV No effect citrus
Renal cell cancer
N=379 (84%) Fruit* - 1.14 0.93 0.65
June 1989 – March 1992 Apples* - 0.96 0.72 0.65
FFQ Citrus - 1.25 1.12 0.91
Vitamin C - 1.25 1.05 0.83
β-carotene - 0.93 0.79 0.78
Multi-centre : population case-control I II III IV No effect citrus
(94) Vitamin C - 1.01 1.06 0.89
Renal cell cancer β-carotene - 1.08 1.00 0.90
N=1185 Fruit - 0.97 0.89 0.85
1989 – 1991 Citrus - 1.14 1.05 0.95
63 - 205 item FFQ
Trend statistics not given
Los Angeles, USA: population case- I II III IV V Citrus statistically
control (95) Citrus** - 1.00 0.90 0.68 0.73 protective as was
Renal cell cancer Citrus juices - 1.05 0.91 0.99 1.11 carotenes and
N=1204 α-carotene*** - 1.03 0.82 0.78 0.61 crytoxanthin and
April 1986 – Dec 1994 β-carotene** - 0.87 0.90 0.71 0.69 lutein
40 item FFQ β-cryptoxanthin**- 0.96 0.91 0.73 0.76
Lutein** - 0.83 0.85 0.69 0.70
Lycopene - 0.86 0.90 0.91 0.98
Vitamin C - 1.16 0.97 1.06 0.76
Sweden (102b) Consumption of citrus decreased frequency of mutations in Citrus protects
102 patients tumour initiating gene OR 0.13 for one type mutation; 0.17 for against gene
multiple mutations mutation that is a
risk for kidney
cancer
Testicular cancer
East Anglia, UK: population and cancer Mean (SD) Cases CC PC Oranges not
case-control (96) Oranges 0.96 (1.35) 0.84 (1.28) 1.28 (2.12) protective
Testicular cancer Fruit salad 0.41 (0.51) 0.47 (0.71) 0.54 (0.87)
N=129 (73%) Note that all differences were non-significant
1981 - 1991 RRs were not given
FFQ, consumption now versus
consumption at age 17
Thyroid cancer
Italy and Switzerland: hospital case- I II III Citrus statistically
control (97) protective
Thyroid cancer Citrus* - 0.8 0.7
N=385 Fresh fruit - 1.1 0.9
Jan 1986 – 1990 Note that CIs were not given
30-38 item FFQ
Sweden and Norway: population case- I II III No effect citrus
control (98) Fruit - 1.2 1.0
Thyroid cancer Citrus - 1.6 1.3
N=221 All CIs contained unity, trend statistics were not given
April, 1983 – Sept 1994
18-19 item FFQ
Mesothelioma
New York, USA: hospital case-control I II III IV No effect orange
(99) Orange juice - 1.2 1.3 juice
Malignant mesothelioma β-carotene - 0.4 0.6 0.7
N=94 Note that trend statistics were not given
1985 - 1993
35 item FFQ

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Skin – squamous cell
USA; case-control; (100a,b) No association citrus fruit OR 0.99 CI 0.73-1.32 No effect citrus;
Southwestern population - Arizona Citrus peel OR 0.66 CI 0.45-0.95 significant effect
34.7% use citrus peel and dose response (d-limonene ?) citrus peel
First human study of citrus peel and cancer. Further analysis
showed effect independent of black tea effect
Urothelial
Netherlands cohort; (101) Total fruit 0.74 Mandarins
120 852 55-69yrs; Citrus fruit 0.85 protective
in 1986 Mandarins statistically significant inverse significantly
6.3 yr follow up;
569 cases,
Salivary gland cancer
Shanghai, China: population case- I II III Oranges/tangerin
control (102) e appear
Salivary gland cancer Total fruit - 0.6 1.3 protective – no
N=41 (93%) Oranges/tanger.- 0.4 0.8 statistics
Jan, 1988 - Feb - 1990
41 item FFQ (intake adjusted for
seasonal variation)
Gallbladder
India (102a) Oranges reduced risk; OR 0.45; 95% CI was 0.22-0.93 Reduction in
64 cases cancer gallbladder
Diet recall method on preset cancer risk with
questionnaire oranges
* p<0.05 **p<0.01 ***p< 0.001
as reported by authors (statistical analysis not always given)
Bolded figures: confidence interval does not contain unity

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2.0 Nutrients and cancer risk

2.1 Vitamin C

Table 2.1 Summary of studies which assessed Vitamin C and cancer risk
(Data for total or other fruit, fruit juice and relevant nutrients from these studies included if significant)

Study Results
Bladder cancer
Washington, USA: I II III IV
population case-control Vitamin C** - 0.96 0.67 0.50
(103)
Bladder cancer
N=240 (69%)
Jan 1987 – June 1990
71 item FFQ
Spain: hospital and I II III IV
population case-control Vitamin C - 0.75 1.15 1.03
(104) All trends were non-significant
Bladder cancer
N=432
1985 – 1986
Diet history
Oahu, Hawaii, USA: I II III IV
population case-control Females:
(105) Vitamin C - 0.5 1.1 0.6
Bladder cancer
N=261 (N=235 bladder)
1977 - 1986
29 item FFQ

Brain cancer
Heilongjiang, China: hospital I II III IV
case-control (106) Vitamin C - 0.81 0.88 0.78
Brain cancer
N=129 No effect
May 1993 – May 1995
57 item FFQ

Breast cancer
Athens, Greece: hospital case-control OR#
(107) Vitamin C 0.88
Breast cancer #: odds ratio for a one-quintile increase in intake
N=820 (94%)
Jan 1989 – Dec 1991
115 item FFQ
Italy: Multi-centre hospital case-control
(108) vitamin C was not significantly associated with breast cancer risk (data not
Breast cancer given)
N=2569
June 1991 – Feb 1994
78 item FFQ
New York, USA: population case- I II III IV
control (109) Vitamin C* - 0.87 0.70 0.53
Breast cancer in premenopausal
women
N=297 (66%)
Nov 1986 – April 1991
172 item FFQ

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New York, USA: hospital case-control I II III IV
(110) Vitamin C 0.92 1.09 1.12 -
Breast cancer Note that highest intake quartile is referent
N=2024 NB: All CIs contained unity and all trend statistics were non-significant
1958 - 1965
FFQ
Sweden: population case-control (111) OR#
Breast cancer Vitamin C 0.9
N=265 (70%) #: highest quartile vs lowest quartile
March 1987 – Dec 1990 I II III IV
60 item FFQ Vitamin C - 1.1 0.9 0.9
La Plata, Argentina: hospital and
population case-control (112) Vitamin C (per 100mg) 0.58
Breast cancer Note that all RR values represent a comparison with the population
N=150 (98%) controls
1984 - 1985
147 item FFQ
Navarra, Spain: hospital case-control I II III
(113) Vitamin C* - 0.17 0.48
Breast cancer Note that for food groups, highest intake tertile is referent
N=100 Trend statistics only given for nutrients not food groups
1987 - 1988
99 item FFQ
Italy & Switzerland: hospital case- I II III
control (114) Vitamin C - 0.9 0.7
Breast cancer Note that CIs were not given
N=107
Jan 1990 – Aug 1992
50 item FFQ
Canada: Nested case-control (National I II III IV V
Breast Screening Study) (115) Vitamin C - 0.78 0.80 0.89 0.88
Breast cancer All trend statistics were non-significant; all CIs contained unity
N=519
1982 – 1987
86 item FFQ
Shanghai & Tianjin, China: population RR per unit intake
case-control (116) Vitamin C 0.3 179mg
Breast cancer
N=834 (69-94%)
June 1984 – May 1985
63-68 item FFQ
USA: cohort study (Nurses Health I II III IV V
Study) (117) Vitamin C - 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.03
Breast cancer All trends were non significant
N=1439
1976 – 1980 through to 1988
61 & 121 item FFQ
Iowa, USA: cohort study (Iowa I II III IV V
Women’s Health Study) (118)
Breast cancer in postmenopausal Vitamin C - 1.02 0.95 0.96 1.06
women Trend statistics were non-significant and all CIs contained unity
N=879
Jan 1986 – Dec 1992
127 item FFQ
USA: cohort (Nurses’ Health Study) I II III IV V
(119) Premenopausal:
Invasive breast cancer Vitamin C - 0.99 0.78 0.91 1.01
N=2697 Postmenopausal:
1980 – May 1994 Vitamin C - 1.03 1.05 1.01 1.06
61 – 126 item FFQs Note that the micronutrient RRs only had CIs given for the fifth quintile
Sweden; cohort (120) No association with vitamin C
59 036 women; High vitamin C inversely associated in obese women (HR 0.61)
40-76 yrs 67item FFQ
1 2712 breast cancer cases

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Uruguay; case-control; (121) 1 11 111 1V
Breast cancer
400 cases, 405 controls. Vitamin C *** - 0.67 0.61 0.45
64 item FFQ
USA case-control; (122) Risk not associated with vitamin C
Breast
568 cases, 1451 population controls

Lung cancer
Florida, USA: population case-control of I II III IV
never smokers (123) Vitamin C** - 0.8 0.6 0.5
Lung cancer (ICD-O: 162.2-162.9)
N=124 women
April, 1987
60 item FFQ with portion sizes
Heilongjiang Province, China: hospital I II III IV
case-control (124) Vitamin C - 0.9 1.1 0.7
primary lung cancer
N=227
May 1985 - April 1987
50 item FFQ
Hong Kong: population case-control I II III
(125) Vitamin C* 2.11 1.16 -
lung cancer (histological typing Note that referents change depending on expected direction of association
according to WHO classification
system)
N=88 Chinese women who never
smoked
1981-1983
FFQ using broad food groups according
to Chinese eating habits
Oahu, Hawaii, USA: population case- I II III IV
control (126) Males:
primary lung cancer Vitamin C** 1.9 1.9 2.0 -
N=332 (67%) Females:
March 1983 - Sept 1985 Vitamin C 1.4 1.1 1.4 -
130+ item FFQ NB: highest intake quartile is referent; CIs are not given
Stockholm, Sweden: population case- I II III IV V
control (127) Vitamin C - 0.50 0.99 0.93 1.14
Lung cancer (WHO histologically typed
using classification)
N=124 never smokers
1989-1995
19 item or food group FFQ, seasonally
adjusted
Louisiana, USA: hospital case-control I II III
(128) Vitamin C*** - 0.87 0.67
Lung cancer
N=1253 (76%)
Jan 1979 – April 1982
59 item FFQ

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Norway: cohort study (129) I IV
Primary lung cancer of bronchus and Primary tumor:
lung (ICD-7: 162.1) Vitamin C - 0.88
N=116 men Squamous and small cell carcinomas:
1967-1978 Vitamin C - 1.17
FFQ, number of items not stated Note that CIs were not given and all trends were non-significant
although they write that it covered most
foods and beverages commonly used in
Norway
USA: prospective cohort study (proportional hazards analysis)
(NHANES I and NHEFS) (130) I II III IV
lung cancer (ICD-9: 162) (diagnosis or Vitamin C-A*** - 0.70 0.56 0.53
death) Vitamin C-B** - 0.85 0.67 0.66
N=248
1971-1975 through to 1992 follow-up
24 hour recall
Iowa, USA: Nested case-control (Iowa I II III IV
Women’s Health Study) (131) Vitamin C foods - 1.16 1.28 0.75
lung cancer Vitamin C - 1.16 1.03 0.81
N=179
1986 - 1990
127 item FFQ
Oahu, Hawaii, USA: population case- (Proportional hazard ratios)
control, survival analysis (132) I II III IV
primary lung cancer Men:
N=675 Vitamin C 0.9 1.1 1.4 -
Sept 1979 - Sept 1985 Women:
130 item FFQ including portion size Vitamin C* 1.2 1.6 1.7 -
estimates
NB: Highest intake quartile is the referent
Netherlands cohort – men (133) Protection by vitamin C
Lung cancer
58 279 men 55-69yrs
150 item FFQ
6 yr follow up
939 cases

Stomach
Sweden case-control; (134) Vitamin C * 40-60% risk reduction
567 cases 1165 population controls VitC+b-carotene+vitE 70% reduction OR 0.3
Germany: hospital case-control (135) I II III IV V
Stomach cancer Vitamin C* 2.32 1.69 1.60 1.40 -
N=143 Note that highest intake quintile is referent
1985-1987
not stated
Marseille, France: hospital case-control Note tertiles used rather than quartiles
(136) I II III
Gastric adenocarcinoma Vitamin C - 0.67 0.47
N=92
March 1985 - Dec 1988
dietary history
Louisiana, USA: hospital case-control Whites Blacks
(137) I II I II
Primary stomach cancer Vitamin C - 0.62 - 0.63
N=391
Jan 1979 - March 1983
not stated

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Spain: hospital case-control (138) I II III IV
Gastric adenocarcinoma Vitamin C* - 0.71 0.69 0.58
N=354 NB CIs were not given
1988-1989
diet history
New York, USA: population case-
control (139)
gastric cancer
N=293
1975-1985
extensive FFQ (2.5 hr interview)
New York, USA: hospital case-control OR OR
(140) Intestinal Diffuse
Gastric adenocarcinoma Vitamin C(mg) 0.6 0.4#
N=134 # CI did not contain unity when adjusting for usual variables plus
Nov 1992 - Nov 1994 race, education, pack years of smoking, alcohol, BMI
FFQ - NCI HHHQ (seasonally adjusted)
Belgium: population case-control (141) I II III IV
stomach tumors Vitamin C*** - 0.79 0.59 0.43
N=301
1979-1983
150 item FFQ
Milan, Italy: hospital case-control (142) I II III IV V
Gastric cancer Vitamin C** 1.6 1.1 1.1 0.9 -
N=746 Note that highest intake group is referent
Jan 1985 - June 1993
29 item FFQ
Milan, Italy: hospital case-control of I II III
family history of gastric cancer (143) Vitamin C* - 0.62 0.20
Gastric cancer Cabbages, carrots, potatoes, beans, spinach, tomatoes, green
N=88 cases with family history salad, apples, melon were not significantly associated with gastric
Jan 1985 - Dec 1992 cancer. Data not supplied.
36 item FFQ
Canada: population case-control (144) OR Unit
Gastric cancer Vitamin C 0.43 1g/day
N=246
1979-1982
large FFQ
Norway: hospital case-control (145) A number of fruits and vegetables were used less frequently by
stomachcancer cases than controls, particularly total vegetables and vitamin C
N=228 intakes
not stated (specific data not given)
50 item FFQ
Minnesota, USA: hospital case-control vitamin C was lower among cases
(1046) (specific data not given)
stomachcancer
N=83
not stated
50 item FFQ
Japan (five regions): Ecological study Spearman correlation coefficients between age-adjusted gastric
(147) cancer mortality rates and average daily intake of selected
Gastric cancer nutrients
- rs
1989-1991 Vitamin C -0.20
3 day weighed food record

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Colorectal
Norway: population case-control (148) Size of polyps
colorectal polyps as determined by Means (g) Small Med Large Controls
colonoscopy Vitamin C 53 49** 53* 88
N=108 Mann-Whitney U tests of polyp groups vs controls
1989 - 1992
5 day weighed food record (with
seasonal adjustment)
New York, USA: population case- I II III IV
control (149) Males:
rectal cancer Vitamin C - 0.83 0.57 0.81
N=422 Females:
April 1978 - April 1986 Vitamin C - 0.81 0.45
FFQ
Norway: case-control (all subjects had Controls Small polyps Large polyps
endoscopy perfromed) (150) Men:
Colon and rectal polyps Vitamin C(mg) 72±4.6 74±5.4 66±8.3
N=78 with polyps Women:
not stated Vitamin C(mg) 106±7.9 128±14.5 88±14.7
5 day weighed food record All results for Large polyp intakes vs controls were non significant
La Plata, Argentina: population case- I II III IV
control (151) Vitamin C - 0.83 0.65 0.49
colon cancer (ICD-(: 153.0 - 153.8)
N=110 (92%)
March 1985 - Jan 1987
140 item FFQ (seasonally adjusted)
Netherlands: population case-control I II III IV
(152) Vitamin C** - 1.07 0.70 0.53
Colon cancer (ICD-O 153)
N=232
1989 - 1993
289 item FFQ
Melbourne, Australia: population case- I II
control (153) Vitamin C - 0.61
colorectal polyps
N=49
not stated
diet history
Milan, Italy: hospital case-control (154) I II III
colorectal cancer Vitamin C 1.3 1.1 -
N=1326 (N=828 colon, N=498 rectal) NB highest intake tertile was referent
Jan 1985 - Dec 1992
29 item FFQ
Oahu, Hawaii, USA: population case- Mean CYP1A2 Cases Controls All
control (155) Plasma vit C 1 5.88 4.44 5.83
colorectal cancer Plasma vit C 2 5.20 6.54 4.76
N=43 Plasma vit C 3 3.01 4.50 5.10
July 1989 - Oct 1991
FFQ
Singapore: hospital case-control (156) I II III
coloectal cancer Vitamin C - 0.84 0.69
N=203 women
Oct 1985 - Nov 1987
116 item FFQ
Marseilles, France: hospital case- I II III IV
control (157) Vitamin C*** - 1.33 0.62 0.56
Colorectal cancer NB: CIs were not given
N=399
1979 - 1984
diet history
Marseilles, France: hospital case- I II III IV
control (158) Vitamin C - 0.75 0.64 0.83
Colorectal polyps NB: CIs were not given
N=252
Jan 1980 - June 1985 diet history

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Finland: nested case-control (ATBC Means Cases Controls
Study) (159) Vitamin C(mg) 104±56.9 91.5±45.7
colorectal cancer OR
N=50 Vitamin C (52.3mg) 1.11
1985-1988 through to April 1993 (per interquartile range of daily nutrient intake shown)
276 item FFQ
Funen, Denmark: nested case-control I II III
study (160) Vitamin C-A - 0.71 1.35
colorectal cancer and adenomas Vitamin C-B - 0.86 0.86
N=49 cancer, N=172 adenomas NB: All CIs contained unity; trend statistics were not given
1986 - 1990 A: Cancer, B: adenomas
7-day dietary recall
Los Angeles, USA: population case- Unit RR
control (161) Vitamin C 1.02
colon cancer
N=746
1983 - 1986
139 item FFQ
USA: population case-control (162) I II III IV V
colon cancer Males:
N=1993 (ICD-O-2: 18.0, 18.2-18.9) Vitamin C - 0.9 1.1 1.0 0.9
Oct 1991 - Sept 1994 Females:
CARDIA diet history Vitamin C - 1.1 1.1 1.2 1.0

Utah: population case-control (163) I II III IV

colon cancer Vitamin C-M - 0.6 0.8 0.8
N=231 (71%) Vitamin C-F - 0.7 0.8 0.8
July 1979 - June 1983 NB: CI is 90%; trend statistics not given
99 item FFQ
California, USA: case-control (164) I II III IV V
adenomatous polyps Vitamin C fruit - 0.92 0.73 0.62 0.59
N=488
Jan 1991 - Aug 1993
126 item FFQ
Moscow and Khabarovsk, Russia: I II III IV
hospital and population case-control Vitamin C** - 0.46 0.50 0.40
(165)
colorectal cancer
Moscow: N=100;
Khabarovsk: N=117
not stated
132 item FFQ
Norway: hospital case-control (166) Rectal cases had lower intakes of vitamin C than colon cases
colorectal cancer (specific data not given)
N=278
not stated
50 item FFQ
Minnesota, USA: hospital case-control Cases had lower intakes of vitaminC
(167) Rectal cases had lower intakes of vitamin C than colon cases
colorectal cancer (specific data not given)
N=373
not stated
50 item FFQ
Multi-centred: cohort (The Seven
Countries Study) (168) Beta-carotene and vitamin C were not related to risk (data not shown)
colorectal cancer
N=162 deaths
1958-1964 through to 1985
diet record
Switzerland; case-control; 223 subjects; Inverse association Vitamin C OR 0.45
mean aged 63 yrs (169)
491 hospital controls

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Female reproductive tract cancer
Alabama, USA: case-control (controls I II III
from optometry clinic) (170) Vitamin C - 0.7 0.7
Endometrial cancer
N=168 (93%), N=103 diet
June 1985 – Dec 1988
116 item FFQ
Sydney, Australia: population case- I II III IV
control (171) Vitamin C - 0.7 0.5 0.5
in situ cervical cancer
N=117 (70%), blood from N=100
1980 – 1983
160 item FFQ
New York, USA: hospital case-control I II III
(172) Vitamin C 0.90 1.04 -
Ovarian cancer (epithelial) All CIs contained unity and all trend statistics were non-significant
N=274
1957 - 1965
33 item FFQ
Oahu, Hawaii, USA: population case- I II III IV
control (173) Vitamin C - 0.58 0.73 0.59
Endometrial cancer
N=332 (66%)
Jan 1985 – June 1993
250 item FFQ
Colombia, Costa Rica, Mexico, I II III IV
Panama: hospital and community case- Vitamin C** - 0.96 0.64 0.69
control (174)
Invasive cervical cancer
N=748 (99%)
Jan 1986 – June 1987
58 item FFQ
Shanghai, China: population case- I II III IV
control (175) Vitamin C - 1.2 1.2 1.1
Endometrial cancer
N=268 All trend statistics were non-significant
April, 1988 – Jan 1990
63 item FFQ
Chicago, New York, USA: population I II III IV
case-control (176) -
Vulvar cancer Vitamin C 1.15 0.71 0.86 -
N=201 (61%)
1985 - 1987
61 item FFQ
Athens, Greece: hospital case-control OR#
(177) Vitamin C 1.13
Endometrial cancer #: quartile increase of intake of food group
N=145 (83%) ^: specified increments of intake of energy-adjusted
1992 - 1994 micronutrients (β-carotene=3; vitamin C=70)
115 item FFQ
Washington, USA: population case- I II III IV
control (178) Vitamin C* - 1.2 0.7 0.5
Invasive cervical cancer
N=189 (72%)
1979 - 1983
66 item FFQ
Oregon, USA: nested case-control I II III IV
(179) Human papillomavirus DNA negative:
Squamous intraepithelial lesions of Vitamin C - 1.4 1.6 1.0
cervix Human papillomavirus DNA positive:
N=251 Vitamin C - 1.9 1.0 1.3
April 1989 – Nov 1990 through to Dec Note that all CIs contained unity; trend statistics were not given
1994
60 item FFQ

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 USA: multi-centre population case- I II III IV
(180) Vitamin C 1.14 0.88 1.04 -
Invasive cervical cancer Note that highest intake quartile was referent
N=271 (73%) All trend statistics were non-significant and CIs were not given
April 1982 – Dec 1983
75 item FFQ
USA: multi-centre population case- I II III IV
(181) Vitamin C - 1.6 1.1 1.3
Endometrial cancer Note that trend statistics were not given; all CIs contained unity
N=399
June 1987 – May 1990
60 item FFQ
US study; case-control (182)
Endometrial cancer Vitamin C OR 0.5
232 cases, 639 controls
172 item FFQ

USA cohort Ovarian cancer (183) Vitamin C OR 0.88

Nurses Health study 80 326 subjects
1976-1996
FFQ
301 cases 16yr follow up
Iowa, USA: cohort study (Iowa I II III IV
Women’s Health Study) (184) Vitamin C - 1.17 0.94 1.05
Ovarian cancer Fruit - 0.86 1.05 1.13
N=139
1986 – 1995
126 item FFQ

Gallbladder cancer
The Netherlands: population case- I II III
control (185) Vitamin C - 1.0 1.2
Biliary tract cancer
N=111
Jan 1984 - Dec 1987
FFQ
Poland: population case-control (186) I II III IV
Gallbladder cancer Vitamin C - 0.30 0.35 0.29
N=73 Trend was non-significant
Jan 1985 - July 1988
diet history

Kidney cancer
Germany: population case-control (187) I II III
Renal cancer Vitamin C* - 0.80 0.58
N=277 (84%)
Jan 1989 – July 1991
122 item FFQ
Sweden: population case-control (188) I II III IV
Renal cell cancer Vitamin C - 1.25 1.05 0.83
N=379 (84%)
June 1989 – March 1992
FFQ
Minneapolis, USA: population case- I II III IV
control (189) Males:
Renal cell cancer Vitamin C - 0.6 0.9 0.7
N=495 Females:
Jan 1974 – June 1979 Vitamin C - 1.6 0.9 1.2
FFQ Note that CIs were not given, all trends were non-significant
Denmark: population case-control (190) I II III IV V
Renal cell cancer Males:
N=351 (73%) Vitamin C - 1.2 0.9 0.8
Not stated Females:
92 item FFQ Vitamin C - 1.4 1.1 1.7

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Multi-centre : population case-control I II III IV
(191) Vitamin C - 1.01 1.06 0.89
Renal cell cancer Trend statistics not given
N=1185
1989 – 1991
63 - 205 item FFQ
Los Angeles, USA: population case- I II III IV V
control (192) Vitamin C - 1.16 0.97 1.06 0.76
Renal cell cancer
N=1204
April 1986 – Dec 1994
40 item FFQ

Laryngeal cancer
Multi-centre study in Spain, Italy, I II III IV V
Switzerland, France: population case- Endolarynx:
control (193) Vitamin C 1.63 1.51 1.39 1.03 -
Cancer of larynx and hypopharynx Hypopharynx/Epipharynx:
N=1,147 males interviewed Vitamin C 2.88 2.23 1.53 1.42 -
1977-1983 NB: highest intake quintile is referent
quantified diet history
New York USA: matched case-control I II III IV
(response rate too low for population Vitamin C - 1.16 1.19 0.64
based) (194)
Laryngeal cancer (squamous cell
carcinoma)
N=250 White men interviewed (27%
March 1975 - Nov 1985
129 item FFQ
New York, USA: hospital case-control I II III IV
(195) Vitamin C** 2.49 1.48 1.33 -
Laryngeal cancer NB Highest intake quartile is referent
N=374 males
1957-1965
27 item FFQ
Shanghai, China: population case- I II III IV
control (196) Vitamin C-A - 0.6 0.8
Laryngeal cancer A: CI’s only provided for these items
N=201 interviewed (76%)
Jan 1988 - Feb 1990
41 item FFQ
Lombardy, Italy: progression of disease (hazard ratios)
in cohorts (from case-control study) I II III χ2
(197) Vitamin C - 0.81 0.50 7.87
Laryngeal cancer (ICD-9: 161)
N=215 males
diagnosis - 1978-1980
follow-up Dec 1993.
quantified diet history
Lombardy, France: progression of I II III
disease in cohorts (nested case-control Vitamin C - 1.15 0.86
study) (198)
Laryngeal cancer (ICD-9: 161)
N=36 males
diagnosis - 1978-1980
follow-up Dec 1993.
quantified diet history

Leukaemia
Shanghai, China: population case- I … III
control (199) Vitamin C - 0.5
Adult leukaemia
N=486
1987 – 1989
59 item FFQ

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Pancreatic cancer
Adelaide, Australia: population case- I II III IV
control (200) Vitamin C* - 0.60 0.50 0.46
Pancreatic cancer
N=104
1984 - 1987
179 item FFQ
Louisiana, USA: hospital case-control Males: I II III
(201) Vitamin C* - 0.53 0.38
Pancreatic cancer
N=363 (86%)
1979 - 1983
FFQ
Washington, USA: population case- Vitamin C was not associated with pancreatic cancer risk (after
control of married men (202) age, smoking, education and energy intake were controlled for)
Pancreatic cancer
N=148 (68%)
July 1982 – June 1986
135 item FFQ
Montral, Canada: population case- I II III IV
control (French speaking) (203) Vitamin C - 0.63 0.18 0.57
Pancreatic cancer All CIs contained unity, trend statistics were not given
N=179
June 1984 – June 1988
200 item FFQ
Multicentre collaboration: population I II III IV V
case-control (204) Vitamin C*** - 0.81 0.50 0.55 0.41
Pancreatic cancer Note that CIs were not given
N=802
1984 – 1988
Extensive FFQ
Toronto, Canada: population case- Q4-Q1 RR
control (205) Vitamin C 226 mg 0.81
Pancreatic cancer All CIs contained unity and all trends were non-significant
N=249
1983 - 1986
200 item FFQ
Shanghai, China: population case- Men: I II III IV
control (206) Vitamin C*** - 1.20 0.62 0.53
Pancreatic cancer Women:
N=451 (78%) Vitamin C - 1.10 0.79 0.66
Oct 1990 – June 1993
86 item FFQ
Opole Voivodeship, Poland: population I II III IV
case-control (207) Vitamin C** - 1.10 0.30 0.37
Pancreatic cancer
N=110 (76%)
Jan 1985 – July 1988
80 item FFQ
Los Angeles, USA: Cohort study I II III
(Elderly) (208) Vitamin C - 0.67 0.79
Pancreatic cancer All CIs contained unity, trend statistics were not given
N=65
1981 – Oct 1985 through to June 1990
44 item FFQ

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Prostate cancer
Orebo county, Sweden: population I II III IV
case-control (209) Vitamin C - 0.99 1.16 1.00
Prostate cancer Note that all trends were non-significant and all CIs contained
N=256 (81%) unity
Jan 1989 – July 1994
68 item FFQ
New York, USA: hospital case-control I II III IV
(210) Age <70 years:
Prostate cancer Vitamin C - 1.43 2.04 1.77
N=294 Age ≥70 years:
1957 - 1965 Vitamin C* - 1.63 1.35 3.41
Limited FFQ Note that CIs were not given
UK: Multi-centre population case- I II III IV
control (211) Vitamin C - 1.19 1.23
Prostate cancer Note that all trend statistics were non-significant
N=328 (77%)
Dec 1989 – June 1992
83 item FFQ
Quebec City, Canada: population case- I II III IV
control (212) Vitamin C - 1.42 0.77 1.14
Preclinical prostate cancer Note that all CIs contained unity and all trend statistics were non-
N=215 significant
Oct 1990 – May 1993
143 item FFQ
Milan, Italy: hospital case-control (213) I II III
Prostate cancer Fruits - 0.89 1.41
N=271 (97%) β-carotene - 1.43 1.18
March 1986 – June 1990 All trend statistics were non-significant and all CIs contained unity
14 item FFQ
Finland: Cohort study (Finnish Mobile I II III IV
Clinic Health Examination Survey) (214) Flavonoid - 1.62 1.23 1.39
Prostate cancer All CIs contained unity
62 incident cases
1967-1991
Diet history interview

Salivary gland cancer

San Francisco, USA: population case- I II III
control (215) Vitamin C*** - 0.58 0.40
Salivary gland cancer Vitamin C-X* - 0.64 0.45
N=141 Vitamin C-Y* - 0.74 0.49
July, 1989 - June 1993
60 item FFQ, supplement use also
determined

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Oro-pharyngeal cancer
New York, USA; Turin, Italy; Beijing, Vitamin C 1 2 3 4
China: USA: population-based case USA - 1.1 0.9 0.2
control Italy - 0.7 0.8 0.5
Italy: population-based case-control China - 0.8 0.6 0.5
China: hospital case-control (216) Total* - 0.94 0.76 0.49
USA: oral cavity cancers (excluding lip, * controlling for smoking, alcohol, study country, sex, age, total
salivary glands and naso-pharynx) calories
Italy: lip, tongue, gum, floor of mouth,
other unspecified parts of mouth,
oropharynx
China: oral cancer
N=835
USA: 1975-1983
Italy: July 1982 - Dec 1984
China: May, 1988 - Dec 1989
FFQ, data was combined into one file
including data on total energy, ,
macronutrients and markers of fruit and
vegetable consumption (vitamin C and
fibre)
New York, USA: hospital case-control I III III
(217) Vitamin C** 1.7 1.2 -
oral cancer: lip, tongue, gum, floor or NB: reference category is highest tertile of intake
other part of mouth
N=427
1958-1965
27 item FFQ
Hyderabad, India: hospital case-control I II
(218) Vitamin C 2.2 -
oral cancer: tongue, oral cavity, The CI ranges given for the OR values all contained unity.
oropharynx
N=45; FFQ
India: population case-control (219) A negative trend across normal, non-chewers, normal chewers
Oral leucoplakias (pre-cancerous oral and oral leucoplakia subjects for vitamin C (values not given).
lesions)
N=50
not stated
(serum analysis for vitamin/antioxidant
status)
New York, USA: population case Vitamin C-A (mg) 0.9
control (220) Vitamin C-B 0.9
Oral cancer: tongue, oropharynx, floor
of mouth, pharynx or hypopharynx
N=290
1975-1983
120 item FFQ
multi-centre, USA: population case- Men: I II III IV
control (221) Vitamin C** - 0.6 0.5 0.3
oral and pharyngeal cancers: tongue, Women:
pharynx and other oral cancers Vitamin C - 0.6 0.9 0.6
(excluding lip, salivary gland or
nasopharynx)
N=190 (77%)
Jan 1984 - March 1985
61 item FFQ

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Shanghai, China: population case- Men I II III IV
control (222) Citrus* - 0.40 0.40
Oral and pharyngeal cancer Vitamin C - 1.02 1.43
N=204 (78%) Females:
Jan 1988 – Feb 1990 Vitamin C - 0.43 1.19
41 item FFQ Note that only “salted veg” had CI values given
Iowa, USA: cohort study ( Iowa I II III
Women’s Health Study) (223) Vitamin C-A - 0.9 0.7
Mouth, pharynx, oesophagus and Vitamin C-B - 0.4 0.6
stomach (excluding lip and salivary A: Mouth, pharynx, oesophagus; B: Stomach
glands ) N=59 cases
Jan 1986 - Dec 1992
127 item semi-quantitative FFQ

Cancer - general
Moradabad, India: case-control (224) Means (SD) Males Females
Cancer incidence Nutrients (mg/1000kcal/day)
N=101 Vitamin C 26(4.6) 36.6(7.8) 22.1(4.3) 33.6(7.2)
Period: not stated
7-day diet diary (completed as before
cancer diagnosis)
Moradabad, India: case-control (225) Means (SD) (mg/day) Controls Cases
Cancer incidence Vitamin C** 125(18) 86(8.8)
N=52
Period: not stated
7-day diet diary (before diagnosis)
Los Angeles, USA: cohort study (226) I II III
Cancer incidence Males:
N=1335 Vitamin C - 1.05 0.90
1981 - 1989 Females:
59 item FFQ Vitamin C** - 0.81 0.76
All trend statistics were non-significant
Chicago, UK: cohort study (Western I II III
Electric) (227) Vitamin C* - 0.82 0.61
Mortality from all cancers Note that CIs were not given
N=155
Oct 1957 – Dec 1958 to 1983
Diet history (Burke’s method)
USA: cohort study (NHANES I / SMR I II III IV
NHEFS) (228) Males (total SMR: 0.91)
Mortality from all cancers Vitamin C I 0.99 0.87 0.78
N=397 deaths Vitamin C II 0.90 0.93 0.81 1.11
1971 – 1974 through to 1984 Females (total SMR 0.88):
FFQ & 24 hour recall Vitamin C I 0.91 0.86 0.85
Vitamin C II 1.03 0.81 0.90 0.99
Both sexes (total SMR 0.90):
Vitamin C I 0.96 0.87 0.82
Vitamin C II 0.95 0.88 0.84 1.04
Note that all CIs contained unity

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2.2 VITAMIN A, CAROTENES AND CANCER

Table 2.2 Vitamin A, carotenes and cancer risk

Bladder cancer
Washington, USA: population case- I II III IV
control (229) β-carotene - 1.24 1.14 1.08
Bladder cancer
N=240 (69%)
Jan 1987 – June 1990
71 item FFQ
Spain: hospital and population case- I II III IV
control (230) Carotene - 1.33 1.42 1.31
Bladder cancer All trends were non-significant
N=432
1985 – 1986
Diet history
Oahu, Hawaii, USA: population case- I II III IV
control (231) Males:
Bladder cancer Carotenoids - 0.7 1.0 0.7
N=261 (N=235 bladder) Females:
1977 - 1986 Carotenoids - 0.6 1.3 0.5
29 item FFQ Vitamin C - 0.5 1.1 0.6

Bowel cancer
New York, USA: population case- I II III IV
control (232) Males:
rectal cancer Carotenoids* - 0.56 0.68 0.59
N=422 Females:
April 1978 - April 1986 Carotenoids - 0.70 0.70
FFQ
La Plata, Argentina: population case- I II III IV
control (233) β-carotene - 2.26 2.24 1.26
colon cancer (ICD-(: 153.0 - 153.8)
N=110 (92%)
March 1985 - Jan 1987
140 item FFQ (seasonally adjusted)
Netherlands: population case-control I II III IV
(234) β-carotene - 0.64 0.70 0.61
Colon cancer (ICD-O 153)
N=232
1989 - 1993
289 item FFQ
Milan, Italy: hospital case-control (235) I II III
colorectal cancer β-carotene 2.2 1.8 -
N=1326 (N=828 colon, N=498 rectal) NB highest intake tertile was referent
Jan 1985 - Dec 1992
29 item FFQ
Oahu, Hawaii, USA: population case- Mean CYP1A2 Cases Controls All
control (236) Plasma carot 1 5.93 6.00 6.83
colorectal cancer Plasma carot 2 4.23 6.09 5.20
N=43 Plasma carot 3 3.79 3.43 3.83
July 1989 - Oct 1991 Plasma vit C 1 5.88 4.44 5.83
FFQ Plasma vit C 2 5.20 6.54 4.76
Plasma vit C 3 3.01 4.50 5.10
Singapore: hospital case-control (237) I II III
coloectal cancer β-carotene - 0.74 0.85
N=203 women
Oct 1985 - Nov 1987
116 item FFQ

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Finland: nested case-control (ATBC Means Cases Controls
Study) (238) 0
colorectal cancer β-carotene(mg) 2.21±1.44 2.04±1.55
N=50 OR
1985-1988 through to April 1993 β-carotene (1.66mg) 1.00
276 item FFQ (per interquartile range of daily nutrient intake shown)
Tel Aviv, Israel: hospital, population Fibre-containing foods Comparison Group
case-control (239)
Colon cancer
N=198 colon
1967 - 1969
243 item FFQ
Los Angeles, USA: population case- Unit RR
control (240) β-carotene 0.99
colon cancer
N=746
1983 - 1986
139 item FFQ
USA: population case-control (241) I II III IV V
colon cancer Males:
N=1993 (ICD-O-2: 18.0, 18.2-18.9) β-carotene - 1.1 0.9 1.2 1.1
Oct 1991 - Sept 1994 Females:
CARDIA diet history β-carotene - 1.0 1.2 1.1 1.3

Utah: population case-control (242) I II III IV

colon cancer β-carotene-M - 0.8 0.8 0.4
N=231 (71%) β-carotene-F - 0.4 0.7 0.5
July 1979 - June 1983 NB: CI is 90%; trend statistics not given
99 item FFQ
California, USA: case-control (243) I II III IV V
adenomatous polyps Carotenoid fruit - 0.80 0.55 0.59 0.75
N=488
Jan 1991 - Aug 1993
126 item FFQ
Moscow and Khabarovsk, Russia: I II III IV
hospital and population case-control β-carotene** - 0.25 0.33 0.21
(244)
colorectal cancer
Moscow: N=100;
Khabarovsk: N=117
not stated
132 item FFQ
Minnesota, USA: hospital case-control Cases had lower intakes of vitamins A and
(245) (specific data not given)
colorectal cancer
N=373
not stated
50 item FFQ
Multi-centred: cohort (The Seven 10% of mean intake Rate ratio
Countries Study) (246) Beta-carotene was not related to risk (data not shown)
colorectal cancer
N=162 deaths
1958-1964 through to 1985
diet record
Switzerland; case-control; (247) Inverse but ns for carotenoids
Colorectal; 223 subjects; Overall OR 0.66 :
mean aged 63 yrs a-carotene
491 hospital controls b- carotene
lutein/zeaxanthin
USA case-control (248) Lutein* inversely assoc OR 0.83
colorectal NS other carotenoids
1993 cases
2410 population controls;
Diet history

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Brain cancer
Heilongjiang, China: hospital case- I II III IV
control (249) β-carotene - 0.45 0.51 0.38
Brain cancer
N=129
May 1993 – May 1995
57 item FFQ

Breast cancer
Athens, Greece: hospital case-control OR#
(250) β-carotene 0.90
Breast cancer #: odds ratio for a one-quintile increase in intake
N=820 (94%)
Jan 1989 – Dec 1991
115 item FFQ
Italy: Multi-centre hospital case-control Pre-menopausal Post-menopausal
(251) I V I V
Breast cancer β-carotene - 0.73** - 0.83*
N=2569
June 1991 – April 1994
78 item FFQ
USA: Multi-centre population case- I II III IV V
control (252) Carotene** - 0.72 0.75 0.77 0.68
Breast cancer
N=6705
April 1988 – Dec 1991
FFQ
Denmark: population case-control (253) I II III IV V VI
Breast cancer β-carotene - 1.22 1.16 1.17
N=1474 (88%) Note that all CIs contained unity and trend statistics (where given)
March 1983 – Feb 1984 were non-significant
21 item FFQ
Italy: Multi-centre hospital case-control I II III IV V
(254) β-carotene* - 1.11 1.00 0.90 0.84
Breast cancer Cooked vegetables, citrus, other fruits and vitamin C were not
N=2569 significantly associated with breast cancer risk (data not given)
June 1991 – Feb 1994
78 item FFQ
New York, USA: population case- I II III IV
control (255) α-carotene** - 0.82 0.77 0.67
Breast cancer in premenopausal β-carotene*** - 0.78 0.65 0.46
women β-cryptoxanthin - 0.87 1.02 1.05
N=297 (66%) Lycopene - 1.01 0.64 0.87
Nov 1986 – April 1991 Lutein + *** - 1.01 0.79 0.47
172 item FFQ
Sweden: population case-control (256) OR#
Breast cancer β-carotene 0.8
N=265 (70%) #: highest quartile vs lowest quartile
March 1987 – Dec 1990 I II III IV
60 item FFQ β-carotene* - 0.9 0.9 0.6

La Plata, Argentina: hospital and I II III IV

population case-control (257) RR
Breast cancer β-carotene (per 100mg) 0.90
N=150 (98%) Note that all RR values represent a comparison with the
1984 - 1985 population controls
147 item FFQ
Milan & Pordenone, Italy: hospital case- I II III
control (258) β-carotene - 0.86 0.83
Breast cancer
N=1108
1983 – Nov 1985
9 item FFQ

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Singapore: hospital case-control (259) I II III
Breast cancer β-carotene*** - 0.68 0.29
N=200
1986 - 1988
90 item FFQ
Italy & Switzerland: hospital case- I II III
control (260) β-carotene** - 0.5 0.4
Breast cancer Note that CIs were not given
N=107
Jan 1990 – Aug 1992
50 item FFQ
Italy: Multi-centre hospital case-control I II III
(261 ) β-carotene 1.24 1.30 -
Breast cancer Trend statistics were not given
N=2569 Note that highest intake tertile is referent
Jan 1991 – Feb 1994
78 item FFQ
Montpellier, France: hospital case- I II III
control (262) β-carotene-fruit - 1.0 1.4
Breast cancer β-carotene - 1.0 1.0
N=409 All trends were non-significant and all CIs contained unity
Feb 1983 – April 1987
Diet history
Canada: Nested case-control (National I II III IV V
Breast Screening Study) (263 ) β-carotene - 0.96 0.82 0.82 0.77
Breast cancer All trends statistics were non-significant; all CIs contained unity
N=519
1982 – 1987
86 item FFQ
Shanghai & Tianjin, China: population RR per unit intake
case-control (264) Carotene 0.6 7269IU
Breast cancer
N=834 (69-94%)
June 1984 – May 1985
63-68 item FFQ
USA: cohort study (Nurses Health I II III IV V
Study) (265) Carotenoids - 0.89 0.87 0.80 0.89
Breast cancer All trends were non significant
N=1439
1976 – 1980 through to 1988
61 & 121 item FFQ
Iowa, USA: cohort study (Iowa I II III IV V
Women’s Health Study) (266) Carotenoids - 0.86 1.11 1.10 1.17
Breast cancer in postmenopausal Trend statistics were non-significant and all CIs contained unity
women
N=879
Jan 1986 – Dec 1992
127 item FFQ
Canada: Randomised control trial I II III IV V
(National Breast Screening Study) (267) β-carotene - 0.97 1.08 0.93 0.94
Benign proliferative epithelial disorders
of the breast (BPED)
N=545
1980 – 1985 through to 1988
86 item FFQ

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USA: cohort (Nurses’ Health Study) I II III IV V
(268) Premenopausal:
Invasive breast cancer α-carotene - 0.97 0.88 0.89 0.84
N=2697 β-carotene - 0.90 1.00 0.78 0.84
1980 – May 1994 Lutein+* - 0.92 0.86 0.82 0.79
61 – 126 item FFQs β-cryptoxanthin - 1.03 0.97 1.05 0.89
Lycopene - 0.99 0.94 1.04 1.10
Postmenopausal:
α-carotene - 0.98 1.11 0.97 0.98
β-carotene - 1.01 0.98 1.04 0.94
Lutein+ - 1.11 1.05 1.04 0.95
β-cryptoxanthin - 0.98 0.96 1.05 0.97
Lycopene - 1.03 0.97 0.96 1.02
Note that the micronutrient RRs only had CIs given for the fifth
quintile
Sweden; cohort (269) No association with beta-carotene
59 036 women;
40-76 yrs
67item FFQ 1
2712 breast cancer cases
USA case-control; (270) Risk not associated with, carotenoids,
Breast cancer
568 cases,
1451 population controls
Uruguay; case-control; (271) 1 11 111 1V
400 cases, 405 controls.
64 item FFQ b-carotene - 0.92 0.72 0.72
a-carotene - 0.61 0.62 0.52
Lutein/zeaxanthine - 0.87 0.67 0.66
Lycopene*** - 0.47 0.42 0.30
b-cryptoxanthin - 0.61 0.62 0.52

Female reproductive tract cancers

Alabama, USA: case-control (controls I II III
from optometry clinic) (272) Carotene** - 0.4 0.4
Endometrial cancer
N=168 (93%), N=103 diet
June 1985 – Dec 1988
116 item FFQ
Sydney, Australia: population case- I II III IV
control (273) Carotene - 1.0 1.2 1.0
in situ cervical cancer β-carotene* - 0.5 0.4 0.2
N=117 (70%), blood from N=100
1980 – 1983
160 item FFQ
New York, USA: hospital case-control I II III
(274) Vitamin A (F&V) 1.30 1.23 -
Ovarian cancer (epithelial) All CIs contained unity and all trend statistics were non-significant
N=274; 1957 – 1965; 33 item FFQ
Oahu, Hawaii, USA: population case- I II III IV
control (275) β-carotene - 0.5 0.5 0.6
Endometrial cancer Lycopene - 0.7 0.9 1.16
N=322 Lutein* - 0.5 0.6 0.5
Jan 1985 – June 1993 Oranges** - 0.7 0.8 0.4
250 item FFQ
Colombia, Costa Rica, Mexico, I II III IV
Panama: hospital and community case- β-carotene* - 1.06 0.95 0.68
control (276) Carotenoids** - 0.99 0.86 0.61
Invasive cervical cancer
N=748 (99%)
Jan 1986 – June 1987
58 item FFQ
Milan, Italy: hospital case-control (277) I II III
Ovarian cancer (epithelial) Carotene - 0.76 0.94
N=455

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Jan 1983 – June 1986
10 item FFQ
Milan, Italy: hospital case-control (278) I II III
Invasive cervical cancer -
N=191 Carotene*** 6.6 3.0 -
1981 – Dec 1983 Note that highest intake category was referent; CIs were not given
5 item FFQ
Milan, Italy: hospital case-control (279) I II III
Cervical cancer & cervical intraepithelial Cervical cancer (invasive):
neoplasia β-carotene*** 4.67 3.03 -
N=392 (CC), N=247 (CIN) Cervical intraepithelial neoplasia:-
1981- Feb 1986 β-carotene 0.97 0.67 -
5 item FFQ Note that highest intake tertile was referent
Switzerland & Italy: hospital case- I II III
control (280) β-carotene-A** - 0.85 0.49
Endometrial cancer Note that CIs were not given
N=274
From Jan 1988
50 item FFQ
New York, USA: hospital case-control I II III IV V VI
(281) β-carotene-A 2.0 1.7 1.5 1.5 1.7 1.2
Cervical cancer A: highest intake quantile was referent (not shown), χ2 = 5.3
N=513 (white women)
1957 - 1965
28 item FFQ
Miyagi, Japan: Case-control (controls I II III
were women in general health check-up Carotene - 1.39 1.74
program) (282) Note that trend statistic was not significant and all CIs contained
Cervical dysplasia unity
N=137
Oct 1987 – Sept 1988
22 item FFQ
Shanghai, China: population case- I II III IV
control (283) Carotene - 1.4 1.1 1.3
Endometrial cancer All trend statistics were non-significant
N=268
April, 1988 – Jan 1990
63 item FFQ
Chicago, New York, USA: population I II III IV
case-control (284) -
Vulvar cancer Carotenoids 1.20 0.69 0.73 -
N=201 (61%) α-carotene 1.74 1.56 1.60 -
1985 - 1987 β-carotene 1.26 1.23 0.88 -
61 item FFQ Lutein 0.98 0.87 1.02 -
Lycopene 0.79 1.23 0.81 -
Cryptoxanthin 0.97 0.94 0.79 -

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Athens, Greece: hospital case-control OR^
(285) β-carotene 1.27
Endometrial cancer ^: specified increments of intake of energy-adjusted
N=145 (83%) micronutrients (β-carotene=3; vitamin C=70)
1992 - 1994
115 item FFQ
Washington, USA: population case- I II III IV
control (286) Carotene - 0.8 0.6 0.6
Invasive cervical cancer
N=189 (72%)
1979 - 1983
66 item FFQ
Oregon, USA: nested case-control I II III IV
(287) Human papillomavirus DNA negative:
Squamous intraepithelial lesions of β-carotene - 1.3 1.0 1.0
cervix Human papillomavirus DNA positive:
N=251 β-carotene - 0.6 0.8 0.6
April 1989 – Nov 1990 through to Dec Note that all CIs contained unity; trend statistics were not given
1994
60 item FFQ
USA: multi-centre population case- I II III IV
control (288) Carotenoids 1.02 0.76 0.70 -
Invasive cervical cancer -
N=271 (73%) Note that highest intake quartile was referent
April 1982 – Dec 1983 All trend statistics were non-significant and CIs were not given
75 item FFQ
US study; case-control (289) a-carotene OR 0.6
endometrial b-carotene OR 0.4
232 cases, 639 controls lycopene OR 0.6
172 item FFQ lutein + zeaxanthin OR 0.3

USA case-control (290)

hospital based vitamin A OR 0.66
ovarian carotenoid OR 0.64
496 cases 1425 controls b-carotene OR 0.68
1982-1998

Iowa, USA: cohort study (Iowa I II III IV

Women’s Health Study) (291) β-carotene - 1.03 1.18 0.91
Ovarian cancer
N=139
1986 – 1995
126 item FFQ

Gallbladder cancer
The Netherlands: population case- I II III
control (292) β-carotene* - 0.7 0.6
Biliary tract cancer
N=111
Jan 1984 - Dec 1987
FFQ

Kidney cancer
Sweden: population case-control (293) I II III IV
Renal cell cancer β-carotene - 0.93 0.79 0.78
N=379 (84%)
June 1989 – March 1992
FFQ
Minneapolis, USA: population case- I II III IV
control (294) Males:
Renal cell cancer Carotene - 1.1 0.9 0.8
N=495 Females:
Jan 1974 – June 1979 Carotene - 1.4 1.3 1.3
FFQ Note that CIs were not given, all trends were non-significant

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Denmark: population case-control (295) I II III IV V
Renal cell cancer Males:
N=351 (73%) Carotene - 0.9 0.7 1.1
Not stated Females:
92 item FFQ Carotene** - 2.3 1.2 1.3
Milan, Italy: hospital case-control (296) I II III
Kidney cancer β-carotene 1.2 1.4 -
N=133 NB: highest intake category was referent; trend statistics were not
1985 – 1989 provided; all CIs contained unity
FFQ
Multi-centre : population case-control I II III IV
(297) β-carotene - 1.08 1.00 0.90
Renal cell cancer #: Group comprises orange and dark green vegetables
N=1185 Trend statistics not given
1989 – 1991
63 - 205 item FFQ
Los Angeles, USA: population case- I II III IV V
control (298) α-carotene*** - 1.03 0.82 0.78 0.61
Renal cell cancer β-carotene** - 0.87 0.90 0.71 0.69
N=1204 β-cryptoxanthin**- 0.96 0.91 0.73 0.76
April 1986 – Dec 1994 Lutein** - 0.83 0.85 0.69 0.70
40 item FFQ Lycopene - 0.86 0.90 0.91 0.98

Boston, USA: population case-control I II III IV V

(299) β-carotene - 0.96 0.97 0.87 0.81
Renal adenocarcinoma
N=203
Jan 1976 – Oct 1983 FFQ

Laryngeal cancer
Multi-centre study in Spain, Italy, I II III IV V
Switzerland, France: population case- Endolarynx:
control (300) Carotene 1.66 1.48 1.30 1.04 -
Cancer of larynx and hypopharynx Hypopharynx/Epipharynx:
N=1,147 males interviewed Carotene 1.31 1.80 1.19 0.86 -
1977-1983 -
quantified diet history NB: highest intake quintile is referent
New York USA: matched case-control I II III IV
(response rate too low for population Carotenoids - 1.16 1.00 0.40
based) (301)
Laryngeal cancer (squamous cell
carcinoma)
N=250 White men interviewed (27%
March 1975 - Nov 1985
129 item FFQ
Texas, USA: hospital case-control (302) I II III
Laryngeal cancer Carotene 2.1 1.3 -
N=151 white males interviewed (85%) NB Highest intake quartile is referent
1976 - 1980
42 item FFQ (vitamin A contributing
foods only)
Shanghai, China: population case- I II III IV
control (303) Carotene-A - 0.4 0.8
Laryngeal cancer A: CI’s only provided for these items
N=201 interviewed (76%)
Jan 1988 - Feb 1990
41 item FFQ

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Lombardy, Italy: progression of disease (hazard ratios)
in cohorts (from case-control study) I II III χ2
(304) β-carotene - 0.72 0.79 0.01
Laryngeal cancer (ICD-9: 161)
N=215 males
diagnosis - 1978-1980
follow-up Dec 1993.
quantified diet history
Lombardy, France: progression of I II III
disease in cohorts (nested case-control Carotene - 0.38 1.40
study) (305)
Laryngeal cancer (ICD-9: 161)
N=36 males
diagnosis - 1978-1980
follow-up Dec 1993.
quantified diet history

Leukaemia
Shanghai, China: population case- I … III
control (306) Carotene - 0.4
Adult leukaemia Dark green and yellow vegetables were also negatively
N=486 associated with risk for adult leukaemia (data not given)
1987 – 1989
59 item FFQ

Lung cancer
Florida, USA: population case-control of I II III IV
never smokers (307) Carotene*** - 0.5 0.4 0.3
Lung cancer (ICD-O: 162.2-162.9) Lutein - 1.1 0.6 0.9
N=124 women Cryptoxanthin* - 0.6 0.7 0.4
April, 1987 Lycopene - 1.1 1.2 0.6
60 item FFQ with portion sizes
New Jersey, USA: population case- I II III
control (308) Carotenoids* 1.27 1.08 -
Trachea, bronchus or lung cancer (ICD: NB: Highest intake tertile is the referent
162)
N=1951 of usable interviews
1980 - 1983
23 fruit and veg items plus some other
food groups
Barcelona, Spain: hospital case-control I II III
(309) α-carotene - 1.3 0.47
lung cancer β-carotene - 1.09 0.48
N=103 (90%) women Lycopene - 0.98 0.53
1989-1992 Lutein - 1.21 0.89
33 item FFQ specifically chosen to Quercetin - 0.93 0.99
estimate carotenoids, retinol and Kaempferol - 1.46 0.60
vitamin C intake Luteolin - 1.43 0.54
Heilongjiang Province, China: hospital I II III IV
case-control (310) β-carotene - 0.6 0.8 0.8
primary lung cancer
N=227
May 1985 - April 1987
50 item FFQ

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Hong Kong: population case-control I II III
(311) β-carotene 1.37 1.00 -
lung cancer (histological typing Note that referents change depending on expected direction of
according to WHO classification association
system)
N=88 Chinese women who never
smoked 1981-1983
FFQ using broad food groups according
to Chinese eating habits
Oahu, Hawaii, USA: population case- I II III IV
control (312) Males:
primary lung cancer β-carotene*** 1.9 2.4 1.5 -
N=332 (67%) Other carot** 2.0 2.1 1.6 -
March 1983 - Sept 1985 Females:
130+ item FFQ β-carotene** 2.7 2.4 1.9 -
Other carot** 2.9 2.3 1.9 -
NB: highest intake quartile is referent; CIs are not given
New York, USA: population case- IQR
control (313) β-carotene 0.70
lung cancer IQR: inter-quartile range
N=413
1982 – 1985
Diet interviews
(Abstract only)
New York, USA: hospital case-control I II III IV V
(314) β-carotene - 0.9 0.8 0.6 0.5
Primary lung cancer (ICD-O: 162)
N=569 Cases to December 1987
45 item FFQ plus specific beverage
habits for 9 drinks
New York, USA: hospital case-control I II III
(315) Vitamin A 1.7 1.5 -
primary cancers of lung, bronchi or
tracheae
N=292 white males
1957-1965
21 item FFQ specifically looking at
vitamin A
Stockholm, Sweden: population case- I II III IV V
control (316) β-carotene - 0.88 0.44 0.59 0.57
Lung cancer (WHO histologically typed Total carot.* - 0.73 0.40 0.59 0.43
using classification)
N=124 never smokers
1989-1995
19 item or food group FFQ, seasonally
adjusted
New Jersey, USA: population case- I II III
control (317) Carotenoids* 1.7 1.5 -
Primary lung cancer of trachea, -
bronchus, or lung (ICD-9: 162) A: CIs not given for this group
N=750 white males interviewed with
usable dietary data (70%)
Sept 1980 - Oct 1981
44 item FFQ seasonally adjusted
New Jersey, USA: population case- I II III IV
control (318) α-carotene** 2.21 1.32 1.36 -
Primary lung cancer of trachea, β-carotene* 1.59 1.28 0.97
bronchus, or lung (ICD-9: 162) β-cryptoxanthin 0.82 0.54 0.74 -
N=464 current smokers, N=59 recent Lutein+ 1.62 1.14 1.50 -
smokers Lycopene 1.07 0.83 1.30 -
Sept 1980 - Oct 1981 Carotenoids 1.27 1.22 1.06 -
44 item FFQ seasonally adjusted Provitamin A 1.27 1.30 0.95 -
-NB: CIs only given for lowest quartile; highest quartile is referent

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Louisiana, USA: hospital case-control I II III
(319) Carotene - 0.96 0.88
Lung cancer
N=1253 (76%)
Jan 1979 – April 1982
59 item FFQ
USA: prospective cohort study (proportional hazards analysis)
(NHANES I and NHEFS) (320) I II III IV
lung cancer (ICD-9: 162) (diagnosis or Carotenoids-A** - 0.53 0.66 0.59
death) Carotenoids-B - 0.66 0.78 0.74
N=248
1971-1975 through to 1992 follow-up
24 hour recall
Iowa, USA: Nested case-control (Iowa I II III IV
Women’s Health Study) (321) β-carotene foods - 0.98 0.89 0.92
lung cancer Lutein foods - 0.91 1.09
N=179 Lycopene foods - 1.22 1.25 1.21
1986 - 1990 β-carotene - 0.76 0.67 0.81
127 item FFQ
Oahu, Hawaii, USA: population case- (Proportional hazard ratios)
control, survival analysis (322) I II III IV
primary lung cancer Men:
N=675 β-carotene 1.0 1.4 1.2 -
Sept 1979 - Sept 1985 Women:
130 item FFQ including portion size β-carotene 1.5 1.2 1.3 -
estimates NB: Highest intake quartile is the referent
Netherlands cohort – men lung Protection by:
(323) Lutein + zeaxanthine
58 279 men 55-69yrs b-cryptozxanthin
150 item FFQ
6 yr follow up No effect:
939 cases a-carotene
b-carotene
lycopene

Melanoma
Seattle, USA: population case-control I II III IV
(324) β-carotene - 1.56 1.44 1.43
Malignant melanoma Carotenes - 1.14 1.03 1.25
N=234 (80%) All trends were non-significant and all CIs contained unity
1984 - 1987
71 item FFQ
Massachusetts, USA: clinic case- I II III IV V
control (325) Carotene - 1.0 0.9 0.7 0.8
Malignant melanoma All trends were non-significant; CIs were not given
N=204 (3%)
July 1982 – Sept 1985
116 item FFQ

Mesothelioma
Louisiana, USA: hospital case-control I II III
(326) Carotene* - 0.21 0.28
Malignant mesothelioma All CIs contained unity
N=37 (69%)
1974 – 1978
58 item FFQ
New York, USA: hospital case-control I II III IV
(327) β-carotene - 0.4 0.6 0.7
Malignant mesothelioma Note that trend statistics were not given
N=94
1985 – 1993 35 item FFQ

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Oesophageal cancer
South Carolina, USA: hospital case- I II III
control (two components: incidence β-carotene fruits - 0.7 0.8
series and mortality series) (328) Carotene - 0.9 0.8
Incidence series: primary oesophageal
cancer
Mortality series: males who had died of
primary oesophageal cancer
Incidence: N=74 (85%)
Mortality: N=133 (93%)
Overall N=207 men
Incidence: 1982-1984
Mortality: died during 1977-1981
65 item FFQ
Milan, Italy: hospital case-control (329) I II III
Oesophageal cancer β-carotene*** - 0.45 0.23
N=105
Jan 1984 - Nov 1985
10 item FFQ
Shanghai, China: population case- Men I II III IV
control (330) Carotene*** - 0.7 0.6 0.5
Oesophageal cancer Women:
N=902 (89%) Carotene - 0.9 0.8 0.6
Oct 1990 - Jan 1993
81 FFQ (seasonally adjusted)
various centres in France: hospital case I II III IV
control (331) Carotene* - 0.90 0.81 0.61
Oesophageal cancer (squamous cell
carcinoma)
N=208 (93%) males
1991-1994
quantified food history
Milan, Italy: hospital case-control (332) I II III
Oesophageal cancer β-carotene - 0.7 0.6
N=40 non alcohol drinkers (total
cases=316)
1984-1992
14 item FFQ
Calvados, France: population case- I II III IV
control (333) Carotene* - 0.85 1.00 0.53
Oesophageal cancer Note: CI’s not given
N=743
1972-1978
Diet history, 40 foods (frequency and
weight)
New York, USA: hospital case-control I II III IV
(334) β-carotene-A - 0.6 0.3 0.5
Oesophageal cancer and gastric cardia β-carotene-B - 0.6 0.3 0.6
N=95 (N=90 for diet analyses) lycopene-A - 0.8 1.4 0.8
Nov 1992 - Nov 1994 lycopene-B - 0.9 1.5 1.0
NCI’s HHHQ (seasonally adjusted)
Washington DC, USA: proxy case- I II III
control (335) Carotene-A 1.3 1.3 -
Oesophageal cancer NB: Highest tertile of intake is the referent
N=120, black males who had died Note: CI’s not given
died during 1975-1977
31 item FFQ
Oslo, Norway: population case-control I II III
(336) β-carotene - 0.8 0.5
Upper digestive tract cancer Trend statistics were not given
N=84
Dec 1987 – Dec 1992
FFQ

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Oro-pharyngeal cancer
Brazil: hospital case-control (337) I II III
oral cancer: tongue, gum, floor of Carotene rich - 0.7 0.4
mouth, other pats of oral cavity
(excluding lip or salivary gland cancers)
N=232
Feb 1986 - June 1988
20 food items FFQ
New York, USA: hospital case-control I III III
(338) Vitamin A** 2.0 1.5 -
oral cancer: lip, tongue, gum, floor or -
other part of mouth NB: reference category is highest tertile of intake
N=427
1958-1965
27 item FFQ
Hyderabad, India: hospital case-control I II
(339) Carotene 3.0 -
oral cancer: tongue, oral cavity, The CI ranges given for the OR values all contained
oropharynx unity.
N=45
not stated
FFQ
India: population case-control (340) A negative trend across normal, non-chewers, normal
Oral leucoplakias (pre-cancerous oral chewers and oral leucoplakia subjects for beta carotene
lesions) (values not given).
N=50
not stated
(serum analysis for vitamin/antioxidant
status)
Beijing, China: hospital case-control I II III IV
(341) carotene (V)* - 0.41 0.54 0.52
Oral cancer carotene (F) - 0.66 0.50 0.58
N=404
May 1989 - Dec 1989
63 FFQ, seasonal variation requested
New York, USA: population case Carotene-A (IU) 0.9
control (342) Carotene-B 1.0
Oral cancer: tongue, oropharynx, floor
of mouth, pharynx or hypopharynx
N=290
1975-1983
120 item FFQ
multi-centre, USA: population case- Men: I II III IV
control (343) Carotene*** - 0.6 0.6 0.2
oral and pharyngeal cancers: tongue, Women:
pharynx and other oral cancers Carotene - 1.6 1.4 1.2
(excluding lip, salivary gland or
nasopharynx)
N=190 (77%)
Jan 1984 - March 1985
61 item FFQ
Shanghai, China: population case- Men I II III IV
control (344) Carotene - 1.17 1.31
Oral and pharyngeal cancer Females:
N=204 (78%) Carotene - 0.62 1.37
Jan 1988 – Feb 1990 Note that only “salted veg” had CI values given
41 item FFQ
Iowa, USA: cohort study ( Iowa I II III
Women’s Health Study) (345) Carotene-A - 1.1 0.7
Mouth, pharynx, oesophagus and Carotene-B* - 0.6 0.3
stomach (excluding lip and salivary A: Mouth, pharynx, oesophagus; B: Stomach
glands)
N=59 cases
Jan 1986 - Dec 1992
127 item semi-quantitative FFQ

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Pancreatic cancer
Adelaide, Australia: population case- I II III IV
control (346) β-carotene* - 0.74 0.62 0.45
Pancreatic cancer
N=104
1984 - 1987
179 item FFQ
Louisiana, USA: hospital case-control Males: I II III
(347) Carotene - 0.99 0.82
Pancreatic cancer
N=363 (86%)
1979 - 1983
FFQ
Montral, Canada: population case- I II III IV
control (French speaking) (348) β-carotene - 1.11 0.87 0.69
Pancreatic cancer All CIs contained unity, trend statistics were not given
N=179
June 1984 – June 1988
200 item FFQ
Multicentre collaboration: population I II III IV V
case-control (349) β-carotene*** - 0.50 0.61 0.42 0.37
Pancreatic cancer Note that CIs were not given
N=802
1984 – 1988
Extensive FFQ
Toronto, Canada: population case- Q4-Q1 RR
control (350) β-carotene 722 IU 0.93
Pancreatic cancer All CIs contained unity and all trends were non-significant
N=249
1983 - 1986
200 item FFQ
Shanghai, China: population case- Men: I II III IV
control (351) Carotene** - 0.91 0.80 0.53
Pancreatic cancer Women:
N=451 (78%) Carotene** - 0.70 0.86 0.38
Oct 1990 – June 1993
86 item FFQ
Milan, Italy: hospital case-control (352) I II III
Pancreatic cancer Fresh fruit* - 0.74 0.59
N=326 β-carotene - 0.91 0.87
1983 - 1992
14 item FFQ
Los Angeles, USA: Cohort study I II III
(Elderly) (353) β-carotene - 0.52 0.78
Pancreatic cancer All CIs contained unity, trend statistics were not given
N=65
1981 – Oct 1985 through to June 1990
44 item FFQ

Prostate cancer
Orebo county, Sweden: population I II III IV
case-control (354) β-carotene - 1.08 0.97 0.90
Prostate cancer Note that all trends were non-significant and all CIs
N=256 (81%) contained unity
Jan 1989 – July 1994
68 item FFQ
Montreal, Canada: population case- I II III IV
control (355) β-carotene - 0.88 1.08 1.17
Prostate cancer Carotenes - 1.11 1.08 1.19
N=232 (51%) Note that all CIs contained unity and all trends were non-
1989 - 1993 significant
200 item FFQ

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UK: Multi-centre population case- I II III IV
control (356) Carotene - 0.69 0.83
Prostate cancer Lycopene - 0.90 0.99
N=328 (77%) Note that all trend statistics were non-significant
Dec 1989 – June 1992
83 item FFQ
Quebec City, Canada: population case- I II III IV
control (357) β-carotene - 1.08 0.83 0.97
Preclinical prostate cancer α-carotene - 1.49 0.90 1.00
N=215 Lutein - 0.84 0.86 0.86
Oct 1990 – May 1993 Lycopene - 1.54 1.06 1.73
143 item FFQ Note that all CIs contained unity and all trend statistics
were non-significant
Ontario, Canada: population case- I II III IV
control (358) β-carotene - 1.37 0.94 0.98
Prostate cancer Carotenes - 0.68 0.69 0.71
N=207 (51%) Note that all CIs contained unity and all trend statistics
April 1990 – April 1992 were non-significant
200 item FFQ
USA & Canada: Multi-centre population The authors state that after adjustment of fat intake risk
case-control (359) for prostatic cancer was unrelated to intakes of
Prostate cancer carotenoids (data not given)
N=1655
Jan 1987 – Dec 1991
147 item FFQ
New York, USA: hospital case-control I II III IV V
(360) β-carotene - 0.84 0.68 0.85 0.60
Prostate cancer Trend statistics were not given
N=389
1982 – Dec 1987
45 item FFQ
Milan, Italy: hospital case-control (361) I II III
Prostate cancer β-carotene - 1.43 1.18
N=271 (97%) All trend statistics were non-significant and all CIs
March 1986 – June 1990 contained unity
14 item FFQ
USA case-control; (362) 2000 ug or more lutein+zeaxanthin compared to less
Men under 65yrs than 800ug/day OR 0.68
628 cases, 602 controls
FFQ 3-5 yr period
USA: Cohort study (Health I II III IV V
Professionals Follow-up Study) (363) α-carotene - 1.05 1.09 1.07 1.09
Prostate cancer β-carotene - 1.24 0.96 0.99 1.05
N=812 β-cryptoxanthin - 0.97 1.14 0.99 0.94
Feb 1986 – Jan 1992 Lycopene* - 0.90 0.94 0.89 0.79
131 item FFQ Lutein - 1.01 1.01 0.96 1.10

Salivary gland cancer

San Francisco, USA: population case- I II III
control (364) Carotene-A* - 0.82 0.54
Salivary gland cancer Carotene-B - 0.86 0.64
N=141
July, 1989 - June 1993
60 item FFQ, supplement use also
determined

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Stomach cancer
Louisiana, USA: hospital case-control Whites Blacks
(365) I II I II
Primary stomach cancer Carotenoids - 0.68 - 1.08
N=391
Jan 1979 - March 1983
not stated
Spain: hospital case-control (366) I II III IV
Gastric adenocarcinoma Carotene - 0.64 0.76 0.66
N=354 NB CIs were not given
1988-1989
diet history
New York, USA: population case- Carotene (IU)-M 0.79
control (367) Carotene (IU)-F 0.97
gastric cancer
N=293
1975-1985
extensive FFQ (2.5 hr interview)
New York, USA: hospital case-control OR OR
(368) Intestinal Diffuse
Gastric adenocarcinoma β-carotene(µg) 0.7 0.5
N=134 α-carotene(µg) 1.0 0.6
Nov 1992 - Nov 1994 Lutein(µg) 0.5 0.8
FFQ - NCI HHHQ (seasonally adjusted) Lycopene(µg) 0.6 0.8

Belgium: population case-control (369) I II III IV

stomach tumors Beta carotene*** - 0.73 0.63 0.50
N=301
1979-1983
150 item FFQ
Milan, Italy: hospital case-control (370) I II III IV V
Gastric cancer B-carotene** 2.5 2.2 1.8 1.9 -
N=746 Note that highest intake group is referent
Jan 1985 - June 1993
29 item FFQ
Milan, Italy: hospital case-control of I II III
family history of gastric cancer (371) β-carotene* - 0.46 0.27
Gastric cancer
N=88 cases with family history
Jan 1985 - Dec 1992
36 item FFQ
Canada: population case-control (372) OR Unit
Gastric cancer Beta-carotene 0.33 10000IU/day
N=246 Other carotenes 0.39 10000IU/day
1979-1982
large FFQ
Japan (five regions): Ecological study Spearman correlation coefficients between age-adjusted
(373) gastric cancer mortality rates and average daily intake of
Gastric cancer selected nutrients
- rs
1989-1991 Carotene -0.80
3 day weighed food record
Spain, case-control; (374) No association for any carotenoid (alpha, beta, lutein,
Gastric cancer lycopene)
354 cases 354 hospital controls
Diet history
Sweden case-control; (375) b-carotene negative association
567 cases 1165 population controls VitC+b-carotene+vitE 70% reduction OR 0.3

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Cancer - general
Moradabad, India: case-control (376) Means (SD) Males Females Males Females
Cancer incidence Intake/day mg/1000kcal/day
N=101 β-carotene 638(110) 918(138) 585(92) 832(125)
Period: not stated
7-day diet diary (completed as before
cancer diagnosis)
Moradabad, India: case-control (377) Means (SD) (mg/day) Controls Cases
Cancer incidence β-carotene* 2352(305) 1612(140)
N=52
Period: not stated
7-day diet diary (completed as before
cancer diagnosis)
Los Angeles, USA: cohort study (378) I II III
Cancer incidence Males:
N=1335 β-carotene - 1.01 1.06
1981 - 1989 Females:
59 item FFQ β-carotene - 1.02 0.84
All trend statistics were non-significant
Chicago, UK: cohort study (Western I II III
Electric) (379) β-carotene - 0.79 0.76
Mortality from all cancers Note that CIs were not given
N=155
Oct 1957 – Dec 1958 through to 1983
Diet history (Burke’s method)

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2.3 Other nutrients and cancer risk

Table 2.3.1 Fibre & cancer risk

(fibre, folate, phytoestrogens and others)

Colorectal cancer & fibre

New York, USA: population case- I II III IV
control (380) Fibre-M - 0.89 1.24 0.91
colon cancer Fibre-F - 0.98 0.65 1.10
N=428 All trends were non-significant; all CIs contained unity
1975 - 1984 Note that this analysis will contain some cereal component
FFQ
Melbourne, Australia: population case- Frequency I II III IV V
control (381) Males:
colorectal cancer Fruit fibre* 87 89 67 69 76
N=715 72 65 91 87 83
April, 1980 - Oct 1981 Females:
diet history using 300 food items Fruit fibre* 76 72 59 56 64
54 59 70 78 68
51 68 65 60 85
55 60 64 60 90

Marseilles, France: hospital case- I II III IV

control (382) Fruit fibre* - 0.98 0.88 0.60
Colorectal cancer NB: CIs were not given
N=399
1979 - 1984
diet history
Marseilles, France: hospital case- I II III IV
control (383) Fruit fibre* - 1.66 0.86 0.69
Colorectal polyps NB: CIs were not given
N=252
Jan 1980 - June 1985
diet history
Tel Aviv, Israel: hospital, population Fibre-containing foods Comparison Group
case-control (384) Case-pop. control Case-hosp. Control
Colon cancer Lower 61 57
N=198 colon Higher 12 16
1967 - 1969 Equal - -
243 item FFQ Total items 73*** 73***
This shows that over 57 of the 73 foods were eaten more often by
both control groups. These foods included vegetables, fruits, nuts
and seeds (no cereals)
Italy: multi-centre hospital case-control I II III IV V
(385) Fruit fibre** - 0.76 0.80 0.71 0.70
Colorectal cancer NB: CIs not given
N=1953
Jan 1992 - Jan 1996
78 item FFQ
North Carolina, USA: case-control (all I II III IV V
had a colonoscopy) (386) Fruit-F* - 0.66 0.56 0.49 0.44
colorectal adenomas F&V fibre-F* - 0.65 0.42 0.60 0.37
N=236 Fruit-M - 1.09 0.86 1.33 0.60
July 1988 - March 1990 F&V fibre-M - 2.74 1.46 2.08 1.65
100 item FFQ
Houston, USA: Clinic case-control (387) I II III IV
Hyperplastic polyps Fibre#* - 0.78 0.36 0.30
N=81 (after colonoscopy) #: Note that this category will contain some cereal component as
Sept 1991 – June 1993 well
138 item FFQ

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USA: cohort study (Nurses Health I II III IV V
Study) (388) Fibre - 0.81 0.89 0.84 0.89
colorectal cancer and adenoma Fruit fibre-A - 0.94 1.03 0.88 0.86
N=787 colorectal cancer, N=1012
adenomas
1980 - 1996
136 item FFQ
USA: cohort study (Health I II III IV V
Professionals Follow-up Study) (389) Fruit fibre* - 0.69 0.67 0.63 0.53
colorectal polyps Veg fibre** - 0.99 0.76 0.65 0.53
N=170 documented cases (men)
1986 - 1988
131 item FFQ

Breast cancer & fibre

USA case-control; (390) Risk not associated with fibre,
Breast cancer
568 cases, 1451 population controls
Uruguay; case-control; (391) 1 11 111 1V
Breast cancer dietary fibre*** - 0.68 0.63 0.41
400 cases, 405 controls. fruit fibre* - 0.88 0.76 0.58
64 item FFQ
Montevideo, Uruguay: hospital case- I II III IV
control (392) Fruit fibre - 1.13 0.89 0.77
Breast cancer Low fibre High fibre
N=351 (96%)
May 1994 – Aug 1996
64 item FFQ
Italy: Multi-centre hospital case-control OR (continuous)
(393 ) NCP soluble fibre 0.94
Breast cancer This will contain some cereal fibre as well
N=2564
Jan 1991 – Feb 1994
78 item FFQ
Shanghai & Tianjin, China: population RR per unit intake
case-control (394) F&V fibre 0.6 3g
Breast cancer
N=834 (69-94%)
June 1984 – May 1985
63-68 item FFQ
Adelaide, Australia: population case- I II III IV V
control (395) Total NSP* - 0.92 1.29 0.75 0.50
Benign proliferative epithelial breast Note that the NSP group will be made up of some cereal
disorders (BPED) components as well
N=354
Jan 1983 – Oct 1985
179 item FFQ

Oral cancer & fibre

Beijing, China: hospital case-control I II III IV
(396) Fibre (Fruit) - 0.65 0.47 0.50
Oral cancer
N=404
May 1989 - Dec 1989
63 FFQ, seasonal variation requested

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Oesophageal cancer & fibre
Georgia, Detroit and New Jersey, USA: I II III IV
population case-control (397) Fruit fibre - 0.7 0.7 0.5
Oesophageal cancer (ICD-O: 150,
151.0). Adenocarcinoma (ICD-O: 8140 -
8573)
N=174 (74%) white males
Aug, 1986 - April, 1989
60 item FFQ

Salivary cancer & fibre

San Francisco, USA: population case- I II III
control (398) Fibre (F&V)-A* - 0.67 0.56
Salivary gland cancer Fibre (F&V)-B - 0.76 0.75
N=141
July, 1989 - June 1993
60 item FFQ, supplement use also
determined

Endometrial & fibre

Oahu, Hawaii, USA: population case- I II III IV
control (399) Fruit fibre* - 0.70 0.61 0.54
Endometrial cancer
N=332 (66%)
Jan 1985 – June 1993
250 item FFQ
The Netherlands: population case- I II III
control (400)
Biliary tract cancer Low fibre fruit - 0.8 1.3
N=111 High fibre fruit - 1.1 0.7
Jan 1984 - Dec 1987
FFQ
Zutphe, Netherlands: cohort study (The Mortality# I II III IV V
Zutphen Study) (401) Dietary fibre-A 80 52 49 54 29
Mortality from all cancers #: deaths per 1000 – age adjusted
N=44 All deaths Survivors
1960 - 1970 Mean fibre*** 27.0±6.9 30.9±9.7
Diet history p for difference *p<0.05, **p<0.01, ***p<0.001
A: dietary fibre will contain some cereal component

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Table 2.3.2 Folate cancer risk

Breast cancer & folate

Uruguay; case-control; (402) 1 11 111 1V
breast Folate** - 0.98 0.56 0.70
400 cases, 405 controls.
64 item FFQ
USA case-control; (403) Risk folate
568 cases,
1451 population controls
European (404) No effect of folate if energy adjusted
case-control;
43 cases, 106 population controls
1991-2;

Shanghai, China; (405) Folate inversely associated OR 0.71*

case-control study; 1321 cases, 1382 Higher OR if also consumed high folate cofactors - methionine,
population controls vitamin B12 and B6 OR 0.47 **
25-64 yrs

Lung cancer & folate

Netherlands cohort – men (406) Protection by folate
58 279 men 55-69yrs
150 item FFQ;
lung 6 yr follow up
939 cases

Colorectal cancer & folate

Switzerland; case-control; (407) No association folate, retinol
223 subjects; mean aged 63 yrs
491 hospital controls

US NHANES cohort (408) Folate* inversely related in men RR 0.4 if more than 249ug/day
14 407 subjects NS in women
20 yr follow up
US Cohort (409) Energy-adjusted folate intake inversely related RR 0.69 comparing
Nurses study > 400ug/day to < 200ug
88 756 women;
442 cases
Finland: nested case-control study of I II III IV
men (410) Folate-A - 0.40 0.34 0.51
Colon (ICD-153) and Rectum (ICD-154) Folate-B - 0.50 1.78 2.12
N=144 A: Colon, B: Rectum
Jan 1985 - Nov 1993 NB: all trends were non-significant
FFQ
USA: population case-control (411) I II III
colon cancer Folate-M 1.3 1.3 -
N=1993 (ICD-O-2: 18.0, 18.2-18.9) Folate-F 1.7 0.9 -
Oct 1991 - Sept 1994 NB: All CIs contained unity; trend statistics were not given
CARDIA diet history Note that this item is likely to contain foods other than F&V as well
USA: cohort studies (Nurses Health I II III IV V
Studies, Health Professionals Follow-up Colon and rectum:
Study) (412) Folate* - 0.82 0.88 0.89 0.71
Distal colon or rectal adenoma Colon:
N=895 Folate** - 0.74 0.78 0.80 0.65
1980 – 1990 131 item FFQ

Endometrial
US study; (413) Folate OR 0.4
case-control
endometrial cancer
232 cases, 639 controls
172 item FFQ

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Table 2.3.3 Phytochemicals & cancer risk

Urinary tract & flavonoids

Finland: cohort study (Finnish Mobile I II III IV
Clinic Health Examination Survey) (414) Flavonoid - 1.50 1.19 0.84
Urinary tract cancer Note that all CIs contained unity
54 incident cases
1967-1991
Diet history interview

Colorectal cancer & flavonoids

Finland: cohort study (Finnish Mobile I II III IV
Clinic Health Examination Survey) (414) Flavonoid - 0.64 0.86 0.74
colorectal cancer
72 incident cases
1967-1991
Diet history interview

Breast cancer & flavonoids

Shanghai, China: population case-
control (415) I II III
Breast cancer Isoflavonoids - 0.50 0.50
N=746 (92%) Trend statistic was non-significant and all CIs contained unity
1996 - 1997
FFQ
Montevideo, Uruguay: hospital case- OR OR
control (416) Low quercetin 1.0 0.58
Breast cancer High quercetin 0.89 0.36
N=351 (96%) Low fibre High fibre
May 1994 – Aug 1996
64 item FFQ
Finland: cohort study (Finnish Mobile I II III IV
Clinic Health Examination Survey) (417) Flavonoid - 0.66 0.90 0.72
Breast cancer
151 incident cases
1967-1991
Diet history interview
Uruguay; case-control; breast (418) 1 11 111 1V
400 cases, 405 controls. Phytosterols*** - 0.79 0.85 0.37
64 item FFQ

Endometrial cancer & flavonoids

US study; case-control (419) Phytosterols OR 0.6
Endometrial
232 cases, 639 controls
172 item FFQ

Lung cancer & flavonoids

Barcelona, Spain: hospital case-control I II III
(420) Quercetin - 0.93 0.99
lung cancer Kaempferol - 1.46 0.60
N=103 (90%) women Luteolin - 1.43 0.54
1989-1992
33 item FFQ specifically chosen to
estimate carotenoids, retinol and
vitamin C intake
Finland: cohort study (Finnish Mobile I II III IV
Clinic Health Examination Survey) (421) Flavonoid - 0.76 0.50 0.53
lung cancer
151 incident cases
1967-1991
Diet history interview

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Prostate cancer & flavonoids
Finland: Cohort study (Finnish Mobile I II III IV
Clinic Health Examination Survey) (421) Flavonoid - 1.62 1.23 1.39
Prostate cancer All CIs contained unity
62 incident cases
1967-1991
Diet history interview

Pancreatic cancer & flavanoids

Finland: Cohort study (Finnish Mobile I II III IV
Clinic Health Examination Survey) (421) Flavonoid - 1.40 1.16 1.46
Pancreatic cancer Note all CIs contained unity and trend statistics were not given
29 incident cases
1967-1991
Diet history interview

Gastric cancer & flavonoids

Spain, case-control; (422) Flavonoid ** OR 0.44
Gastric cancer Kaempferol* OR 0.48
354 cases 354 hospital controls
Diet history
Uruguay case-control; (423) Phytosterols OF 0.33
Gastric cancer Phytosterol + a-carotene OR 0.09
120 cases, 360 controls
Finland: Cohort study (Finnish Mobile I II III IV
Health Clinic) (421) Flavonoid - 1.03 1.16 1.15
Stomach cancer
N=64
1967-1991
Diet history interview

All causes & flavonoids

Multi-centre: cohort study (The Seven β SE p
Countries Study) (424) Flavonoids 0.006 0.032 ns
Mortality from all cancers
Not stated
1958-1964 through to 1985
1, 4 or 7-day records

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Table 2.3.4 Vitamin E , pectin, sterols & cancer

Netherlands cohort – men (425)

58 279 men 55-69yrs No effect: vit E
150 item FFQ;
lung cancer
6 yr follow up
939 cases
Sweden; (426) No association retinol or vitamin E
cohort 59 036 women;
Breast cancer
40-76 yrs 67item FFQ
1 2712 breast cancer cases
Netherlands cohort; (427) No assoc in men with plant sterols and colon
12 082 subjects; Positive assoc for rectal for campesterol, stigmasterol
6yr follow up; Women – no effect
620 cases colon, 344 rectal;

Multi-centred: cohort (The Seven Countries Rate ratio

Study) (428) Pectin 0.96
colorectal cancer
N=162 deaths
1958-1964 through to 1985
diet record

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Table 3.
CHRONIC DISEASES OTHER THAN CANCER (most studies looked only at nutrients)

3.1 Arthritis
Moradabad, India: hospital case-control (429) Means (SD)(unit/day) Controls Cases
Rheumatoid arthritis Arthritis:
N=4 Vitamin C (mg) 125(18) 112(8.2)
Period not stated β-carotene (µg) 2352(305) 2150(166)
7-day diet diary (completed as before
diagnosis)
Alabama, USA: Cross-sectional study (430) Percentages Below Normal Above
Rheumatoid arthritis Vitamin C 21.5 72.2 6.3
N=79 β-carotene 41.8 58.2 0
Period not stated
24 hour dietary recall, blood sample

3.2 Asthma
Moradabad, India: Hospital case-control (431) Means (SD) (unit/day) Controls Cases
Chronic bronchitis, bronchial asthma Bronchitis:
N=105 CB, N=108 BA Vitamin C (mg)** 125(18) 70(6.1)
Period not stated β-carotene (µg)* 2352(305) 1510(158)
7-day diet diary (completed as before Asthma:
diagnosis) Vitamin C (mg)** 125(18) 72(7.1)
β-carotene (µg)** 2352(305) 1425(152)
England and Wales: Ecological analysis (432) Correlations R
Bronchitis mortality Vitamin C -0.52
1964-1969
National Food Survey
Italy 18 737 children 6-7 yrs (unpublished yet) Eating citrus or kiwi fruit protective for wheeze
questionnaires rec asthma and wheezing & diet Eating fruit lower symptoms of asthma
plus follw up at one year of 4 104

3.3 Cataracts & macular degeneration

USA: Clinic case-control (433) I II III
Cataracts Plasma:
N=77 Vitamin C 3.5 3.7 -
Jan 1981 – Dec 1985 Carotenoids 5.6 1.4 -
FFQ, blood sample Intake:
Vitamin C 4.0 1.6 -
Carotene 1.1 1.3 -
Trend statistics were not given, note that the highest categories
were the referents
Serves/day Intake RR
Fruits 1.5 3.4
Vegetables 2.0 3.6
Fruits & veg 3.5 5.7
Brigham, USA: Clinic case-control (434) I II III
Cataracts Carotenoids - 0.25 0.18
N=77 Vitamin C - 1.09 0.29
Jan 1981 – Dec 1985 All CIs contained unity and trend statistics were not given
FFQ (blood sample)
USA: Multi-centre case-control (435) PSC C N M
Cataract type: posterior subcapsular, cortical, Vitamin C, mg 0.73 0.80 0.48 0.72
nuclear, mixed ORs calculated as high intake vs low intake referent
N=72 PSC, N=290 C, N=137 N, N=446 M
Dec 1985 – Dec 1988
FFQ (Block et al)
New Delhi, India: Clinic case-control (436) RR unit increase
Cataract type: posterior subcapsular, cortical, Vitamin C 1.87 1SD increase
nuclear, mixed Ie risk increases with higher values but in PSC and N cataract
N=177 PSC, N=249 C, N=145 N, N=357 M types only
Aug 1984 – Dec 1987 (blood sample)
Ontario, Canada: Clinic case-control (437) β±SE OR

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Cataracts Vitamin C** -1.19±0.46 0.30
N=175
Not stated (dietary supplement use)
Milan, Italy: hospital case-control (439) I II III
Cataracts with extraction Citrus** - 0.5 0.5
N=207 Melon** - 0.3 0.5
Jan 1985 – June 1993 I II III IV V
34 item FFQ β-carotene - 0.7 0.8 1.1 0.9
Vitamin C - 0.7 0.9 0.9 0.8
Parma, Italy: Clinic case-control (439) Authors state that no associations with risk of cataract were found
Cataracts for any of the nutrient variables (FFQ or plasma) – data not given
N=1008
April, 1987 – March, 1989
FFQ, blood sample
USA: cohort study(Nurses Health Study) (440) I II III IV V
Cataracts Carotene*** - 1.09 0.80 0.66 0.73
N=493 extractions Vitamin C - 1.12 1.10 1.03 1.16
1980 - 1988 Note that all RRs for foods were adjusted for age only
61 item FFQ
USA: Nested cohort (Nurses Health Study) I II III IV
(441) Vitamin C-A* - 1.41 1.34 0.23
Cataracts Vitamin C-B* - 0.56 0.51 0.17
N=188 A: Grade 1 cataract – early; B: Grade ≥2 – moderate
1980 – 1992
61 item FFQ
Finland: Nested case-control (Finnish Mobile I II III
Health Study) (442) β-carotene 1.7 - -
Cataracts CI contained unity, comparison given only for highest vs lowest
N=47 tertile
Jan 1970 – Dec 1984
(blood sample)
Beaver Dam, USA: cohort study (Beaver Dam I II III
Eye Study) (443) α-carotene - 0.8 0.9
Cataracts β-carotene - 1.3 0.9
N=57 Lutein - 1.1 0.7
1988 – 1990 through to 1995 Lycopene - 0.8 1.1
FFQ, blood sample Cryptoxanthin - 0.8 0.7
All trends were non-significant and all CIs contained unity
Beaver Dam, USA: cohort study (Beaver Dam I II III IV V
Eye Study – nutrition) (444) Males:
Cataract severity α-carotene* - 0.90 0.66 0.85 0.61
N=294 (grades 4, 5) β-carotene - 0.94 1.0 0.76 0.71
1988 – 1990 through to 1995 Lutein - 0.99 1.12 0.98 0.82
100 item FFQ Lycopene - 0.95 0.83 0.86 1.10
Cryptoxanthin - 1.06 1.00 1.20 0.87
Vitamin C - 0.92 1.03 1.21 0.71
Females:
α-carotene - 0.70 0.85 0.81 0.80
β-carotene - 0.89 0.91 0.86 0.82
Lutein* - 1.06 1.20 0.81 0.73
Lycopene* - 1.10 1.05 1.22 1.49
Cryptoxanthin - 0.84 1.17 0.99 1.13
Vitamin C - 0.83 0.95 1.08 0.99

Beaver Dam, USA: cohort study (Beaver Dam I II III

Eye Study – nutrition) (445) Vitamin C*** - 0.6 0.7
Cataract severity
N=310 (grades 4 and 5) non-diabetic
1988 – 1990 through to 1995
100 item FFQ

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USA: cohort study (Physicians’ Health Study) I II III IV
(446) Supplement use 1.32 0.73 0.77 -
Cataracts (incidence and or extraction)
N=370 incidents and N=109 extractions Note that highest quartile is referent
1982 – Jan 1988
Vitamin supplement use
Baltimore, USA: cohort study (Baltimore MvL HvL
Longitudinal Study on Aging) (447) Plasma - cortical:
Cortical and nuclear cataracts β-carotene 0.74 0.72
N=660 Vitamin C 1.21 1.01
1984 – March 1990 Plasma - nuclear:
7-day food records, blood sample β-carotene 1.27 1.57
Vitamin C 1.36 1.31
Dietary intake data were not significantly associated with
cataracts
All CIs contained unity and trend statistics were not given
MvL: middle vs low quartile; HvL: high vs low quartile
Linxian, China: Randomied, supplement trials OR for cataracts (between placebo and multivitamin users):
(448) Nuclear: OR
PSC, N, C or mixed cataracts All ages 0.80
N-experimental: Trial 1: N=1058 Aged 45 -64 1.28
N-control: Trial 1: N=1083 Aged 65-74 0.57
May 1985 – April 1991
Cortical 1.05
Posterior subcapsular 1.41

USA case-control (449) Positive but weak associations between diet intake and plasma
23 Donor eyes and experimental study levels and levels of lutein and zeazanthin in donor eyes and
macular degeneration
USA: Multi-centre ‘Eye Disease Case-control I II III IV V
Study’, clinic setting (450) Carotenoids* - 0.78 0.78 0.65 0.57
Macular degeneration Vitamin C - 1.12 0.84 0.82 0.83
N=356 α-carotene - 1.01 0.73 0.73 0.79
May 1986 – Dec 1990 β-carotene* - 0.86 0.86 0.72 0.59
60 item FFQ β-cryptoxanthin - 0.82 1.12 0.93 0.89
Lycopene - 1.00 0.70 0.70 1.16
Lutein+*** - 1.14 0.84 0.77 0.43
Broccoli - 0.92 1.06 0.85 0.50

USA: Multi-centre clinic-case-control (451) I II III

Macular degeneration Carotenoids*** - 0.5 0.3
N=421 Lutein+** - 0.7 0.3
May 1986 – Dec 1990 β-carotene*** - 0.5 0.3
(blood sample) α-carotene** - 0.6 0.5
Cryptoxanthin** - 0.7 0.4
Lycopene - 1.0 0.8
Vitamin C - 0.6 0.7
I II III IV V
Carotenoids*** - 0.65 0.54 0.39 0.34
Lutein+: Lutein and zeaxanthin

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3.4 Chronic diseases - general
USA: cohort study(NHANES I / NHEFS) (452) SMR I II III IV
Mortality from all causes Males (total SMR: 0.97)
N=1809 deaths Vitamin C I 1.11 0.93 0.65
1971 – 1974 through to 1984 Vitamin C II 1.13 0.94 0.92 0.74
FFQ & 24 hour recall Females (total SMR 0.95):
Vitamin C I 1.00 0.93 0.90
Vitamin C II 0.96 0.98 0.93 0.73
Both sexes (total SMR 0.96):
Vitamin C I 1.06 0.93 0.77
Vitamin C II 1.07 0.95 0.92 0.74
Proportional Hazards Linear Models:
Model β SE RR
Males:
Vitamin C I-A -0.229 0.048 0.54
Vitamin C 1-C -0.126 0.056 0.75
All persons:
Vitamin C I-B -0.152 0.035 0.70
Vitamin C 1-C -0.074 0.042 0.85
RR compares highest vs lowest vitamin C intake
UK: cohort study (453) SMR
Mortality from all causes Fruit 0.79
N=1343
Nov 1973 – Nov 1979 through to March 1995
Limited FFQ
Chicago, UK: cohort study (Western Electric) I II III
(454) Vitamin C** - 0.93 0.73
Mortality from all causes β-carotene* - 0.82 0.80
N=522 Note that CIs were not given
Oct 1957 – Dec 1958 through to 1983
Diet history (Burke’s method)
Roskilde, Denmark: cohort study (Euronut Rate Ratio
SENECA component) (455)
All cause mortality Fruits 1.02
N=52 Rate ratios calculated per 20g change
Dec 1988 – March 1989 through to July 1995 Carotene (µmol/l) 0.48
3-day diet history
Zutphen, Netherlands: cohort study (The Mortality# I II III IV V
Zutphen Study) (456) Diet fibre-A 195 122 129 90 70
Mortality from all causes #: deaths per 1000 – age adjusted
N=107 All deaths Survivors
1960 - 1970 Mean fibre*** 26.9±8.3 30.9±9.7
Diet history A: dietary fibre will contain some cereal component
Multi-centre: cohort study (The Seven β SE p
Countries Study) (457) Flavonoids 0.13 0.11 ns
Mortality from all causes
Not stated
1958-1964 through to 1985
1, 4 or 7-day records
UK: cohort study (458) Death rate ratios I II III
Mortality from all causes Fruit 100 89 97
N=392 All CIs included unity (100)
Sept 1980 – Jan 1984 through to Dec 1995
FFQ

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3.5 Crohn’s disease
Stockholm, Sweden: population case-control I II III
(459) Crohn’s disease:
Crohn’s disease, ulcerative colitis Fibre - M - 0.9 0.7
N=152 CD, N=145 UC Fibre - F - 0.8 0.4
1984 - 1987 Ulcerative colitis:
40 item FFQ Fibre - M - 1.1 1.2
Fibre - F - 1.0 1.9
All CIs contained unity
Limburg, Netherlands: population case-control I II III
(460) Crohn’s disease:
Crohn’s disease, ulcerative colitis Citrus - 0.8 0.5
N=290 CD, N=398 UC Ulcerative colitis
Oct 1991 – July 1996 Citrus: - 1.0 0.5
Limited FFQ Trend statistics were not given

3.6 Cardiovascular disease

Moradabad, India: hospital case-control (461) Means (SD) (unit/day) Controls Cases
Acute myocardial infarction, coronary artery Vitamin C (mg):
disease, cardiomyopathy, rheumatic heart AMI** 125(18) 98(15)
disease CAD* “ 105(9)
N=109 AMI, N=106 CAD, N=12 CM, N=28 RHD CM* “ 105(12.5)
Period not stated RHD** “ 95(9.2)
7-day diet diary (completed as before β-carotene (µg):
diagnosis) AMI* 2352(305) 1758(260)
CAD* “ 1810(210)
CM “ 2125(198)
RHD** “ 1685(150)
p for difference *p<0.05, **p<0.01
The Czech Republic: case-control (462) I II
Myocardial infarction β-carotene 2.70 -
N=52 men Note that highest plasma concentration level is the referent
March 1992 – June 1993
(plasma antioxidant analysis)
Scotland: population case-control (Scottish I II III IV V
Heart Health Study) (463) Men:
CHD Vitamin C - 1.05 1.20 1.15 1.40
N=625 CHD diagnosed, N=1497 CHD β-carotene - 0.75 0.85 0.75 1.05
undiagnosed) Women:
Not stated Vitamin C - 0.55 0.55 0.95 0.90
50 item FFQ β-carotene - 0.80 0.40 0.60 0.65
Netherlands: hospital case-control (464) I II
Acute myocardial infarction
N=42 men Fruit - 0.9
1993 Apples - 1.3
Limited FFQ
Italy: hospital case-control (465) I II III
N=287 women Fruit* - 0.4 0.4
Jan 1985 – March 1989 Note that CIs were not given
10 item FFQ
Multi-centre: population or hospital case-control I II
(The EURAMIC Study) (466) β-carotene 1.98 -
Acute myocardial infarction (ICD: 410) Highest percentile is referent
N=674
1991-1992
(adipose tissue sample)

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Seoul, Korea: Case-control (467) Males Females
Coronary artery disease Mean±SD Control Cases Control Cases
N=119 β-carotene 32±20 15±16* 48±23 16±13*
Not stated Lycopene 8±7 3±3* 11±7 2±2*
(serum antioxidant analyses) β-cryptoxanthin 59±25 50±36* 70±26 58±39*
Zeaxanthin 66±36 51±22* 68±27 54±28*
Multi-centre: population case-control (The I II III IV V
EURAMIC Study) (468) α-carotene - 1.07 0.80 0.86 0.52
MI β-carotene** - 1.07 0.72 0.90 0.38
N=662 men Lycopene** - 0.77 0.56 0.55 0.42
Not stated
(adipose tissue sample)
Edinburgh, Scotland: population case-control I II III IV V
(469) Carotene 1.41 1.00 0.98 0.95 -
Angina pectoris Vitamin C 1.63 1.32 1.56 0.87 -
N=110 chest pain – no doctor All CIs contained unity, all trends were non-significant
April 1983 – April 1984 Note that highest quintile was referent
FFQ, (blood sample)
Moradabad, India: hospital case-control (470) Mean±SD A B C D
Acute myocardial infarction, coronary artery Fruit and veg (g/day) 172±34 165±27 182±29 180±29
disease F&V fibre (g/day) 10.3±4 10.4±3 10.4±4 12.2±4
N=335 AMI - A, N=64 possible AMI - B, N=19 Differences were not significant at the 0.01 level
unstable angina - C
Not stated specifically, recruited for three years
24 hour food recall
Athens, Greece: hospital case-control (471) I II III IV V
Coronary infarct and/or coronary arteriogram Vitamin C - 0.81 0.86 0.67 1.14
N=329 (93%) All CIs contained unity, trend statistic was not given
Jan 1990 – April 1991
110 item FFQ
Milan, Italy: hospital case-control (472) I II III IV V
Non-fatal acute MI β-carotene** - 0.7 0.6 0.6 0.5
N=433 women
1983 – Dec 1992
14 item FFQ
Chicago, UK: cohort study (Western Electric) I II III
(473) Vitamin C - 1.03 0.75
Mortality from all cancers β-carotene - 0.84 0.84
N=231 Note that CIs were not given and all trend statistics were not
Oct 1957 – Dec 1958 through to 1983 significant
Diet history (Burke’s method)
Zutphe, Netherlands: cohort study (The Mortality# I II III IV V
Zutphen Study) (474) Dietary fibre-A 54 35 37 38 12
Mortality from CHD #: deaths per 1000 – age adjusted
N=37 CHD deaths Survivors
1960 - 1970 Mean fibre 27.2±8.1 30.8±9.7
Diet history A: dietary fibre will contain some cereal component
UK: cohort study (475) SMR
IHD mortality Fruit 0.76
N=350
Nov 1973 – Nov 1979 through to March 1995
Limited FFQ
USA: cohort study (NHANES I / NHEFS) (476) SMR I II III IV
Mortality from CVD Males (total SMR: 0.94)
N=929 deaths Vitamin C I 1.05 0.93 0.58
1971 – 1974 through to 1984 Vitamin C II 1.14 0.86 0.94 0.61
FFQ & 24 hour recall Females (total SMR 0.90):
Vitamin C I 1.00 0.85 0.75
Vitamin C II 0.88 1.00 0.90 0.44
Both sexes (total SMR 0.92):
Vitamin C I 1.03 0.90 0.66
Vitamin C II 1.04 0.91 0.92 0.52

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South Wales: cohort study (The Caerphilly I II III IV V
Study) (477) Vitamin C 1.6 1.3 1.4 1.2 -
IHD events (ICD410-414), MI Note that the highest intake quintile was the referent; CIs were not
N=148 given
1979 – 1983 through to 1988 Mean ±SD No IHD IHD
FFQ Fruit & veg fibre* 8.4±2.8 7.8±2.4
California, USA: cohort study (The Adventist I II III
Health Study) (478) Fruit - 1.17 1.18
CHD events (ICD 410-414) Trend statistics were not significant
N=463
1976 - 1982
65 item FFQ
Massachusetts, USA: cohort study Carotene score I II III IV
(Massachusetts Health Care Panel Study) Fatal MI** - 0.71 0.49 0.27
(479) Other CVD - 0.77 0.68 0.73
CVD mortality Total CVD* - 0.77 0.63 0.59
N=151
1976 - 1981
43 item FFQ
UK: cohort study (480) I II III
CVD mortality Vitamin C diet - 0.9 0.8
N=182 Vitamin C plas. - 0.9 0.9
1973-1974 through to 1992
7-day food record
Basel, Switzerland: cohort study (Basel RR
Prospective Study) (481) Low carotene 1.53
IHD Low vitamin C 1.25
N=132 deaths Low carotene+low vit C 1.96
12 year follow up
(serum antioxidants)
Zutphen, Netherlands: cohort study (The I II III
Zutphen Study) (482) CHD mortality:
CHD mortality, myocardial infarction Flavonoids** - 0.32 0.32
N=43 deaths; N=38 MI Fatal and non-fatal MI:
1985 - 1990 Flavonoids - 0.89 0.52
Diet history, blood samples All cause-mortality-#:
Flavonoids* - 0.68 0.67
Zutphen, Netherlands: cohort study (The I II III
Zutphen Study) (483) CHD mortality:
CHD mortality, myocardial infarction Flavonoids** - 0.58 0.47
N=90 CHD deaths, N=373 total deaths, N=92 Fatal and non-fatal MI:
MI Flavonoids - 0.89 0.62
1985 - 1995 All cause mortality was associated with flavonol intake, adjusted p
Diet history, blood samples for trend = 0.01), RRs not given.
California, USA: cohort study (484) Men Women
IHD I II I II
N=65 Dietary fibre - 0.33 - 0.37
1972 – 1974 through to 1985 Note that dietary fibre will contain some cereal component
24 hour dietary recall
Rotterdam, Netherlands: cohort study (The I II III
Rotterdam Study) (485) β-carotene* - 0.72 0.55
MI Vitamin C - 1.01 1.05
N=124
1990 – April 1996
170 item FFQ

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Finland: cohort study (Finnish Mobile Clinic Men Women
Study) (486) Food (g/day) Cases Controls Cases Controls
CHD mortality (ICD-8: 410-414) Fruits 74 89* 113 137
N=244
1966-1972 through to 1984 Nutrient (unit/d) Cases Control Cases Controls
Diet history Carotenoids (µg) 1569 1760 2162 2371
Vitamin C (mg) 78 78 74 84
Fruits 74 89* 113 137
I II III
Carotenoids-M - 1.06 1.02
Vitamin C-M - 0.87 1.00
Fruit-M - 0.98 0.77
Carotenoids-F - 1.46 0.62
Vitamin C-F - 0.51 0.49
Fruit-F - 0.47 0.66
Finland: cohort study (Finnish Mobile Clinic I II III IV
Study) (487) Flavonoid-A-M** - 0.87 0.87 0.76
CHD mortality (ICD-8: 410-414) Flavonoid-B-M - 0.90 1.00 0.78
N=473, N=1364 total deaths Flavonoid-A-F** - 0.92 0.78 0.69
1966-1972 through to 1984 Flavonoid-B-F** - 0.87 0.56 0.54
Diet history Apple-A-M - 0.84
Apple-B-M - 0.81
Other fruits-A-M - 0.77
Other fruits-B-M - 0.88
Berries-A-M - 1.08
Berries-B-M - 1.21
Apple-A-F - 0.76
Apple-B-F - 0.57
Other fruits-A-F - 0.70
Other fruits-B-F - 0.55
Berries-A-F - 0.70
Berries-B-F - 0.59

Note that trend statistics were not given for food groups
Iowa, USA: cohort study (488) I II III IV V
CHD mortality Carotenoids - 1.21 1.33 1.00 1.19
N=242 Vitamin C - 1.25 1.15 0.92 1.43
Jan 1986 – Dec 1992 (from food only)
127 item FFQ
USA Nurses & Health professionals cohort Highest quintile of fruit & vegetables had RR 0.80 (CI 0.69-0.93)
studies(489) compared to lowest
84 251 women 34-59yrs; followed for 14 yrs; 42 Each I serving /day associated with 4% less risk
148 men 40-75yrs followed for 8 yrs Vitamin C-rich fruits and vegetables RR for one extra serve/day
1127 cases in women; 1063 cases in men 0.94 (CI 0.88-.99)
FFQ

UK: cohort study (490) Death rate ratios I II III

IHD mortality Fruit 100 107 89
N=64 All CIs included unity
Sept 1980 – Jan 1984 through to Dec 1995
FFQ
US: cohort study (Nurses Health Study) (491) I … V
MI incidence and CHD mortality Vitamin C - 0.65
N=552
1980 – 1988
FFQ
US: cohort study (Lipid Research Clinics MR# I II III IV
Coronary Primary Prevention Trial & Follow-up Carotenoids-A 14.4 13.2 9.8 8.5
Study) (492) Carotenoids-B 4.3 4.0 3.2 1.8
CHD incidence and mortality RR for CHD (incidence+death)
N=282 incidence, N=81 CHD deaths Carotenoids** - 1.03 0.70 0.64
1973 – 1976 through to 1989 #: mortality rates are per 1000 person years
(serum carotenoids) A: CHD incidence, B: CHD deaths

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Kuopio, Finland: cohort study (493) I II III IV V
Acute myocardial infarction Vitamin C** 4.03 1.46 0.95 1.08 -
N=70 Note that the highest intake quintile was the referent category
March 1984 – Dec 1989 through to 1992 RR
4-day food record (serum analysis) Carotene 0.69

Finland: cohort study (ATBC Study) (494) I II III IV V

MI incidence and then CHD death, CHD Coronary event:
mortality Fruit fibre - 1.00 1.03 0.90 0.90
N=1399 (MI, N=635 mortality Coronary death:
Through to April 1993 Fruit fibre* - 0.95 1.09 0.92 0.82
276 item FFQ Fruit+** - 1.02 0.93 0.86 0.78
When adjusting for intakes of β-carotene, and vitamins C and E
the trends for vegetable fibre and fruit fibre (coronary death) was
no longer significant at the 0.05 level, although the RRs for
quintiles III and IV were still significantly different from unity
US: cohort study (Health Professionals Follow- Nonfatal MI I II III IV V
up Study) (495 ) Quercetin - 0.93 0.94 1.01 1.14
Nonfatal MI Myricetin - 0.90 0.93 1.09 0.89
N=486 Kaempferol - 0.93 0.93 1.08 0.99
1986 – 1990 Flavonoids - 0.94 0.86 1.09 1.08
131 item FFQ All CIs contained unity; trend statistics were not given
Flavonoids were from tea, apples, onion, broccoli
US: cohort study (Health Professionals Follow- I II III IV V
up Study) (496 ) Fruit fibre - 0.93 0.83 0.84 0.81
Fatal and nonfatal MI
N=734 major incident coronary event
1986 – 1992
131 item FFQ
US: cohort study (Health Professionals Follow- I II III IV V
up Study) (497) Vitamin C - 1.02 1.15 1.02 0.89
Fatal and nonfatal MI, coronary surgery Carotene* - 0.93 0.93 0.87 0.71
N=667 major incident coronary event
1986 – 1990
131 item FFQ
Madison, USA: Nested-case control (498) I II III IV V
Myocardial infarction (ICD:9 410.0 – 410.9) β-carotene* 2.23 1.67 1.12 1.18 -
N=123 Lycopene 1.33 1.35 0.67 1.48 -
1974 - 1988 Lutein 1.71 1.06 1.28 0.72 -
(Blood sample given in 1974) Zeaxanthin 1.37 1.34 1.14 1.18 -
Nate that the highest quintile is referent
England, Scotland & Wales: Ecological analysis Correlations Men Women
(499) Fresh fruit -0.53 -0.78
Ischaemic heart disease
1969
country commodity consumption data
24 countries: Ecological analysis (500) Correlations CS L
CHD
1970-1987 Vitamin C -0.609 -0.18
Food and nutrient supply data β-carotene -0.495 -0.49
CS: cross-sectional; L: longitudinal (median r values)
21 countries (>US$9500 per capita GDP): Correlations R
Ecological analysis (501) Fruit -0.57
CHD
1988
FAO food balance sheets
Scotland: Ecological analysis (Scottish Heart Correlations Males Females
Health Study) (502) No fruit 0.588 0.537
CHD mortality and identified risk factors from Vitamin C -0.731 -0.634
cohort study
1979-1983
FFQ

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Multi-centre (16 study sites): Ecological Univariate analysis R2
analysis (MONICA Study) (503) Vitamin C 0.56
IHD mortality Carotene 0.50
Not stated Stepwise regression R2 p (model) p (LR)
(serum antioxidant analysis) + carotene 0.83 .0001 .013
+ vitamin C 0.88 .0002 .098

LR: likelihood ratio that variable will be entered into model

65 counties in China: Ecological analysis (504) Mean SD
CVD mortality, CHD (ICD-8: 410-413) HHD Vitamin C (mg/dl) 1.15 0.45
(ICD-8: 402) Keshan disease (cardiomyopathy), β-carotene (µg/dl) 9.68 4.35
1983-1984 (mortality data from 1973-1975) Correlations CHD HHD Keshan
Limited FFQ, blood sample Vitamin C -0.12 -0.26 0.05
β-carotene -0.14 -0.13 0.05
Multi-centre: Ecological analysis (Seven β (SE) p r
Countries Study) (505) Flavonoid -0.12 (0.045) .01 -.50
CHD mortality
1960 - 1985
Flavonoid analysis of foods eaten in average
diet – 7-day diet record in small samples of
men)
England and Wales: Ecological analysis (506) Correlations R
IHD mortality, SMRs Vitamin C -0.49
1964-1969
National Food Survey
Italy: Cross-sectional study (507) Serum cholesterol (mg/dl) I II III
Serum cholesterol Fruit 195.8 196.4 202.0
N=792 Partial correlations R
1988-1989 Fruit 0.04
11 item FFQ
US: Cross-sectional study (NHANES II) (508) I II III
CHD prevalence Vitamin C - 0.93 0.73
N=1765 Note that trend statistics were not given
N=6,597 A 0.5 mg/dl increase in serum vitamin C level was independently
(serum vitamin C) associated with prevalence of angina (OR=0.90; 0.82 – 0.99) and
total CHD (OR=0.89; 0.81 – 0.97) - myocardial infarction was just
outside significance (OR=0.89; 0.78-1.01).
India: Cross-sectional study (Indian Lifestyle Mean±SD CAD+ CAD-
and Heart Study) (509) Vitamin C (mg/day) 68±9 72±10
Coronary artery disease β-carotene (µg/day) 2270±1952 312±205
N=72 F&V&legumes (g/day) 186±23 202±27
N=523 (N=302 people with no risk factors) All mean differences were not significant at the 0.01 level
7 day food record, blood sample Mean±SD (unit/1000kcal) CAD+ No risk factors
Vitamin C (mg)** 31.5±4.1 41.6±4.6
β-carotene (µg)* 1086±86 1110±98
Mean plasma (µmol/l):
Vitamin C** 20.3±3.1 37.8±5.6
β-carotene** 0.31±0.05 0.48±0.09
I II III IV V
β-carotene* 1.72 1.12 1.04 0.94 -
Vitamin C 2.21 1.34 1.19 1.57 -
Scotland: Cross-sectional study (Scottish Heart I II III IV
Health Study (510) Males:
CHD prevalence (diagnosed or undiagnosed) β-carotene - 1.159 1.048 0.852
N=10,359 Vitamin C - 0.840 0.949 0.698
1984 - 1986 Females:
50 item FFQ β-carotene - 0.710 0.849 1.893
Vitamin C - 1.078 1.141 1.470
Trend statistics were not given

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Lyon, France: Prospective randomised, single- Mean±SE Controls Treatment
blinded secondary prevention trial, followed for Vitamin C (mg/day)* 101.7±4.7 115.8±4.2
4 years (511) Fruit (g/day)** 203±12 251±12
Myocardial infarction
N-experimental: N=302 Proportional-hazards model
N-control: N=303 Controls Treat RR
March 1988 – March 1992 Cardiovascular deaths 16 3 0.24
(serum antioxidants) Overall mortality 20 8 0.30

3.7 Dementia and Alzheimer’s diseases

Toulouse, France: hospital case-control (512) Co MAD HAD SAD
Alzheimer’s disease Raw F&V# 24.1±6 24.1±8 15.7±7 24.1±8
N=20 severe AD, N=24 moderate AD, N=9 Cooked F&V# 16.8±6 24.2±7 24.2±5 12.1±4
moderate AD but hospitalised Plasma Vit C∋ 8.6±3 6.3±4 3.4±2 3.6±3
Not stated Diet Vit C∋ 77.3±8 64.3±6 69.1±15 9.7±6
Dietary history of fruit and vegetable intake, MAD: moderate Alzheimer’s; HAD: hospitalised Alzheimer’s;
blood sample SAD: severe Alzheimer’s
# units are serves per week;
∋ units are - plasma: mg/L; diet: mg/day
Bolding indicates a significant difference between control group
and specific Alzheimer group
UK: cohort study (513) I II III
Cognitive impairment Vitamin C diet 1.7 1.1 -
N=56 scoring 7 or lower on the Hodkinson Vitamin C plas. 1.6 1.1 -
mental test Note that trend statistics were not given and the highest intake
1973-1974 through to 1992 category was the referent
7-day food record, blood sample
Finland, Italy, Netherlands: Multi-centre cohort - RR
cross-sectional (Seven Countries Study) (514) Healthy Diet Index 0.87
Cognitive impairment
N=1049
1990
Diet history

3.8 Diabetes
Moradabad, India: hospital case-control (515) Means (SD) (unit/day) Controls Cases
Diabetes mellitus Vitamin C (mg)** 125(18) 95(8.5)
N=54 β-carotene (µg)* 2352(305) 1685(212)
Period not stated
7-day diet diary (completed as before
diagnosis)
Koki, Papua New Guinea: population case- OR
control (516) Fibre 1.06
Diabetes Note that this will contain some cereal component
N=145 Wanigela people
Period not stated
87 item FFQ
England and Wales: Ecological analysis (517) Correlations R
Diabetes mortality, SMRs Vitamin C -0.19
1964-1969
National Food Survey

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3.9 Gallstones
Sicily: population case-control (518) Means±SD Cases Controls
Gallstones Fibre (g)* 16.7±6.8 14.9±5.2
N=71 women This will contain some cereal component
Not stated
7 day food record
Madrid, Spain: Clinic case-control (519) Mean±SD Males Females
Gallstones unit/day Cases Controls Cases Controls
N=54 Fruits(g)* 399±258 357±249 288±211 438±319
Oct – Nov 1992 Vitamin C(mg) 173±118 145±88 121±89 164±96
2 24-hr recalls Fruit intake was significantly different between cases and controls
(p<.01) and also between ages (p<0.05).
Adelaide, Australia: population case-control Mean±SE <50 50+
(520) Women: Cases Controls Cancer Controls
Gallstones Fibre (g) 19.4±1 17.7±1 18.1±1 21.9±1
N=267 Men:
Dec 1978 – Sept 1980 Fibre (g) 17.8±2 21.7±2 18.3±2 18.2±1
105 item FFQ Standardised regression coefficient:
Females Males
Fibre(g) -2.64 -2.10
Zutphen, Netherlands: cohort study (The All differences using the Mann-Whitney U statistic were non-
Zuthphen Study) (521) significant
Gallstones
N=54
1960 – 1985
Diet history

3.10 Hypertension
Moradabad, India: hospital case-control (522) Means (SD) (unit/day) Controls Cases
Hypertension (>150/95 mm Hg) Vitamin C (mg)* 125(18) 110(10)
N=66 β-carotene (µg) 2352(305) 2122(224)
Period not stated p for difference *p<0.05, **p<0.01
7-day diet diary (completed as before
diagnosis)
Poland: case-control (523) Mean (mmHg) I II III
Blood pressure in overweight Vit C – syst* 136±12.7 128.6±9.2 125±8.3
N=102 women Vit C – diast** 90.4±10.4 85.0±9.4 81.4±10.8
Period not stated
Limited FFQ, blood sample
Gothenburg, Sweden: cohort study (524) P values Systolic BP
Systolic blood pressure Vitamin C ns
N=23
1968 – 1969 through to 1981
24-hr recall
Oahu, Hawaii, USA: cohort study (Honolulu Mean (mmHg) I II III IV
Heart Study) (525) Vit C – systolic* 137.1 135.2 136.1 133.5
Blood pressure Vit C - diastolic 79.7 78.5 79.8 78.6
N=456
1965 – Jan 1982
24-hr recall
England and Wales: Ecological analysis (526) Correlations R
Hypertension mortality, SMRs Vitamin C -0.13
1964-1969
National Food Survey
Britain: Cross-sectional study (National Diet & Means±SE SBP DBP Pulse
Nutrition Survey of People Aged 65 Years or Fibre (g) -13.6±5.0** -6.5±2.9* -8.4±3.1**
Over) (527) Vitamin C (mg) -10.7±2.9*** -4.3±1.7* -3.3±1.8
Blood pressure β-carotene (µg)-8.4±2.5*** -3.4±1.4* -3.6±1.5*
N=541 not taking BP medication Plas vit C -0.17±.04*** -0.06±.02* -0.06±.02**
1994 – 1995
4-day weighed food record

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Boston, USA: Cross-sectional study of elderly Mean (mmHg) I II III IV
Chinese-Americans (528) Vit C – systolic*** 154.2 140.6 141.1 136.6
Blood pressure Vit C – diastolic** 83.7 80.5 76.8 78.2
N=247 Among those not taking anti-hypertensive medication (N=201)
Period not stated Vit C – systolic*** 153.7 137.1 138.7 132.6
(blood sample) Vit C – diastolic*** 83.6 79.5 75.5 75.7
Augusta, USA: Cross-sectional study (529) Correlations Systolic Diastolic
Blood pressure Vitamin C -0.18* -0.20**
N=168 Quintiles of vitamin C and mean blood pressure (mmHg):
Period not stated I… V
(blood sample) Vit C – systolic* 113±2 108±2
Vit C – diastolic* 74±2 69±1
Norfolk, UK: Cross-sectional study (530) Mean (mmHg) I II III IV
Blood pressure Vit C - systoli 136.7 136.8 135.3 134.2
N=1860 Vit C – diastolic**83.5 83.3 81.8 81.4
1993 - 1994
(blood sample)
Kuopio, Finland: Cross-sectional study (531) Plasma vit C I II III IV
Blood pressure Systolic BP** 136.7 133.1 129.6 130.2
N=722 normotensive men Diastolic BP** 89.6 86.6 86.4 85.7
March 1984 – Aug 1986 Regression coefficients
4-day food record, blood sample Systolic BP** -0.110
Diastolic*** -0.131
Mean BP*** -0.123
Boston, USA: Cross-sectional study (532) Plasma Vit C β (x 10-4) p BP % change
Blood pressure Systolic blood pressure:
N=1270 (221 Chinese-Americans) Anglo-Americans -6.2 0.04 -1.9%
Period not stated Chinese-Americans -18.7 0.001 -5.5%
(blood sample) Diastolic blood pressure:
Anglo-Americans -6.3 0.03 -1.9%
Chinese-Americans -16.4 0.001 -4.8%
Mississippi, USA: Ransomised cross-over Vit C Placebo
supplementation intervention (533) Systolic BP** 128.8 135.1
Blood pressure Diastolic BP 78.9 78.3
N-experimental: N=20
N-control: -
Period not stated
(blood sample)

3.11 Multiple sclerosis

Montreal, Canada: population case-control I … IV
(534) Fruit fibre - 0.93
Multiple sclerosis β-carotene - 0.86
N=197 Vitamin C** - 0.58
1991 - 1994 I II III IV
164 item FFQ β-carotene -1.16 0.72 0.87
Vitamin C*** - 0.69 0.55 0.37
Risk per 100g of food daily (log transformed)
Juice 0.82
Fruits 0.97

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3.12 Osteoporosis
Central Sweden: Nested case-control (535) The frequency of consumption of fruits was not significantly
Hip fracture associated with risk for hip fracture in either the pre-fracture
N=123 questionnaire (prospective) or the post-fracture questionnaire
1987 – 1990 through to 1995 (retrospective) – data not shown
60 item FFQ
98 case-control pairs completed a second
dietary intake questionnaire (prospective)

3.13 Parkinson’s Disease

Moradabad, India: Hospital case-control (536) Means (SD) (unit/day) Controls Cases
Parkinson’s Disease Vitamin C (mg)* 125(18) 102(3.6)
N=5 β-carotene (µg)* 2352(305) 1968(175)
Not stated
7-day diet diary (completed as before
diagnosis)

3.14 Stroke
Moradabad, India: hospital case-control (536) Means (SD) (unit/day) Controls Cases
Stroke Vitamin C (mg)** 125(18) 88(8)
N=110 β-carotene (µg)* 2352(305) 1712(138)
Period not stated
7-day diet diary (completed as before
diagnosis)
Nottingham, UK: hospital case-control (537) Stroke CHD NCV
Stroke Vitamin C score 30.0 25.8 22.5
N=63 Plasma Vit C# 0.43 0.44 0.39
Sept – Nov 1984 # mg/dL
Limited FFQ (blood sample)
USA: cohort study (Health Professionals I II III IV V
Follow-up Study) (538) Fibre* - 0.85 0.85 0.65 0.70
Stroke Note that this will contain some cereal component
N=328
1986 - 1994
131 item FFQ
UK: cohort study (539) I II III
Stroke mortality Vitamin C diet*** - 0.8 0.4
N=124 Vitamin C plasma* - 1.1 0.7
1973-1974 through to 1992
7-day food record
Basel, Switzerland: cohort study (Basel RR
Prospective Study) (540) Low carotene 2.07
Stroke Low vitamin C 1.28
N=31 deaths Low carotene+low vitamin C 4.17
12 year follow up
(serum antioxidants)
USA: cohort study (Framingham Heart Study) Rate/1000 I II III IV V
(541) Fruit & Veg** 191.7 100.9 121.8 107.7 78.7
Stroke RR
N=97 Fruit & Veg# 0.77
1966-1969 through to 1989 #: per increment of three servings of F&V per day
24 hour recall
Zutphen, Netherlands: cohort study (The I II III
Zutphen Study) (542) β-carotene - 0.69 0.54
Stroke Vitamin C - 0.66 1.21
N=42 Flavonoids** - 0.46 0.27
1970 – 1985 Fruit - 0.83 0.52
Diet history Citrus - 0.91 0.93
UK: cohort study (543) SMR
Cerebrovascular disease mortality
N=147 Fruit 0.68
Nov 1973 – Nov 1979 through to March 1995
Limited FFQ

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California, USA: cohort study (544) RR
Stroke mortality Dietary Fibre 0.77
N=24 Note that this will contain some cereal component
1972-1974 through to 1986
24 hour recall
Shanghai, China: cohort study (545) I II III
Stroke mortality Vitamin C - 1.4 1.1
N=245 Carotene - 1.3 1.0
1986-1989 through to March 1994 Note that all CIs contained unity
45 item FFQ, blood sample
Norway: cohort study (546) RR%
Stroke mortality Vitamin C index 67%
N=438 Significant decreasing trend (p=0.0005) in stroke mortality with
1967 – 1978 increasing level of vitamin C
FFQ Negative associations with stroke mortality and consumption of
potatoes, and frequency of use of other vegetables and fruits and
berries (statistics not supplied).
Gothenburg, Sweden: cohort study (546) The authors state that there were no significant correlations
Stroke incidence between dietary indicators including vitamin C and stroke
N=13 1968 – 1969 through to 1981 incidence (data not given)
24-hr recall
Britain: Ecological analysis (548) Correlations Males Females
Stroke mortality Fresh fruit -0.853* -0.661
1970 National Food Survey
Spain: Ecological analysis (549) % changes in stroke mortality and % changes in risk factors
Stroke mortality Mean r
1975 - 1993 Fruit 133.31 -0.30*
National Nutrition Institute surveys
Scotland: Ecological analysis (550) Males Females
Stroke incidence % not eating fruit 0.559** 0.468*
1984 – 1986 Data from Scottish Heart Health
Study
65 counties in China: Ecological analysis (551) Mean SD
Stroke Vitamin C (mg/dl) 1.15 0.45
1983-1984 (mortality data from 1973-1975) β-carotene (µg/dl) 9.68 4.35
Limited FFQ, blood sample Correlations r
Vitamin C -0.38*
β-carotene -0.24
England and Wales: Ecological analysis (552) Correlations R
Stroke mortality, SMRs Vitamin C -0.68
1964-1969
National Food Survey
US: Cross-sectional study (NHANES II) (553) I II III
Stroke prevalence (self-reported at interview) Vitamin C - 1.00 0.74
N=282 stroke cases Note that trend statistics were not given
1976 – 1980 (serum vitamin C)
United States prospective cohort (554) I II III IV V
Nurses Health Study & Health Professionals Citrus fruits M - 1.24 0.92 0.92 0.92
75 596 women, 38 683men F - 0.70 0.82 0.72 0.59
14 yr follow up women; 8 yr follow up men Total - 0.91 0.85 0.78 0.72
Citrus fruit juices
M - 0.91 0.84 0.85 0.74
F - 0.80 0.77 0.91 0.61
Total - 0.84 0.79 0.89 0.66

3.15 Ulcers
Oahu, Hawaii, USA: cohort study (Honolulu I II III
Heart Study) (555) Gastric ulcer:
Duodenal and gastric ulcers Fruit - 0.9 0.9
N=149 Duodenal, N=280 gastric Duodenal ulcer:
1965 – June 1994 Fruit - 0.9 0.8
24-hour recall

74 of 128
Cholera
Africa; Gyuinea-Bissau (556) Lime juice with rice protective effect OR 0.31 CI 0.17-0.56
Community studt Lime juice inhibited V. cholerae in laboratory
1996
Case-control study
Africa Guinea-Bissau (557) Limes at main meal protective OR 0.2 CI 0.1-0.3
Intervention study - randomised
Hospital cases 1994 consequtive subjects on
admission

3.16 Blood profile studies

Boston, USA: cohort studies (Nurses Health Women: β SE
and Health Professionals Studies) (558) α-carotene** 0.63 0.09
Plasma carotenoid concentration correlations β-carotene*** 0.38 0.10
with F&V intake Lutein* 0.14 0.05
M: N=110, F: N=162 (non-smokers) Lycopene* 0.14 0.07
1986 – 1988 Cryptoxanthin* 0.19 0.05
Extensive FFQ (x 2) and 7-day diet records Men:
(x 2), blood sample α-carotene*** 0.40 0.07
β-carotene** 0.31 0.09
Lutein*** 0.27 0.06
Lycopene*** 0.31 0.06
Cryptoxanthin*** 0.32 0.07
Boston, USA: cross-sectional study (559) Plasma Vit C β (x 10-4) p Chol % change
HDL and total cholesterol HDL cholesterol:
N=1270 (221 Chinese-Americans) Anglo-Americans 12.0 0.01 3.7%
Period not stated Chinese-Americans 16.2 0.05 5.0%
(blood sample) Total cholesterol:
Anglo-Americans 5.9 0.12 1.8%
Chinese-Americans 0.5 0.95 1.4%
New England, USA: Cross-over diet Change in ORAC
manipulation, (560) 1 6 11 16
Plasma antioxidant capacity Diet 1 0 45 70 68
N-experimental: 18 young (20-40 years) and 18 Diet 2 0 12 51 34
older (60-80 years) The authors conclude that an increase in plasma antioxidant
N-control: - capacity was observed over the course of each diet. During the
Period not stated time interval between diets 1 and 2 however the ORAC remained
Diet: subjects lived and ate in metabolic higher than the baseline levels indicating that subjects were either
research unit, blood samples, FFQ of usual diet continuing to consume higher levels of fruit and vegetables, or a
before study sustained increase in ORAC from diet 1 carried over to diet 2
where the change in ORAC was less than that observed in diet 1.
Dundein, New Zealand: Randomised controlled Plasma Control Intervention
dietary manipulation (561) Week 0 8 0 8
Plasma concentrations of lipids and lipoproteins β carotene 0.34 0.32 0.34 0.52
N-experimental: N=44 α carotene 0.08 0.07 0.07 0.10
N-control: N=43 Vitamin C 25.6 25.6 33.5 57.9
Period not stated
4-day diet records (x 2) and 24 hour recall
(unannounced) at week 6

3.17 Lipid peroxidation

Naples, Italy and Bristol, UK: cross-sectional Medians (IQR) Naples Bristol
study (562) Vitamin C (mg) 60 (32,84) 66.5 (31,95)
Lipid peroxidation Vitamin C (mg/MJ) 7.33(5.6,10.4) 6.65 (3.5,8.8)
N=26 Naples, N=22 Bristol Raw F&V (serves/d) 1.2 (0.9,1.9) 1.1 (0.6,1.6)
Period not stated Mean (SD)
5 – 7 day weighed food record, blood sample β-carotene (µmol/L) 4.74 (1.2) 2.85 (0.8)***

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USA: Randomised controlled trial (563) Post-Pre Control F&V Comb.
Lipid peroxidation Ethane 0.84 0.02* -1.00**
N-experimental: N=42 F&V, N=41 combination MDA 0.14 0.59 0.39
N-control: N=40 ORAC -35 26 15
Control diet: all subjects 3 weeks. Cryptoxanthin, zeaxanthin and lycopene increased significantly
Randomisation, then control, diets 1 or 2 for 8 (p<0.05) from control to either diets 1 or 2. Lutein only increased
weeks significantly under diet 2.
Meals prepared for subjects
Australia (564) Human intervention trial 1995 Dietary suplementation with orange juice lowered oxidation
N= 15 males, normolipaedemic cigatrette products in copper oxidised low density lipoprotens
smokers Experimental diets - Orange juice for 3
week after vitamin free drinks for 3 weeks

76 of 128
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433. Jacques PF and Chylack LT, Jr. Epidemiologic evidence of a role for the
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434. Jacques PF, Hartz SC, Chylack LT et al. Nutritional status in persons with
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435. Leske MC, Chylack LT, Jr., Wu SY. The Lens Opacities Case-Control
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436. Mohan M, Sperduto RD, Angra SK et al. India-US case-control study of

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General health

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454. Pandey DK, Shekelle R, Selwyn BJ et al. Dietary vitamin C and beta-
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Crohn’s disease

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