ISSN 0018151X, High Temperature, 2010, Vol. 48, No. 1, pp. 97–125. © Pleiades Publishing, Ltd., 2010.

Original Russian Text © E.Kh. Isakaev, O.A. Sinkevich, A.S. Tyuftyaev, V.F. Chinnov, 2010, published in Teplofizika Vysokikh Temperatur, 2010, Vol. 48, No. 1, pp. 105–134.

REWIEV

Investigation of LowTemperature Plasma Generator

with Divergent Channel of the Output Electrode
and Some Applications of This Generator
E. Kh. Isakaev, O. A. Sinkevich, A. S. Tyuftyaev, and V. F. Chinnov
Joint Institute for High Temperatures, Russian Academy of Sciences (IVTAN), Moscow, 125412 Russia
Received February 26, 2009

Abstract—A review is made of experimental and theoretical investigations of processes occurring in low
temperature plasma generators (LTPG) with divergent channel of the output electrode, and the possibilities
of utilizing these generators in new plasma technologies are analyzed. Comparison is made of the character
istics of discharge (including the currentvoltage characteristic) in a divergent channel and in a cylindrical
channel of uniform cross section. The effect of divergent channel of the output electrode and of its expansion
ratio on the pattern of physical processes in LTPGs of different designs is studied. Investigations are per
formed of the distribution of electric current and heat flux density along a channel with a segmented output
electrode. The voltaic equivalents of heat fluxes to cathode and anode are determined. The process of “shunt
ing” of discharge is investigated, which causes fluctuations of electric arcburning voltage. The investigations
involving an LTPG with divergent channel reveal that the voltage amplitude in the case of shunting decreases
with increasing current strength and, at high currents of argon arc, does not exceed 1–2 V. Results are given
of spectral and visual investigations of LTPG. It is demonstrated that, in an LTPG with divergent channel, the
plasma temperature in the region of energy input at currents of 300 A and higher exceeds 30 000 K. The sig
nificant part is found which is played by vacuum ultraviolet radiation in the process of closing the arc to
anode. The mechanisms of erosion of the tungsten cathode tip are investigated, which play an important part
in increasing the cathode service life by way of recirculation of tungsten atoms because of their ionization in
the discharge gap. Results are given of using an LTPG with divergent channel of the output electrode in
plasma technologies of surface hardening, cutting, and hardfacing of metals. The technology of plasma
hardening of wheel pairs, adopted by the RZhD (Russian Railroads) JointStock Company, provides for
increasing the service life of railroad wheels by a factor of 1.5–2.
DOI: 10.1134/S0018151X10010141

CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
1. ELECTRICAL AND THERMAL CHARACTERISTICS OF DISCHARGE
1.1. Currentvoltage characteristic
1.2. Distribution of electric current and of heat fluxes over segments
1.3. The part played by radiation in heat flux

2. PROCESSES OF ARC SHUNTING

3. SPECTRAL INVESTIGATIONS OF PLASMA

3.1. Automated measuring complex
3.2. Results of spectral investigations

4. ELECTRODE PHENOMENA
4.1. Erosion of tungsten cathode
4.2. Highspeed visualization of the cathode region
4.3. Investigation of temperature fields of the tungsten cathode surface
4.4. Electrode drops of potential

5. PLASMA TECHNOLOGIES
5.1. Plasma hardening of metals

97
98 ISAKAEV et al.
5.2. Plasma cutting
5.3. Plasma hardfacing on Hatfield steel
5.4. Plasma hardfacing on copper
5.5. Some other fields of application of plasma generators
CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
INTRODUCTION
The lowtemperature plasma generator commands
the attention of specialists active both in the field of
the physics of gas discharge and lowtemperature
plasma and in the field of hightemperature gas
dynamics [1–17]. The temperature range in the dis
charge gap of LTPG varies from hundreds to tens of
thousands degrees. The use of any gases and their mix
tures is of obvious interest from the standpoint of
investigating the thermal, electrodynamic, and optical
properties of gases, as well as of performing various
plasmachemical reactions.
The possibility of producing homogeneous and
heterogeneous flows of gas with desired pressure and
temperature in a wide range of velocities (up to super
sonic) makes the LTPG a unique tool for simulating
the interaction between hightemperature flows and
flying vehicles. Plasma generators are of interest in
metallurgy (melting of metals in electric furnaces, pre
heating of metal in pouring ladles, cokeless reduction
of metal), in metal working (cutting, welding, hard
facing, surface modification), in plasma chemistry, in
medicine, in public utilities for processing household
waste, in heat and power engineering [18–37].
Extensively employed are plasma generators with
rod cathodes, with inserts of thermionic material, with
selfadjusting length of electric arc, and with vortex
flow of plasmagenerating gas in the discharge gap.
Such a plasma generator was initially made with a
channel of uniform cross section. However, it suffered
from serious drawbacks, namely, a falling current
voltage characteristic, a low efficiency, and an unstable
mode of operation. Later on, various modifications of
LTPG were developed such as generators with mag
netic fieldcontrolled arc length, generators with
interelectrode inserts, and generators with the arc
length limited by a step [2, 3]. Analysis of operation of
these LTPGs led to the conclusion that the main dis
advantage of plasma generator with longitudinal vor
tex flow of plasmagenerating gas consists in the low
velocity of cold gas at the inlet to the discharge gap
channel. Therefore, the transition to divergent output
channel was expected to have a positive effect on the
operation and characteristics of LTPG [13].
1. ELECTRICAL AND THERMAL
CHARACTERISTICS OF DISCHARGE
1.1. CurrentVoltage Characteristic
One of the most important characteristics of dis
charge in an LTPG is the currentvoltage characteris
tic (CVC) of discharge. The special features of the
LTPG scheme define the pattern of its CVC [2].
Because of the instability of burning of electric arc, the
falling pattern of CVC for an LTPG with longitudinal
flow of gas and selfadjusting arc length entails rigid
requirements imposed on the electric supply for
ensuring stable burning of the arc. In the case of arc
voltage drop, the arc power increases with increasing
current much slower than the current, while the ser
vice life of LTPG is largely defined by current. All this
strengthens the case for rising currentvoltage charac
teristic.
Zhukov et al. [2] suggested a scheme of arc interac
tion with a flow of gas in a long cylindrical channel of
uniform cross section (see Fig. 1). The initial segment
of laminar flow AB, which consists of an arc column 1
and boundary layer 2, changes to the region of disinte
gration of boundary layer BCD and terminates in the
segment of arc interaction with turbulent flow of gas
DEF. In the initial segment AB, the arc column is sta
ble and located on the channel axis; however, the elec
tric field intensity in this segment is low because the
velocity of flow of cold gas is low and, accordingly, the
heat transfer between cold gas and arc column is weak.
An entirely different pattern is observed in the segment
DEF: the “technical” intensity of electric field (poten
tial drop per unit channel length) is high, but the arc
column is very unstable.
Proceeding from the foregoing interaction pattern,
it is necessary to provide for the arc burning in laminar
flow at a fairly high velocity of cold gas at the inlet.
This may be attained by making the arc channel diver
gent [38].
The LTPG exhibits a strong nonuniformity of ther
mophysical and electrophysical parameters. The
curved lines of electric field in the turbulent segment
produce a nonuniform magnetic field. In so doing, the
column of such an arc may be unstable [12]. It is the
divergent channel that is capable of ensuring the distri
bution of electric current over the surface of output
electrode and, accordingly, the distribution of the
HIGH TEMPERATURE Vol. 48 No. 1 2010
 INVESTIGATION OF LOWTEMPERATURE PLASMA GENERATOR
Anode
Cathode
0 1
2
A B C D E 2
Fig. 1. The scheme of arc interaction with gas flow.
magnetic field of current contributing to the increase
in stability of positive column in the discharge gap. In
so doing, the arc length decreases, and the heat fluxes
to the wall become more uniform. In a divergent chan
nel at relatively high velocities of cold gas, the arc col
umn in the vicinity of the point of arc attachment to
the anode may take up a significant part of cross sec
tion, and the flow of current in this case is accom
plished by means of short arcs between the anode and
the electrically conducting core of the flow. The signif
icant decrease in local density of current and specific
heat flux to the anode makes for reduction of erosion
of the output electrode.
The stability is primarily associated with acting
forces. Hence follows that it is the channel expansion
ratio providing for constant dynamic pressure of gas or
for constant Mach number along the channel that may
be optimal.
A series of onedimensional calculations of flows at
constant Mach number produced the channel profile
[13] with angle α = 6° between the generatrix of out
put electrode and the channel axis. The experimental
investigations performed for different values of α
revealed that the foregoing reasoning is correct [39,
40]. The effect of divergent channel on the CVC of dis
charge was demonstrated in channels with α = 0° and
α = 6° [40] (the LTPG supply had noload voltage of
330 V and provided for smooth adjustment of current
within 80–500 A). Upper limits with respect to cur
rent were set on the experiments with cylindrical
channel because of marked erosion of the electrode,
and the lower limits—because of the extinction of dis
charge, when the arc voltage fluctuations reached the
noload voltage of the supply. The most important
advantage of LTPG with divergent channel is the rising
CVC (for cylindrical channel, this characteristic is
falling). Such advantages of LTPGs with divergent
channel provided the possibility of their efficient oper
ation within a wide range of variation of parameters
using the same equipment. In order to support this
inference, extensive diverse investigations were per
formed of physical processes in the channel of an
LTPG with segmented output electrode [41], which is
shown schematically in Fig. 2. Coaxial shunts installed
on each one of ten anode segments were used for cur
HIGH TEMPERATURE Vol. 48 No. 1
99
3 (10 pieces)
1
F
4
5
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
mm
Fig. 2. An LTPG with segmented output electrode:
(1) nozzle, (2) cathode, (3) anode segments, (4) nozzle
holder, (5) insulator.
rent measurements. Differential optical dividers were
used for measuring the arc voltage.
The system of determining the foregoing parame
ters is based on the use of LCard, L761, and L783
analogdigital cards which provide for simultaneous
sampling of 16 measuring channels with a sampling
frequency up to 3000 kHz; this enables one to measure
both the instantaneous values of current and voltage
and the timeaveraged values with recording and with
digital and graphic display of information.
Figure 3 gives the CVCs of the plasma generator
under investigation for two working gases, namely,
argon and nitrogen. One can see that the CVC for both
gases exhibits a weakly defined rising pattern. Yet
another feature of the CVC given in this figure is the
expansion (compared to arcs in cylindrical channels)
of the zone of stable burning of discharge in the low
current region.
1.2. Distribution of Electric Current
and of Heat Fluxes over Segments
In [41], results are given of an investigation of dis
tribution of electric current and of heat fluxes along a
segmented channel of output electrode. The heat
fluxes were registered by measuring the flow rate and
temperature of water at the inlets and outlets of water
cooled parts of LTPG. The temperature was measured
by transistorbased temperature sensors with measur
ing accuracy of ~2% in the temperature range from
zero to 100°С Flow meters were used for determining
the cooling water flow rate.
It was found that one or two segments “operate” at
each instant of time because of the arc shunting; in so
doing, the arc as a rule stretches out in successive tran
2010
100 ISAKAEV et al.

U, B
180 80
(a) (b)

160
70

140
60
120
50 G = 2 g/s
100

G = 2 g/s 40
80

60 30
60 120 180 240 300 30 70 110 150 190 230 270 310
I, A

Fig. 3. The voltagecurrent characteristics of a discharge: (a) nitrogen as working gas, (b) argon as working gas.

I, A
250
250
(a) 1 (b) 1
200 2
200 2
3
3
150 4 150 4

100 100

50 50

0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
i

Fig. 4. The distribution of current over the anode segments for different values of flow rate of the working gas (nitrogen) and arc
current (a) I = 300 A and (b) I = 70 A: (1) G = 2 g/s, (2) 3 g/s, (3) 4 g/s, (4) 5 g/s.

sition from one segment to another. Then the arc ter
minates at one of the segments, and the process is
repeated. The pattern of arc shunting depends on the
type of gas and its flow rate. The current extraction in
argon is usually accomplished by the first two segments
in a wide range of variation of current from 70 to
300 A; in nitrogen, under the same conditions, all ten
segments of plasma generator may be involved in cur
rent extraction.
Different possibilities exist for the closing of arc to
anode. For example, the current from the first segment
may reach only the fifth one; after shunting, the cur
rent appears on the second or third segment rather
than on the first one. Figure 4 gives average values of
current over segments for the arc current of 70 and
300 A. One can see that the increase of gas flow rate in
the nitrogen arc significantly affects the distribution of
current along the channel: at a current of 300 A and
flow rate of 2 g/s, almost the entire current flows to the
first segment; with a flow rate of 5 g/s, seven segments
“operate”, and the maximal current flows to the fifth
and sixth segments.
Figure 5 gives a typical oscillogram of the values of
current to individual segments of anode and the
respective voltage drop on the arc. The current makes
successive transitions from the first to ninth segment

HIGH TEMPERATURE Vol. 48 No. 1 2010

 INVESTIGATION OF LOWTEMPERATURE PLASMA GENERATOR 101

I, A U, V
400 300
I8 I9 I30 I1
I2 I3 I6 I7
I1 I4 I5 I10 I20
300
200

200

U, V
100
100

0
94250 94400 94550 94700 94850 95000
Time, µs

Fig. 5. An oscillogram of currents in the anode segments and the arc voltage: I = 300 A, G = 5.0 g/s, the working gas is nitrogen.

q, W/cm2 q, W/cm2
2800
(a) (b)
2500
2300
2000
1800
1500
1300
1000
800
500
300

−200 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
i i

Fig. 6. Specific heat fluxes to segments, nitrogen as the working gas: (a) I = 300 A, (b) I = 70 A; designations are as in Fig. 4.

and then, as a result of shunting, jumps over to the first
segment. The oscillograms may be used for exactly
determining the electric field intensity. In our case,
this intensity is about 1300 V/m, and the arc burning
voltage increases almost linearly with the arc length.
The apparent discrepancy between Figs. 4 and 5 is
explained by the fact that, rather than giving instanta
neous values of current to individual segments, Fig. 4
gives its average values during the entire time of the
experiment with the given flow rate of gas.
The distribution of specific heat flux along the
channel is given in Fig. 6. The service life of the output
electrode depends on specific heat flux; this is of great
importance when using LTPG in plasma technologies.
One can see in Figs. 4 and 6 that the dependences of
specific heat flux and of current distribution on the
channel length exhibit the same pattern.
In Fig. 7, comparison is made between specific
heat fluxes to segments for two modes of operation of
LTPG. With an arc power of 50.7 kW and a high flow
rate of nitrogen, the maximal heat flux to the anode
surface (second–fourth segments) is lower than that to
the first segment of anode channel with an arc power
of 8 kW and lower flow rate of gas. This emphasizes the
decisive importance of the choice of geometry and
operating mode of LTPG for increasing its service life.

HIGH TEMPERATURE Vol. 48 No. 1 2010

102
qn, W/cm2
1000
800
600 2
400
1
200
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Nos. of segments
Fig. 7. Specific heat fluxes to individual segments, nitrogen
as the working gas: (1) G = 2 g/s, power of 8 kW; (2) G =
5 g/s, power of 50.7 kW.
Investigations revealed that the length of electric
arc in molecular gas varies in a wide range and signifi
cantly depends on the gas flow rate and the discharge
current. These features of LTPG facilitate their effi
cient uses in various plasma technologies.
1.3. The Part Played by Radiation in Heat Flux
It is only the combined heat flux to the surface of
elements of LTPG structure that may be determined as
a result of experimental investigations. The combined
heat flux to the structural elements which are at zero
potential consists of radiant and conductive fluxes. In
addition, the heat delivered by ions from the electrode
layer is transferred to the electrodes, and Joule heat is
released in the electrode during the flow of current.
The results of Belevtsev et al. [42, 43] were used to
obtain the dependences of axial values of electron
temperature on longitudinal coordinate z (z = 0 corre
sponds to the cathode end), as well as the radial distri
butions of electron temperature Te(r) in the zones cor
responding to average cross sections of the nozzle (z =
2.5 mm, d = 4.5 mm), of the first segment of anode
(z = 10 mm, d = 6.0 mm), of the second segment
(z = 16.5 mm, d = 7.3 mm), and of a number of subse
quent segments.
In [41], the radiant flux at a current of 300 A and
argon flow rate of 3 g/s was estimated. The radiant flux
to the surface of each one of the anode segments is
formed both by plasma selfradiation within the given
segment and by radiant fluxes from neighboring
regions. In view of the fact that the segment length sig
nificantly exceeds the typical radius of radiating
plasma filament, the selfradiation flux Π i to the sur
face of the ith segment may be estimated using the
ISAKAEV et al.
equation of radiant energy transfer written in cylindri
cal coordinates. As a result, we have
Ri
∫
Π i = 2 πl i ρ qi( ρ ) dρ , (1)
0
where li is the segment length, Ri is the average radius
of side surface, and the specific power qi(ρ) lost by the
unit volume of plasma is related to the density of radi
ant energy flux S by the known relation [44]
qi( ρ ) = div S . (2)
The contribution by radiation of the first segment
to the radiant flux delivered to the side surface of the
second segment Π 12 may be estimated in view of the
fact that R1/l1  1 and R1/l2  1,
l2 l1
2
R dx1
Π 12 = Π 1 2 dx 2
2 l1 ∫ ∫ 2 2 3/2.
[( x1 + x 2) + R2 ]
(3)
0 0
The integral in Eq. (3) is calculated in elementary
functions and in application to the case under consid
eration leads to the relation Π 12 ≈ 10% Π 1 . Obviously,
it is possible to absolutely similarly calculate the con
tribution by interillumination between any two
neighboring segments.
The radial distributions of volumetric radiation
power of argon plasma (divergence of radiant flux)
were obtained using the experimental data of Evans
and Tankin [45] with correction for VUV radiation of
ArI, ArII, and ArIII lines [46] which was not recorded
in [45]. This correction does not exceed 20% at maxi
mal values of observed temperature Te = 26 kK and
becomes insignificant at Te < 15 kK.
The radiant fluxes qRad(z) calculated using Eq. (3)
were compared with the calorimetrically measured
heat fluxes delivered to the nozzle surface and to a
number of anode segments. The actual radiant fluxes
to the wall in the zone of energy input (nozzle, anode
segments) are defined by the effective coefficients of
absorption of radiation by the channel surface and call
for inclusion of repeated reflection of plasma radiation
from the anode walls. In view of the fact that in the
nozzle region the heat removed by cooling water in a
first approximation corresponds to the radiant flux
that arrived to the nozzle surface, it is possible to esti
mate the importance of arrival to the nozzle of radia
tion from the region of the first segment (according to
Eq. (3)): this fraction amounts to about 20%.
Figure 8 gives comparison of calorimetrically mea
sured heat fluxes along a divergent channel with
respective values of radiant fluxes. In view of the error
of estimation of radiant fluxes, which is at least 20–
30%, one can speak of the decisive part played by radi
ation transfer in the plasma–anode surface energy bal
ance apparently up to z = 40 mm, where conductive
heat transfer replaces radiant heat transfer.
HIGH TEMPERATURE Vol. 48 No. 1 2010
 INVESTIGATION OF LOWTEMPERATURE PLASMA GENERATOR
T, kK
25
20
1
15 2 1000
10 3 3
nozzle 1 2
5
0 10 20
Fig. 8. (1) The electron temperature on the axis, (2) the total heat flux, and (3) the radiant flux along the channel.
In the temperature range T ≥ 20 000 K, the part
played by the radiation of lines of singly (ArII, NII)
and doubly (ArIII, NIII) charged ions becomes pre
vailing; in so doing, the lion’s share in the total diver
gence of radiant flux falls on the optically dense VUV
radiation of ArII and NII lines. This radiation is
largely transferred in the far wings of resonance lines,
diffuses to the boundary of plasma volume, and is
absorbed in its peripheral region.
2. PROCESSES OF ARC SHUNTING
The arc shunting and the emergence of character
istic fluctuations of voltage in a plasma generator with
selfadjusting arc length were studied for quite some
time [47, 48]. However, no valid explanations were
available for a long time for physical mechanisms
which lead to the emergence of fluctuations of arc
burning voltage in plasma generators of this type and
enable one to obtain quantitative dependences of
observed fluctuations on the principal parameters of
arc discharge. Experiments produced qualitatively dif
ferent dependences of characteristics of pressure fluc
tuations (in particular, oscillation frequency) on the
working parameters of plasma generator such as dis
charge current, flow rate of plasmagenerating gas,
channel diameter. No comparison was made of the
characteristics of voltage fluctuations with experimen
tal observations for different channels and gases. The
quantitative characteristics of fluctuations of arc burn
ing voltage in channels of uniform and variable cross
sections may significantly vary even for the same flow
rates of working gas and the same currents.
It is obvious that the amplitude of voltage fluctua
tions and oscillation frequency are associated with the
processes of elongation of current filament and of
electric arc shunting to the anode wall. As distinct
from earlier experiments, computers were employed
in [47–55] for recording the parameters in performing
experimental investigations of processes in plasma
HIGH TEMPERATURE Vol. 48 No. 1
103
q, W/cm2
1800
1400
600
4
200
30 40 50 60 70
z, mm
generators of different geometries. This provided for
obtaining significantly more quantitative characteris
tics of processes and for performing analysis of elec
trodynamic interaction of current filament in the
channel with the flow of plasmagenerating gas. The
rapid Fourier transformation of signals and their sub
sequent computer processing enabled one to obtain a
large volume of scientific information and, first of all,
data on the amplitudefrequency characteristics of fast
processes in atmosphericpressure plasma. The data
on fluctuations of electric arc burning voltage, which
are experimentally observed in channels of different
types, in different working media, and at different
pressures in the channel were generalized in [53–55].
A typical pattern of fluctuations of electric arc
burning voltage in a plasma generator with selfadjust
ing arc length in nitrogen at currents of 200 and 300 A
is given in Fig. 9. Figure 10 gives typical Fourier spec
tra of voltage fluctuations for different flow rates of
plasmagenerating gas and different currents whose
frequency corresponds to the process of arc shunting.
The data similar to those in Fig. 10 may be used for
determining the dependences of the fundamental fre
quency of voltage fluctuations on the arc current and
the gas flow rate.
The sawtooth pattern of voltage fluctuations
(Fig. 9) is often explained by the “stretching” of elec
tric arc by the gas flow, as well as by electric breakdown
between the hot core of electric arc burning along the
channel axis and the anode (at the anode point located
at a smaller distance from the cathode than the hot
core) (Fig. 11). Doubtless, the “stretching” of electric
arc by the gas flow and the reconnection of electric arc
to a new anode spot exist; however, the mechanism of
shunting involves a more complex combination of
phenomena. Traditionally referred to as electric
breakdown is the formation of a currentconducting
channel due to various elementary processes such as
ionization by electron impact, photoionization, ther
2010
104 ISAKAEV et al.

V, V
200 (a)

150

100

50

0
40 840 1640 2440
200 (b)
150
100
50
0
40 840 1640 2440

Fig. 9. Fluctuations of arc burning voltage of LTPG in nitrogen at P = 105 N/m2, d = 5 × 10–3 m, G = 3 g/s; (a) I = 200 A,
(b) 300 A.

V, V V, V
(a) (b)
1
9 9 1

6 6

3 2 3 2

0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
kHz kHz

Fig. 10. Spectra of fluctuations for different values of gas flow rate: (a) G = 0.72 kg/s, (b) 1.07 kg/s; (1) I = 100 A, (2) 220 A.

(a) (b) (c)

A Anode A A
ϕ I(S1)
IS S1
K K
C C1 S C1
C K
Cathode dL(t)
I(S)

Fig. 11. The position of current filament of electric arc in the plasma generator channel at different instants of time.

mal ionization, and so on. It may be demonstrated that
it is the mechanisms of force interaction of electric
currents in different part of the arc that play the most
important part in the “breakdown” observed in the
mode of burning of selfadjusting arc in a flow of gas.
In a plasma generator with selfadjusting length, the
electric discharge burns in the inner channel of output
electrode, and the gas flow usually additionally has the
tangential component of velocity because of the deliv
ery of gas to the plasma generator inlet. In the channel,

HIGH TEMPERATURE Vol. 48 No. 1 2010

 INVESTIGATION OF LOWTEMPERATURE PLASMA GENERATOR
the current filament initially oriented along the chan
nel bends because of the need for closing the current to
the channel wall serving as electrode and is stretched
by the transverse gas flow (Fig. 11).
The interaction of electric currents flowing in dif
ferent parts of the arc and the dynamics of reconnec
tion of the anode end of the arc to a new spot were
considered in more detail by Sinkevich [55].
The turn of the current filament segment, which
was initially in position shown in Fig. 11a and adjoin
ing the anode spot at point A at angle ϕ(t) (Fig. 11b),
causes a variation of the pattern of interaction between
different segments of current filament. This interac
tion may be readily understood if we single out and
consider the force interaction of two segments of cur
rent filament, of which one is at point C located on the
axial part of the arc and the other one—at point C1
located on the radial part of the arc CA. It must be
taken into account that one and the same total electric
current I(S) maintained by a stabilized external supply
flows through the cross section of current filament at
points C1 and C at all instants of time. In the state at
ϕ(t) ≠ 0, a current component arises which is directed
in antiparallel with current I(C), and nonzero force of
interaction of currents I(C1), I(C) leads to an increase
in deformation of current filament and shunting of the
anode end of the arc. The shunting process causes a
decrease in the arc burning voltage.
We use the notion that the process of shunting of
electric arc with selfadjusting length in the channel of
plasma generator with gas flow rate is defined by elec
trodynamic interaction of electric currents in the seg
ments KC1 and C1A of current filament and find the
dependence of the fundamental oscillation frequency
on the external parameters of the problem. For this
purpose, we will consider the dynamics of element of
arc of the current filament segment of length δL,
which is located at point S and interacts with the arc
segment located in the vicinity of point S1 on the arc
part closing to the anode wall. The dynamics of ele
ment of arc of the current filament segment of length
δL are defined by the balance of inertial and Ampere
forces. In this case, the cross sectionaveraged equa
tion of motion for the element of arc volume may be
written as
d ρ VdS = ∇ PdS +
dt∫∫ ∫∫ ∫∫ j × BdS . (7)
The lefthand part of Eq. (7) is the part of the over
all gas flow rate which flows via current filament (the
kth fraction of flow rate G of plasmagenerating gas in
the plasma generator channel) and may be given as
∫∫ ρVdS = k(t )G . (8)
The magnetic field induction appearing on the
righthand side of Eq. (7) is produced by all currents
flowing in the remaining parts of the current filament;
however, it is by segment CA of the filament that the
HIGH TEMPERATURE Vol. 48 No. 1 2010
105
main contribution is made. In this case, the righthand
part of Eq. (7) may be written as
∫∫ j j ×B dS = (S)B(S1) = ξ1I 2μ0/d, (9)
where ξ1 = ∫∫ j × BdS/(d / µ 0I 2) is a dimensionless
coefficient allowing for the effect made by current
I(S1, t) flowing in the segment C1A, by means of the
magnetic field generated by this current at point S1, on
current I(S, t). We will determine the characteristic
oscillation frequency as
d ( kG ) 1
f = . (10)
dt G
In this case, if we ignore the first term on the right
hand side of Eq. (1), Eqs. (1)–(3) yield
f = ξ1I 2μ 0/ Gd . (11)
It follows from our experiments that the dimen
sionless coefficient appearing in formula (11) ξ1 is
~2⎯3 for a wide range of variation of the gas flow rate
and electric current. One can see that the characteris
tic frequency is inversely proportional to gas flow rate
and increases as the square of electric current (see
Fig. 12).
The experimentally obtained slight variation of
coefficient ξ1 for a wide range of variation of the flow
rate and electric current may count in favor of the
force mechanism of arc shunting.
In determining the characteristic oscillation fre
quency f from relation (11), the effect of pressure gra
dient in Eq. (8) was disregarded; this disregard is justi
fied if the value of parameter of magnetohydrody
namic interaction N = IBd/P is low compared to unity.
This is not so in the general case: in the case of weak
currents, the effect of pressure gradient may be deci
sive. For arbitrary values of parameter N from the
equation of motion, the following generalization of
formula (11) may be obtained:
f = ξ1I 2μ 0/ Gd + ξ 2G/ ρ 0d 3. (12)
Here, ξ2 is a dimensionless coefficient allowing for the
effect of redistribution of pressure on the current fila
ment motions, and ρ0 is the density of plasmagener
ating gas.
Relation (12) qualitatively corresponds to the
experimentally obtained dependence of characteristic
frequency of arc voltage fluctuations on parameter
G/d3, given in [2, 9]. For high values of plasmagener
ating gas flow rate and fixed values of electric current
of the arc, where N  1, the oscillation frequency
must exhibit a linear dependence on parameter G/d3,
f = ξ2G/ρ0d3, (13)
as was observed in experiments for values of G/d3 ≈
(10–12) × 103 kg/m3 with N ≈ 10–2 [50]: an increase in
electric current results, in the case of constant flow
106 ISAKAEV et al.

f, kHz f, kHz
30 (a) 30 (b)
25 I = 100 A 25 G = 0.5 g/s
20 I = 200 A 20 G = 0.7 g/s
15 I = 300 A
15 G = 1.0 g/s
10 10
G = 1.4 g/s
5 5
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 0 100 200 300 400
G, g/s I, A

Fig. 12. The current dependence of dimensionless oscillation frequency for different values of gas flow rate.

rate, in the change of mode of fluctuations of electric
arc burning voltage in the channel (see Fig. 9). High
amplitude lowfrequency oscillation is observed,
which is apparently associated with the above
described mechanism of electric arc shunting on the
anode.
These same frequencies may be determined by the
method of dimensional analysis [52, 54]. Two frequen
cies may be obtained proceeding from the parameters
of the problem, which include G, r, m, I, d, and f,
μ 0I 2
f1 = a , f 2 = b G 3, (14)
Gd ρd
where the coefficients a and b are determined from
experimental data.
Detailed analysis of the processes describing saw
tooth variations of voltage on the arc at constant value
of electric current, which involves the derivation and
solution of model equations, is a complex computa
tional problem. The numerical solution of this prob
1 so doing, the major axis was oriented along the Zaxis
6
CCD
2 5
DFS
4 Gelios40 objective onto the matrix of VSFAST high
7
3
Z
Fig. 13. The scheme of measurements in the cathode
region: (1) cathode, (2) nozzle with observation opening,
(3) anode, (4) Dove prism, (5) VSFAST CCD camera,
(6) CCD array, (7) DFS452 spectrograph.
lem is based on solving the complete system of equa
tions of continuity, motion, and energy for plasma,
Maxwell equations, and equation of external electric
circuit in view of Ohm’s law.
3. SPECTRAL INVESTIGATIONS
OF PLASMA
The scheme of LTPG and the scheme of measure
ments of spectra, as well as of the emissivity of the
cathode and adjacent plasma, are given in Fig. 13.
Highcurrent (150 to 500 A) atmosphericpressure
argon and nitrogen arcs [56–60] in a plasma generator
with divergent channel of the output electrode [39]
were investigated. The observation of the region of
interaction between electrode plasma and tungsten
cathode was performed via openings in the plasma
generator nozzle (see Fig. 13) with the minimal nozzle
diameter of 4 mm. For providing an adequately large
zone of observation and for obviating the hydrody
namic disturbance of the gas flow delivered to the noz
zle with tangential swirl from a header enclosing the
cathode, two observation openings in the nozzle had
the shape of an ellipse with axes of 2.5 and 1.5 mm; in
of the plasma generator. The cathode, which was made
of a lanthanized tungsten rod 5–8 mm in diameter
embedded and brazed in a massive watercooled cop
per case, terminated in a cone with a vertex angle of
80–90°.
A sharp image of the plasmacathode region sized
2.5 by 1.5 mm was simultaneously projected by
speed camera with magnification of 2 : 1 and onto the
entrance slit of DFS452 spectrograph on a 1.6 : 1
scale using a quartz condenser and a Dove prism for
orienting the image of horizontally burning arc along
the entrance slit.
3.1. Automated Measuring Complex
The system of spectral measurements consists of a
DFS452 diffraction spectrograph and a MOAS2
multichannel optical spectrum analyzer which
includes two Toshiba TDS1250A photodiode CCD
arrays [58]. The spectral range of sensitivity is 180 to

HIGH TEMPERATURE Vol. 48 No. 1 2010

 INVESTIGATION OF LOWTEMPERATURE PLASMA GENERATOR
N
I8
N
II
N
I 4 49 n
I8
09
N 40 61
N I 40
18
N
,7
II 3, n
II 2,
,
I
40 51 m
4, n
13 m
nm
I order 800 805 810
II order 400 402 404 406 408 410 412 414 416 418 420
Fig. 14. A matrix spectrogram of nitrogen plasma in the arc cathode region at I = 350 A and G = 1.5 g/s.
1000 nm. The central part of plasma image was pro
jected onto the photodiode array located along the
spectral sweep. The array arranged in the perpendicu
lar direction recorded the distribution of illumination
intensity over the slit height; when a sharp image of
plasma filament is projected onto the spectrograph
slit, this distribution corresponds to the distribution of
the intensity of radiation in the arc cross section and,
when the Dove prism is used in the optical scheme, to
the intensity distribution along the arc.
The wavelength standards were provided by radia
tion of lamps of highfrequency exciter of spectra
PPBL3M or of discharge tube with hollow cathode
with vapors of mercury, copper, silver, and other met
als, ensuring reliable identification of plasma spectra
in the entire range of 200–1000 nm under investiga
tion. The brightness standard was provided by a TRSh
2880 smallsize tungsten ribbonfilament lamp, whose
brightness temperature on pyrometric wavelength was
2400–2500 K. In the case of absolute calibration of
spectral intensities of radiation of plasma, the standard
lamp was positioned in place of the plasma generator
with all of important parameters of the recording sys
tem being retained.
The Spec_Mcd.100 system based on Mathcad 7.03
Professional mathematical software by Mathsoft was
developed for processing the spectrometric informa
tion obtained by the recording equipment described
above [58].
Data bases in the Microsoft Excel format on spec
tral lines of atoms and ions of elements under investi
gation were developed for interpreting the recorded
spectra [61]. As regards the plasma under investiga
tion, such data bases contain hundreds of lines of ArI,
ArII, ArIII, NI, NII, NIII, CuI, CuII, WI, and WII.
The experimental investigation of local radiative
characteristics as principal carriers of information
HIGH TEMPERATURE Vol. 48 No. 1 2010
107
21
,6
3n
m
N
II
4
3n
17
,6
m
m
2n
m
815 820 825 830 835 840 λ, nm
λ, nm
about the state of nonuniform plasma is the funda
mental objective of spectral diagnostics. Better (com
pared to the use of CCD arrays) prospects for such
investigation are opened by the use of megapixel CCD
matrices at the output of spectral instruments [60].
The Andor matrix (1024 × 256 pixels sized 26 by
26 μm) sensitive in the UV range was used for obtain
ing radial distributions of spectral line intensities: its
spectral resolution with DFS452 in operation with
grating of 1200 grooves per millimeter is approxi
mately 0.04 nm, and the space resolution (with the
object image on the entrance slit on a 1:1 scale) is
50 μm or better. Given the local contours of spectral
lines, it becomes possible to simultaneously and inde
pendently determine the local values of temperature
and concentration of electrons. For this purpose, it is
necessary (a) to record twodimensional images of
such a set of spectral lines with known atomic con
stants, which satisfies the condition Δ E k ≥ kTe , and
(b) to perform correct transformation of recorded
chord distributions of spectral line intensities against
the background of continuous radiation (continuum)
to radial distributions while providing for spectral res
olution which fits the problems of analysis of contours
of these lines.
Figure 14 gives an isometric twodimensional
image of one of the spectral regions of radiation of
nitrogen plasma, which was obtained using a CCD
matrix.
In order to make the spectrogram more informa
tive, the reimposition of the first and second orders of
diffraction was performed during recording; this is
shown in the interpretation of a number of lines of
NII, NIII (II order of diffraction), and NI (I order of
diffraction).
108 ISAKAEV et al.
3.2. Results of Spectral Investigations
Plasma generators with vortex stabilization of
working gas and divergent channel serving as the elec
tric arc anode enable one to make significant progress
in the field of generation of highly ionized argon and
nitrogen plasmas of extremely high parameters [56,
57, 62]. In particular, specific energy inputs of
~100 kW/cm3 could be realized at currents I = 400–
500 A. In so doing, the electron density ne ≤ 2 ×
1017 cm–3 and electron temperature Te ≤ 3.0 eV were
attained in the cathode region; this provides for com
plete single and partly double ionization of the axial
plasma of argon and nitrogen [56, 57]. Note that Pel
lerin et al. [63–65] and Mar et al. [66] performed a
detailed investigation of the parameters and atomic
characteristics of cathode plasma of argon arcs at
somewhat lower currents.
A much larger volume of spectroscopic informa
tion (data on hundreds of lines of atoms, ions, and
doubly charged ions) and, consequently, much more
time and effort were required for obtaining the results
(given in Fig. 15) of determining the temperatures of
population and distribution of argon and nitrogen
plasma at a current of 300 A in the zone of energy
input. Therefore, the problem of determining the
parameters of plasma using a smaller amount of spec
troscopic information is very important. For obtaining
the simplest estimates of plasma parameters ne and Te,
it is expedient to have a small (as regards spectral
extent) region in which lines of different degrees of
ionization with prevailing Stark broadening are
present. The region of 328–332 nm containing lines of
ArII and ArIII is recommended as such a region for
argon plasma. In the case of nitrogen plasma, the
spectral region of “express diagnostics” on lines of NII
and NIII corresponds to the range of 407–420 nm. In
so doing, it is necessary to provide for good spectral
resolution of line contours (in the case at hand, it was
better than 0.01 nm for the width of instrument func
tion of 0.02–0.025 nm and characteristic width of ion
lines of 0.05–0.1 nm and lines of doubly charged ions
of 0.03 nm).
The resultant integrated experimental data on the
population of a very large number of excited states of
singly and doubly charged ions of argon and nitrogen
provide a reliable experimental basis for further devel
opment of methods of collisionalradiative kinetics of
nonequilibrium plasma, in particular, the fundamen
tal theory of Biberman–Vorob’ev–Yakubov [67], in
application to highly ionized spatially nonuniform
plasmas with predominance of singly and doubly
charged ions. Therefore, modern automated systems
for acquisition and processing of spectroscopic infor
mation were used to demonstrate the possibility both
of statistically reliably determining the temperature
and concentration of electrons and of obtaining a data
base of unique volume and accuracy on radiation
intensities, transition probabilities, and Stark broad
ening constants of hundreds of spectral lines of ArI,
ArII, ArIII, NI, NII, and NIII [68].
The following features of relaxing nitrogen plasma
were found as a result of investigation of nitrogen
plasma outside of the region of Joule heating [69–73]:
(1) the electron component of plasma ne  ne0(Te)
is overcooled: the electron concentration is higher
than its equilibrium values corresponding to those cal
culated by the Saha formula with measured electron
temperature;
(2) predomination of atoms with deficit of mole
cules is observed in discharge,
[N0(T)] ≤ [N], [N2]  [ N 02 (T)], [N]  [N2];
(3) singly charged atomic ions dominate over
molecular ones,
ne ≅ [N+]  [N 2+ ].
These features lead one to the inference of practical
importance, namely, that the basic excited particles in
the axial region of relaxing plasma with Te ~ 6–7 kK
and ne ~ 1016 cm–3 are provided by metastable atoms of
nitrogen in 2D and 2P states; for the foregoing values of
ne and Te, these atoms are in thermodynamic equilib
rium with the ground state of nitrogen atom. The con
centrations of metastable atoms of nitrogen are found
from the equations
⎛ ⎞
N exp ⎜ − 2.38 ⎟ ~ 1017 cm–3,
gD
N (2 D ) =
g0 ⎝ T , eV ⎠
⎛ ⎞
N exp ⎜ − 3.57 ⎟ ~ 5 × 1015 cm–3.
gP
N (2 P) =
g0 ⎝T , eV ⎠
The obtained values of metastable atoms of nitro
gen demonstrate that the condition ne ~ n+ ~
[N(2D)] ⱜ 1016 cm–3 is valid; this condition supports a
high plasmachemical activity of relaxing nitrogen
plasma.
4. ELECTRODE PHENOMENA
Most extensively employed at present are plasma
technologies with the process duration of several
hours. In our opinion, the major limiting factor is the
short service life of the electrodes, especially, of the
cathodes. No problems of cathode replacement arise
in the processes of plasma treatment of metals (weld
ing, hardening, spraying, hardfacing), all the more so
because the LTPG power in this case is low and its
structure is rather simple. Further development of
plasma techniques calls for the development of long
life highpower (1 MW and higher) LTPG. Hence fol
lows the need for developing cathodes with a service
life of the order of 1000 hours. Largely employed in
LTPG is the hot cathode of lanthanized tungsten, the
investigation of the mechanisms of whose erosion is a
matter of significant urgency.
HIGH TEMPERATURE Vol. 48 No. 1 2010
 INVESTIGATION OF LOWTEMPERATURE PLASMA GENERATOR 109

(nk /gk)I,relII, III

1022
(a)
TII/I
1020
ArI TIII/I

1018
ArII
16
10 TII

1014
Trel
TIII/II
1012
TIII

1010

108 EI+ EI+ + EI++ ArIII

10 20 30 40 50 60 70

1022
TII/I (b)
10 20 TIII/I
NI

1018
NII
1016 TII

1014
Trel
TIII/II
1012

TIII
1010

EI+ EI+ + EI++ NIII

108

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
I, II, III
Ek, rel , eV

Fig. 15. Relative populations of atoms, as well as of ions and doubly charged ions of (a) argon and (b) nitrogen. The arrows indi
cate the straight lines by whose slopes the respective population temperatures were determined: for argon, TII/I = 1.747 ±
0.026 eV, TIII/I = 1.97 ± 0.06 eV, TII = 1.79 ± 0.08 eV, Trel = 1.93 ± 0.03 eV, TIII/II = 2.141 ± 0.03 eV, TIII = 2.2 ± 0.6 eV;
for nitrogen, TII/I = 2.250 ± 0.022 eV, TIII/I = 2.560 ± 0.002 eV, TII = 2.55 ± 0.08 eV, Trel = 2.566 ± 0.024 eV, TIII/II = 2.820 ±
0.024 eV, TIII = 2.8 ± 0.3 eV.

HIGH TEMPERATURE Vol. 48 No. 1 2010

110 ISAKAEV et al.
Fig. 16. A conic cathode with tungsten insert 2 mm in
diameter pressfitted in a copper case.
In the case of LTPG with divergent channel of the
output electrode, the arc in the cathode region exhibits
a high current density because of higher electrical con
ductivity and electric field intensity compared to
cylindrical channel of uniform cross section. Accord
ingly, the hot cathode is under more stressed condi
tions.
The processes occurring in the cathode and on its
surface cannot be separated from the phenomena
occurring in the region of transition from the cathode
to thermally equilibrium plasma of the arc column.
Important characteristics such as the cathode poten
tial drop, thermalfield emission current, ion current,
and return electron current of plasma depend on the
cathode temperature and on the parameters of cath
ode plasma. All of these quantities are important in
considering the region of cathode plasma which con
sists of the collisionless zone of space charge, the zone
of relaxation to ionization equilibrium, and the zone
of relaxation to thermal equilibrium [74–77].
It is only in considering the selfconsistent problem
of determining the parameters of plasma in the cath
ode layer and the temperature distribution in the cath
ode and on its surface that one can determine the cur
rentvoltage characteristic of the cathode layer and
estimate the electrode erosion. An important problem
in determining the service life of the cathode is that of
identifying the mechanisms of formation and dynam
ics of cathode spot and of quantitatively describing
these mechanisms. In spite of numerous attempts at
solving this problem [77], no internally consistent
concepts are as yet available of the mechanism of for
mation and motion of cathode spot (note that the
question of the socalled retrograde motion of cathode
spot is still being discussed). The formation of cathode
spot essentially varies the pattern of cathode erosion
and its emission characteristics. In turn, increased
erosion promotes the emergence of the mechanism of
recycling of cathode material and the increase in the
service life of the cathode.
In the plasma generator under investigation, the
watercooled copper cathode had an insert of thori
ated or lanthanized tungsten. The service life of LTPG
largely depends on the service lives of the cathode and
anode. Therefore, researchers give much attention to
studying complex electrode processes [74–85].
4.1. Erosion of Tungsten Cathode
Results of investigation of erosion of tungsten
under the conditions identified above are given in [82–
84]. The procedure of measuring erosion is based on
microphotography of the working surface of the cath
ode with small depth of focus (10 μm) of the optical
scheme. A series of photographs taken under condi
tions of controlled travel of cathode along its axis rela
tive to the microscope objective enables one to con
struct the topographic map of the working surface. As
a result of comparing topograms of the cathode
obtained in a series of successive tests, the space pat
tern of measurements of the working surface is regis
tered, as well as the magnitude of cathode erosion.
With the cathode working surface 2 mm in diameter
taking up the entire image field of POLAMR111
microscope, the accuracy of measurement of elemen
tary volume is about 103 μm3, which corresponds to
2 × 10–8 g for tungsten.
The erosion of sintered tungsten was investigated
for a conic cathode (Fig. 16) with a tungsten insert
2 mm in diameter pressfitted in a copper case. The
erosion was determined after onehour tests at a cur
rent of 350 A and nitrogen flow rate of 3 g/s. After suc
cessive tests of one and the same cathode, visual and
instrumental analysis of its state leads one to assume
that the erosion is caused by at least two mechanisms.
The first one of these mechanisms is the evaporation of
tungsten. Apparently, this was the principal mecha
nism during the first two hours of tests. One can see
this from clearly observed traces of flashingoff of
tungsten surface and of successive deepening of the
circular zone limited by central projection and, on the
outside, by the conic surface of the insert. In the pro
cess of cathode operation, a deepening crater with
high projection at the center is gradually formed; how
ever, the top of the central projection hardly varies
during the second hour of testing. The erosion is
approximately the same during the first and second
hours and amounts to ~5 × 10–10 g/C. During the third
hour of testing, the erosion increases fourfold. The
crater depth increases to approximately the same
extent as during the first two hours of testing; the cen
tral projection disappears. One can assume that this
happens as a result of spallation. Therefore, the mech
anism of erosion is associated with the evaporation of
the cathode material, its mechanical destruction, and
the carryover of large fragments of material of the
cathode tip.
Series of tests of cathodes with a sintered tungsten
tip of the same diameter were performed under the
same conditions (Fig. 17). The end face of tungsten tip
HIGH TEMPERATURE Vol. 48 No. 1 2010
 INVESTIGATION OF LOWTEMPERATURE PLASMA GENERATOR
Fig. 17. A cathode with tungsten insert 2 mm in diameter
with a flat end face and with an annular gap of 0.2 mm to a
depth of 5 mm.
is flat and located at the level of inner edge of the cop
per case. There is a radial gap of 0.2 mm to a depth of
5 mm between the side surface of tungsten insert and
the copper case. The measurements revealed that the
specific erosion of cathode with radial annular gap is
higher than that in the former case (Fig. 18).
We have later performed investigations with a cath
ode of initial shape using fused tungsten which was not
thoriated or lanthanized. After one hour of operation,
it was found that the cathode spot travels if judged by
the arc traces. The travel starts from the cathode cen
ter, proceeds on a spiral path, melts through a thin
layer of metal, and “perishes” at the edge of a flat zone
1.5 mm in diameter (Fig. 19). The pattern of the sur
face of circular zone indicates that the erosion in this
zone is caused by the evaporation of material. Note
that this is possible only in the case of a very high den
sity of current to the cathode. A peripheral zone exists
in addition to the aboveidentified central zone; in so
doing, the central zone is “raised” by 100–150 μm
above the peripheral zone. The cylindrical side surface
of the raised part is filled with tungsten droplets 10–
60 μm in size. The peripheral region of the cathode
does not exhibit traces of fusion and is a circular zone
permeated with deep cracks which separate fragments
100–300 μm in size. The peripheral circular region is
subject to erosion in the form of large fragments which
break off. The area of the central zone amounts to
approximately 35% of the area of the entire tungsten
tip of the cathode. We can assume that the erosion
associated with the evaporation of metal is propor
tional to the area of the central zone and likewise
amounts to 35% of the entire erosion of the cathode.
4.2. HighSpeed Visualization of the Cathode Region
The system of highspeed digital video filming
based on the VSFAST camera (manufactured by Vid
eoSkan, Moscow) involves a 1.3 megapixel (1280 ×
1024) color CMOS sensor (manufactured by Micron)
with diagonal of 19.7 mm (see Fig. 20). The system
provided for the input of images at a rate of up to 488
HIGH TEMPERATURE Vol. 48 No. 1 2010
111
Specific erosion per hour, kg/C, 10−12
102
2
101 2
1
1
2
100 1
1
10−1
1 2 3 4
Time, h
Fig. 18. Comparison of erosion of (1) pressfitted conic
tungsten cathode insert with that of (2) insert with an
annular gap between the tungsten insert and copper case.
full frames a second. The increase in the frame fre
quency may be provided by reducing the number N of
lines of image being inputted, ν = 5 × 105/N.
A remarkable property of the system with color
CMOS sensor is the possibility of presenting the color
image of object in the form of three digital compo
nents corresponding to the blue, green, and red com
ponents of the integral pattern. For improving the
color reproduction and cutoff of longwave regions of
transmission of three sensor filters, an additional cut
off IR filter is employed which is located at the system
input and does not transmit radiation of wavelength
λ > 740 nm. The following mode of recording video
images was used for ensuring the optimal values of
space and time resolution: the number of image lines,
150; the number of frames, 3000 s–1; and the time of
frame exposure, 2 μs; the space resolution in view of
the scale of image and of matrix pixel size of 12 μm was
not worse than 30 μm.
The use of the VSFAST camera in life tests of a
plasma generator with nitrogen plasma at currents of
150–450 A revealed [84] that, in operation with sin
tered tungsten, the cathode loses 5 to 20 fragments
10⎯3 to10–2 mm3 in volume during the first hour, and
the overall carryover of large fragments during this
hour of plasma generator operation amounts to
approximately 3 × 10–10 g/C. No separation of large
fragments (d ≥ 0.1 mm) is observed and no significant
variations of the shape of the front part of the cathode
occur after the first hour of continuous operation of
nitrogen arc with a current of 150–450 A. In all likeli
hood, the modification of the microstructure of the
cathode tip, which occurred during the first hour of
operation, results in improved cooling of the tip,
reduced average temperature of its surface, and (very
probably) reduced consumption of the cathode mate
rial. The weighing of the electrode prior to and after
112 ISAKAEV et al.
Fig. 19. Photographs of a fused tungsten cathode 3 mm in diameter prior to and after 30min tests.
the tests and the estimation of the observed loss of its
volume lead to the value of specific consumption of
tungsten gW ≥ 2 × 10–9 g/C. By and large, the loss
of material during the twoour test amounted to at
least 3 mg, which corresponds to the specific con
sumption of tungsten of 1.2 × 10–9 g/C. About half of
this loss is apparently due to the evaporation of tung
sten from the surface of liquid film in the zone of arc at
a temperature exceeding the melting temperature of
tungsten.
A significant distinction of the closing of nitrogen
arc to the cathode surface from that of argon arc is the
Fig. 20. The cathode plasma of nitrogen (top image) and
argon (bottom image) arcs at I = 300 A. The value of scale
division in scale inserts is 1 mm.
much smaller diameter of its attachment to the cath
ode: shown in Fig. 20 is the glow of cathode plasma of
nitrogen and argon for the same arc currents and gas
flow rates. No carryover of large fragments of the cath
ode material is observed in argon plasma even at cur
rents of 200–400 A.
4.3. Investigation of Temperature Fields
of the Tungsten Cathode Surface
The thermal state of the surface, as well as the
degree and pattern of erosion of thermionic cathodes
of highcurrent plasma systems, define their working
capacity and service life [80, 86]. The nonuniformities
of temperature fields of the surface of thermionic
cathodes may cause the emergence of zones of local
overheating, evaporation of the material, its destruc
tion as a result of cracks, and to other phenomena and
processes defining the cathode service life [81, 85, 86].
For this reason, spacetime analysis of temperature
fields on the highenergydensity surface of the cath
odes of highcurrent electric arcs presents an impor
tant research problem.
The possibility of displaying the glow pattern of the
cathode and adjacent plasma in each one of three col
ors, namely, red (R), green (G), and blue (B), trans
forms the highspeed VSFAST camera employed by
us into a threecolor pyrometer with high time (of the
order of microseconds) and space (not worse than
30 μm) resolution. The temperature field on the cath
ode surface was determined by the ratio of local emis
sivity (brightness of glow) of the cathode on the
selected wavelength λ' to emissivity of standard source
on the same wavelength,
bc(λ ',Tc) U c(λ ',Tc)ε w(λ ',Tc(x, y , z))
=
bst(λ ',Tst) ηU st(λ ',Tst)ε st(λ ',Tst)
(15)
⎛c ⎛ ⎞⎞ ε (λ ',Tc(x, y , z))
≅ exp ⎜ 2 ⎜ 1 − 1 ⎟⎟ w .
λ
⎝ ⎝ st
' T T c ⎠⎠ ηε st(λ ',Tst)
HIGH TEMPERATURE Vol. 48 No. 1 2010
 INVESTIGATION OF LOWTEMPERATURE PLASMA GENERATOR 113

(a) (a)

(b) (b)
mm 00 2000
2900 2900 3100 2200
2000 mm 2300 2500 2100
00 2000
2500 3000 0.8 3200 2700
2600 2700 2900
2600
3000 3000
00 2000 2500 2500
2400 2600
2800 2500
00 3000 2400 2700 2900 3100 3200
2500 2300 3000 3200 2400
3200
0.6 00
2800 2400 2800
3200 2600 2600
3200 2300
3000 3100 3200 3200 3200 2200
00 3500 2700
3500 2500 3200 3100
3000 2800
00
2000
3000
3500
2500 0.6 2600 3100
3000 3200
3200
3200 2100
3000 3500 3000 2500 2900 2700
2900 3100 3100
2600
00 3500 2500 2700 2800 2800 3000
2900 3100 3000
2500 3500 2400 2900 2800 2500
00 2600 2900 3200
0.4 3500 3500 3500 3000
3000 2900 2900 2900 3000 3200 2400
3500
3500 3000 2500 2900 2600
2900
2500
2800 2900 3200
3500
3500 3500 0.4 2600 2800 3200 2200
3500 2600 3200 2800 3100 2100
00 2500 2700 2500 3100 2700 3100 3100
3000 3500 2500 2800 3000 2800
00 2300 2900 2900 3200 2700
3000 3500 3000 2600
2700 2500 3200 2500
2600 3000 3200
00 3500 2500 2100 2400
0.2 2500 2900
2000 2400 2400 3000
2800
3000 2300
2500 3000 3000 2300 2200
2400 3100
3000 0.2 2600 2300 2900 3100 3200 2100
3000 2500 3200
2800 3000
2500 1900 2700 2800 2900 2900
2000 2800 2800
00 2500 2700
3000 2900 2600
2700 2500
2500 2600 3100 2400
2500 2000 2500 3000 2800 2300
0 2000 2000 2400 2900 2900
3000
2200
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 mm 0 2300 2800 3100 2100
0 0.2 0.4 mm
Fig. 21. A view of cathode (a) and temperature field on its Fig. 22. A view of cathode (a) and temperature field on its
surface (b): nitrogen as working gas, I = 300 A, G = 1.5 g/s. surface (b) in an argon arc at I = 300 A, G = 1.0 g/s.

In expression (15), bc(λ', Tc(x, y, z)) and bst(λ', Tst)
denote the local value of brightness of cathode glow
less the “screening” plasma radiation and the value of
brightness of standard source of radiation with true
temperature Tst, respectively; с2 = hc/k is a constant; η
is a coefficient which takes into account the differ
ences between the conditions of recording of the
object and of the standard; εw(λ', Tc(x, y, z)) and εst(λ',
Tst) are the emissivity factors (on the investigated
wavelength λ') of the cathode surface as functions of
local temperature Tc of the cathode and of tungsten
ribbon at the true temperature Tst of the latter; and
Uc(λ', Tc) and Ust(λ', Tst) denote the Planck spectral
density of radiation energy of the cathode surface and
of the standard lamp on the wavelength λ', respec
tively.
Local values of cathode surface temperature Tc(x,
y, z) may be determined from the solution of Eq. (15),
Tst
Tc(x, y , z) =
λ 'Tst ⎛ ε st(λ ',Tst)bc(λ ',Tc)⎞
1− ln ⎜ η
c2 ⎝ ε c(λ ',Tc)bst(λ ',Tst)⎠
Equation (16) was solved numerically relative to Tc
using the literature data of [87, 88] for εw(λ, Tc).
The “working” surface of the cathode after the tests
exhibited metallic luster and no traces of oxides. The
principal problem in determining local values of the
cathode surface temperature Tc(x, y, z)) consists in
correct extrapolation of the brightness of plasma glow
to the region of glow of the cathode surface for the
respective colors (RGB). This procedure was per
formed using computer codes in the Mathcad envi
ronment, and the identified component of brightness
of cathode glow was used for calculating the tempera
ture field on the cathode surface.
Examples of the resultant temperature fields on the
cathode surface with respect to the “red” component
of radiation are given in Figs. 21 and 22. Note that the
isotherms T > 3500 K in Fig. 21b correspond to the
region of molten metal on the cathode surface (glare in
Fig. 21a). Apparently, because of much lower specific
. (16) energy inputs to argon plasma compared to those to
nitrogen plasma, the maximal temperature on the
⎟
cathode surface in argon arc significantly differs from

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114 ISAKAEV et al.

ϕc, V tion of electrode processes, because the size of elec

5 trode region, especially, of the cathode region, is com
1 parable with the free path of charged particles. There
fore, one of the principal methods of experimental
2 investigations of electrode processes under conditions
3 of arc discharge is the determination of the depen
4
4 dence of heat flux on current strength. In [41], the heat
5 flux to the cathode was measured by calorimetry. Fig
ure 23 gives the values of voltaic equivalent of heat flux
6 to the cathode (the ratio of heat flux Qc to current
3
7 strength I) ϕc = Qc/I, which are in the range from 1.5
8 to 4 V. The voltaic equivalent of heat flux to the anode
ϕА (argon as working gas) is given in the table. One can
2 see that this equivalent is independent of both current
strength and gas flow rate.
It was demonstrated in [46] that the closing of cur
1 rent to anode in a highcurrent electricarc plasma
60 110 160 210 260 I, A generator with divergent channel of the output elec
trode may be accomplished owing to photoionization
Fig. 23. The voltaic equivalent of heat flux to the cathode of plasmawall transition layer by VUV radiation gen
as a function of current strength: (1, 3, 5, 7) argon, (2, erated in the highly ionized core of the arc. The uni
4, 6, 8) nitrogen; (1, 2) flow rate of 2 g/s, (3, 4) 3 g/s, formity and diffuse pattern of the passage of current in
(5, 6) 4 g/s, (7, 8) 5 g/s. the anode region are due to the combined effect of
radial electric field in transition layer Er ~ 40–50 V/cm
the melting temperature of tungsten and does not and of volume photoionization of the layer by VUV
exceed 3200 K. radiation, which maintains the necessary level of con
ductivity of the transition layer.
The investigations revealed that the characteristic
4.4. Electrode Drops of Potential features of high energydensity arcs in molecular gases
The cathode and anode potential drops in electric add significant importance to the problem of correct
discharges have always attracted researchers' attention choice of gas flow rate and discharge current strength,
[1, 73, 88], because the electrode processes are of key especially, in developing LTPG for use in plasma tech
importance as regards understanding the mechanism nologies.
of maintaining a discharge. At low pressures, where
the electron free path is commensurable with the size 5. PLASMA TECHNOLOGIES
of discharge gap, the probe methods make it possible
to obtain information about the electrode regions of 5.1. Plasma Hardening of Metals
discharge. At closetoatmospheric pressures, the The operating stability of metal articles under con
probe methods become ineffective. The size of even an ditions of friction and high wear largely depends on the
uncooled probe significantly exceeds the electron free properties of surface layers. Numerous largesize and
path. Because of high heat fluxes, a probe must be complex articles may be made of ordinary steels, and
either cooled or highspeed one. In both cases, the the working surfaces must be modified in some or
information obtained in probe measurements may other way.
hardly be used for understanding the mechanism of One of the most efficient methods of modifying the
electrode processes. surface of metals is that of thermal hardening. The
The spectral methods of investigation of plasma are efficiency of operation of articles after thermal hard
likewise ineffective from the standpoint of investiga ening depends on the strength and hardness of the

Voltaic equivalent of heat flux to anode (argon as working gas)

F, g/s 2 3 4
I, A 89 152 201 252 302 88 150 200 250 302 87 150 200 250 300
ϕA , V 6.45 6.04 6.34 6.06 6.16 6.34 5.93 6.07 6.30 6.29 6.21 5.93 7.06 7.67 7.61
F, g/s 5 6
I, A 88 150 202 251 301 87 150 202 252 301
ϕA , V 6.15 5.90 6.10 6.36 6.68 6.26 6.21 6.63 7.07 7.28

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 INVESTIGATION OF LOWTEMPERATURE PLASMA GENERATOR 115

hardened zone of metal, on the uniformity of the

structure and stability of the properties, on the pres
ence of a smooth transition region providing for the
strength of adhesion between the hardened layer and
base metal, and on high resistance to destruction aris
ing, as a rule, because of incipient crack. Various
methods of thermal hardening are known, namely, 1
gasflame method, highfrequency current, electron 2
beam, laser, and plasma methods [25].
The plasma method takes a special place among 3
various methods of thermal hardening. High rates of
heating and cooling, the short duration of residence of 4
metal at abovecritical temperatures, and the possibil 5
ity of simultaneous realization of chemical and ther
mal processing define the advantages of the plasma
method over induction hardening and flame treat
ment. Fig. 24. A setup for hardening: (1) cathode, (2) nozzle,
(3) anode, (4) flux transformer, (5) article.
Compared to laser and electronbeam processing,
the plasma method is favorably distinguished for its
economic efficiency, which is of fundamental impor
tance in the case of quantity production. However, the
narrow strip of hardening by a highly nonuniform heat
flux of LTPG with cylindrical channel fails to provide
for stable properties of material on the surface and over
the article depth. The processing of surface with a gap
between neighboring strips being hardened or with
their overlapping suffers from serious disadvantages
[90] associated with nonuniform structures of harden
ing.
A special flux transformer was developed for solv
ing the problem of hardening in a wide strip and by
required uniform heat flux [61, 91]. This transformer
is a hydrodynamic transition region where a cylindri
cal jet of lowtemperature plasma issuing from the
divergent channel of LTPG (Fig. 24) is transformed Fig. 25. A setup for hardening railroad wheel pairs.
into a plane jet and delivered to the article surface
being processed.
This flux transformer was used in hardening a part
of the rim and ridge of railroad wheel pairs [92–96],
ridges (flanges) of streetcar wheel pairs [97], and met Hardened layer
allurgical equipment [98] (Fig. 25).
Figure 26 gives the cross section of the rim of a
wheel subjected to plasma processing, on which the
hardened zone is identified by etching. This zone has
the form of a continuous strip up to 60 mm wide cov
ering a part of the rolling surface (up to 35 mm) and of Fig. 26. Crosssectional view of the rim of a thermally
the ridge (up to 25 mm). The maximal thickness of hardened railroad wheel.
hardened layer on the rolling surface and on the ridge
is 2.5 and 4 mm, respectively.
Five regions of microstructures of different types microhardness because of the small thickness of the
were revealed in the investigation of the microstruc layer. An electronmicroscopic study revealed the
ture of thermally hardened and transition layers presence in this layer of nitride phases formed as a
(Fig. 27). result of saturation of the surface layers of metal with
We will consider a thin austenitic structure up to nitrogen because of characteristic features of the tech
20 μm thick. It is tightly bound to the wheel metal and nology of plasma processing. The presence of a layer of
does not come off. Its hardness is somewhat lower than austenite in the vicinity of the surface leads one to
that of the adjacent layer of acicular structure. It does assume that the nitrogen content in the surface layer
not appear possible to determine the exact value of may reach 1.5–2.0% by weight.

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116 ISAKAEV et al.

HV 0.981
800

700

600

500

400 Nitrides,
austenite
300
Martensite + Temper
Martensite troostomartensite Troostosorbite sorbite
200
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
L, mm

Fig. 27.The distribution of microhardness over the hardened layer thickness.

The width of layer with the structure of lowtem
pered “pile” martensite with microhardness НV0.981 =
500–740 units reaches 1 mm. The thin structure of this
layer includes two components, namely, twinned
plates and thinner strips of martensite. Dispersed car
bide particles 50–100 μm in size are observed within
twinned crystals of martensite.
The width of the layer which is the region of inter
mediate inhomogeneous structure consisting of a mix
ture of regions of troostomartensite with НV0.981 = 420
and of martensite with НV0.981 = 610 is likewise about
1 mm. The intermediate structure of troostosorbite
with НV0.981 = 300–390 up to 1 mm wide smoothly
moves towards base metal.
The structure of base metal of the wheel is tem
pered sorbite with regions of ferrite on the boundaries
of grains with microhardness НV0.981 = 300–320.
Average mileage, thou. km
200
150
1 plasma flux transformer developed by us makes it pos
100 2 streetcar wheels, the other side of the flange may be
50
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Number of wheel pairs
Fig. 28. Average values of mileage of (1) hardened and
(2) nonhardened wheel pairs in groups as the pairs are
removed from service.
Therefore, the plasma processing of the ridge and
rolling surface of the wheel provides for smooth tran
sition from hardened structures to structures of the
base metal of the wheel.
For estimating the effect of hardening on the ser
vice life of seamless rolled wheel pairs, observations
were performed in the Moscow Railroad Depot of
groups of 300 each of hardened and nonhardened
seamless rolled wheel pairs put into service at approx
imately the same time at the beginning of the observa
tion period (for about three months) [99, 100].
Figure 28 gives average values of mileage counted
as the wheel pairs are removed from service.
A similar experiment was performed [101] for
wheel pairs with tires; in so doing, simultaneous obser
vations were performed of 300 each of hardened and
nonhardened wheel pairs and wheel pairs provided
with automatic ridge lubricators (ARL). The observa
tion results are given in Fig. 29.
The metal of streetcar wheel pairs is close in
chemical composition to that of railroad wheel pairs.
However, the structures of rails and streetcar wheels,
as well as the operating conditions, call for the harden
ing of both the inner and outer surface of flanges. The
sible to harden railroad wheels in one revolution. As to
hardened only in the second revolution after appropri
ate readjustment of the flux transformer. These fea
tures were taken into account when the decision was
taken of hardening a pilot lot of streetcar wheels for
Mosgortrans (Moscow City Transportation Com
pany). The operation of this pilot lot demonstrated
[97] both the significant reduction of intensity of
flange wear as a result of hardening and the effect
made by the manner in which hardened and non
hardened wheel pairs are arranged in a car, as is shown
in Fig. 30.

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 INVESTIGATION OF LOWTEMPERATURE PLASMA GENERATOR 117

km
100000
Nonhardened
90000 wheel pairs 35970 km
80000
Wheel pairs provided
70000 54081 km
with ARL
60000 Hardened wheel
pairs 99353 km
50000
40000

Hardened
30000
hardened
Non

20000
ARL

10000
0

Fig. 29. Average mileage of locomotive wheel pairs.

5.2. Plasma Cutting
A number of plasma technologies (cutting, weld
ing, hardfacing, melting, and others) involve the use
of LTPG with external electrode, which is shown
schematically in Fig. 31. An arc compressed by the
wall and blown over by a flow of gas may be used to
obtain high specific heat fluxes directed towards an
article. The external electrode may serve the functions
of both cathode and anode. The former case involves
the use of the effect of cathode cleaning of the article
surface by ion bombardment.
The principal techniques of thermal cutting of
metals include the oxygen, plasma, and laser cutting
techniques [28, 34]. The laser cutting is an advanced
method; however, for economic reasons, it is presently
employed only for cutting metals of small thickness.
The oxygen cutting is possible only for steel and tita
nium alloys, and the plasma cutting may be employed
for cutting any metals. Therefore, the economic per
formance is to be compared for oxygen and plasma
cutting of lowcarbon and lowalloy steels.
arc which causes destruction of the nozzle. For a long
time, the numerous methods employed for raising the
I d ratio did not include the variation of the shape of
nozzle channel. Given below are the results of
investigations [102–103] of the effect of divergent
channel of the nozzle on the efficiency of plasma
cutting and on the possibility of raising the I d ratio
(in so doing, d is the diameter of the minimal cross
section of the nozzle).
The limiting permissible values of the I d ratio are
limited by double arcing and are made evident by the
abrupt increase in the heat flux to the nozzle. One can
see in Fig. 32 that the double arcing occurs at α = 0°
much earlier than at α = 6°. The investigations
revealed that the currenttodiameter ratio for a diver
gent nozzle may amount to 2000 A/cm.
1.8
Intensity of wear of flange thickness,

Raising the efficiency of cutting metals of standard 1.6

thickness is likewise an urgent objective for a number 1.4
of reasons including higher requirements of the quality
of the surface of cut such as tolerances for size, per 1.2
pendicularity of cut, degree of surface roughness and 1.0
mm/10 000 km

of the depth of zones of thermal effect.

0.8
Usually employed for plasma cutting of metals are
0.6
LTPGs in which the article being cut serves as the
external electrode. In so doing, the electric arc is 0.4
immersed into the region of cut, where the bulk of heat 0.2
release occurs. It was pointed out in [28] that the prin
cipal criterion defining the efficiency of cutting is the 0
All hardened
ratio of current to nozzle diameter I d . The maximal 1hardened;
permissible value for cylindrical nozzles of uniform 3nonhardened
cross section is I d = 1400 A/cm. This value is limited
by the emergence of a cathode–nozzle–article double Fig. 30. The service life of streetcar wheel pairs.

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118 ISAKAEV et al.

q, W/cm2
3500
0°
3000
2500
6°
2000
1500
5 1000
4 500

1 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800

I, A
2
Fig. 32. The current dependence of heat fluxes to nozzles
3 of different geometries.

bility under heating and cooling. The combination of

6 thermal properties unfavorable for heating, namely,
Fig. 31. A schematic view of LTPG with external elec
trode: (1) internal rod electrode, (2) thermionic tip,
(3) nozzle, (4) device for injection of working gas, (5) insu
lator, (6) external electrode provided by the article.
The investigations resulted in the development of
an LTPG (Fig. 33) for cutting metals of large thick
ness. With a current of 900 A, this LTPG is capable of
cutting copper 120 mm thick and stainless steel
200 mm thick at a rate of 8 m/h while providing for
high reliability and efficiency of production.
5.3. Plasma HardFacing on Hatfield Steel
Various powders are extensively employed in
plasma technologies of hardfacing and spraying. The
quality of articles subjected to such processing is
largely defined by the degree of heating and accelera
tion of particles. A setup for the delivery of powder
along with the working gas of LTPG was developed
[104] for raising the efficiency of heating and acceler
ation of particles and for raising the efficiency of the
process. In this setup, the powder flow rate and,
accordingly, the process efficiency may be increased
while providing for the uniform injection of powder
over the arc discharge cross section and in the zone of
spraying.
Highmanganese G13L steel (Hatfield steel) finds
extensive application for parts operating under condi
tions of intense shock loads and abrasive wear owing to
the capacity of highmanganese austenite for being
subjected to strain hardening and for forming a solid
wearresistant surface without the variation of the vis
cosity of article as a whole [105]. The reduction of arti
cles of Hatfield steel by means of hardfacing involves
serious difficulties associated with the properties of
steel. Hatfield steel exhibits inadequate structural sta
low thermal conductivity and high coefficient of ther
mal expansion, makes G13L steel very sensitive to the
formation of thermal cracks [106].
An especially urgent objective is that of increasing
the service life of railroad frogs manufactured of Hat
field steel. The cost of manufacture of such frogs (the
material of these frogs, as was indicated above, con
tains a significant amount of manganese) is increased
as a result of high operating costs of replacing frogs on
railroad tracks and because of the need for interrup
tions of railroad traffic.
The properties of metal of hardfacing when using
various methods identified above largely depend on
the depth of melting of base metal and on the degree of
mixing of the hardfacing material and base metal. As
a rule, the larger is the depth of melting and the higher
the degree of mixing, the poorer are the properties of
the layer of hardfacing and its bond to the base. Of all
known methods, including the most universally
employed method of hardfacing, i.e., the electricarc
one, plasma hardfacing provides for the least melting
of base material [29].
The experimental investigations were performed in
an updated seriesproduced UPN303 facility (see
Fig. 34) which accommodated an LTPG with diver
gent nozzle and external electrode [107–111].
Analysis of the investigation results revealed that
the best results are obtained in the cases of using G13
powder for hardfacing and of hammering of each
layer. The effect of hammering is opposite to that of
hardfacing. It causes stretching strain and develops
compressive stress, which may balance to a degree the
tensile stresses. In addition, the hammering helps
increase the density of metal subjected to hardfacing,
heals minor cracks, and closes pores. For increasing
the effect of hammering, it must be performed using
largemass impactors and at a high temperature of the
layer of hardfacing; this significantly facilitates the
work of deformation. It is necessary to make the pro

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 INVESTIGATION OF LOWTEMPERATURE PLASMA GENERATOR 119

2
5

Fig. 33. PR03 LTPG for cutting metals of large thickness: (1) cathode, (2) tungsten tip, (3) insulator, (4) gas swirling device,
(5) nozzle.

cess of forging the layer of hardfacing closer in time to
the instant of hardfacing.
Two frogs of the P65 type, reduced by plasma hard
facing using the technology developed by us, were sent
to the Moscow Railroad for performance tests. These
frogs sustained the passage of 115 and 173 million tons
in gross weight while a new frog on the average sustains
the passage of 90 million tons [111]. The experimental
results make it possible to develop a new bimetallic
frog with the base of ordinary carbon steel and the
working zone of hardfacing wearresistant coating.
The advantages of such a frog include the lower con
sumption of scarce and costly manganese and the
higher maintainability (the metal of cast frogs made of
Hatfield steel suffers from numerous defects). It is fur
ther advisable to develop mobile units for plasma
reduction of frogs without removing them from rail
road tracks.
temperature which provides for wettability, and the
hardfacing material must be in the molten state [29].
The high thermal conductivity under conditions of
hardfacing identified above requires appropriate
energy input. The article is heated to high tempera
ture; in so doing, cuprous and cupric oxides are
formed on the surface of copper, which adversely
affect the wettability of the article surface. Under these
conditions, the hardfacing must involve the use of
powders which do not form intermetallic compounds
with copper which adversely affect the quality of hard
facing. These are nickelbased powders. The plasma
hardfacing is characterized by complex processes
involving the solid, liquid, and gaseous phases. Under
real conditions, the hardfacing depends on numerous
parameters. Therefore, in developing plasma technol
ogies of hardfacing on copper, one has to be satisfied
with the knowledge of only the qualitative depen

5.4. Plasma HardFacing on Copper

One of the main units of continuous casting plants
is the mold. The principal requirements imposed on
the mold walls include the high values of thermal con
ductivity and wear resistance. Proceeding from the
former one of these requirements, the walls are made
of copper and copper alloys. The service life of such
molds amounts to 100–150 heats.
Chemical and electrochemical methods of apply
ing coatings are employed for extending the service life
of mold walls. However, the small thickness and the
quality of coatings obtained by such laborconsuming
methods fail to provide for significant increase in the
service life. Extending the service life of the walls of
copper molds involves high expenditure of copper for
their manufacture and repairs. For performing the
process of hardfacing, the article surface must have a Fig. 34. Setup for plasma reduction of railroad frogs.

HIGH TEMPERATURE Vol. 48 No. 1 2010

120 ISAKAEV et al.
HRB
90
80 Base
Cu
70 Coating
60 Ni–Cr
50
40
30
20
10
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Distance from the surface, mm
Fig. 35. The distribution of hardness over the depth of
hardened layer.
dences of the effect of various parameters on the pro
cess of hardfacing.
Under these conditions, the LTPG with divergent
nozzle and injection of powder along with working gas
turned out to be a convenient tool for required control
of the process of hardfacing. The relevant technology
makes it possible to obtain coatings 4–5 mm thick per
single pass [112]. The hardness on the surface of hard
facing layer is 75–82 HRB. The hardness smoothly
decreases with increasing distance from the coating
surface and reaches the value of 70 HRB at a distance
of 1 mm from the interface between the hardfacing
layer and base metal (Fig. 33). A zone of decreasing
hardness is observed at a distance of 5 mm from the
hardfacing surface, which covers approximately
1⎯1.5 mm of the sample thickness and is indicative of
the presence of transition layer between the hardfac
ing metal and copper base. The hardness decreases
down to the level of hardness of copper, i.e., by a factor
of five–eight. Estimates indicate that, in the case of
this technology, one can expect an increase in the
operating stability of the molds of machines for con
tinuous casting of blanks (MNLZ) up to 500–1000
heats [113].
5.5. Some Other Fields of Application
of Plasma Generators
Interest in the synthesis of carbon nanotubes and
nanofibers has abruptly increased in recent years. One
of the advanced methods of preparing nanotubes is the
plasmajet method [114, 115]. In [116], use is made of
the device of [106] with the injection of the starting
materials for the synthesis of nanotubes (finely and
ultrafinely divided particles of carbon and metallic
catalysts) into the working gas of LTPG with divergent
channel of the output electrode. The objective of pro
jected experimental investigations is to reveal the spe
cial features of the mechanism of synthesis of nano
tubes and the dependences of their structure on the
pattern of production process and to study the possi
bilities of preparing significant amounts of nanomate
rial.
The plasma technologies are successfully employed
for intensifying the parameters of blast in the blastfur
nace process. From the standpoint of metallurgy, it is
of interest to search for other technologies of iron pro
duction, including methods of reduction of iron from
mineral stock bypassing the sinteringblastfurnace
process. The conventional method of pig iron produc
tion using this process has presently been brought to a
high degree of perfection. The depletion of reserves of
coking coal and the urgent need for tightening the
requirements of environmental protection give rise to
interest in alternative methods of reduction of iron.
One such method is that of plasma reduction, includ
ing the idea of developing an energymetallurgy com
plex [37, 117, 118]. The scheme of an energymetal
lurgy complex with plasma reduction module on the
basis of LTPG with divergent channel of the output
electrode is given in [119], where it is suggested to
directly deliver finely divided ore into the LTPG along
with working gas. The working gas in LTPG may be
provided by natural gas with simultaneous feed of
finely divided coal. This technology appears to be of
interest both from the economic standpoint and from
the standpoint of environmental safety of the process
of plasma reduction.
An important place in metallurgical production
belongs to the process of metal casting. An important
requirement in preparing quality steel is that of main
taining a constant temperature of liquid metal in the
intermediate ladle of machine for continuous casting
of blanks [120]. The technology of maintaining the
steel temperature in the intermediate ladle using a
plasma generator is already employed by numerous
companies such as CORUS (Britain), DUNAMET
ANVAL (Sweden), KAVASAKI (Japan) and others.
The reliability of operation and the possibility of con
trolling the LTPG make up the necessary condition for
successful casting of quality steel. An LTPG with
divergent channel of the output electrode meets these
requirements; therefore, relevant investigations [121–
123] are doubtless of practical interest.
The plasma spraying using various powders is char
acterized by an extremely broad spectrum of applica
tions [20–22]. However, the low productivity of the
process and the poor quality of spraying place limits on
its practical application. The quality of spraying
depends on temperature and velocity of powder parti
cles. The generally employed method of introducing
particles by cold carrier gas into the LTPG jet fails to
provide the possibility of their adequate acceleration
and heating. The use of the method of injecting pow
der with working gas, especially under conditions of
supersonic flow of plasma in the LTPG channel, leads
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 INVESTIGATION OF LOWTEMPERATURE PLASMA GENERATOR
one to hope for the solution of the foregoing problems
and for significant increase in productivity of the pro
cess. The process of efficient conveyance of finely
divided materials using an LTPG with divergent chan
nel of the output electrode may turn out to be promis
ing for use in heat and power engineering associated
with the combustion of coal mixture in the furnaces of
steam boilers [24, 124, 125].
Note the possibility of using LTPG with divergent
channel of the output electrode for solving the prob
lem of treatment and burial of lowradioactive waste of
nuclear industry. In such technologies, it is the LTPG
with divergent channel of the output electrode that
will provide for the desired service life and automation
of the process of treatment of lowradioactive house
hold and industrial waste [126, 127].
CONCLUSIONS
Investigations of the physical processes occurring
in an LTPG with divergent channel of the output elec
trode revealed that
—the current–voltage characteristic in the diver
gent electrode channel is weakly increasing;
—the range of existence of discharge compared to
that of discharge in cylindrical channel expands
toward both low and high currents;
—owing to the high stability of burning of the dis
charge, the range of its existence may be realized at
fairly low currents;
—owing to a more uniform distribution of heat
flux along the discharge channel, the LTPG is capable
of operating at high currents;
—the temperature in the region of energy input at
currents of the order of 300 A reaches the value of
30 000 K for nitrogen and argon;
—the VUV radiation of axial plasma effects the
photoionization of the wall layers and makes for the
closing of current to the anode;
—the temperature of the cathode surface in the
case of operation in the atmosphere of nitrogen is
higher than that in the case of operation in the atmo
sphere of argon; and
—the amplitude of arc shunting in divergent chan
nel is lower compared to that in cylindrical channel of
uniform cross section. At fairly high currents, the arc
shunting in argon is actually absent (the amplitude of
variation of arc voltage is 1–2 V).
The LTPG with divergent channel of the output
electrode turned out to be a convenient tool for use in
developing various plasma technologies, namely,
—a setup for plasma hardening of the ridges of rail
road wheel pairs has been developed and is extensively
employed; as a result of hardening, the service life of
wheel pairs increases by a factor of 1.5–2;
—an LTPG for plasma cutting of metals of large
thickness has been developed; at a current of 300 A,
HIGH TEMPERATURE Vol. 48 No. 1 2010
121
this LTPG is capable of cutting copper 120 mm thick
and stainless steel 200 mm thick at a rate of 8 m/h;
—a unit has been developed for plasma reduction
of railroad frogs; trial operation in the tracks of the
Moscow Railroad revealed that the service life of
reduced frogs is 1.5 times that of new frogs;
—a technology of hardfacing on copper has been
developed; estimates indicate that the service life of
the molds of machines for continuous casting of
blanks in the case of hardfacing on copper of their
walls, may be increased to 500–1000 heats.
Research is under way of other advanced applica
tions of LTPG with divergent channel of the output
electrode, namely,
—preparation of carbon nanotubes and nanofi
bers,
—plasma reduction of ore,
—plasma heating of steel in the intermediate ladle
of MNLZ, and
—plasma spraying with various materials with sub
strates of diverse materials.
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