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1. Sulphuric acid is used to produce chemical fertilizer such as ammonium sulphate and
potassium sulphate, which are highly soluble in water and can be easily obsorbed by

plant.
2. Car batteries contain sulphuric acid which is used as the electrolyte.
3. Sulphuric acid also used in the making of artificial silk-like fibres and rayon.
4. Chemical like paints, dyes and drug use sulphuric acid as one of their component materials.



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1. Sulphuric acid is manufactured in industry though contact process
2. The process contain three stage
STAGE1: Production Of Sulphur Dioxide From Sulphur
i. Combustion of sulphur or sulphide ores in the air produce sulphur dioxide SO2.
S(s)+O2(g) SO2(g)
sulphur
ii. sulphur dioxide is dried and purified.
STAGE2: Production Of Sulphur Trioxide From Sulphur Dioxide

i. The purified sulphur dioxide SO2 and excess air are passed over vanadium(V)
oxide V2O5 at controlled optimum condition optimum condition to produce sulphur
trioxide SO3.

2SO2(g)+O2(g) 2SO3(g)

ii. The optimum used are

a) Temperature:450-500°C
b) Pressure: 2-3 atmospheres
c) Catalyst: Vanadium(V) oxide

iii. Under controlled optimum conditions, 98% conversion is possible. Sulphur dioxide and oxygen that
have not reacted are allowed to flow back again over the catalyst in the converter.
 STAGE3: Conversion of trioxide to sulphuric acid
i. Sulphur trioxide SO2 is dissolved in concentrated sulphuric acid H2SO4 to form oleum
H2S2O7 which is then diluted with water to form sulphuric acid H2SO4.

SO3(g)+H2SO4(l) H2S2O7(l)
Oleum
H2S2O7(l)+ H2O(l) 2H2SO4(aq)
ii. The two reactions in stage3 are equivalent to adding sulphur trioxide directly into water.
SO3(g)+H2O(l) H2SO4(aq)

ii. The addition of sulphur trioxide directly into is not carried out because the reaction is vary
vigorous; a lot of heat is given off. As a result, alarge cloud of sulphuric acid fumes is produced,
which is corrosive and causes severe air pollution.

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1.Ammonia that is produce commercially has many uses.
2.It uses:
i.In the manufacture of chemical fertilizers such as ammonium sulphate, ammonia

nitric, ammonia phosphate and urea.

ii.To manufacture nitric acid and explosive.
iii.In the making of synthetic fibre and nylon.
iv.As a degreasing agent in aqueous form to remove greasy stains in the kitchen.
 
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1.The physical properties of ammonia gas include the following:

i.It colourless and has a pungent odour.
ii.It is vary soluble in water and form a weak alkaline solution.
iii.It less dense then water.
iv.It easily liquified (at about 35.5°C) when cool.

2.The chemical properties of ammonia gas:

a) Ammonia gas dissolves in water to form a weak alkali.
NH3(g) + H2O(l)
NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)
b) The presence of hydroxide icon causes the aqueous solution to become alkaline. Thus aqueous
ammonia solution:

1.Turns red litmus paper blue.

2.Reacts with acid to form only salt and waterin neutralization reaction.
NH3(aq) + HCI(aq) NH4CI(aq)
2NH3 + H2SO4(aq) (NH4)2SO4(aq)
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3.Reacts with solution of metallic cations to produce precipitates.

Fe²+(aq) + 2OH(aq) Fe (OH)2(s)
(Form ammonia solution)
Dirty green precipitate
 

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1. Ammonia is manufacture on a large scale in industry through the haber process. In this process,
ammonia is formed form direct combination of nitrogen and hydrogen gas in the volume ratio
1:3.

2. The gas nitrogen obtain form the fractional distillation of liquefied air. The hydrogen gas is
obtained form the cracking of petroleum or from the catalysed reaction of natural gas, CH4, with
steam.

CH4(g) + H2O(g) CO(g) + 3H2(g)

3.The mixture of nitrogen and hydrogen gases is passed over an iron catalyst under

controlled optimum condition as below to form ammonia gas.

i.Temperature: 450-500°C
ii.Pressure: 200-500 atmospheres
iii.Catalyst used: Iron fillings

N2(g) + 3H2(g)
2NH3(g)

4.Under these control optimum condition, only 15% of the gas mixture turn into ammonia gas.
The nitrogen and hydrogen that have not reacted are then flow back over the catalyst again in the
reactor chamber.

5.The ammonia product is then cooled at a low temperature so that it condenses into a
liquid in the cooling chamber
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1. Pure metal are usually too soft for most uses. They also have a low resistance to
corrosion. They rush and tarnish easily.
2. To improve the physical properties of metal, a small amount of another element
(usually metal) is added to form another an alloy.
3. An alloy is a mixture of two or more metals (something non-metal) in a specific

proportion. For example:

a. Bronze (90% of copper and 10% of tin)
b. Steel (99% of iron and 1% of carbon)

4.The purposes of making alloys include the following:

a) Increase the strength

i. Pure iron is soft and vary malleable. When a small amount of carbon is added to iron, an alloy,
steal is formed. The more carbon is added, the stronger the steel becomes.

ii. Pure aluminium is light but not strong. With a small amount of copper and magnesium are added
to aluminium, a strong, light and durable alloy call duralumin is produced.

b) Improving the resistance to corrosion

i. Iron rust easily but stainless steel which contains 80.6% of iron, 0.4% of carbon, 18% of
chromium and 1% of nickel does not rush. These properties make stainless steel suitable for
making surgical instrument and cutlery.

ii. Pure copper tarnish easily. When zinc (30%) is added, the yellow alloy which is
known as brass develops a high resistance to corrosion.
c) Enhancing the appearance
i. Pewter, an alloy of tin (97%), antimony and copper is not only hard but also has
a more beautiful white silvery appearance.

ii. When copper is mixed with nickel to form cupronickel, an alloy that has an attractive silvery,
bright appearance is formed which is suitable for making coins

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1.Molecule that consist of a large number of small identical or similar units joined together
repeatedly are called polymer.
2.The smaller molecules that make up the repeating unit in polymer are caller monomer.
3.The process of joining together a large number of monomers to form a long chain
polymer is called polymerisation.

4.Polymer can be naturally occurring or man-made (synthetic). Natural polymer are found in plant
and in animals for example of natural polymers are starch cellulose, protein and rubber.

5.Two type of polymerisation in producing synthetic polymer are additional

polymerisation.
6.Double bonds between two carbon atoms usually undergo addition polymerization

Uses of polymer:
film wrap, plastic bags ,electrical insolution bottles, toys, similar to LDPE carpet, upholstery,
pipes, sidding, flooring, seat cover, films.
 
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1.Glass is one of the most useful but inexpensive materials in the world. Many products are
made from glass because of its specials properties.

2.Glass is:
a. Transparent, hard but brittle.
b. A heat and electric insulator.
c. Resistant to corrosion.
d. Chemical not reaction and therefore resistant to chemical attack.
e. Easy to maintain.

Uses of glass:

Lens

‡ Telescope mirrors

‡ Laboratory

apparatus
Drinking glass,
bottles
‡ Electric bulbs
‡ Window glass
Cooking utensils
‡ Laboratory

glassware such as
conical flaks and
boiling tube

Lenses and prisms

‡ Decorative
glassware and art
object
‡ Imation jewellery
 

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1. Traditional silicate ceramics are made by heating aluminosilicate clay such as kaolin to
a vary high temperature.
2. Ceramics have many special properties that make them one of the most useful materials

in our everyday life. That:

a. Are hard, strong but brittle
b. Have high melting point and remain stable at high temperature
c. Are heat and electric instrument
d. Are resistant to corrosion and wear
e. Are chemically not reactive
f. Do not readily deform under stress

3. Ceramic play important role in our daily life. They are uses as
a. Construction materials
i. Ceramic are strong and hard, uses to make roof tiles, bricks cement, sinks, and
toilet bowls.
ii. They are also used to make refractory bricks because high resistant to heat.
b. Decorative items
i. To make pottery, china plates, and porcelain vases since they do not tarnish
easily and are durable.
ii. They are used to make bathroom fixture such as floor and wall tiles.
c. Electrical insulator
i. Ceramic are used to make electrical insulator in electrical items such as toasters,
fridges and electrical plug
 
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1. A composite materials (or composite) is a structure of materials that is formed by two
or more different substances such as metal, glass, ceramic and polymer.
2. Some common composite materials are:
a. Reinforces concrete
b. Superconductor
c. Fibre optic
d. Fibre glass
e. Photochromic glass
REINFORCES CONCRETE
1. Concrete is hard, fireproof, waterproof, comparatively cheap and easy to maintain. It is
more important construction materials.
2. The reinforces is a combination of concrete and steel.
SUPERCONDUCTOR
1. Metal such as copper and aluminium are good conductor of electricity, but 20% of the
electric energy is lost in the form of heat during transmission.
2. Super conductor are materials that have no resistance to the flow of electricity at a
particular temperature. Hence, 100% electricity transmission is possible.

3. One of the most dramatic properties of a superconductor is its ability to levitate a magnet.
Superconductor are used to build magnetically levitate high-speed train (at about 552 km/h).

4. Superconductor are used to make chips for smaller and faster supercomputer. Superconductor also
play an important role in high speed data processing in internet communication.

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1. Fibre optic is a composite material that in used to transmit signals for light wave.
2. Fibre optic is used in
a.
Telecommunicate where the telephone substation are liked by fibre optic cables.
b.
Domestic cable television network
c.
Closed circuit television security system.
3. Fibre optic also used in medical fields. It is used in a number of instrument which
enable the investigation for internal body part without having to perform surgery

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1. Fibre glass is glass in the form of fine threads. Molten gas is dropped onto a refractory
rating disc when the glass flies off the disc glass to form fibre.
2. Fibre glass is strong than steel, do not burnt, stretch or rot, resistant to fire and water but
is brittle.
3. When fibre glass added to a plastic, a new composite material fibre glass reinforces
plastic is formed.
4. Fibre glass reinforces plastic has more superior properties than glass and plastic. It is
a. Extremely strong
b. Light weigh
c. Resistant to fire and water
d. Can be molded, shaped and twisted

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1. When 0.01 to 0.1% of silver chloride (a type of photochromic substances) and a small amount of
copper (II) chloride are added to molten silicon dioxide, photochromic glass is formed.
2. The photochromic glass has a special properties. It darken when exposed to strong
sunlight or ultraviolet.
3. Photochromic glass is suitable for making sunglasses